Objective Questions:

1-Date of the Phanom- Bante Inscription: 10th Century CE

2- which inscription of Kambuja mentioned the Four Varna: Se- Phong
Inscription
3- In whose reign Javani literature has been written: Dharmavansha
4- Date of the temple of Dieng area: 7th-8th century CE
5- Date of the Angkor Era: 802-1431 CE
Kambuja
Question - Present the evidence of Presence of Puranic Hindu religion
in Kampuchea.
Answer- Kampuchea occupies an important place among the Indianized
nations of South-East Asia. In ancient times, it was known as Kambuja,
which included present-day Kampuchea as well as Laos. The earliest
kingdom of Kambuja was Phunan, where a queen named "Soma "
ruled. South Indian Brahmin Kaundinya, possessed by a dream, reached
Phunan from business refreshments, where Queen Soma, impressed by
his scholarship, married him and Kaundinya's dream of becoming king
came to fruition. Kaundinya and his descendants ruled over Phunan for
a long period, through whom Puranic Hinduism spread in this region.
After 7th century AD, Phunan became the state of Kumbuja kingdom
and till 11th century AD, Kambuj It had turned into a huge and
powerful empire.
Naming -
There are two legends regarding the naming of Kambuj -
In ancient times "Kambu Swayambhuva" was the ruler of Arya country.
Worshiper of Shiva, this king's queen was an apsara named "Mera".
Sudden death of queen. Disenchanting him with worldly life, King
"Kambu" went to a desolate and desolate country Where in a cave he
encounters a fierce snake with many heads. As soon as Kambu takes
out his sword and is ready to kill the snake, Nagraj asks about his
introduction in human voice. After being introduced, Nagraj said - You
are a devotee of Shiva and Shiva is our master, so you leave the sorrow
and live with us. Heeding the advice of Nagraj,Kambu married his
daughter. Nagraj, with his superpowers (Siddhibal), converted that
desolate region into a green and beautiful country! Kambu became the
ruler there and the country was named Kambuj after him.
2- Adityavansha, the king of Indraprastha, got angry with his son and
expelled him from the kingdom. The exiled prince reached the land
called "Koklok" and defeated the ruler there and became the king.
While walking on the beach, he came across a Naga girl whom he
married. Nagraj, the father of the girl, expanded the kingdom of his
son-in-law even more by drinking the sea-water. This region later came
to be known as Kambuj.
The narratives of both are that the Nagas and the Aryans mixed in
Kambuja and the elements of both these species were present in the
inhabitants of that place.
Mythological Hinduism-
Promotion of Mythical Hinduism in Kambuja spread begins from the
reign of Kaundinya. Indian traders also contributed significantly to this.
It is clear from the epigraphical evidences and Chinese accounts that
the entry of Buddhism in Kampuchea dates back to the end of 5th
century AD, while the mythological Hindu religion had already entered
here in the first century AD through Kaundinya. In Kambuja, Hinduism
became more popular than Buddhism, especially Shaivism, although
Vaishnavism also spread here. In course of time, Buddhist rulers also
continued to give patronage to Hindu religion.
Chinese writer Kang-tai has mentioned a legend prevalent in the 3rd
century AD Kambuj as follows: "Phunan was ruled by a queen named
Siu-ye. Huen-Tein of Ho-fu country was a great devotee of Shiva. He
dreamed Pleased with his devotion, his deity granted him a bow and
ordered him to sail by commercial vessel. In the morning, when he
went to the temple, he put the bow there, then he boarded a merchant
vessel, and his deity Changed the wind direction to the shores of
Phunan. Queen Siu-Ye reached the said vessel on board with the
intention of robbing it. Huen-Tien's arrow also hit the queen's boat
from one side and came out from the other side.The queen
surrendered in fear and Huen-Tien's supremacy over Funan was
established., Huen- Tien was a Hindu colonist who reached Phunan
directly from India, although it is also possible that he would have
come from the Malaya Peninsula. Based on Chinese sources, the date
of his return to Phunan cannot be considered earlier than the first
century AD. After Huen-Tien, his descendants ruled Phunan for about
100 years. Phan-che-mun, a capable commander, captured the power
of Punan in 200 AD and his descendants ruled for the next 100 years. At
the end of the 4th century or the beginning of the fifth century, Qian-
Chen-Ju (Kaundinya) also took over Punan, which is mentioned in the
history of the Liang dynasty of China. Kaundinya gotra is mentioned in
an inscription from Mysore in the second century AD, on the basis of
which it was assumed to be South Indian. Kaundinya and his
descendants also propagated Hinduism in the kingdoms of Phunan and
Kambuj, Kampot in the west, and Thabong-Khamum and Swe-rieang in
the east. In Kambuj, In the Mekong river valley, both Shaiva and
Vaishnava sects Temples were established and idols were installed,
whose remains are still present today.
There is mention of the establishment of the Bhadreshwar Shiva-linga
by the ruler of Ugrapur. Another inscription of the same period
mentions the installation of an idol of Tribhuvaneshwar Shiva by the
daughter of King Veervarmana and sister of Bhavavarmana. Many
forms of Shiva-murti were prevalent in Kambuj, such as Kalyankari,
Raudramukhi, Pashupati, in addition to this, they were worshiped in the
form of Shiva-Linga and Shiva-Pada.
An anthropomorphic idol of Shiva built during the time of King
Yashovarman is depicted holding the Ganga and the moon on its head.
Along with Shiva, the worship of Parvati was also prevalent in Kambuj.
Rajendravarmana's Mevon inscription mentions the charity done by
the king after praising Shiva, Gauri, Narayan, Brahma and Ganga. Often
the path of the king by whom the Shiva-temple was established was
also linked to that temple, such as Aamratakeshwar, Gambhireshwar,
Rajendra Bhadeshwar etc. The 9th century king Indravarmana's Bakong
inscription states the Worship of eight types of Shiva idols. The above
facts are the proof that there was predominance of Shiva religion in
Kambuj.
Devraj Sect-
Devraj sect was established in Kambuj under state patronage of
Shaivism and in Kambuj's "Khmer" language Shiva was called "Jagat-ta-
Raja". The Devraj community not only had religious importance, but it
also played an important role in the expansion of the empire,
strengthening the nation politically. According to Udayadityavarman's
"Sdock-Kok-Thom" inscription, the sect was founded by Jayavarman II
(Devaraja). In this belief, the lingam was established on a high place and
that hill or mound was considered to be the symbol of Kailasha. Tantric
activities were also performed in the establishment. For this purpose, a
Brahmin named "Hiranyadama" was invited from India, who taught
Jayavarman II's Rajguru "Shiva Kaivalya" related to Tantra-Vivya and
worship of Devraj. Jayavarman announced that The right of worship of
Devraj would be only for the dynasty and descendants of Shiva
Kevalya.The idol of Devraj was also shifted when the capital was
changed by the Kambuj kings.It is known from the inscription of
Rajendravarman that this ruler built a temple in Yashodharpur and
made it a state capital. The idol of deity Devraj was consecrated in the
name of Rajendra Shekhar and placed on the four corners of the
temple The idols of ancestors were installed in the form of Shiva, Uma,
Vishnu and Brahma. It is known from the "Pre-Rup" inscriptions that
Rajendravarman built a temple and installed the idol of Devraj in the
name of Raja Maheshwar. The temple was probably built by
Rajendravarman and the idol was installed by his cousin Harshavarman.
In this Sect, the idols of kings after giving them deity forms were also
enshrined in the temple. Bayona temple Kambuja one of the important
temples where idols of rulers as well as deities were installed. Started,
along with the nation was tied in the thread of political unity.
0mThe question arises from where did this opinion come in Kambuja?
Some scholars believe that this system of Kambuj matches with the
Indian system. In India too, divinity was implanted in the emperor. the
Kushan ruler was called 'Devaputra'. In India, there was a tradition of
consecrating the idol of dead king in the temples, like the idol of
Kanishka was installed in the temple of Huvishka.
Devraj, in the opinion of some scholars, in Kambuja came from East
Java. In the inscriptions found from Java "Jangla," and "Dinaya," the
idols of the deities were installed in the name of the dead kings. It was
believed that Kambuja, the soul of the dead king enters the idol of
Devaraja. Although the tradition of Devaraja similar to Indian traditions
but there are also many differences between the two. In fact, the
Devraj cult is the contribution of the people of Kambuj and here the
worship of Devraj must have had the same purpose as the Ashwamedh
Yagya in India. Devraj sect played an important role in the politics of
Kambuj. In this belief, the emperor was considered as a deity. It played
an important role in binding the nation in the knot of political unity.
