I PUC – PHYSICS - Remedial Material

Motion in a straight line

1) Define Uniform Motion.
The object moving along the straight line covers equal distances in equal interval of time is called uniform motion.
OR
If an object covers equal displacements in equal intervals of time, then it is said to be in uniform motion.
2) Define velocity and acceleration
Velocity – The velocity of a body is defined as the rate of displacement with respect to time.
Acceleration – Acceleration of a body is the rate of change of its velocity with respect to time.

3) Define relative velocity of an object w.r.t another object.

The velocity of an object with respect to another object is called relative velocity.
4) What is the significance of velocity - time graph?
➢ The slope of the v-t graph gives the acceleration of the body.
➢ The area under the v-t graph gives the displacement of the body.
5) What is the significance of displacement - time graph?
➢ The slope of the x-t graph gives the velocity of the body.
➢ The nature of the motion can be determined.
6) Distinguish distance and displacement
DISTANCE (pathlength) DISPLACEMENT
It is the actual path traversed by the object in the It is the shortest distance between the initial &
given time. final positions of the object in the given time
It is a scalar quantity. It is a vector quantity.

7) Draw the position - time graph for an object (a) at rest (b) with uniform motion.

(a) (b)

8) Draw the position - time graph for an object moving with (a) positive velocity and (b) negative velocity.

9) Derive the equation of motion 𝒗 = 𝒗𝒐 + 𝒂𝒕.

Consider a body under uniform acceleration whose motion is shown in graph.
We know that,
Acceleration = Slope of v-t graph.
𝐵𝐶
 𝑎 = tan 𝜃 = 𝐴𝐶
𝑣−𝑣𝑜
 𝑎= 𝑡
 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡
 𝟏
10) Derive the equation of motion x = 𝒗𝒐 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 using a v-t graph.
𝟐
Consider a body under uniform acceleration whose motion is shown in graph.
We know that,
Acceleration = Slope of v-t graph.
𝐵𝐶
 𝑎 = tan 𝜃 = 𝐴𝐶
𝑣−𝑣𝑜
 𝑎= 𝑡
 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡 (1)

The area under v-t graph gives displacement.

x = Area under AB

1
x = ( sum of the parallel sides)( height of the trapezium)
2

1
x = 2 ( OA +BD )(OD)

1
x = 2 (vo + v) (t)

Using v = 𝐯𝐨 + at , we get,

1
x = (vo +vo + at ) (t)
2

1
x = 2 ( 2 vo + at ) (t)

𝟏
x = vo t + 𝟐 at2

11) Derive the equation of motion 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒗𝟐𝒐 + 𝟐𝒂x, using v-t graph.

Consider a body under uniform acceleration whose motion is shown in graph.

We know that,
Acceleration = Slope of v-t graph.
𝐵𝐶
 𝑎 = tan 𝜃 = 𝐴𝐶
𝑣−𝑣𝑜
 𝑎= 𝑡
 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡 (1)


The area under the velocity – time graph gives displacement

Displacement = Area under v- t graph

x = Area under AB
1
x = 2 ( sum of the parallel sides)( height of the trapezium)
1
x = 2 ( OA +BD )(OD)
1
x = 2 (vo + v) (t)

Using v = 𝐯𝐨 + at
 v−v0
t= a
1 v−v0
 x = 2 (vo + v) ( )
a

1 (v+v0 )(v−v0 )
x = 2 (using (a+b)(a-b) = a2 – b2)
𝑎

2ax = 𝑣 2 − 𝑣𝑜2
𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑜2 + 2a x

12) State and prove Galileo’s law of odd numbers.

Galileo’s Law states that, “The distances traversed, during equal intervals of time, by a body falling under gravity
from rest, are in the ratio of odd numbers beginning with unity, that is, 1: 3: 5: 7…...”.
Proof:
Let ′𝑦𝑜 ′ be the distance travelled by a freely falling body from rest, in time ′𝜏′ seconds. The distance travelled in
successive equal time intervals and their ratios is shown in the table below. The distances travelled is given by,
1
𝑦 = − 𝑔𝑡 2
2

13) Define free fall. For a freely falling body, draw graphs for (a) variation of acceleration with time, (b) variation of
velocity with time, (c) variation of position with time.
Motion of a body under the action of earth’s gravitational force is called free fall.

