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Building Diagnosis
& Testing

SEHS 4595
Maintenance Technology & Management
(TAI Chi Ho)
 Inspection
• Initial survey
– Check (as-built) drawings –
updated?
– Visual inspection – site visit
(camera, telescope)
– Simple test, e.g. rebound hammer,
tapping test
– Collect sample (e.g. spalled
concrete, fallen tiles) for
laboratory testing
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 Detail Survey
• More Detailed Survey
– Need more sophisticated
equipment or apparatus
– E.g. infra-red thermographic
survey, cover meter, half-cell
potential meter, etc.
– Coring of concrete sample
for thorough laboratory
testing
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Visual Inspection Vs Equipment
• Visual inspection: fast, inexpensive, rely
on experience of inspectors, human
(judgement) error
• Equipment – accurate, (need Calibration)
• How to use? Trained technicians
• Take readings / Collect samples
• Analysis
• Reporting
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 Calibration
• To verify the equipment is accurate
• All the equipment needs to be calibrated
regularly
• Calibrated by accredited laboratories under
the Hong Kong Laboratory Accreditation
Scheme (HOKLAS)
• https://www.itc.gov.hk/en/quality/hkas/doc/InformationPackages/HOKLAS_IP006.
pdf
• http://www.itc.gov.hk/en/quality/hkas/doc/SupplementaryCriteria/HOKLAS_SC-
19.pdf

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 1) Chloride test 8) Permeability Test
Tests 2) Carbonation test 9) Half-cell Potential
3) Covermeter Test (corrosion)
4) Crack Monitoring 10) Pull-off (Bond)
5) Ultrasonic Pulse Test
Velocity Meter 11) Infra-red
6) Coring Test Thermographic
Survey
7) Surface Hardness
Test (Rebound 12) Impulse Radar
Hammer) Test

Tests for water dampness will be

discussed later.
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 1) Test for Chloride
Site test – Quantab strips :
 Drill concrete to collect dust/powder
 More samples at various depths (check
concentration at different depth)
 Add powder into distilled water (chloride is
water soluble)
 Place plastic strip into water
 Take reading and check the table to indicate
chloride concentration
 Not very accurate 8
Collect concrete powder for testing
(chloride and carbonation)

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Collection of
Concrete Dust
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 1) Test for Chloride
Laboratory testing – more
accurate
 Collect samples at different
depths
 Send to laboratory for
testing
 Use titration method to
determine chloride
concentration

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2) Test for Carbonation

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 2) Test for Carbonation
 Alkalinity decreased in carbonated concrete
 Phenolphthalein solution turn pink if alkaline enough
(pH>8.6)
 MUST test on fresh broken concrete
 Drill holes to collect dust for testing

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 3) Covermeter
- Check Cover Thickness and Bar Location

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 3) Covermeter
• Also used as a rebar locator
• Adequate thickness of concrete cover protects
the reinforcement
• Use cover meter to check the cover thickness
• Mechanism : eddy current in steel generate
magnetic field
• 2 factors affect reading: bar size and depth of
bar

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4) Cracks - Monitoring

• Thermal movement cracks – width varies with

temperature change  take more readings :
mid-day, morning, evening, mid-night
• Cracks due to deflection  width varies with
loading (e.g carpark)
• Moisture movement – dry and wet weather
• Settlement – increase with time
• Can also be used to monitor hillside slope
movement
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 4) Cracks - Monitoring
• Crack width: crack width gauge, crack width
microscope
• Live crack OR Dormant (stagnant) crack
– Use tell-tale to check (simplest and inexpensive)
• Equipment
– Demountable strain gauge
– Crack width gauge
– Linear variable displacement transducers (LVDTs)
– most accurate

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Graduated Plastic Tell-Tale

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Tell-Tale at Joint

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Measuring Crack Width

Crack Width
Gauge 31
Crack Width Microscope

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Monitor Crack Movement

Caliper to measure
distance

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Crack Movement Monitoring
(Remote sensing)

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5) Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Equipment
• Indirect measure of
concrete strength
• Measure the velocity
of pulse transmission
• Distance travelled /
travelling time
• Faster velocity 
higher strength

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5) Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Equipment
• 3 methods
– Direct
– Semi-direct
– Indirect (surface transmission)
• Direct method more accurate
• Indirect method used to check depth of
surface crack
• Also used to check bored pile integrity
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Ultrasonic Test - Measurement

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5) Pile Test
(Sonic
Logging
Test)

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Pile Test (sonic logging test)

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Defective Concrete
Quality in Bored
Piles

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 5) Ultra-sonic Meter –
Crack Depth estimation
• measure travelling time t1
across the crack
• Double the distance and
measure t2
• Assume constant travelling
velocity i.e. consistent
concrete quality
• Only show the crack depth
at the measurement point
• Clean the crack before test

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 6) Concrete Coring Test
• 100 – 150mm diameter core samples
• Samples wrapped by film and sealed in bag
• Information got: strengths, density,
permeability, cement content, chloride
content, aggregate type, etc
• Clearly mark the location of sample collection
• Carefully select the locations and try to avoid
cutting reinforcement bars
• Disadvantages: destructive, expensive, not
immediate result 57
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 7) Surface Hardness Test
• Rebound hammer (Schmidt hammer)
• Mechanism: spring-loaded impacting
devices
• Analogy: basketball rebounds higher
on hard surface
• Readings sensitive to surface
materials (e.g. aggregate, void,
surface finishes, etc.)
• Carbonated surface will give higher
reading
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Rebound Hammer

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Digital Output – Rebound Hammer

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Rebound Hammer

Lock opened
Lock
and release
mass

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Readings affected by application
direction?