The effect of Devraj sect remained on the religious and political system
of Kambuj for a long time.
Vaishnavism-
The ruins of many temples and idols related to Vaishnavism are found
in Kambuj, which shows the popularity of this opinion. The world's
largest Vishnu temple is located in the Angkor region of Kambuj. The
names Vasudeva, Krishna, Narayana etc. have come for Vishnu in the
inscriptions of Kambuja. New images of Vishnu made during the reign
of King Jayavarman of Punan (405-514 AD) have been found, in which
he is shown sleeping in Kshir Sagar with Serpent's head. Jayavarman's
queen Kulaprabhawati had also installed an idol of Vishnu and
constructed a lake and a residence for the priest near the temple. The
installation of Vishnu-pada is mentioned in the inscription of
Gunavarman. Vishnu is carved in the inscription of 9th century AD
"Prasath-Koka". Jayindravarmana installed the idol of the Hari in a
brick-built temple. In the inscription of King Yashovarmana received
from the Angkor-Thom area, there is mention of installation of Vishnu
statue. The mention of Vishnu has also come in the inscription of
Jayavarman V.
A combined image of Shiva and Vishnu (Harihara) was also built at
Kambuja. During the period of King IshwarVarmana, the maximum
number of such idols were made. In the period of King Jayavarman IV
also, the idols of Harihara have come in the records. Thus, we see that
along with Shaivism in Kambuja Vaishnavism also was very popular.
Other Hindu Gods and Goddesses-
The worship of the Trimurti, Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh was
prevalent in Kambuj, in addition to this, idols of gods and goddesses
like Surya, Ganesha, Kartikeya, Yaya, Ganga, Gauri, Durga, Saraswati etc.
have been found in Kambuj. leads to the conclusion that there is hardly
any deity in the mythological Hindu religion whose worship is not done
in Kambuj.
Yagyika ritual-
Like India, evidence of Yagyik rituals being performed in Kambuj is also
found. In the Inscription of King Udayadityavarman. There is mention of
sacrificial rituals and giving donations in which cows, elephants, horses
and female slaves were given donations to Brahmins. The kings of
Kambuja were given titles related to their religion. in the inscriptions,
Jayavarmana II Yashovarmana, Rajendravarmana, Jayavarmana V etc.
are mentioned to be given titles like Pranavatma, Shikhashiv, Shankar,
Shivaditya etc. respectively. Thus it is clear that from the third century
AD to the tenth century AD, Puranic Hinduism remained dominant in
Kambuj.
Question - Review the Propagation of Buddhism in Kambuja.
Answer -The spread of Buddhism in Kambuja is reflected from the 6th
century AD onwards. The propagation of the Mahayana form of
Buddhism started here, while in India this period is seen as the rise of
Vajrayana and maturity of Mahayana. When Buddhism entered
Kambuj, at that time there was dominance of Puranic Hindu religion. In
the inscription "Prasatkam" of 791 AD, there is a mention of idol-
worship of Lokeshwar Bodhisattva, which was included in the
Mahayana sect Devamandala. By the 7th-8th century AD, under the
Mahayana sect in Kambuj, the order of worship of Bodhisattva and
their idols started. A clear description of this is found in the inscription
of Jayavardhan I (665 AD). For about 100 years after 791 AD no such
record is received from Kambuja in which Buddhism is mentioned. In
889 AD Yashovarman established religious ashrams. He had given them
a lot of wealth by building a temple.Though Yashovarman was a
follower of mythological Hindu religion, but he also built ashrams for
Buddhists in public interest, from which it is known that during his
reign, followers of Buddhism in Kambuj, It is mentioned in the "Tep-
Pranam" record that Yashovarman had arranged for the construction of
Buddhist ashrams so that the Buddhist monks could live in these
ashrams for studying and performing religious acts, leaving the
household chores. There is a mention of making proper arrangements
for the living of the Acharya, teacher, Bhikhu etc. living in the ashram.
Yashovarman had made the same arrangement for the Buddhist
ashrams as he had made for the Shiv and Vaishnava ashrams. In the
inscription of 996 AD "KoK-Sabron"
There is mention of an officer of Rajendravarman whose younger
brother installed a Buddhist idol. Salutations have been requested to
Sangha, Buddha and Dharma (triratna) in this inscription. Unlike the
prevalent form of Triratna (Buddha, Dharma and Sangha) in India, this
inscription has a short reverse. By the end of the tenth century AD,
Buddhism was fully established in Kambuja. In the inscription of
Rajendravarman, there is mention of Yogachara sect, which was a part
of Mahayana Buddhism. In an inscription of 981 AD, Buddha,
Prajnaparamita, Lokeshwar, Indra etc. have been praised together. King
Tribhuvanvaj had installed the statue of Buddha's mother Mayadevi.
At the beginning of the eleventh century AD, there was further increase
in the influence of Buddhism. Suryavarman I, after adopting Buddhism
in 1000 AD, passed an order in 1022 AD that the general public should
offer their virtues towards religious places, viharas, temples and
Mahayana monks and pilgrims. After the death of Suryavarman, the
title of "Nirvana Pada" was given. Among the Buddhist rulers of
Kambuj, the fame of Jayawardhana VIi is highest. In his inscriptions First
of all Buddha has been praised and respect has been expressed
towards Sangha. The ruler had donated many villages to Buddhist
ashrams. He got his mother's idol made in the form of Prajnaparamita
and got it installed in the temples. The ruler's queen Indra Devi was
also a believer in Buddhism. She had initiated her younger sister
Jayaraja Devi into Buddhism, which is mentioned in the "Fimanak"
inscription of King Jayavarman. Buddhism had reached its climax during
the time of Jayavarman VII.
At the time when Mahayana was at its peak in Kambuj, Sri Lanka was
dominated by the Therarvad sect. Some bhikkhus from Sri Lanka
reached Kambuj to propagate Theravada. A 13th-century Pali
inscription from Kambuja mentions Triratna (Buddha, Dharma and
Sandha) as a salutation, which indicates the presence of Theravada
there. In this period, there is mention of a Buddhist vihara being built
and a Buddha statue being installed in it and four villages being given
by the ruler for the expenses.
Angkor Era Buddhism-
The period of 802-1431 AD in Kambuj is known as the Angkor period.
This era had great rulers. Jayavarman II, Yashovarman I.,
Rajendravarman, Suryavarman I and Jayavarman VII and they got full
support from ministers and royal officials like Diwakar Pandit, Kavindra
Ravindra, Rimanthan, Kirtivarman and Satyavarman. The important
event of this era is - Mythological Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism
Coordinating development of religion. Inscriptions like Ta-Prom, Tep-
pranam, Fimanak etc. throw enough light on the development of
Mahayana, Buddhism in Angkor era. Chinese sources and Funan era
evidence indicate that Buddhism had entered the land of Kambuja
during the Funan period itself. During the period of Kaundinya,
Jayavarman and Rudravarman, the Buddhist monks Nagasen,
Sanghapal and Bhadrasen from Phunan reached the court of China with
Buddha's chans and coral idols. Inscriptions of this era are found in the
Sanskrit and Pali language. The Buddhist art-relics of this era have a
profound influence on the art-style of the Gupta period. AC Banerjee
wrote in 'Buddhism in India and Abroad' that Theravada Buddhism was
prevalent among the people of Kambuj during Funan-period. According
to the 9th century Chinese traveler Itising, Funan used to worship Shiva
as well as Buddha, but an anti-Buddhist Kambuj king became an
obstacle in the development of Buddhism. This is the reason why
Shaivism prevailed in Kambuj for about 200 years after the fall of
Phunan, but Buddhist monks did not flourish.
In the 7th century, through the Shailendra dynasty rulers of Sri Vijaya
(Sumatra, Indonesia), Mahayana spread throughout South-East Asia,
Kambuja was no exception. Mention of donations and donors and
mention of installation of Avalokiteshvara's statue in 'Prasatkam'
inscription of 791 AD this fact indicate that the development of
Mahayana ideology had started on the land of Kambuja. In Mahayana,
Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva was worshiped in his benevolent form, as
was Vishnu in Puranic Hinduism. In the light of Bhaktiism, Buddha also
found a place in the trinity of mythological Hindu religion, which is
confirmed by an Inscriptions by Uyadityavarman of 1067 AD and which
shows the syncretic form of Hinduism and Buddhism.