Laws of motion
1) Mention the types of friction.
(a) Static friction (b) Kinetic friction (c) Rolling friction
2) Mention the advantages and disadvantages of friction.
Advantages.
(a) Brakes work due to friction
(b) Friction helps in walking
(c) Friction helps to hold objects
Disadvantages
(a) It causes wear and tear of machine parts.
 (b) Work is done to overcome friction. This results in large amount of energy loss and the efficiency of
the machine decreases.
3) What are the methods to reduce friction?
➢ Polishing
➢ Use of lubricants
➢ Use of ball bearings.
4) Write the laws of friction.
➢ If two bodies do not slide over each other, the static friction fs, is given by fs≤ 𝜇𝑠 N where 𝜇𝑠 , is coefficient of
static friction and N is the normal reaction between them.
➢ If the bodies slide over each other, the kinetic friction is given by fk = 𝜇𝑘 N where 𝜇𝑘 is the coefficient of
kinetic friction and N is the normal reaction between the surfaces.
➢ The static friction fs, and the kinetic friction fk do not depend on the area of contact as long as the normal
reaction N is same

5) What is angle of banking? Mention an expression for maximum safe speed of a vehicle on a level road and
express the symbols.
It is the angle by which the outer edge of road is raised with respect to inner edge. 𝜃 = angle of banking of road.
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝜇𝑠 𝑟𝑔
where μs = coefficient of static friction , g= acceleration due to gravity ,r= radius of the circular path.

6) State and prove law of conservation of linear momentum using Newton’s laws of motion.
Statement: In an isolated system, the total linear momentum of interacting particles remains constant.

Consider a body A of mass m1 moving with a velocity u1 collide with another body B of mass m2 moving in the same
direction with a velocity u2. Let ‘t’ be the time of impact. v1 and v2 be the velocities of the bodies A and B
respectively after collision.
Then, the force exerted by the body A on the body B is,
(𝑣2 −𝑢2 )
FBA = (mass of B) x (acceleration of B) = 𝑚2
𝑡
The force exerted by the body B on the body A is,
(𝑣1 −𝑢1 )
FAB= (mass of A) x (acceleration of A) = 𝑚1 𝑡
According to Newton’s third law
FBA= -FAB
(𝑣1 − 𝑢1 ) (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 )
𝑚1 = −𝑚2
𝑡 𝑡
 𝑚1 𝑣1 − 𝑚1 𝑢1 = −𝑚2 𝑣2 + 𝑚2 𝑢2
 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 = 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2
That is, total momentum after collision = total momentum before collision; hence proving the conservation of linear
momentum.
7) State Newton’s II law of motion and hence derive F=ma.
The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the force acting on it and takes place in the
direction of the force.
Consider a body of mass ‘m’ moving with initial velocity u. Let force ‘F’ acts on the body for time interval ‘t’ second
to change its velocity from u to v in a time interval t.
Initial momentum of body =mu
Final momentum of body =mv
Change in momentum = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢 = 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢)
𝑚(𝑣−𝑢)
Rate of change of momentum = = ma
𝑡
According to Newton’s II law of motion, rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the force
ma α F
F = k ma
where, ‘k’ is a constant of proportionality. Here, k = 1.
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
8) Derive an expression for maximum velocity for an automobile on a level circular road.
Consider a car of mass ‘m’ moving on a level circular road of radius of curvature ‘R’.
Now, N=mg and the static friction ′𝑓′ provides the necessary centripetal force. That is,
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑓= 𝑟
------- (1)
The maximum speed with which the car can travel without slipping is
given when, 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁. Hence, substituting in equation (1) we
get,
2
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜇𝑠 𝑁 =
𝑟

2
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
 𝜇𝑠 (𝑚𝑔) =
𝑟
2
 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑟𝑔
 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝜇𝑠 𝑟𝑔

9) Derive an expression for maximum velocity of an automobile on a circular banked road.

➢ Consider a car of mass ‘m’ moving round a curved

path of radius ‘r’ with speed ‘v’.
➢ Let ‘θ’ is the angle of banking
➢ let μs be the coefficient of static friction between
road and tyres of car. If ‘f’ is the force of friction
between banked road and tyres.

