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Chapter 5
5. Tracking Radar
5.2 Tracking with Radar
The radar which detects target and determines location as well as predict its trajectory path is
known as tracking radar. The figure below mentions block diagram of simple tracking radar.

Figure: Simple Tracking Radar Block Diagram

As shown tracking operation in the radar depends upon angular information. very narrow antenna
beam is used here which will track one target object at one time. This can be performed using
range gating and doppler filtering module. Range tracking is carried out using timing control
unit. Doppler tracking is carried out using doppler gating unit. The angle error signal is provided
as input for servo motor based control system. This servo system will steer the antenna as per
error input and hence will track the target. Methods to extract error signal may be classified as;
1. Sequential lobbing
2. Conical scan
3. Simultaneous lobbing or mono-pulse
Types of Tracking Radar
1. Single Target Tracking
I. Angle tracking techniques
▪ Amplitude mono-pulse.
▪ Phase comparison mono-pulse.
▪ Sequential lobbing
▪ Conical scanning

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II. Range tracking

III. Servo systems
2. Multiple Target Tracking
I. ADT Radar (Automatic Detection and Tracking Radar)
II. Phased Array Tracking Radar
III. TWS Radar (Track While Scan Radar)
STT Radar (Single Target Tracking Radar)
• Single TGT Tracker (STT) tracks a single target at fast data rate.
• Data rate – 10 bits/sec.
• Employs a closed loop servo system to keep the error signal small.
• Application – tracking of aircraft/ missile Targets
ADT Radar (Automatic Detection and Tracking Radar)
• Automatic detection & track (ADT) tracking is part of air surveillance tracking radar
• Lower data rate than STT.
• Can track hundreds/ a few
• Thousand targets simultaneously.
• Tracking is open loop.
Phased Array Tracking Radar
• Phased array radar tracking electronically steered phased array radar. large no of Targets
can be held on track.
• High data rate (like in STT)
• Beam is electronically
• Switched from one angular position to another in a few microseconds.
TWS Radar (Track While Scan Radar)
• Track while scan (TWS) scans a limited angular sector to maintain tracks – simultaneous
track & search
• Data rate: moderate
• Can track a number of targets.
Mono-pulse Tracking Radar
Equivalent of track while scan is ADT: TWS radar is used to rapidly scan a narrow angular
sector, usually in both azimuth & elevation. scanning can be performed with a single, narrow
beam width pencil beam; or with two orthogonal fan beams (one for azimuth and the other for
elevation.

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5.2 Sequential Lobbing

Sequential lobbing is one of the first tracking techniques that was utilized by the early generation
of radar systems. Sequential lobbing is often referred to as lobe switching or sequential
switching. It has a tracking accuracy that is limited by the pencil beam width used and by the
noise caused by either mechanical or electronic switching mechanisms. However, it is very
simple to implement. The pencil beam used in sequential lobbing must be symmetrical (equal
azimuth and elevation beam widths).
Tracking is achieved (in one coordinate) by continuously switching the pencil beam between
two pre-determined symmetrical positions around the antenna’s Line of Sight (LOS) axis. Hence,
the name sequential lobbing is adopted. The LOS is called the radar tracking axis, as illustrated
in Figure below. As the beam is switched between the two positions, the radar measures the
returned signal levels. The difference between the two measured signal levels is used to compute
the angular error signal. The Sequential Lobbing angle tracking technique time shares a single
antenna beam to obtain the angle measurement in a sequential manner.
For Example, 1, when the target is tracked on the tracking axis, as the case in Figure a, the voltage
difference is zero and, hence, is also the error signal. However, when the target is off the tracking
axis, as in Figure b, a nonzero error signal is produced. The sign of the voltage difference
determines the direction in which the antenna must be moved. Keep in mind, the goal here is to
make the voltage difference be equal to zero. In order to obtain the angular error in the orthogonal
coordinate, two more switching positions are required for that coordinate. Thus, tracking in two
coordinates can be accomplished by using a cluster of four antennas (two for each coordinate)
or by a cluster of five antennas. In the latter case, the middle antenna is used to transmit, while
the other four are used to receive.