Buddhist Education and literature-
Along with the development of Mahayana Buddhism in Kambuja, there
was also development in the field of education literature. It is known
from the Tep-Pranam inscription of Yashovarman that the construction
of Saugata Ashram was done for the purpose of study of Buddhist
monks and Buddhist texts. Jayavarman V's minister Kirtivarman
imported Buddhist texts from abroad and lit the light of Madhyamik
philosophy in Kambuja whose pioneer was Nagarjuna. Suryavarman I
also contributed significantly to the spread of Buddhist education.
According to Tibetan historian Lama Taranath, a disciple of Vasybandhu
had propagated Mahayana Buddhist texts in Indochina (Laos,
Kampuchea and Vietnam). It is known from an inscription of
Jayavarman VII that his second queen Indradevi used to teach and work
for the Buddhist nuns of Nagendra ashram after studying the entire
Buddhist scriptures, it is clear from this. That there was also a system of
female education in the ashrams in the Angkor era. Under Buddhist
education, apart from Buddhist literature, classical knowledge,
grammar etc., Yogachar philosophy was also taught.
Buddhist Art-
In addition to education and literature, Mahayana influenced art in the
Angkor era. The Inscription of Rajendravarman show that his minister
Kavindra-Ravindra had installed the idols of Buddhavajra,
Prajnaparamita and Avlokitesvara. The Inscription of Jayavarman V
mentions the worship of Buddha, Prajnaparamita, Lokeshwara,
Maitreya and Indra and instructed a Buddhist monk named
Padavairochana to install idols of these gods and goddesses in temples
for worship.In an inscription of 981 AD Tribhuvanavajra mentions the
installation of an idol of Mayadevi, the mother of the Buddha.by the
inscription of Suryavarman I found from Lopburi in Siam (Thailand)
mentions Buddhist monks and pilgrims. This article makes it clear the
position of Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism in Kambuja, with
Mahayana being the most popular.
The maximum development of Mahayana in Kambuj took place during
the period of Jayavarman VII, who is also known as Ashoka of Kambuj.
Its two queens Indra Devi and Jayaraja Devi also helped the ruler in the
development of Mahayana. Angkor Thom, the capital built by
Jayavarman VII, is a beautiful monument of the then Angkor culture.
There is an example which is corroborated by the inscriptions obtained
from here and the remains of the temples. Trikaya (Dharmakaya,
Nirmanakaya and sambhogakaya) Buddha and Lokesvara have been
worshiped by JayavarmanVII in the 'Fimanak' inscription. In the Ta-
Prom inscription, the work done by Jayavarmana VII in the public
interest after bowing down to the Buddha has been mentioned. King
Jayavarman VII, the embodiment of compassion and affection, built
statues of his mother in the form of Prajnaparamita and on this
auspicious occasion Organized an huge festival at Rajavihara in which
numerous Buddhist monks participated. Like Ashoka, this ruler also
built many hospitals, inns, orphanages and Buddhist temples inspired
by welfare sentiments. Although the ruler was a follower of Mahayana,
but The Devaraj community was recognized as the national religion in
the country, which is visible in the form of the Bayon temple. This
temple is still an excellent example of coordination of mythological
Hinduism and Mahayana religion on the land of Kambuj. Theravada
Buddhism arrived from Sinhala Island (Sri Lanka), the land of Kambuja,
which is evidenced by inscriptions written in Pali language.
Mahayana sect played an important role in the development of the
culture of the era in Kambuja. Mahayana made unprecedented
progress in the field of religion, philosophy and art after getting
favorable conditions in this era. After Jayavarman VII, the political
influence of Siam (Thailand) on Kambuj and the arrival of Theravada
from Sinhala (Sri Lanka) gradually ended the syncretistic form of
Puranic Hinduism in Mahayana.
Theravada in Kambuja-
Rahul Sankrityayan has rightly written that if Theravada had not
reached Kambuja, it would have suffered the same fate as Java,
Sumatra and Malaya. Buddhism reached Kambuja in two phases, in the
first phase from India and in the second phase from Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka
propagated Theravada Buddhism in Cambodia, Laos and Thailand in the
13th century AD by providing strength to the boat of Buddhism in
South East Asian countries, which is still in a safe state.
Although, in the first phase itself, Theravada had started on the land of
Kambuj, which is confirmed by inscriptions and worship sources in Pali
language and Chinese sources.In the 7th- 8th century AD, this religion
also reached Kambuja in the order of propagation of Buddhism in
South-East Asian nations by Shailendra dynasty rulers of Sri Vijay
(Sumatra) and North Indian Buddhist preachers and the people of
Kambuj abandoned Teravada and adopted Mahayana. In this the
ancient Kambuj The predominance of Hindu religion also had a big
contribution. In the light of Bhaktiism, Mahayana deities were also
worshiped like Shiva and Vishnu. Although there is an indication of
Theravada in the inscription obtained from "Lop-Buri (Thailand) of
Suryavarman I, but in the land of Angkor it was the era of Mahayana
school. This is confirmed by the inscriptions of ministers like Kabindra-
Rabindra and Kirtivarman and Rajendravarman and Jayavardhana VII.
The question arises that despite the predominance of Mahayana, how
did Tharvad strengthen its roots by coming from Sinhal on the land of
Kambuj. If we look at the political situation at that time, we find that
after the death of Jayavarman VII, the power of Kambuja started to
decline due to the combined pressure of Annam and Thailand. Kambuja
also did not get any support from India as India itself was battling
Islamic invasion and Indian Buddhist centers were being destroyed.
Political instability in Kumbuja Blocked cultural development. At exactly
the same time Sinhalese monks arrived in Kambuj by sea route and
helped in keeping the lamp of Buddhism burning.
Gave cooperation The first evidence of Sinhalese Therwadi Buddhist
idol influence in Kambuj is found in the form of the "Kok-Swe-Chak"
inscription of King Srindravarman. in Pali language. Engraved in this
inscription, after salutations to Buddha, Dharma and Sangha, Mahather
Shrindra Mauli, was given a village donation named Shrindra Ratna by
the king as well as the description of the construction of a vihara by an
upasika named Srimalini Ratna, in which the statue of Buddha was
installed. Srindravarman donated four villages for the maintenance of
this vihara. After getting political patronage, Theravada started
developing in Kambuja.
Jayavarman Parmeshwar sat on the throne of Kambuja after
Srindravarman in 1327 AD. The Bayon inscription confirms the fact that
Parameshwara fully supported the entry and development of
Theravada Buddhism in his country. He built a large number of
Buddhist temples. Apart from this, he got the Tripitaka propagated by
getting Buddha's words written in Pali language. It is known from an
inscription received from Laos that the ruler "Phanum" was the son-in-
law of Jayavarman Parameshwara. Jayavamana sent a delegation under
the leadership of 'Mahaparaman Chao' to spread Theravada in Laos. It
is known from epigraphical evidence that this ruler declared Pali
language as the national language, which led to the decline of Sanskrit
language. Chinese traveler Chavt-kuan wrote - "At this time, the
Pashupata sect of Shaivism and Buddhist monks used to reside in
Kambuj. The number of monks was very high, they lived with shaved
heads and wore yellow clothes. They used to eat meat and fish but did
not drink alcohol. They read copper-plates and hand-written texts,
which were very numerous. Some of these monks had golden
palanquins and gold-studded ghats. on serious matters The king used
to consult them. There are no nuns here." It is clear from the
description of this traveler that in the fourteenth century AD,
Theravada had established its roots in Kambuj. In 1350 AD the ruler of
Ayuthiya of Siam, Ramadhipati captured the Kambuja. As a result,
Kambuj was influenced by the Siamese Buddhist culture ie. Theravada.
Like in Siam, the Theravada's Dharmaguttika and Mahanikaya are
propagated and took place here. Despite of the political upheavals in
the 114th century AD, the influence of Sinhal and Siam in Kambuj The
position of Theravada remained strong which caste remains to this day.
Ques: Throw light on the language and literature of Kambuja and
evaluate the education system.
Ans- Modern Kampuchea and Cochin China (Laos and Vietnam), were
jointly known as the Kambuja country in ancient times. The Mekong
River has played an important role in the all-round development of this
country, which can be compared to the Ganges River in India. In the
west of this river bank were Kampat and in the east there were three
provinces named Swering and Thabong-Khomun. The main Hindu state
of this country is known as Phunan. Chinese historian Kang-tai has
written the history of Phunan in the Chinese language. An Indian
Brahmin named Kaundinya spent his whole life in spreading Hindu
religion, civilization and culture in Phunan. From this period, the trade
of Kambuj started with foreign states through water and land routes.