The Components of N are N cosθ along the vertical and N sinθ along the horizontal.

The components of f are f cosθ along the horizontal and f sinθ along the vertical,

Since Since the net force along the vertical is zero, N cosθ = mg + f sinθ

Or mg = N cos θ – f sinθ ----(1)

The forces N sinθ and f cosθ together provide the necessary centripetal force.
 𝑚𝑣 2
Hence, 𝑟
= N sinθ + f cosθ ----(2)

Dividing eq 2 by eq 1,
𝑣2 N sinθ + f cosθ
𝑟𝑔
= N cos θ – f sinθ ------(3)

For maximum safe speed vmax of the car, f =𝜇𝑠 N

2
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 N sinθ + 𝜇𝑠 N cosθ sinθ + 𝜇𝑠 cosθ
From equ (3), = =
𝑟𝑔 N cos θ – 𝜇𝑠 N sinθ cos θ – 𝜇𝑠 sinθ

1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜇𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2
vmax = [𝑟𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 – 𝜇𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
]

1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 + 𝜇𝑠 2
vmax = [𝑟𝑔 ]
1 – 𝜇𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

1) What is the value of one kilowatt hour in joule?
1kWh = 36 × 105 J
2) What is the value of 1 HP in watt
1 HP = 746 watts
3) Give the dimensional formula for a) work b) power
➢ Dimensional formula of work is [ML2T-2]
➢ Dimensional formula of power is [ML2T-3]

4) Give two differences between conservative and non-conservative forces.

CONSERVATIVE FORCES NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES
If the work done by a force does not depend on If the work done by a force depends upon
the path taken and depends only on the initial the path taken, the force is called non-
and final states of a body, the force is called a conservative force.
conservative force.
Work done will be zero if the body returns to If the body returns to its initial point, the
its initial position. net work done will not be zero.

5) Give an example for conservative and non-conservative forces.

Example for conservative force – Gravitational force
Example for non-conservative force – Frictional force

6) What is an elastic collision? Give an example.

The collision in which both the linear momentum and kinetic energy of the system remain conserved is called elastic
collision.
Example: collision of molecules of a gas/collision of atoms

7) What is Inelastic collision? Give an example.

The collision in which only linear momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is not conserved is called inelastic
collision.
Example: collision of mud on the wall
8) Distinguish between elastic and inelastic collision.
Elastic collision
The collision in which both the linear momentum
and kinetic energy of the system remain
conserved is called elastic collision.
Forces involved in collision are conservative.
Inelastic collision
The collision in which only linear momentum is
conserved but kinetic energy is not conserved is
called inelastic collision.
Forces involved in the collision are non-
conservative.

9) State and prove work energy theorem for constant force.

Statement: The change in kinetic energy of a body is equal to the work done on it by the net force.
1
Consider a body of mass ‘m’ moving with a velocity ‘u’. The kinetic energy of the body is = 2 mu2. Let the body be
subjected to a constant force F so that the its velocity increases to ‘v’ in a distance ‘s’. Now the kinetic energy of the
1
body is = 2 mv2
𝐹
Acceleration of the body is a =
𝑚
Using the equation, v2 = u2 + 2as
𝐹
v2 = u2 + 2 𝑚s

1 1 1 𝐹
mv2 = mu2 + m(2 s)
2 2 2 𝑚

1 1
2
mv2− 2 mu2 = F s

1 1
mv2− mu2 = W
2 2

Thus, the change in kinetic energy is equal to the work done.

10) Show that the power is equal to the dot product of force and velocity.
If dW is the work done in a small time interval dt, then instantaneous power is,
𝑑𝑊
P=
𝑑𝑡
Since, dW = 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗
𝑑𝑠⃗
P = 𝐹⃗ ∙ = 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑣⃗
𝑑𝑡

11) Derive the expression for elastic potential energy of spring.

When a spring is compressed or stretched by an external force, a restoring force is developed in the spring given by
Fx = - kx
The external force F is applied to stretch the spring through a distance x is equal and opposite to the spring force.
That is F = + kx
The work done by this force in stretching the spring through a small distance dx is
dW = F dx
The total work done in stretching the spring from equilibrium position(x=0) to a
distance ‘x’ is,
𝑥
W = ∫0 𝑑𝑊
𝑥
W = ∫0 F dx
𝑥
= ∫0 kx dx
𝑥
𝑥2
=k [2] 𝑡
0
 𝑘
= 2 [𝑥 2 − 0]
1
W = 2 k 𝑥2

The energy spent in doing this work is stored in the spring as potential energy.
1
U = 2 k 𝑥2

12) State and prove conservation of mechanical energy.

