Endocrine Physiology
Endocrine Glands
Endocrine system - is a collections that produce and
secrete homeostasis that regulate metabolism,
reproduction function, growth and development,
H2O and Na balance, responses to stress.
-slower response and takes longer to act in
transfering biomechanical signals.
- WIDESPREAD
- hormones act on specific target cells
Types of
Types of Hormones
Hormones
1. Circulating Hormones - pass into the interstitial
fluid then bloodstream. Inactivated by the liver and
excreted by the kidneys.
2. Local Hormones - act locally in neighboring cells or
on the same cell. Inactivated quickly
a) Paracrines
b) Autocrines
Chemical Classes of Hormones
1. Lipid-soluble
>receptors: within the cell
>actions: diffuses from the blood through the
interstitial fluid and plasma membrane of the
cell
Hormones binds and activates receptors of
the target cells inside the nucleus.
>examples: Steroid hormones (ACACTEP)
Aldosterone, cortisol, androgen,
calcitriol, testosterone, estrogen, and
progesterone; thyroid-hormones
2. Water-soluble
>Receptors: part of the plasma membrane of
the target cell
>Examples: Amines (epinephrine,
norepinephrine, histamine, serotonin -
MHENS) peptides and proteins.
Hormone interaction
1. Permissive Effect
>second hormone ( permissive hormone ) is
needed for the first hormone to take effect on the
target cell.
2. Synergistic Effect
>Effect of 2 hormones acting together is greater or
more extensive than the effect of each hormone
acting alone.
3. Antagonistic Effect
>One hormone opposes the action of another
hormone.
Endocrine Glands
2 Regulatory
Negative Feedback - acts on a target organ/cells ->
stimulates increase of activity of that cells ->
prevents oversecretion/ overactivity
Positive Feedback - additional secretion (ex. Estrogen ->
ant pituitary gland during ovulation -> secretion of
LH ->secretion of estrogen)
Chemical messengers Systems
1. Neurotransmitters - axon terminals -> synaptic
junction; locally acts
2. Endocrine - glands; hormone secretion -> then to the
circulating blood -> influence target cells at distant
site.
3. Neuroendocrine hormones - hormones secreted by
the neurons -> circulating blood -> influence target
cells at distant site.
4. Paracrine - secreted by the cell into ECF that affects
the neighboring cells
5. Autocrine - secreted by the cell into ECF that affects
the same cells that produces them.
6. Cytokines - peptides secreted into ECF that function
as autocrine, paracrine, endocrine.
3 General Classification
A. Proteins and Polypeptides - pituitary gland,pancreas,
parathyroid.
B. Steroids - adrenal cortex, ovaries, testes
C. Derivatives of Amino Acid Tyrosine - thyroid gland,
adrenal medullae
Hypothalamus
-aka master of the master gland - main integrative center
both for neural and hormonal pathways
-major link beteen the nervous system and the endocrine
-synthesize 9 hormones (releasing and inhibiting hormones)
-Functions: sex, hunger, emotions, thirst, and temperature)
- Direct: pituitary glands
-Indirect: other glands
Pituitary Gland aka Hypophysis/ Hypophysis
Pituitary Gland/Hypophysis/Hypophysis Cerebi
cerebri
-located at sella turcica
-Master Gland
-Pea-shaped structures
-attatches to the hypothalamus by a stalk,
“infundibulum”
-2 lobes: ant. and post.
Anterior Pituitary gland aka Adenohypophysis
Anterior Pituitary Gland/Adenohypophysis
- true gland; controlled by hypothalamus of hypothalamus
(PTFLAGS)
- 2 parts
>Pars distalis - larger portion
>Pars tuberalis - sheath surrounding the
infundibulum
Types of cells
A. Somatotrophs - secrete human growth hormone aka
somatotropin
B. Thyrotrophs - secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone
aka thyrotropin
C. Gonadotrophs - secrete 2 gonadotropins: FSH and LH
D. Lactotrophs - secretes prolactin
E. Corticotrophs - secrete adenocorticotropic hormone
(ACHT) aka corticotropin
1. Prolactin aka Luteotropic H.
Target organ : Mammary gland
Fxn: production of milk and mammary gland
development
> Prolactin inhibiting hormone : DOPAMINE
>Increase Prolactin
Males : erectile dysfunction
Females: galactorrhea and amenorrhea
2. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone aka Thyrotropin
Target Organ: Thyroid Gland
Fxn: Promote growth and secretory fnx of the thyroid
Metabolic fnx. Stimulates secretion of T3 and T4
Stimulated by thyrotropin releasing hormone from
the hypothalamus
3. Follicle stimulating hormone
Target organ: ovaries and seminiferous tubules
Fnx: Promotes devt of ovarian follicle, sec. Of estrogen,
and maturation of the sperm
Female: initiates the development of ovarian
follicles; stimulates follicular cells to secrete
estrogen
Males; stimulates sperm production in testes
4. Leuteinizing Hormone aka Interstitial Cell Stimulating
Hormone
Target: follicles, intestinal cell
Promotes ovulation and formation of corpus Luteum,
Secretion of progesterone, and secretion of
testosterone
FSH + LH = stimulation of Estrogen
5. Adrenocortocotropic hormone/Adrenocorticotropin/
Corticotropin
Target: adrenal cortex
Stimulates secretory activity of the gland
Regulates levels of steroid hormone CORTISOL which is
released from the adrenal gland.
6. Human Growth Hormone aka Somatotropin
Target: bones, muscles, organ
Stimulate the growth by increasing protein synthesis
and fat mobilization but decreasing carb utilization. Cell
production, cell growth, cell repair, cell maintenance.
Increase protein deposition
Release fatty acids from the adipose tissue
Increases growth rate of skeleton and skeletal ms.
Helps maintain muscle mass and bone
Promotes healing of injuries
Abnormalities
1. Acromegaly - MC cause acidophil
adenoma
Slowly progressive
Gradual bone thickening resulting from
the stimulation of periosteal
intramembranous growth
2. Gigantism - hypersecretion of GH during
childhood before the growth plate closes
Associated with acidophil hyperplasia or
adenoma
Overgrowth of the long bone
3. Hypopituitary Dwarfism - due to reduction
of growth hormone secretion
4. Achondroplastic Dwarfism - short limb
dwarfism due to problem
converting cartilage to bones esp.
In long bones of arms and legs
Mutation: FGFR3 gene ( development
and maintenance of bone and brain
tissue
Male 131cm (4’4) ; Female 124 cm (4’1)
5. Hypochondroplasia - milder form of short
limb dwarfism
Mutation: FGFR3 gene
Male 138cm - 165cm (4’6-5’5)
Female 128cm - 151cm (4’2-4’11)
Posterior Pituitary Gland/Neurohypophysis
Posterior Pituitary Gland aka Neurohypophysis
- not true, store hormone;
1. Oxytocin
Target: Uterus
Stimulates the contraction of the uterine muscles and is
responsible for milk letdown reflex.
Responsible for “societal memory” (affects the ability to
recognize and trust others)
Paraventricular Nuclei
2. Antidiuretic hormone aka. Vasopressin
Target : collecting ducts and distal tubules
Controls the concentration of urine by regulating the
permeability to water -> plasma volume and BP
Decreases urine production and increases water
reabsorption.
Alcohol inhibits ADH thus causing urination
 Blood carries ADH to 3 Target Tissue: TRIAD:
Kidneys, sweat gland, Smooth muscle wall of the P:Polyuria - increase urination > 3L
arterioles which constricts blood vessels and P: Polydipsia - increase thirst
increases blood pressure D: Dehydration: OH
-vasoconstriction Increase Serum Sodium
Supraoptic Nuclei Decrease Urine Specific Gravity