On the basis of inscriptions received from Kambuj there language and
literature has been studied. Mainly two languages were prevalent-
Khmer, the language of the common people and Sanskrit, the language
of the educated class. Innumerable records of both these languages
have been found in Kambuj. Not only did the Indians make the Kambuj
residents aware of the Sanskrit language, along with it, there is Sanskrit
in the rituals and rituals. Taught the experiment, although rural. The
public continued to use the Khmer language. When Kambuj came in
contact with Sri Lanka, Pali language also started being used, which is
confirmed by the Inscriptions. No article of Prakrit language has been
received from Kambuj, only in the article of Yash-Varman, Prakrit words
"Priya" and "Gujadhya" have been used. Some inscriptions in Kambuja
are found in the Kadamba script which was used by the Pallavas in
India. Historians have expressed the possibility that the majority of
Kambuja's writings are in Brahmi script, after coming in contact with
South India, the Kadamba script of Pallava period would have been
prevalent there. There were many educational institutions in Kambuja.
Teaching work was done in religious places, Temples and ashrams. Vice
Chancellor, Visitor Acharya, Vice President and teachers were
appointed for teaching work. The work of the Vice-Chancellor was to
run the system of educational institutions and ashrams smoothly. Vice
President and teachers used to do teaching work. The Angkor
inscription mentions a scholar named Jayamanoratha who was a
scholar of scriptures and grammar. An inscription mentions a scholar
named Sivasoma, courtier of King Indravarman.
It is known from the records that study-teaching of all kinds of
education was done in Kambuj. Literature of Shaiva, Vaishnava and
Buddhism were given equal place in education. Apart from this,
'education' of Sanskrit grammar, music, dance, astrology, logic and
geography were also given, in which Indian scholars played an
important role. Apart from mythological literature, Ramayana and
Mahabharata were also part of the curriculum. Gajendra Pandit is
mentioned in UdayadityaVermana's article, who was a knower of many
languages. Medical science was also studied in Kambuj. In the Ashrama,
the relationship between the Guru and the disciple was like that of a
father and son. It has been said in a record that the way a father
nurtures his children, in the same way the Guru used to contribute for
the all-round development of his disciples.
In Kambuja education was not limited to men only, but women also had
the right to it. Suryavarman II's "Van-that" inscription mentions a
woman named Tilka, who was the ultimate scholar. Narendra Guru, the
best among scholars, impressed by Tilka's scholarship, gave her the title
of "Vageshwari Bhagwati" and accepted her scholarship in the full
scholarly council. There is also mention of another female scholar, Sati-
Janapada, who was a disciple of Acharya Yogeshwar. She was married
to a Brahmin named Keshav. Jayavarman VII's Queen Indradevi was also
a great scholar. The above description proves that in Kambuja females
also had the right to education. Veda-Vedanta and Darshan-Shastra are
equally mentioned in the literature of Kambuja. One account states in
rhetorical language: "Yashovarman daily got the swans to worship his
feet while Surya was satisfied with the poetic praise of a poet Mayura."
Poet Mayura composed a poem named "Surya-Shatak". In Kambuja
There is evidence of studies of Brihat-Katha and Vatsyayana's
Kamasutra. People of Kambuja was also familiar with Manusmriti.
Udayadityavarmana's Sdok-Kak-Thom "Inscription" mentions
"Manavanitisara" which was a treatise on ethics. Yashovarman's
Prasata-Kama inscription contains a verse from Manu-samhita which
states that man earns respect in five ways: by Dharma, Bandhu-
Bandhav, Age, Karma and Vidya. In this, the last is more important than
the first. Vaisheshik and Nyaya philosophy have been mentioned in the
inscription "Sambor-Preyikuk". It is also known from some records that
study and teaching of theology and economics was also done in
Kambuj. The names of two such ministers are engraved in the records
of Jayavarmana who were knowledgeable of theology and economics.
It is clear from the above facts that education and literature also had a
wide impact in various aspects of Indian culture in Kambuj and every
part of the ancient Indian education system got respectable place on
the land of Kambuj.
Q- Throw light on the Economic life of Kambuja.
Answer: - Kambuja has an important place in the countries of South-
East Asia. Epigraphic evidence and Chinese accounts throw sufficient
light on the culture of this country. Initially it was under Phunan, but in
the 7th century AD, it was freed from this forest only by its powerful
kings who occupied Punan. The heyday of Kambuja that started from
the seventh century, continued for the next 700 years from the time of
Jayavarma II (ninth century AD), marking the beginning of a new era in
Kambuja history. Progressing continuously on the path of progress, this
nation has turned into a huge and powerful empire by the 11th
century.
Nomanclature :- There are many legends regarding the naming of
Kambuj. According to a legend, in ancient times, Kambu Swayambhu
was the ruler of Arya Desha. This king had a Queen named “Mera”, a
worshiper of Shiva. After the death of the queen, King went out of the
Arya country to a desolate country, Jaga, and inside a cave he
encountered fierce snakes with many collars. Kambu like Taking out his
sword, Nagraj asked about his introduction in the voice of a man. After
knowing his introduction, Nagraj said, "You are a devotee of Shiva and
Shiva is our lord. Therefore, you leave mourning and live with us. In
fact, they are people of snake caste. He was the only one who was
walking in a positive way. Heeding the advice of the angel of Kambu +
Nagaran married his daughter. Mantrasiddha Namraj converted that
deserted region into a green and beautiful country with his power of
Siddhi. Thus, Kambu became the ruler there and the country was
named after him as Kambuj.
According to another story, Adityavansh, the king of Indraprastha, got
angry with his son and banished him from the country. The exiled
prince reached a kingdom called "Kokalok" and defeated the ruler there
and became the king. Once while roaming on the beach, he met a
snake girl whom he married. Nagraj, the father of the girl, expanded his
son-in-law's kingdom even more by drinking sea water. This region later
became famous by the name of Kambuj. This story is fatal because of
the fact that in Kambuja, there was a mixture of Nagas and Aryans and
the elements of both these species were present in the residents.
Economy: -
The inscriptions from Kambuja throw sufficient light not only on the
religious but also on the economic condition. In the light of records, the
economy of Kambuja can be classified under the following points: -
(I) Agriculture and animal husbandry-
The economic life of Kambuj was mainly based on agriculture and
animal husbandry. King Ishanvarma's "Vat Sabab Inscription" (sixth
century AD) mentions kinkars (servants), cows, buffaloes and rice fields
as donations made to the temples by the king.
“Phanom-Vante” inscription (10th century AD) also mentions the
donation of kshetras (fields), slaves and kedars (vegetable fields). There
are also mentions of other agricultural produce and ghee, milk, honey,
oil, jaggery, etc. in the records. Agriculture was done with the help of
oxen and agricultural slaves. Chinese traveler Shu-ta-kuwan wrote
about Kambuja in the 13th century that there were three crops per
year. For the fertility of the fields, people do not use cow dung because
they consider it as manure. The demand for wheat is high. Probably
wheat was not cultivated in Kambuj.
business and industry
Kambudha's business and craft industry was also in a developed state.
Prominent among the Shibdhis were – Weaver (Tantuvaya), Goldsmith,
Gandhik (Perfume-businessman), Stathi (Mason) etc. Textile business
was also in a flourishing condition. Rakhi and silk clothes are mentioned
in the Ta Prosra inscription of Jayavarma Rashtram. The people of
Kambuja were also fond of jewellery. Both men and women used to
wear ornaments in their ears, neck and arms. Gold and silver zari work
was also used on the clothes. Therefore, the business of goldsmiths
was in advanced condition. In the records, the word "Chajikarnar" has
been used for the gold car. Artifacts, founders, astrologers, etc. are
mentioned in the inscriptions of the Jaini class, in the Nagon inscription
of Jayavarma Parmeshwar. Blacksmiths, carpenters, etc. were counted
among the artisans. A Brahmin family had taken up the craft business
after taking the permission of the king. Other businesses related to the
craft were idol-making, boat-making, palanquin and cart-making, etc.
The bante-koi inscription of the thirteenth century king Srindravarma
also shows influence on commercial organizations. A businessman
named Triptak is such a union president.