The total energy of an isolated system remains a constant; energy can neither be created nor be destroyed; If
energy disappears in one form, it reappears in another form in an equivalent amount.
Consider a body of mass ‘m’ dropped from a point A at a height ‘h’ above the ground.
At ‘A’, the potential energy of the body = mgh
Kinetic energy of the body = 0
∴ Total energy of the body at ‘A’ = PE + KE = mgh + 0 = mgh ----(1)
As the body falls, its potential energy decreases but its kinetic energy increases. Let ‘v’
be the velocity of the body at any point ‘B’ at a distance ‘x’ from ‘A’.
At B, the potential energy of the body = mg(h – x)
1
Kinetic energy of the body = mv2
2

Using, v2 = u2 + 2as for the motion from A to B, v2 = 0 + 2gx = 2gx

1
 Kinetic energy = 2 m ( 2gx) = mgx

∴ Total energy of the body at B = PE + KE = mg(h-x) + mgx = mgh ---(2)

When the body falls to ground at C, h =0. Let v be the velocity of the body when it reaches the ground. Then , at C
the potential energy of the body = 0
1
Kinetic energy of the body = 2 mv2

Using v2 = u2 + 2as for the motion from A to C, v2 = 0 + 2gh = 2gh

1
Kinetic energy = 2 m ( 2gh) = mgh

∴ Total energy of the body at B = PE + KE = 0+ mgh = mgh ---(3)

From equations (1), (2) and (3) it is found that the total energy of the body remains a constant at all points along the
path of the body.
13) Obtain the expression for final velocities of two bodies undergoing elastic collision in one dimension.
Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving along the same straight line with initial velocities u1 and u2
respectively. Let v1 and v2 be their velocities after the collision.
For elastic collision,
m1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2 (conservation of linear momentum)

1 1 1 1
m1𝑣12 + m2𝑣22 = m1𝑢12 + m2𝑢22 (conservation of kinetic energy)
2 2 2 2

If the body of mass m2 is initially at rest, u2 = 0, Then

m1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1 ---- (1)

m1𝑣12 + m2𝑣22 = m1𝑢12 ----- (2)

 From equation (1), m2v2 = m1u1 - m1v1

Substitute the above equation in equation (2) we get, m1𝑣12 + (m1u1– m1v1)v2 = m1𝑢12

Therefore, 𝑣12 + (u1– v1)v2 = 𝑢12

 (u1– v1)v2 = 𝑢12 –𝑣12

 (u1– v1) v2 = (u1– v1) (u1 + v1)

 v2 = u1 + v1

Substituting in equation (1) we get, m1v1 + m2(u1 + v1) = m1u1

v1(m1+ m2) = u1(m1- m2)

u1 (m1 −m2 )
∴ v1 = (m1 +m2 )

Also, v1 = v2 – u1

Substituting in equation (1) we get, m1(v2 – u1) + m2v2 = m1u1

𝟐m1 𝐮1
∴ v2 = m
1 +m2

Note:
➢ If m1 =m2 , we get v1 = 0 and v2 = u1 . If the masses of the two colliding bodies are equal, after the collision,
the first body comes to rest and the second body moves with the speed of the first body.
➢ If m2>> m1 , v1≈ - u1 and v2 ≈ 0. If the mass of the second body is very large compared to that of the first,
after the collision, the heavier body is undisturbed and the lighter body reverses its velocity.
Note:
➢ Work and power are scalar quantities.
➢ In the force – displacement graph, the area under the curve is equal to the work done.

Mechanical Properties of Solids

1. Explain the three moduli of elasticity.
a) Young’s Modulus: The ratio of longitudinal stress (tensile or compressive) to the longitudinal strain.
𝜎
Y= 𝜀

(𝐹⁄𝐴) 𝐹 𝐿
Y= or (𝐴 x ΔL)
(∆𝐿⁄𝐿 )

b) Shear Modulus: The ratio of tangential stress to shearing strain.