Abnormalities in ADH Secretion Thyroid Gland

1. Diabetes Insipidus - insufficient secretion
or action of vasopressin
2 main types:
A. Central - most common;
idiopathic, head and pituitary
trauma, neoplasm, infections,
aneurysm, anoraxia
B. Nephrogenic - results in some
medications (lithium,
corticosteroids, anticholinergic);
diseases affecting renal system.
S/SX: Polyuria, Polydipsia, dehydration,
nocturia, fatigue and irritability, decrease
urine specific gravity, increase serum sodium
Diluted urine
*URINE SPECIFIC GRAVITY - amount of solute
2.Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH (SIADH)
Excessive or inappropriate secretion of ADH
Decrease urine output; concentrated urine
Disorders of the Pituitary Gland
1. Growth Hormone
a) Gigantism - occurs in gigantism, overproduction of
GH of long bones; before epiphysis fuses
b) Acromegaly - adulthood; after the epiphysis
already fused; thickened bones: face, jaw,
hands and feet.
c) Hypopituitary Dwarfism -d/t hypophysectomy or
tumors; Proportionate body size
d) Achondroplasia - disproportionate
- ant portion of the lower neck; below the larynx, on both
sides of the traches.
- largest endocrine gland; butterfly formes; 2 lobes
are connected to the ISTHMUS
- follicles
-Follicular cells: T3 and T4
-Parafollicular cells: calcitonin
-metabolic activity and protein synthesis
1. Thyroxine aka T4 -thermoregulation; most active
2. Triiodothyronine aka T3 - most abundant
Target: widespread
Regulate oxidation of body cells and growth metabolism,
gluconeogenisis, mobilization of fat, exchange of H2O,
electrolytes and protein
Increase Basal Metabolic Rate ->increase core temp
->increase HR
3. Calcitonin
Target: Skeleton
Ca and phosphorus Metabolism(dec. Blood calcium level
and promotes calcium storage in the bones)
Deposition of Ca
Miacalcin- calcitonin extract derived from salmon that is
10x more potent;
Abnormalities in Thyroid Hormone Secretion
Abnormalities in Thyroid hormone Secretion

2. ADH or Vasopressin
a) Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone
(SIADH)
-excessive release of ADH
-cellular water: water intoxication
-d/t pituitary dmg from infection, trauma or
neoplasm
-MC cause: SMALL CELLS/ OAT CELL
CARCINOMA
1. Hyperthyroidism/Thyrotoxicosis - MC form : GRAVES
- (+) water intoxification, (+ )Hyponatremia
DISEASE which is an increase in T4 production; 85% of the
S/Sx:
cases (autoimmune)
decrease urine output
- Epidemiology: F>M; 20-40yo
headache, confusion, Lethargy
- Etiology: genetic or immunologic
Increased Urine specific gravity
Decrease Serum sodium (less than 138)