Trade and Commerce:
Inscriptions throw enough light on Kambul trade and commerce. It is
known from the Ta-Pros inscription of Jayvarma VII that silk cloth was
from China. According to the Chinese traveler Bhu-ta Kambuj Kuwan
Aayat, women used to do business. Gold, silver, silk cloth, ranga,
chinaware, Papers etc were imported from China. Probably the metal
business was also in a developed state. Metals include iron, copper,
bronze, lead, gold, silver and lead. Apart from these, the description of
precious stones such as Mukta, Padmarag etc. has come in the Praha-
Khan inscription of Jayaverma VII.
Measure and weight-
Vocabulary used for measuring and weighing is found from Inscriptions
like - Kharika, Drona, Prastha, Kutuv etc. Kharika was equal to 128 sers.
Drona used to be equal to 8 sers and Prastha was called one ser. Kuthuv
was probably used to measure liquid substances like ghee, oil, honey
etc.
It is clear from the above analysis that the people of Kambuja were
economically prosperous. Kambuja's Good governance is the reason
why this nation had made all-round progress. Due to economic
prosperity, the kings were successful in the protection and expansion of
their empire border, as well as they could also give encouragement to
art and literature.
Q- Throw light on the different aspects of social life of Kambuja
Answer: - Kambuj is a very rich area from the point of view of ancient
Indian antiquities. Adequate quantities of inscriptions, ruins of temples
and idols have been obtained from here. In addition to archaeological
evidence, Chinese chronicles also provide enough information about
this country. Kambuja's politics, society, economy, religious conditions,
art and architecture in the course of Indian colonization.
Indianness is also clearly visible in every field like script, language and
literature. Where logic is prevalent in social life, various aspects of it
can be highlighted as follows: -
Varna-system: - 'Like Indian society, Kambuja's society was also based
on the Chaturvarnya(4 Varna) system. The "Se-Phong " inscription of
Jayavarman VII clearly mentions the four varnas - 'Chikitsa atra
chatvaro varna dwau bhishajo tayo." Brahmins were supreme, the
Kshatriyas were in second place. Vaishyas were mentioned in the
"Prasat Komanapa" inscription of Yashovarman. is "Ihasya Vaishnava
sarve nadhyakshe vaishyanta gatah." The Vaishya varna mainly included
the merchant class. Inscriptions and Chinese histories also recognize
the Sudra varna as a power whose status was similar to that of slaves
emphasized but in view of the specific circumstances and needs, he
also tried to reshape the society. King (Jayavarman V created two new
castes - "Khmuk and Kurmantar ". What were the specific functions of
these varnas is unknown. In Kambuj, the basis of varna was by birth. In
the Inscriptions, Brahmins who used to perform mahout, craftsman and
courtesans are considered Brahmins on the basis of birth.
Marital status - Brahmins and Kshatriyas had the main marital status in
Kambuja, although Brahmin girls could only be married to royal men.
According to the records of King Bhavavarman, his sister was married
with a Brahmin named Somasharma. Similarly, King Jai-Varman II
married to Bhas Swamini, daughter of a Brahmin named Dij Vishnu. His
granddaughter Satyavati was married to a Brahmin named Bhanuvar
whose son YogeShwar Pandita had built many temples of Shiva and
Vishnu in Vyadhapur. ● Both the queens of King Jayavarman VII -
Jayaraj Devi and Indra Devi were Brahmin girls. Many such examples
are found in the Kambuja inscriptions, which are sufficient to prove that
Brahmins used to have marriage relations with Royall's girls, in the
same way Brahmins also used to marry Kshatriya girls. In Kambuja, the
practice of polyandry-marriage of Shudras and Dasas existed. It is
known from the "Vat Sabab" inscription of King Ishanvarman that a
royal official named Anang donated 42 slaves and their 9 wives for a
temple, which proves that polyandry was prevalent. Widow-marriage
was also prevalent in Kambuj.
It is known from the "Fanom- Run" inscription of Suryavermana II that
the ancestor of Suryavermana , Hiranyavermana's had three sons.
VijayendraLaxmi was married to his youngest son. After the death of
her husband she married to elder son Jayavermana VI and after his
death too she married eldest son DhareendraVermana.
It is known from Chinese sources that on the occasion of marriage the
bridegroom presents only one cloth to the bride. After the date is fixed,
the families of the bride and groom do not go out for a whole week.
The lamp keeps on burning day and night. After marriage, the groom
used to take his share from the family property.
Livelihood: - Chinese traveler Shu-Ta-Kuban" who came to kambuj in
13th century, has written that in Kambuj both men and women used to
tie their hair. They used to wear only a Lungi but whenever they go
outside, they also wear a Chadar. The king used to wear a garland of
pearls, A and jewel-studded bracelets, although the Lord remained
barefoot and hands and feet were painted with Mahavar. Commoners
and women used to paint hands and feet. People were obese. And
there were whites. The people of the royal family were fair. According
to a Kanya Chinese book, the people of Kambuj were hardworking.
They considered the right hand pure and the left-hand untouchable.
Every morning, after taking a bath and brushing teeth from Datuvan,
after reciting pothi and praying etc., take a bath again and take food,
after the meal, brushing teeth again, wash and pray. Ghee, cream,
sugar, moong, millet, etc. were their food items. According to Chinese
sources, the houses of Ambuj used to be east-facing. It was a tradition
to give betel nuts, camphor and aromatic liquids to the guests. They
also used Sura (Liquor).
Dead Rites - According to Chinese sources People of Kambuja used to
mourn till seven days without eating food in Sutaka. Buddhist infants
and Brahmin priests along with their relatives used to take out the
funeral procession in the form of a procession accompanied by musical
instruments. The pyre was lit with scented wood. The remains were
sealed in a gold or silver vessel and flowed into the river. Poor people
used ornamented pottery. Sometimes the dead bodies were placed on
the mountain so that the animals could eat them.
Means of entertainment: Singing, music and dance were the main
means of entertainment of the people of Kambuj, which were often
performed in the temples. Veena, flute, mang, ghanta, bheri, conch etc.
were prominent among musical instruments. Kambuja people also
entertained through plays. Festivals were celebrated in the months of
Chaitra, Phalguna, in which apart from singing, playing, dancing, fist-
fights also took place.
Champa (Vietnam)
Question - Throw Light on the religious life of Champa.
The religious life of Champa was detailed on the basis of the Indian
tradition, devotion towards one God and other forms and tolerance.
Although Buddhism was spread here in the fourth century, however,
the people of Champa were mainly the followers of the Puranic Hindu
religion. After the promotion of Puranic religion in Champa, there was
evidence of yajna(yagya). There are many inscriptions here about
Yagya. In the inscription of Shrimar Rajkul at Vo-Chanha, the clear
example of Vishwajayati and atiratra yagya. In Holy Pradesh, mentioned
that King Shri Chandravarma provided Shaiva area and yagna region
with a pure mind.
Shaiva Sect- Shaivism had the highest publicity among the Puranic
religion in Champa just like Kambuja . Three places in Champa where
many ancient temples are present. There are two such where Shaiva
temples were prominent.
This place is Myson and Po-Nagar. According to an inscription, the
origin of Champa Rajya was done by Shiva. In the trimurti of Gods in
Champa, there was a third Dev Brahma after Shiva and Vishnu. Brahma
has also been greeted with Maheshwar, Uma and Vishnu in the record
of King Bhadravarman. The statues of Brahma were also reflected in
Champa. This is the reason that many idols of this Dev have been
available today.
Other Gods and Goddesses-
In addition to other goddesses and gods other than Shiva, Vishnu and
Brahma, the worship of many other Puranic goddesses was prevalent in
Champa and their idols were also established in the temples there.
These other gods were Indra, Kuber, Vasuki, Sun, Chandra and Earth
were main. Raja Bhadravarman has greeted Earth, Air, Akash and Jyoti
in addition to Maheshwar, Uma Vishnu and Brahma. Undoubtedly, they
are considered as gods.
Apart from Brahma, Vishnu and Shankar in the Dong-Duong inscription
of Indravravmana II, Vasuki, Sun, Chandra, Varun, Rishi and Agni are
also mentioned.In inscriptions of Champa for Yama word 'Dharmaraj'
and for Kubera 'Dhanadya' word has been used.