𝜎 𝐹
η = 𝜃 = 𝐴𝜃

c) Bulk Modulus: The ratio of hydraulic stress to volume strain.

𝐹/𝐴 𝐹 𝑉
B =ΔV/V = 𝐴 x ΔV
2. Explain stress – strain curve.
It is a curve between stress and strain. A graph is plotted between
the stress (which is equal in magnitude to the applied force per unit
area) and the strain produced. From the graph we get,
a) In the region from O to A the graph is linear and Hooke’s law
is obeyed. The material is elastic.
b) In the region from A to B, Hooke’s law is not obeyed. The
material is elastic. B is called the elastic limit.
c) In the region from B to D, strain increases rapidly even for a
small increase in stress. The material is plastic.
d) At C, between B and D, strain is not zero even when stress is
zero. The material has a permanent set. The stress corresponding to
the highest point D is called tensile stress and, beyond this point
strain increases even when the stress is decreased and fracture occurs.
e) The point E at which the wire fractures is called fracture point or breaking point.

3. Explain the three types of strain.

a) Longitudinal strain: When the deforming force produces a change in length only. If L is original length and ΔL is
change in length, then longitudinal strain = ΔL/L
b) Volume or bulk strain: If the deforming forces produce a change in volume. If V is original volume and ΔV is the
change in volume, then volume strain = ΔV/V
c) Shearing strain: If the deforming forces produce a change in shape of the body, then, tangential strain = ΔL/L= tan θ

4. Define Poisson’s ratio.

Within the elastic limit, the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is called Poisson’s ratio.

5. State and explain Hooke’s law.

Within the elastic limit, stress is directly proportional to strain.
That is,
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ∝ 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝒌(𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏)
where, ‘k’ is the constant of proportionality called modulus of elasticity.

6. Explain the experiment to determine the Young’s modulus of the material of a wire.

Consider an experimental wire of length L. Let ‘r’ be the radius of the wire. Then
the area of cross-section is A= πr2. Let ΔL be the elongation for a load of mass M
attached to it. Then applied force F = Mg.
Young’s Modulus of the material of the wire is
𝐹𝐿 (𝑀𝑔)𝐿
Y= =
𝐴(ΔL) (𝜋𝑟 2 )ΔL

7. Mention three applications of elastic behavior of solids.

a) Thickness of metallic ropes used in cranes to lift and move heavy objects is decided on the basis of elastic
limit of the material.
b) Ropes used in cranes are made by a number of thin wires woven together into a rope of required radius
because they have a large margin of safety.
 c) In designing a beam for its use to support a load (in construction of bridges), the cross – sectional shape of
‘I’ is used. This provides large load bearing surface and enough depth to prevent bending.
8. Define compressibility.
Compressibility is the reciprocal of bulk modulus.

THERMODYNAMICS
1) Define thermal equilibrium.
A body is said to be in thermal equilibrium if its temperature remains constant.
2) State zeroth law of thermodynamics. Explain. What is its significance?
If two systems are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then the two systems are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
That is,

Significance: This law defines temperature.

3) State and explain first law of thermodynamics.

The heat energy supplied (∆𝑄) to a system is equal to the sum of the increase in internal energy (∆𝑈) of the
system, and the external work done (∆𝑊) by the system.
That is,
∆𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊
This is basically law of conservation of energy in thermodynamics.
4) State second law of thermodynamics.
Second law can be stated in two ways.
• Kelvin-Planck statement: No process is possible whose sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir
and the complete conversion of heat to work.
(That is, a perfect heat engine does not exist.)
• Clausius statement: No process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat from a colder object to a
hotter object.
(That is, a perfect refrigerator or a heat pump does not exist.)
5) What is an isothermal process? Give an example.
A thermodynamic process where temperature remains constant is called an isothermal process.
Ex: Change of state from liquid water to steam takes place at a constant temperature (at 100oC)
6) Derive the expression for work done in an isothermal process.
Consider an ideal gas of ′𝜇′ moles enclosed in a container and undergoing an isothermal process from initial state
(𝑃𝑖 , 𝑉𝑖 , 𝑇) to the final state (𝑃𝑓 , 𝑉𝑓 , 𝑇).
A small amount of work done during the process is given by,
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
𝜇𝑅𝑇
Using ideal gas equation we get, 𝑃 = 𝑉
Therefore,
𝜇𝑅𝑇
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝑉
𝑉
The total work done during the process is obtained by integrating the above equation.
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊

𝑉 𝜇𝑅𝑇
 𝑊 = ∫𝑉 𝑓 𝑑𝑉
𝑖 𝑉
 𝑉 1
 𝑊 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇 ∫𝑉 𝑓 𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝑖

 𝑊 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑉 |𝑉𝑉𝑓

𝑖

 𝑊 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑖 )

𝑽
 𝑾 = 𝝁𝑹𝑻 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 ( 𝑽𝒇 )
𝒊
This is the expression for work done in an isothermal process.
7) What is an adiabatic process? Give an example.
A thermodynamic process in which there is no exchange of heat between the system and surroundings.
Ex: Sudden expansion of gas like in bursting of a tyre.

8) Derive the expression for work done in an adiabatic process.

Consider an ideal gas of ′𝜇′ moles enclosed in a container and undergoing an adiabatic process from initial state
(𝑃𝑖 , 𝑉𝑖 , 𝑇) to the final state (𝑃𝑓 , 𝑉𝑓 , 𝑇).
A small amount of work done during the process is given by,
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
In an adiabatic process,
𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Say the 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝐾, therefore,
𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝐾
𝐾
 𝑃 = 𝑉𝛾
Hence,
𝐾
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝑉
𝑉𝛾
The total work done during the process is obtained by integrating the above equation.
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊
𝐾
 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑉 𝛾 𝑑𝑉

𝑉 1
 𝑊 = 𝐾 ∫𝑉 𝑓 𝑉 𝛾 𝑑𝑉
𝑖

𝑉 −𝛾+1
 𝑊 = 𝐾( ) |𝑉𝑉𝑓
−𝛾+1 𝑖

𝐾 −𝛾+1 −𝛾+1
 𝑊 = (1−𝛾) (𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 )

1 𝐾 𝐾
 𝑊 = (1−𝛾) ( 𝛾−1 − 𝛾−1 )
𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑖
𝛾 𝛾
Since, 𝑃𝑓 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 = 𝐾,
𝛾 𝛾
1 𝑃𝑓 𝑉𝑓 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖
 𝑊 = (1−𝛾) ( 𝛾−1 − 𝛾−1 )
𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑖

1
 𝑊 = (1−𝛾) (𝑃𝑓 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 )
 1
 𝑊 = (𝛾−1) (𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑃𝑓 𝑉𝑓 )
According to the ideal gas equation, 𝑃𝑉 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇. Hence, 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇𝑖 and, 𝑃𝑓 𝑉𝑓 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇𝑓
1
𝑊= (𝜇𝑅𝑇𝑖 − 𝜇𝑅𝑇𝑓 )
(𝛾 − 1)
𝝁𝑹
 𝑾 = (𝜸−𝟏) (𝑻𝒊 − 𝑻𝒇 )
This is the required expression for work done in an adiabatic process.

9) What is a heat engine? Draw a schematic diagram representing the parts of a heat engine.
Heat engine is a device that converts heat energy to work by undergoing a cyclic process.

Working
Substance

10) Define efficiency of a heat engine. Mention its expression.

Efficiency (𝜂) of a heat engine is the ratio of work done by the engine to the amount of heat absorbed by the engine
from the hot reservoir in one thermodynamic cycle.
𝑊 𝑄1 − 𝑄2
𝜂= =
𝑄1 𝑄1
Therefore,
𝑄2
𝜂 =1−
𝑄1
11) What is a heat pump? (Or, what is a refrigerator?)
Draw a schematic diagram representing the parts of a heat pump/refrigerator.
A refrigerator and a heat pump are reverse heat engines.

Working
Substance

12) What is coefficient of performance of a refrigerator (or heat pump)?