b.) Diabetes Insipidus

-decrease production of ADH
-Falure to reabsord H2O
-decrease BP
-Increase HR

2. Hypothyroidism
Type 1/Primary - reduced functional thyroid tissue mass
or impaired hormonal synthesis or release
Type 2/secondary - result of inadequate stimulation of
the gland because of pituitary or hypothalamic disease
1. Myxedema - hypothyroidism; boggy
edema, nonpitting edema especially
around the eye, hands, feet, and in
the supraclavicular fossa
2. Cretinism - untreated congenital
hypothyroidism; iodine deficiency
Retarded growth and sexual
development; often mentally retarded
3. Goiter - enlargement of the thyroid gland
and may be a result of lack of iodine,
inflammation, tumors
4. Hashimoto Thyroiditis - it is autoimmune;
associated with HLA-DR3
Destruction of the thyroid gland
Results in decrease serum levels of
T3&T4
5. Thyroid Storm - inadequately treated
hyperthyroidism; potentially fatal
condition
A. Goiter - enlargement of the thyroid gland; IODINE
DEFICIENCY (necessary for production of
thyroid hormone)
-oversecretion of TSH -> increasing thyroid
mass
B. Thyroiditis - inflammation of the thyroid gland.
- cause by infection or autoimmune disorders
Hashimotos’s Thyroiditis MC; W>M
Early: hyperthyroidism
Late stage: Hypothyroidism
C. Hyperthyroidism aka. Thyrotoxicosis
-MC Grave’s Disease
-tachycardia
-hyperreflexia
-heat intolerance ; pretibial edema
-exopthalmia
Thyroid Storm - unrecognized/ untreated TSH disease;
Life-threatening
Delirium
High fever
Dehydration
Increased irritability
Hypothyroidism - decrease thyroid; increase TSH
Cold intolerance
Decrease HR
Constipation
Headache
A. Myxedemia - alteration in composition of the dermis;
causes connective tissue to be separated;
NON PITTING EDEMA
B. Cretinism- Untreated congenital hypoparathyroidism
Primary - reduced function of thyroid tissue or
impaired hormonal synthesis or release.
Secondary - inadequate stim. Of the gland caused
by ant pituitary gland dysfunction.
Parathyroid
Parathyroid Gland
Gland
- posterior surface of the lateral lobe of the thyroid
gland
- Gland; posterior surface of the thyroid gland.
- Produces parathyroid cells/parathyroid
hormones/parathormone
- major regulator of Ca and phosphate
Target: bones, GIT, kidney
Direct Regulation: Calcium
-Stimulation: reabsorption of Ca from the
bone.
Indirect regulation Phosphate
-Excretion of phosphate by the kidneys
- Demineralization : release of Ca and Phosphate from
the bone
Increase PTH
Increase serum Ca - increase Ca lvls in the blood and
decrease Ca lvl in the bone
Decrease serum Phosphate
Disorders
Disordersofofthe
Parathyroid
Parathormone
Hormone
(PTH)
1. Hyperparathyroidism- F>M; increase PTH; Hyperactive
DTR, Nephrolithiasis, General Osteoporosis
2. Hypoparathyroidism- decrease PTH; Decrease Ca,
Increase phosphate.
Decrease Calcium leads to:
- muscle spasm, paresthesia, tatany, cardiac
arrythmias:symptomatic
Acute hypothyroidism - life threatening
 Pineal Gland Adrenal Gland
Pineal Gland Adrenal Gland
- pine-shaped;attached to the roof of 3rd ventricle; between - aka Suprarenal Gland
the 2 superior colliculi
- Produces melatonin Adrenal Cortex
Zones
Melatonin 1. Zona Glumerolosa - outermost; aldosterone,
Setting the body’s biological clock mineralocorticoids
Light suppresses production; dark stimulates production 2. Zona Fasciculata - middle; cortisol, glucocorticoids
Secretion rises at night 3. Zona Reticulata - innermost; androgens/weak
Potent antioxidant androgens