Buddhism -
Buddhist religion also made his place in Champa in addition to the
Shiva and other Goddess of Brahmin religion. Buddhism had great
effect on the public. In the 7th century, China's commander Liaphanga,
who had robbed the property by attacking Champa has also looted
1350 buddist Texts. In 421 CE, a person named Samant had established
the idols of Shankar and Buddha both. It is all enough to certify that
before the seventh century, the propagation of Buddhism in Champa
and Buddhism flourished with Shaivism and Vaishnavism. Just as many
inscriptions refer to the installation of Shivlinga and other Puranic idols
by kings and other elite persons, in the same way some inscriptions talk
about the installation of Buddhist idols. In 875 CE King Jayaindravarman
established the statue of LakshmiChandra Lokeswar and also made a
vihar for the monk-union. After death,the king was given the name of
the 'Parambuddhaloka' so it would notify that he had adopted
Buddhist religion. In 902 CE a monk named Nagapushpa had built the
Pramudit Lokeshwar Vihar. In the beginning of the tenth century, not
only the Mahayana sect but also the Vajrayana had been propagated in
Champa.
The remains of Buddhist temples available in Dong-Duong are more
spacious in terms of detail than the Shaiva temples of Myson and Po-
Nagar. Many statues of Buddha were found from there in which one is
about 5 feet high. A bronze idol of Buddha is also available from there.
Among all the Buddha statues found so far in Champa, this bronze
statue is considered to be the most artistic. Apart from Dong-Duong,
statues of Buddha have been found from many other places as well,
due to which there is no doubt that Buddhism was also propagated in
Champa.
Question: Throw light on the economy of Champa.
Answer: - In the eastern region of Indochina (Kambuj and Champa),
except for Tan Hua, Nade-An and Ha-Tinha provinces of Anam,
especially the state of present-day southern Vietnam was called
Champa. It was the main center of Indian culture from second to
fifteenth century AD. China Sea was on its eastern border, mountain
ranges were on the west, Quinan pass was the main traffic route of
Champa and Mekong River. The width of this small and long state
surrounded by hills and sea was not more than 60-70 miles from east
to west. Geographically, Champa was divided into 5 parts: -
1. The Southern Land (Vin-Thuan, kep Padaran )
2. Cape Padrana - up to Cape Varela (Valley of Phanrang - remains of
Pandurang, Nah-jung - ancient Kauhar - ancient temple of Po-nagar -
discovery of many articles.
3. Cap Varela - Sahoi (Sing- Wa, Sing -Lailai Giang River Valley - Remains
of Bin-Din
4. Klang - Ngai, Quang Nam district (Phanpho cave at the mouth of the
Song River, white stone cliffs, ancient Buddhist caves, ancient Amaravati
kingdom (ruins of Tra-vapu), Dong - Duong (ancient Indrapur), Myson
temples, many articles |
5. Northern land (Thua-Vien, Batang-Ji, Quang-Vin.), Hoan-Son hills on
which Anam kingdom was situated.
Two castes used to live in Champa – Cham and Jangli. both related to
Austronesian breed. It is not known what the original inhabitants were
called when the Indians settled in this country. After the establishment
of Champa state by the Indian colonizers, the original inhabitants of
this place became civilized after coming in contact with the Indians, and
those who remained uncivilized and wild were called Mlechha.
The earliest history of Indian colonization in southern Vietnam is found
only in Chinese chronicles. Later Sanskrit inscriptions also throw light
on the early history of this country. According to the Sanskrit records of
Vietnam, the first Indian king here was Sreemar. Scholars equate it with
the Kits-Lian described in Chinese texts. There was always a conflict
between North Vietnam and China and as soon as the central power of
China became weak, they used to attack the border areas. Similarly,
during the time of powerful kings, China used to take control of
Vietnam and the northern regions. This is the reason that the early
history of Vietnam is available to us only in Chinese chronicles.
Where and when there is a question of economy, it should be
understood under the following points-
1. Agriculture: - "The main basis of Economic life of Champa was
agriculture. Proper emphasis was laid on irrigation for the progress of
agriculture. Canals and barges were constructed for this purpose. It is
known from the details in the records that King Vikrant- Varman built a
dam across the canal for the Satyamukhalinga deity. This was probably
done to fertilize the land donated to him as a deity.
According to another inscription JayaparmeshwarVarman II had
renovated the canals of the plots dedicated to the Champeshwar and
other self-born deities were. On behalf of the government, the vaults
were built, which were used to store the grains. There is a description
of the vaults of Sri Pavitesvara, Mamaaya and Bhuvanagrapura which
were donated by IndraVarman to Shankaranarayana.Thus it is clear that
Agriculture was in good condition.
2. Trade and Commerce - The trade and industry of Champa was also in
good condition. According to Chinese chronicles, silkworms were
reared here from which silk clothes were prepared. Apart from this,
nearby cultivation was also done, which was helpful in the manufacture
of cotton cloth. The residents of Champa were well versed in inlaying
gold, silver, pearls and rubies on clothes. Handicrafts like this industry,
grazing, weaving palm fans and baskets were also known to them. The
residents also knew the art of making gold ornaments. The business of
Mani-Mukta used to be successful. They also knew the art of making
beautiful utensils. Champa residents used to make many things from all
the teeth and horns of Barasingha. They were also proficient in making
boats and ships, which were absolutely necessary for maritime trade.
Words like Pan and Kattika are found in the inscriptions for measuring-
weighing. But the mention of Kattika is not found in Indian literature.
Q- Throw light on the art and architecture of Champa.
Ans- Champa art has a remarkable place in South East Asia. Champa
was the neighbouring state of Kambuj and in cultural terms also the
similarity between the two countries, Although like Angkor Wat of
Kambuj and Borobudur mandirs of Java, no huge temple and the
remains of Vihara have not been found in Champa, however its art has
its own uniqueness, which reflects Kambuj as well as Indian influence.
In the order of construction of temple architecture, construction
methods of temples can be mentioned first.
★ Bricks were used for the construction of temples. Stones were used
at the entrance instead of door frames and minarets were constructed
on all four sides of the temple. The use of wood was most prevalent in
temple construction art. That's why most of the temples are known
only on the basis of their foundation because the bricks and wood are
mostly destroyed. On the basis of the remains obtained from Champa,
their art can be divided into two groups-
(I) Period of progress- which includes the art of myson and Dong-
Duong from 8th to 10th century.
(II) Period of decadence- This period is believed to be started from
about 11th century till 17th century.
(1)Myson Temple Complex - The holy city of Myson was once founded
by Bhadravarman I in about the 4th century. In the same time
Bhadreswarlingam was installed. the remains of that temple are
existing till today. The temple is mainly made in cubic shape whose
height is more than the width. Narrow steps are built to go to the
upper floor of the temple, on which remains are also present. Their
construction method can be compared to the temple named Malot
located in Punjab. There are probably winged examples of decorations
carved on the plasters and on the floor of the upper storey. These
paintings were done for, under which the pictures of Makara Toran,
Swan and Apsaras facing the sky are especially noteworthy. Brown
colored sand stone was used for the door frame of the main temple on
which white colored plaster was used. There were pyramidal slings.
These can be compared to the Polonaruva architecture of Sri Lanka on
their base roof of texture. Later, in the 10th century, clay idols started
being used for the construction of temples. ,
It is worth mentioning here that the temples of Myson are mainly of
the Shaiva sect, in which idols of Ganesha, Uma, and Skanda are also
present along with Shiva. In some temples, the idols of other gods and
goddesses of Puranic Hindu religion also exist.the number of temples in
the valley of Myson is more than 30.
(2) Dong- Duong -
The position of Dong-Duing has been told at a distance of 12 miles to
the south-east of Myson. In inscription of Indravarman dated 875 CE
mentions the worship of Shambhubhadreshwarlingam which is the
existence of Shiva-Lingam of Devraj Sampradaya. This inscription has
also been mentioned worship of Devdarumahatmaya which means
worship of Shivalinga.
Their texture and shape are clear from the ruins obtained from the
temples of Dong-Duong. The outer circle of the temple is about 328
yards long and 164 yards wide. The area of the temple is surrounded by
a very large boundary wall, in whose eastern part the entire area has
been constructed with entrances.The whole complex is divided into 3
parts. The main temple of Dong- Duong is present in the western
region, around which other 4 temples are built on the same height,
these five temples are built on the same floors. In front of this temple
complex, there is another huge building with two other temples and
two such buildings which were used for residence. A wall is built
around these temples and buildings. A very telling reason for the
encirclement of this wall has been like a courtyard in which 7 small
temples have been built. It is also known from the records of
Indravarman that he also built Buddhist temples in about 900 AD.
Which are the only remains of Buddhist architecture being in Champa.