The coefficient of performance (𝛼) of a refrigerator (or a heat pump) is defined as,
𝑄2
𝛼=
𝑊
𝑄2
 𝛼 = 𝑄 −𝑄
1 2
13) What is a Carnot engine? What are its parts?
A reversible heat engine operating between two temperatures cyclically is called a Carnot engine.
Its parts are as follows:
14) Using a P-V diagram explain the Carnot cycle. (or, explain the working of a Carnot engine. Or, derive the
expression for work done in a Carnot engine)

A Carnot cycle consists of four reversible thermodynamic

processes as shown. The work done during each process is as
follows.
a) Isothermal expansion (A to B):
The container with ideal gas is placed on the source at
temperature 𝑇1 . The gas undergoes isothermal expansion by
absorbing 𝑄1 amount of heat from the source. The work done
is given by,
𝑉
𝑊1 = 𝑄1 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇1 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (𝑉2 ) (1)
1
b) Adiabatic expansion (B to C):
The ideal gas is now placed on the insulating stand. The gas
expands adiabatically. The work done during the process is
given by,
𝜇𝑅
 𝑊2 = (𝛾−1) (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) (2)
c) Isothermal compression (C to D):
The ideal gas is now placed on a sink at temperature 𝑇2 . The gas undergoes isothermal compression by losing
𝑄2 amount of heat to the sink. The work done is given by,
𝑉4
𝑊2 = 𝑄2 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇2 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( )
𝑉3
𝑉3
 𝑊3 = −𝜇𝑅𝑇2 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (𝑉 ) (3)
4
d) Adiabatic compression (D to A):
The ideal gas is placed on the insulating stand. The gas undergoes adiabatic compression. The work done
during the process is given by,
𝜇𝑅
𝑊2 = (𝛾−1) (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝜇𝑅
 𝑊4 = − (𝛾−1) (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) (4)
Therefore, the total work done in one Carnot cycle by the Carnot engine is given by,
𝑊 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊3 + 𝑊4
𝑉 𝜇𝑅 𝑉 𝜇𝑅
 𝑊 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇1 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (𝑉2 ) + (𝛾−1) (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) − 𝜇𝑅𝑇2 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (𝑉3 ) − (𝛾−1) (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
1 4
𝑽 𝑽
 𝑾 = 𝝁𝑹𝑻𝟏 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 (𝑽𝟐 ) − 𝝁𝑹𝑻𝟐 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 (𝑽𝟑 )
𝟏 𝟒
This is the expression for work done in a Carnot cycle.
15) Derive the expression for efficiency of a Carnot engine.
Efficiency of any heat engine is given by,
|𝑄2 |
𝜂 =1−
|𝑄1 |
In a Carnot engine, we know that,
𝑉 𝑉
|𝑄1 | = 𝜇𝑅𝑇1 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( 2 ) and, |𝑄2 | = −𝜇𝑅𝑇2 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( 3 )
𝑉 1 𝑉 4
Therefore,
𝑉
𝜇𝑅𝑇2 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( 3 )
𝑉4
𝜂 =1− 𝑉 (1)
𝜇𝑅𝑇1 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( 2 )
𝑉1

In an adiabatic process, 𝑇𝑉 𝛾−1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. Consider the adiabatic expansion process in the Carnot cycle. That is,
the process from the thermodynamic state, (𝑃2 , 𝑉2 , 𝑇1 ) to (𝑃3 , 𝑉3 , 𝑇2 ). Therefore,
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑇1 𝑉2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 and, 𝑇2 𝑉3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
 𝑇1 𝑉2 = 𝑇2 𝑉3