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 Correction Graph –
Application Direction

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 Surface Hardness Test
(Rebound Hammer)
• 10 readings taken within 150mm x 150mm unit
area
• Take the average of the 10 readings (reject odd
readings)
• Readings (rebound number) also affected by the
positioning of hammer (slab, soffit, wall)
– Refer to graph to get the corresponding strength
(correction as a result of application direction)

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Remove finishes to expose
concrete before application
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 7) Surface Hardness Test
(Rebound Hammer)
• Applied on concrete surface only (no
finishes)
• Surface to be grinded and polished
• Applied perpendicular to concrete surface
• Moisture content affects reading (soak or
damp surface before testing)
• Fast, cheap, easy to use, applicable in all
directions
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 8) Water Absorption / Permeability
ISAT – Initial Surface Absorption Test

• Measure the rate of

water absorption per
unit area at a
constant pressure
• High permeability 
easily attacked by
contaminants
• Readings more
meaningful for
internal members
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ISAT Test

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Air Permeability Vacuum

Test
Pump away air to
generate vacuum inside
chamber initially  shut Permeability
down air pump
Concrete permeable 
air pressure inside the
chamber will increase (i.e.
loss of vacuum state)
Monitor rate of pressure
increase

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 9) Half-Cell Potential Measurement

• Theory: to compare the difference in electrical

potential between 2 cells
• Half cell :
– (1) Copper + Copper Sulphate OR
Silver + Silver Nitrate or Silver
Chloride
– (2) Steel reinforcement + concrete

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 9) Half-Cell Potential Measurement
• Drill a hole and connect the wire with the steel
bar
• Wet surface  good conductivity
• Mark grid lines on concrete surface
• Move the probe, take readings, mark contours
• Cannot show the corrosion rate but the
location of corrosion
• A row of half-cells can be used for surveying
large area 77
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 Half Cell
Potential Meter

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Contour
Mapping

Areas likely to
have corrosion

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Half-Cell Potential
Measurement

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10) Pull-Off Test (Bond Test)
• Test the bonding (adhesive strength) on the
interface between the substrate and the overlay
(finish layer)
• E.g. tiles on concrete (i.e. testing how secure and
how strong the tile is bonded to the concrete),
repair mortar on concrete
• Procedures:
– cut along the edge of the overlay according to shape of
metal disc to a depth into substrate;
– glue the metal disc to the overlay with epoxy;
– after hardening, pull the metal disc until it breaks
– take the reading and examine the failure plane
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Digital Pull-Off Testing Equipment

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Bond Test to Check the Strength of
Bonding between Tile and Wall

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(a) Adhesion strength > tensile strength of substrate
(b) Adhesion strength is measured directly
(c) Adhesion strength is higher than the tensile
strength of the overlay
* In both (a) and (c), the adhesion strength cannot be
measured but will be higher than the reading
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11) Hammer Tapping Test (Debonding)

• Tapping Test /
Sounding of
Concrete
• By tapping hammer
(extended)
• Delamination 
hollow sound
• Access cost –
platform, ladder,
scaffolding
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12) Infra-Red Thermographic Survey
• Equipment : IR scanning camera + monitor
• Measure the surface temperature
variation
• Used to detect
– Debonding of rendering and tiles
– Spalling concrete
– Roof leakage
– Energy loss surveys
– Bad contact of electrical connection points 93
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Potable Hand-
held IR Camera

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Heat Loss Survey

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 12) Intra-Red Thermographic Survey

• Sunlight heats up external wall 

heat transmitted into cooler inner
part of concrete  higher temp. at
debond area than surrounding
because air cavity behind (air is good
thermal insulator)  temp.
difference detected by IR camera
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Solar Radiation heat up surface

Heat
Transfer Sun or
Radiation
Air

Concrete
Wall

Heat
Transfer

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 Obstructions

• Canopies
• Colour difference
• Building services e.g.
pipes, AC
• Hanging clothes
• scaffold

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 12) Intra-Red Thermographic Survey
• Advantages
– Non-destructive
– Large areas can be tested
– Suitable for inaccessible areas, e.g. external wall
• Limitations
– Affected by weather – rain, wind, sunlight
– Equipment relatively expensive (price also depends on
resolution of camera)
– May be obstructed by building services, etc.
– Emissivity of finishes will affect the result (texture,
colour)
– Tilting angle < 60 degree

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 13) Impulse Radar Technique
• Electromagnetic wave pulse sent out from transmitter
and received by receiver attenna
• Reinforcement bar and interface between 2 materials
will reflect the EM wave
• Hand held one can be used to detect reinforcement
• Used to locate embedded building services pipes in
renovation work (e.g. before breaking the concrete slab)
• GPR (ground penetrating radar) will emit stronger wave
with higher penetrating power – used to detect
ground/soil properties or to detect underground
facilities/utilities (e.g. cable, pipe)
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Impulse Radar Mechanism

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 Impulse
Radar
Equipment

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Outcome signal need to be analyzed by
computer
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Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
• Techniques used to observe materials or
building elements without causing
alternation, damage or destruction
• Usually lower cost
• But higher capital cost
• Minimal disturbance and nuisance
• Sometimes save tremendous assess cost,
e.g. external wall
• E.g. radar, thermographic survey, half-cell

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 Selection Criteria of Tests
• Availability and reliability of calibrations
• Effects and acceptability of surface damage
• Practical limitations
• member size and type
• surface condition
• depth of test zone required
• location of reinforcement
• accessibility
• Degree of accuracy required
• Budget available
• Destructive or non-destructive tests
• Disturbance to users/tenants
• Safety
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