An important achievement here is the bronze statue in Standing
Buddha whose art can be compared to Amravati and Anuradhapura.It
dates to the 3rd or 4th century and is probably influenced by Indian or
Srilankan Art. On this basis, it can be said that this period was the
period of emergence of the Hinayana Buddhist tradition in Champa.
This community must have originated after the above.
Apart from that, Indravarman also got Viharas built for the residence of
Buddhist monks. Probably the Buddhist temples of Dong - Dung and
about other temples were built in the 9th century and later it was
followed by other kings. As a result, many statues related to Buddhism
have been found in the ruins obtained from that place.
(3) Po-Nagar Temples-
In addition to myson and Dong-Duong, in a place called Po-Nagar in the
southern region of Champa. Remains of a wooden temple built by
Vichitrasena have been found, which can be considered contemporary
to Dong-Duong. Idols of Parvati are mainly found in the ruins of wood
found in almost work. As well as the evidence of Shivling, in addition to
this silver-made worship pots and gold and pearl ornaments that have
also been received are of 8th century AD. Apart from the above
temples, their remains exist in Champa at other places as well from the
point of view of the roof edges of the temples. Towers were built in
these temples. The building construction is considered to be different
from the temples of Kambuja. Statues of Makara, and Apsaras etc.
were passed on the stones. Stone pillars in the temples made of bricks
have also been used, which are decorated with vines, flowers and
various other types.
Sculptures -
The ruins of sculpture in Champa throw light on the construction art of
this country. The idols obtained are especially noteworthy, the idol of
Shiva, whose various parts are well balanced and the expression of
happiness is reflected on the face.
An idol of Shiva has been found in the dance posture, with a trishul in
one hand and the other hand in a broken state, and the left leg is
shown raised in the arms and in the dance posture. He has earrings on
his ears, bracelets with garlands on his wrists and anklets on his feet.
The idol of Shiva is wearing a crown and is decorated with garlands.
Myson got these types of idols from. Similar sculptures have also been
found from other places which display some differences. For example,
idols of the meditator Shiva and Jata(hair) crowned moon sculptures.
An inscription depicting Vishnu lying on the bed of Sheshnag is
displayed on the exterior of a temple in Myson on which Brahma is
seated. Garuda is present on both the ends of the idol and is shown
holding a snake in both the hands. Idols of Chaturbhuja Vishnu have
also been found. Dhoti cloth on the idols and it is tied wide on the
waist. In this way, idols of hindu deities have been found in the ruins of
Champa, along with the idols of Buddha and Bodhisattvas have also
been found. A statue of sitting Buddha in meditation has been found
from Dong- Duong. Apart from this, instead of the sitting idol, hanging
legs position has also been found.
In addition to the idols related to the above Hindu and Buddhist
religion, the remains of excellent self-dancer and other idols are also
found from Champa. A picture is engraved on the temple of Myson in
which 3 dancers are dancing. 3 dancers dancing on a stone slab found
elsewhere. In a temple in Myson, where Shiva's Tandav dance is
depicted, dance and musical instruments are also depicted there.
Flowers, letters, creepers, animals-birds, snakes, Gandharva Apsara
figures on the outer part of the temples are decorated with elephant
marking, lion, Capricorn, Garuda etc.
Thus, like India and Kambuj, in Champa also the art of building
construction, sculpture and painting was in an advanced stage.
Indonesia
Question: Describe the characteristics of Indo-Javanese literature.
Answer: The most important remains of the Indian colonizers in South-
East Asia are the inscriptions written in Indian script and Sanskrit
language and Indo-Javanese literature. It becomes clear from the study
of Sanskrit writings and Indo-Javanese literature obtained from
different parts of Swarnadweep that there was complete prevalence of
various parts of Indian language and literature. Most of the
development of Indian literature took place in Java in Suvarndweep. It
might have been developed in Sumatra, Bali, Borneo and Malaya as
well, but there is no tangible proof of it. Javanese literature is
particularly useful for the study of the cultural nature of not only
Suvarnadweep but the entire Indian colonies. Javanese literature is
found in two forms: Inscriptions and literary texts.
Probably Sanskrit language and literature had entered Swarnadweep by
the 5th century AD. The oldest articles have been received from the
Batavia province of Java, which were first edited by Vogel in 1925 AD.
Later, Chatterjee and Chakravarti edited them in a book called "India
and Java". These articles have been composed in pure Sanskrit
language, which shows that the essayist had full knowledge of Sanskrit.
In these writings, the details of the works of Purnavarmana, the ruler of
Java. In the first two lines, his feet are compared to Vishnupad, which is
a proof of his Vaishnavism. The date of these inscriptions of
Purnavarmana is controversial. According to Vogel, the script of these
inscriptions is similar to the inscriptions of Mulavarmana of Borneo.
Date of Mulavarmana's Inscriptions is 4th century AD. According to
Soddesh, the script of Purnavarmana's inscriptions developed from the
script of Mulvarmana's inscriptions, so it should be accepted around
450 AD. Mr. Chakraborty has also supported the view of Soddesh.After
comparing the writings of PurnaVarman with the writings of
Bhadravarman and Shambhuvarman of Champa,RC Majumdar has not
considered them to be before 6th-7th AD. Mulavarmana's writings
from a place called Kuti in Borneo have been composed in Sanskrit
language and Anushtup verses, whose time has been considered as the
fourth century AD. The effect of Vedic religion is visible on these
articles.In one article there is mention of so many Yagya. Another
article compares Mulavarmana with Angiras. Apart from this, eight
minor inscriptions have been found from western Borneo.
Java's pure poetic literature is more important than inscriptions. For
the convenience of study, they have been divided into three categories:
1. Ancient Indian Javanese literature,
2. Middle Indian Javanese literature,
3. New Indian Javanese Literature |
In these only the first two are related to our study period because the
third class is beyond the Hindu period.
Ancient Indian Javanese literature- this literature had developed when
political power at that time was concentrated in Central Java. Sanskrit
verses and words have been used extensively in these and their
content is also taken from many Sanskrit literatures. In this context, we
can first mention a work called "Amarmala", which is a dictionary
similar to the Sanskrit book "Amarkosh", in which synonyms of gods
and goddesses and things have been represented. It was composed
under the patronage of Shailendra ruler Jitendra. Javanese Ramayana is
the second famous text, which is somewhat different from original
Valmiki's Ramayana in terms of plot. In this Rama-Sita are reunited
after the fire test. The last two chapters also do not match Valmiki
Ramayana. If Valmiki Ramayana is sad, then Javanese Ramayana is
happy! The question to be considered is that what was the original
source of Javanese Ramayana? Looking at the difference in the subject
matter of Valmiki Ramayana and Javanese Ramayana Some scholars
concluded that the Javanese Ramayana 's writer was not familiar with
Valmiki Ramayana and its source was some other text. Javanese
scholars believe that despite being familiar with Valmiki Ramayana, the
Javanese Ramayana's writer gave him a happy ending according to the
situation. Ghosh accepts it as composed on the basis of Adi Kavya
because both are happy endings. Like the original source, the creator
and the time of creation are also controversial. In a Javanese text its
credit for the composition has been given to Mapuyogeshwar. Karna sir
believes that its composition started in 1100 AD, while Mendis and
Arindam believe that it was composed earlier. According to another
belief, it was composed in Central Java in the 9th century. Another
Javanese book "Sapyan Kamahakin" is considered contemporary of the
Ramayana by Soddesh sir.
● The golden age of Javanese literature begins with the Javanese
adaptation of the Mahabharata, which began to be composed during
the Dharmavansh period. This is the original Mahabharata prose
translation. In this, Adi Parva, Virat Parva and Bhishma Parva were
composed under the patronage of Dharmavansh. Prasthan Parva,
Ashram Parva, Musal Parva and SwargaRohan Parva were translated
later. Udyog Parv was translated into pure Sanskrit language. The first 2
verses of Mangalacharan in Aadi Parva have been taken not from the
original Mahabharata but from Bhattanarayan's "Venisanhar". Probably
the translation of Mahabharata started in the second half of the 10th
century and continued till later. Despite its many defects, its
importance is not less. On the basis of the Mahabharata, a treatise
named "Arjuna-Vivah" was composed by the royal poet Mapukanwa in
the era of Erleng. According to D.G.E. Hall, it was created on the
occasion of Erlang's marriage.