𝛾−1
𝑇2 𝑉2
 = 𝛾−1
𝑇1 𝑉3

1⁄
(𝛾−1)
𝑇2 𝑉
 1⁄ = 𝑉2 (2)
(𝛾−1) 3
𝑇1
Similarly, for the adiabatic compression process in the Carnot cycle, that is from (𝑃4 , 𝑉4 , 𝑇2 ) to (𝑃1 , 𝑉1 , 𝑇1 ), we get,
1⁄
(𝛾−1)
𝑇2 𝑉
1⁄ = 𝑉1 (3)
(𝛾−1) 4
𝑇1
Comparing equations (2) and (3), we get,
𝑉2 𝑉1
=
𝑉3 𝑉4
𝑉2 𝑉
 𝑉1
= 𝑉3 (4)
4
Using equation (4) in equation (1), we get,
𝑉
𝜇𝑅𝑇2 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (𝑉2 )
1
𝜂 =1− 𝑉
𝜇𝑅𝑇1 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (𝑉2 )
1
𝑻
 𝜼 = 𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐
𝟏
This is the required expression for the efficiency of the Carnot engine.
 KINETIC THEORY
1) Mention the postulates (or assumptions) of kinetic theory.
a) All the molecules of a gas are identical in their shape, size and mass. They differ from molecules of other
gases.
b) The size of the gas molecules is extremely small as compared to the intermolecular distances between them.
Hence, the volume of the molecules is negligible when compared to the volume of the gas.
c) The molecules are in constant random motion. They move with different velocities in different directions. The
velocity of the molecules increase with temperature.
d) The molecules behave as rigid, perfect, elastic spheres.
e) Molecules collide with each other, and also with the walls of the container. The collisions are perfectly elastic.
(That is, the total momentum and the kinetic energy is conserved)
f) The collisions are instantaneous. That is, the time spent by a molecule in collision is very small when compared
to the time elapsed between two successive collisions.
g) Since the molecules are far apart from each other, they possess only kinetic energy and not potential energy.
2) Define degrees of freedom. Mention the types.
The degrees of freedom of a molecule are the total number of independent ways in which the molecule can store
energy. There are three types of degrees of freedom:
• Translational degree of freedom
• Rotational degree of freedom
• Vibrational degree of freedom
Note:
➢ Monoatomic molecule has 3 degrees of freedom (all translational). Ex: He atom
➢ Rigid diatomic molecule has 5 degrees of freedom (3 translational and 2 rotational). Ex: H2
molecule, N2 molecule.
➢ Non rigid diatomic molecule has 6 degrees of freedom (3 translational, 2 rotational, 1 vibrational).
➢ Rigid triatomic molecule has 6 degrees of freedom (3 translational, 3 rotational). Ex: CO2, O3
3) State law of equipartition of energy.
In a dynamic system in thermal equilibrium, the energy of the system is equally distributed among its various
1
degrees of freedom, and the energy associated with each degree of freedom is 2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇.
4) Define mean free path. Mention its expression.
The average distance travelled by a molecule between two successive collisions is called the mean free path.

where, ′𝑙′ is called the mean free path

′𝑑′ is the diameter of the molecule, and, ′𝑛′ is the number density.

Additional questions:
1. Mention four fundamental forces in nature.
• Strong nuclear force
• Electromagnetic force
• Weak nuclear force
• Gravitational force
2. What is the strongest and weakest fundamental force in nature? (2m)
• Strongest – Strong nuclear force
 • Weakest – Gravitational force
3. Mention the units of plane angle and solid angle. (2m)
• Plane angle- radian
• Solid angle - steradian
4. State a method to measure large distances.
• Parallax method

5. Mention one method to measure large mass & small mass(atomic/subatomic particles). (2m)
• Large mass – Gravitational method
• Small masses – mass spectrograph

6. State two limitations and two advantages of dimensional analysis. (2m+2m)

TWO LIMITATIONS:
• It cannot be used for relationships involving exponential and trigonometric functions.
• The constant of proportionally cannot be determined.
• It can check only whether a physical relation is dimensionally correct or not. It can not tell whether the
relation is absolutely correct or not.

Two advantages
• To check the correctness of the equation
• To derive a correct relationship between different physical quantities
• Conversion of unit of a physical quantity from one system into another.

𝟏
7. Check the correctness of the equation x = v0t+ at2. (where x is the displacement, v0 the initial velocity, a is
𝟐
acceleration, t the time).

Writing dimensions of each term,

[𝑥] = [𝐿],

[𝑣0𝑡] = [𝐿𝑇−1𝑇] = [𝐿]

1
And [ 𝑎𝑡2] = [𝐿𝑇−2 𝑇2] = [𝐿].
2

Since dimensions of all the terms in the equation are same, equation is dimensionally consistence.

8. What are Scalars and vectors

➢ Scalars
o A scalar quantity is a physical quantity having magnitude only and no specified direction.
Mass, length, temperature, time are some examples of scalar quantities.
o The rules for combining scalars are the rules of ordinary algebra.
➢ Vectors
o A Vector quantity is a physical quantity having both magnitude and a specified direction.
Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force are some examples of vector quantity.
o Vectors combine using vector algebra