Evolution of Human

Human evolution traces back to approximately 6-7 million years ago with the emergence of our earliest ancestors.
Over time, through a series of biological and behavioral adaptations, modern humans, Homo sapiens, came into
existence roughly 200,000 years ago.

Classification
From the order level to the species level, humans are classified as follows:
 Order: Primates
 Suborder Anthropoidea
 Superfamily: Hominoidea
 Family: Hominidae
 Genus: Homo
 Species: Homo sapiens
Close relatives of humans included in the superfamily Hominoidea are chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans.

Stages of Human Evolution

There are following stages of human evolution starting from quadrupedal ape like ancestor to gradually changing
into bipedal modern human.
Dryopithecus:
 Dryopithecus lived approximately 12 to 9 million years ago during the Miocene epoch.
 Fossil evidence suggests that they inhabited both Europe and Africa.
 Dryopithecus exhibited significant similarities to modern apes, with a robust body structure and
adaptations for arboreal (tree-dwelling) life.
 Their diet was likely omnivorous, consisting of fruits, leaves, and possibly small animals.
 While they primarily moved through trees, they may have occasionally walked on the ground.
 Dryopithecus represents an important stage in primate evolution, displaying characteristics that bridge the
gap between early primates and later hominids.
Ramapithecus:
 Ramapithecus lived between 14 to 8 million years ago, overlapping with the Miocene epoch.
 Fossils have been found in both Asia and Africa.
 While it likely spent much of its time in trees, Ramapithecus may have been capable of limited
bipedalism, or walking on two legs.
 Its diet consisted mainly of fruits and vegetation, similar to modern orangutans.
 Ramapithecus represents early adaptations for upright posture and potentially bipedal locomotion.

Ardipithecus ramidus:
 Ardipithecus ramidus lived approximately 4.4 million years ago during the Pliocene epoch.
 Fossil remains have been discovered in East Africa.
 Ardipithecus ramidus exhibits a unique combination of primitive ape-like features and characteristics
associated with bipedalism.
 While it likely spent some time in trees, Ardipithecus ramidus showed adaptations for upright walking,
indicating a significant shift towards bipedal locomotion.
 Ardipithecus ramidus had a brain capacity of around 300 to 350 cc.
 Its diet was varied, including fruits, leaves, and possibly some animal protein.

Australopithecus afarensis:
 Australopithecus afarensis lived between 3 to 4 million years ago during the Pliocene epoch.
 Fossils of this species have been primarily found in East Africa.
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  afarensis displayed a mix of ape-like and human-like features.
 They had a small brain size and a robust jaw, indicating a diet that likely included tough vegetation and
possibly some meat.
 afarensis is best known from the famous fossil "Lucy," which provided significant insights into early
hominid locomotion.
 Evidence suggests that they were capable of bipedalism but also spent time in trees.
 Australopithecus afarensis had a brain capacity of around 380 to 430 cc.
 This species represents a crucial stage in human evolution, showcasing the transition towards habitual
bipedalism.
Australopithecus africanus:
 Australopithecus africanus lived approximately 3 to 2 million years ago during the transition from the
Pliocene to the Pleistocene epochs.
 Fossils have been discovered primarily in Southern Africa.
 africanus shared many characteristics with A. afarensis but showed slight differences in cranial
morphology.
 They had a small brain size and robust facial features.
 Similar to A. afarensis, A. africanus likely practiced bipedalism but also retained adaptations for climbing
trees.
 Their diet consisted of a variety of foods, including fruits, leaves, and possibly small animals.
 Australopithecus africanus had a brain capacity of around 450 to 550 cc.
 africanus represents further adaptations towards bipedalism and changes in dental morphology.

Australopithecus robustus:
 Australopithecus robustus lived between 2 to 1.5 million years ago during the Pleistocene epoch.
 Fossil remains of this species have been found primarily in Southern Africa.
 robustus exhibited a robust skull and jaw, indicating a diet that included tough, fibrous vegetation.
 They had a relatively small brain size compared to later hominids but showed adaptations for bipedal
locomotion.
 However, they likely spent significant time in trees and may have had a semi-arboreal lifestyle.
 Australopithecus robustus had a brain capacity of around 500 to 550 cc.
 robustus represents a unique branch in the hominid evolutionary tree, displaying specialized adaptations
for processing hard foods.