After the rise of the Kadiri dynasty, East Java became the center of
Indian Javanese literature. The main texts of this period are -
Krishnayana and Suman-Santak. Mention of Rukmini-Haran and defeat
of Jarasandha in Krishnayana composed by Trigun. The death of
Indumati, the mother of King Dasaratha, is narrated in Sumanasantaka
by Suman, the basis of which is Kalidasa's poem Raghuvansham. The
period of Jaymaya, the ruler of Kadiri, has special importance in terms
of literary progress. major composition during this period is - Bharat
Yuddha - which was based on the Mahabharata. The writing of the
book started in 1157 AD but the task of providing perfection was done
by - Mapupanuluh. The composition is very impressive which can be
compared to Greek epics. Another work of this creator is - Harivansh.
After Jayamay, Kameshwar took forward the literary activity. The main
compositions of his time are "Smardahan" and "Agni-Kalpa". In the first
book, the story of the burning of Smar (Kamdev) by Shiva is described
and in the second book, the defeat of Indra by Prithviputra Bhog or Hell
and later on getting the death by Indra himself.
Indo-Javanese literature flourished even during the heyday of
Majapahit dynasty after Kameshwar. The best work of this era,
“Nagarkritagam" which was composed by Prapancha. This book
mentions the events of the life of Hayama Bhuruk, the famous ruler of
Java. This book gives detailed information related to the Javanese
rulers, the court, the capital and the empire. Prapancha also mentions
his contemporary writer Maputanavalur, who is credited with the
creation of the poems "Arjuna Sahastrabahu" and "Sutasoma". The
above-mentioned texts composed in the ancient Javanese language
were called "kakwin". Their subject matter is largely taken from the
Indian epics and Puranas. Some other important Kakwin texts are
"Navaruchi" which describes the heroic deeds of Bhima, Javanese
Brahmand Purana based on the Sanskrit Brahmand Purana, Agastya-
Parva which contains the cosmic narrative of the origin of creation,
"Dharmashunya" and "Dharmasamvit" which contains moral and
religious teachings. Are collected, Chandakiran in which principles
similar to Vatsyayan's Kamasutra are propounded etc. "Vritadwaya" and
"Vritasanchaya" are books related to Chhanda Shastra (Verse From).
The method of worship of various gods and goddesses is described in
the source texts.
2-Medeival Javanese Literature-
Historical texts written in prose and verse are particularly important in
Medeival Javanese literature. A new method of rhyme was used in
poetic literature, which was called "Kidung". The life of about 300 years
before Ashoka is enshrined in the Pararato of Prose literature. It gives a
complete description of the period of the Sinhasari and Majapahit
kingdoms. It was composed in 1613 AD. Another text "Upanjava"
describes the legends related to the history of Pali. In the category of
historical fiction, "Panji" can be written, in which the adventures of
Panji are described. in historical chronicles Pamnyan" is worth
mentioning. In story literature there works related to Tatra in the
literature class, which have been composed on the basis of Indian
Panchatantra and Hitopadesh, but at some places new stories are also
found. In the Panchatantra, the originator of the story is Vishnu
Sharma, but the Javanese Tantra is told by a queen whose master
married and burdened a new queen every day, meaning that the queen
telling the story was the last in the process. Among the works of the
Kidung class, the Sang-Satyawan is important, which describes the
events of Savitri's life.
Epigraphic literature of Malaya-
Many inscriptions have been found from places like Velezali, Keda, Ligor
Takuapa etc. in Malaya, whose period is believed to be between 4th
and 5th century. Their language is Sanskrit and the script is Gupta
Brahmi. Some articles are related to Buddhism. In one article,
Mahanavika Buddhagupta has been described as a resident of
Raktamritika, which has been identified with Rogabhari, then from
Murshidabad in Bengal (located about 19 km south).
Thus, we see that influenced by Indian language and literature, a rich
literature was also created in Jata. Although Java is a follower of Islam
today, there are many texts related to mythological Hindu and Buddhist
religion in Japanese literature. The glimpse of Indian cultural tradition
can be seen even today in Java's culture, language and art, even Islam
could not destroy it completely.
Ques- Throws light on the social life of Indonesia.
Answer: - Indonesia in various islands of South East Asia have a
significant place. The four major islands of this nation made up of
numerous small island groups are- Sumatra (Srivijaya), Java
(Yavadweep), Borneo (Varun Deep) and Bali. The evidences available to
know the ancient history of Indonesia are: - Ancient literature, various
inscriptions, remains of ancient architecture (temples, chaityas, stupas
etc.) and foreign descriptions (accounts of Chinese and Arabic
travelers). In the light of the above evidence, the social status of each
publication can be shown under the following points in Indonesia: -
(i) Varna system: - The social system of the Indian colonies of Indonesia
was also based on the Chaturvanya system similar to the Indian society.
In ancient Javanese literature, the mention of four varnas like Brahmin
has come at many places. Like the Indian Brahmins, the Brahmins of
Java also used to perform religious rituals like Yagya etc. In many
inscriptions there is a mention of Brahmins performing Yagya and
receiving donations. Even today Hinduism is practiced in Bali Island of
Indonesia. The social organization here was similar to other Indonesian
Deeps Java, Sumatra and Borneo. In Bali's caste system, Brahmins,
Kshatriyas and Vaishyas were called 'Dwijati' and Shudra was called
Ekajati. There were two classes of Brahmins in Indonesia. Shaiva and
Buddhist | In South-East Asia, Puranic and Buddhist religion had been
coordinated, hence Buddhist Sthavar and Purohit were also considered
Brahmin. In Bali, the Kshatriyas were called 'Deva' and Vaishya were
called 'Arya'. Shudra was not an achhut (untouchables). The work of
Shudra was farming and craft work.
(II) Marriage-Arrangement: - Anulom marriage was prevalent in
Indonesia but Pratilom marriage was considered reprehensible.
children born out of inter caste marriage, Varna was determined on the
basis of the varna of the father.
(iii) Sati-practice - Sati-practice existed in Indonesia, although it was
prevalent only in Rajkulas and Samrabhat(upper class )families only.
(iv) Slavery System- Slavery was prevalent in Indonesia. There were
many types of slaves like-
a. born slaves were also prevalent
b. Slavery in debt or poverty
c. War prisoners
(IV) Position of Women- position of women in the Indonesia was not
inferior. The story of women being enthroned is described in many
Javanese records. Women were also appointed on high posts like
Mahamantri Sahra. After East Java king "Ishantungadeva" his daughter
"Ishantungavijaya" got the power. After "MukutaVanshvardhan" his
daughter "Gunpriya Dharmapatni" had received Sinhasana(Throne).
Gayatri Rajapatni became the ruler of Majapahit kingdom after
"Jaynagar". Due to her becoming a Buddhist monk, the burden of
governance was handled by her daughter 'Tribhuvanotunga Devi
Jayavishnuvardhani'. In some records of Java, it is mentioned that many
women were given the post of Mahamantri. The pardah system was
not prevalent in Indonesia. Even today women in Bali Veil does not. At
many places in ancient Javanese literature, Swayamvara has appeared,
which represents women's freedom in matrimonial matters. The
Javanese king Erlanga's Inscription the presence of ministers and
heroes as well as lalanas (women) in his royal assembly-
"bhasvadibharalalnanvito nivashate veeraih parito bhrisham."
(V) Dress-Costume: - From the sculptures, forms and easels obtained
from the Indonesian islands, the costume of the ancient inhabitants of
that place can be understood. Like the Indian society, the residents of
this place also wore Adhovastra and Uttariya. Both men and women
used to wear ornaments for body adornment.
(VI) Food: - Rice was the predominance of food. People also used
tambul and alcohol.
(VII) Means of entertainment: - Sports, chess, fighting of dogs, music
and drama were the main means of entertainment. The veena,
mridang, flute and sitar are noteworthy in the instruments. Shadow-
plays were also prevalent which were called "Kyang". It is still in vogue
in Java and Bali. Puppet play was also popular.
(VIII) Funeral: - There was a practice of burning the dead body. In
special circumstances, the method of water flow was also in vogue.
Funeral rites were performed by padants (pandits). After cremation,
there was a practice of immersing the remains in water.
It is clear from the above description that the social condition of
Indonesia was based on the ancient Indian social traditions. Every
aspect of Indian society was introduced there by the colonizers.
Looking at the ancient Indonesian society, it seems that a smaller India
has established itself there. Although at present Indonesia has
accepted Islam, but the social system of Bali Island is still running
according to the Hindu social system. Not only this, there are many
traditions in Java, Sumatra and Borneo which still show the direction of
that ancient social period which existed there till 1200 AD.