Thymus 1. Cortex
a) Mineralocorticords: Aldosterone
- is temporary endocrine gland behind sternum and below Target: kidneys
the thyroid. - Maintain fluid/electrolyte balance, Reabsorption
- Large in a fetus and a child, maximun size at puberty, sodium chlorides, secreates potassium
degenerates in adulthood (replaced with fat) - Inversely proportional to Cortisol
- Increase water reabsorption
Thymosin - Inversely related to potassium
For immunity - Increase aldosterone - ST depression with U wave
Stimulates development of lymphatic organs; enduces - Decrease aldosterone - Tall T-wave
maturation and development of WBCs particularly
T-lymphocytes b) Glucocorticoids: Cortisol
Target:widespread
- Regulation of metabolism and resistance to stress,
Gonads
Gonads - promotes gluconeogenesis
- Retention of glucose -> hyperglycemia if
Ovaries increased
Estrogen
Target: widespread C) Sex Hormone -
- Development of secondary sex characteristics, Testosterone,estrogen and progesterone
maturation and normal sex function
Progesterone D) Androgen (Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)
Target: uterus and breasts Females: promote libido and are converted
- prepares pregnancy; maintain pregnancy into estrogens
Testes Secondary characteristics in males and
Testosterone females (pubic and axillary hair)
Target: widespread
- secondary sex characteristics of the male: 2. Medulla - has chromaffin cells which secretes the 2
maturation and normal sex life hormones:
a) Epinephrine - Cardiac stimulation, stimulates ACTH
Adipose
AdiposeTissue
Tissue production, vasoconstriction, increase BP and
glucose via glycolysis
-largest endocrine organ in the body; Maintains the balance b) Norepinephrine - vasoconstriction
of energy; secretes adipokines which are:
1. Brown Fat - thermoregulation; conversion of energy from
food to heat Adrenal Hormone Imbalances
2. White fat - classic adipose tissue; storage of triglycerols
3. Ectopic Fat - abnormal lipid droplets in nonfat cells such as Aldosterone Deficiency - hyposecretion of aldosterone
heart, pancreas, liver. Increase Na excretion -> decrease BP
Obesity - excessive accumulation body fat Cushing Syndrome - hypercorticotism
Associated with the ff hormones: Moon Face
1. Adiponectin - increases insulin sensitivity Buffalo Hump
2. Leptin - acts on the hypothalamus to alter hunger (inhibit Striae of skin
hunger) Hypertension
3. Ghrelin - Increases appetite DM (Hyperglycemia)
4. Angiotensin Addison’s Disease - decrease cortisol
Target:widespread Hypotension
-Vasoconstriction Hyperkalemia
Hypoglycemia
Conn’s Disease Diagnostic Criteria
Aka primary aldosteronism Diagnostic Criteria
Normal amt of cortisol but increase aldosterone
Fluid retention Casual Plasma Glucose:
Hypernatremia >200 mg/dL (80-120 mg/dL)
Hypokalemia
Hypervolemia Fasting Plasma Glucose
Hypertention >100 mg/dL or higher on two diff occasions
Meds: Potassium Sparing Diuretics: Aldactone >100-125 mg/dL “Pre-diabetic”

Pancreas
Pancreas 2-hr postload >200 mg/dL

- lies behind the stomach; both exocrine and endocrine Diabetic States
gland
ISLET OF LANGERHANS (GA BI DS) Diabetic Ketoacidosis
1. Alpha Cells - Insufficiency of insulin (type 1 DM)
Glucagon - Increase blood sugar levels - Ketonuria (high levels of ketone in the urine)
2. Beta cells Hypoglycemia
Insulin - decreasing blood sugar level - <70 mg/dL :DO NOT EXERCISE
3. Delta Cells - 15G OF CARBS EVERY 30 MINS OF EXERCISE
Somatostatin - release suppressor of glucagon and Hyperglycemia
insulin - >300 mg/dL: DO NOT EXERCISE
4. F cells - pancreatic polypeptides (may aide in - (+) ACETONE BREATH - fruity odor
digestion) - Hyperglycemic coma

Diabetes Mellitus
Defective or deficient insulin
Hyperglycemia
S/Sx
Hyperglycemia Polyuria Polyphagia
Glycosuria Polydypsia

Metabolic syndrome
Abdominal Obesity Low HDL
Males: >40in Males <40 mg/dL
Females: >35in Females <50 mg/dL
Triglycerides: High LDL
>150 mg/dL >130 mg/dL
Fasting Blood Glucose = >110 mg/dL
Males: <40 mg/dL
Females: <50 mg/dL
Elevated BP - Systolic: >130 mmHg Diastolic: >85 mmHg
 Minor/Temporary Endocrine Glands
Minor/Temporary Endocrine Glands

1. Kidneys - secrete most (85%)of erythropoietin which

stimulates rbc production in bone marrow.
2. Liver - secretes 15% of the body’s erythropoietin
3. Heart - atria contains some specialized muscle cells that
secretes ATRIAL NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE (ANP) which
reduces blood volume, BP, Na+ concentration
4. Placenta - precnancy; releases 3 hormones:
a) Human Chorionic Gonadotropoin Hormone (HCG;
maintains hormonal activity of the ovary) etrogen,
and progesterone.

Lomongo