Homo habilis:
 Homo habilis lived between 2.3 to 1.4 million years ago during the Pleistocene epoch.
 Fossil remains of this species have been found primarily in East Africa.
 H. habilis had a larger brain size compared to Australopithecus species, indicating an increase in
cognitive abilities.
 Homo habilis had a brain capacity of around 550 to 700 cc.
 They are considered the earliest members of the genus Homo and are associated with the earliest stone
tool technology, known as the Oldowan industry.
 H. habilis likely had a varied diet, including meat scavenged from carcasses and plant foods.
 They exhibited adaptations for both bipedalism and arboreal locomotion.

 H. habilis represents a significant advancement in hominid evolution, showcasing increased brain size and
technological innovation.

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Homo erectus:
 Homo erectus lived approximately 2 million to 200,000 years ago during the Pleistocene epoch.
 Fossils of H. erectus have been discovered in Africa, Asia, and Europe.
 This species exhibited significant advancements in tool technology, and is believed to have been the first
hominid to migrate out of Africa.
 H. erectus had a larger brain size and more modern body proportions compared to earlier hominids.
 Homo erectus had a brain capacity of around 700 to 1,100 cc.
 They were efficient hunters and likely controlled fire, enabling them to expand into diverse habitats.
 H. erectus represents a crucial stage in human evolution, showcasing advancements in technology, social
behavior, and adaptability.

Homo sapiens neanderthalensis:

 Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, commonly known as Neanderthals, lived between 400,000 to 40,000
years ago during the Pleistocene epoch.
 Fossils of Neanderthals have been primarily found in Europe and Western Asia.
 They exhibited a robust build, with large nasal cavities and prominent brow ridges.
 Homo sapiens neanderthalensis (Neanderthals) had a brain capacity of around 1,200 to 1,700 cc.
 Neanderthals had a sophisticated tool culture, and evidence suggests they engaged in complex behaviors
such as burial rituals and symbolic expression.
 They were well-adapted to cold climates and were likely skilled hunters and gatherers.
 Neanderthals shared many similarities with modern humans, including advanced social structures and
cultural practices, but they eventually went extinct, possibly due to competition with Homo sapiens.
Homo sapien Cro-Magnon:
 Cro-Magnon, or European early modern humans, inhabited the Earth approximately 40,000 to 10,000
years ago during the Upper Paleolithic period of the Pleistocene epoch.
 Fossils of Cro-Magnon individuals have been primarily unearthed in Europe, notably in France where the
first specimens were discovered in the Cro-Magnon rock shelter.
 Anatomically, Cro-Magnon humans closely resembled modern humans, with a high forehead, rounded
skull, and less robust facial features compared to Neanderthals.
 Cro-Magnon had a brain capacity of around 1,400 to 1,600 cc.
 Cro-Magnon humans were highly adept hunters and gatherers, utilizing sophisticated tool technologies
such as blades, spear points, and bone tools.
 Socially, Cro-Magnon humans likely lived in small, mobile groups, practicing complex behaviors such as
cooperation, division of labor, and possibly symbolic communication.
 Their diverse diet consisted of hunted game, gathered plants, and possibly fish, reflecting their
adaptability to various environments.

Homo sapiens sapiens (Modern Humans):

 Homo sapiens sapiens, or modern humans, emerged approximately 300,000 years ago during the
Pleistocene epoch and continue to exist today.
 Fossils of modern humans have been found worldwide.
 They exhibit a distinctive skeletal morphology, including a high forehead, rounded skull, and prominent
chin.
 Modern humans (Homo sapiens) have a brain capacity of around 1,200 to 1,500 cc.
 Modern humans are characterized by their advanced cognitive abilities, including language, symbolic
thought, and complex social structures.
 Modern humans are highly adaptable and have successfully colonized diverse environments across the
globe.
Conclusion:
Throughout these stages, various characteristics evolved, including changes in body posture from quadrupedalism
to bipedalism, modifications in dentition reflecting changes in diet, an increase in brain capacity from around 350

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cubic centimeters (cc) in early hominins to approximately 1,400 cc in modern humans, alterations in toe structure
to support bipedal locomotion, reduction in body hair, and advancements in intelligence and cultural complexity.
These adaptations allowed humans to thrive and become the dominant species on Earth.