Figure: Sequential lobbing. (a) Target is located on track axis. (b) Target is off track axis.
V1 = voltage from upper beam (lobe)
V2 = voltage from lower beam (lobe)

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If V1-V2 > 0 Antenna pointing to high

If V1-V2 < 0 Antenna pointing to low
If V1-V2 = 0 Antenna pointed at target

Figure: Antenna Patterns

The difference between the two amplitudes gives the location of the Target with respect to
antenna axis and also the differences in echo signals between the two switched beams is a
measure of the angular displacement of the target from the switching axis.
1. The beam with the larger signal is closer to the target
2. A control loop is used to redirect the beam track locations to equalize the beam response
3. When the echo signals in the two beam positions are equal, the target is on axis
4. The amplitude and the sense of error signal can be used to generate the corrective signal
which with the help of servo control can be used to move the antenna so as to bring the
target on the antenna axis.
5. Disadvantage: loses effectiveness When Target x-section changes between different
returns.
Example 2, In this diagram below the two lobes are shown in yellow (Upper and lower one), and
the resulting "summed" signal in blue (In middle position). If the aircraft were to move slightly
up, the signal strength in the lower lobe would drop off rapidly, while growing rapidly in the
upper lobe. The operator would then aim the antenna upward to compensate, until the two returns
were equal again
The elements in linear antenna array are divided into two halves. These two separate antennae
arrays are placed symmetrically in the focal plane on each side of the axis of the radar antenna
(this often-called boresight axis). In transmission (Tx) mode, both antennae arrays will be fed in
phase and the radiation pattern is represented by the ice blue area (In Middle position), which is
called the Σ or Sum -diagram. In reception (Rx) mode an additional receiving way is possible.
From the received signals of both separate antenna arrays, it is possible to calculate Σ (like the
transmitted Sum-diagram) and the difference Δ(Az), the so-called Delta azimuth- diagram. The
antenna pattern is given by the amber area (upper and lower one) on the same figure. Both signals
are then compared as a reply processor function and their difference is used to estimate the
azimuth of the target more exactly.

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Figure: shows sum and difference pattern for sequential Lobbing

5.3 Conical Scan

Conical scan is a logical extension of sequential lobbing where, in this case, the antenna is
continuously rotated at an offset angle, or has a feed that is rotated about the antenna’s main axis.
Figure below shows a typical conical scan beam. The beam scan frequency, in radians per
second, is denoted as 𝜔𝑠 . The angle between the antenna’s LOS (Tracking axis) and the rotation
axis is the squint angle. The antenna’s beam position is continuously changed so that the target
will always be on the tracking axis. The angle between the axis of rotation and the axis of the
antenna beam is the squint angle. Because of the rotation of the squinted beam and the targets
offset from the rotation axis, the amplitude of the echo signal will be modulated at a frequency
equal to the beam rotation.
As per Simplified conical scan radar system shown below. The envelope detector is used to
extract the return signal amplitude and the Automatic Gain Control (AGC) tries to hold the
receiver output to a constant value. Since the AGC operates on large time constants, it can hold
the average signal level constant and still preserve the signal rapid scan variation. It follows that
the tracking error signals (azimuth and elevation) are functions of the target’s RCS; they are
functions of its angular position with the main beam axis.

Figure: Conical scan beam.

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Figure: Simplified conical scan radar system.

In order to illustrate how conical scan tracking is achieved, we will first consider the case shown
in Figure below. In this case, as the antenna rotates around the tracking axis all target returns
have the same amplitude (zero error signal). Thus, no further action is required.

Figure: a) Error signal produced when the target is on the tracking axis for conical scan, b)
Error signal produced when the target is out of tracking axis for conical scan.
Limitations in conical scan radar:
1. The conical scanning radar compares the return from two directions to directly measure
the location of the target.

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2. It creates confusion by rapid changes in signal strength.

5.4 Mono pulse Tracking Radar
Mono pulse Concept
The mono pulse azimuth measurement makes it possible to accurately measure an azimuth of an
aircraft by using the single reply signal from transponder. This can improve the azimuth
accuracy, reducing greatly the rate of interrogation/reply and improving greatly the operational
environment.
Mono pulse gives much better target azimuth measurements than the estimating of the angular
position shown in Figure below. Under this concept antennae are combined which are built up
as an antenna array and which get a special method in the feeding: The single antenna elements
aren't always together switched in phase. For different purposes, various sums and differences
can be formed from the received energy. It can operate at a much lower interrogation rate to
benefit others in the environment. Mono pulse systems usually contain enhanced processing to
give better quality target code information. A single pulse is sufficiently for mono pulse bearing
measurement (hence the use of the term mono pulse).

Figure: Using a mono pulse antenna the radar data processor can calculate the targets position
into the beam
The elements in linear antenna array are divided into two halves. These two separate antennae
arrays are placed symmetrically in the focal plane on each side of the axis of the radar antenna
(this often-called boresight axis). In transmission (Tx) mode, both antennae arrays will be fed in
phase and the radiation pattern is represented by the ice blue area (shown above middle part),
which is called the Σ or Sum –diagram, as shown in the Figure below as blue graph and blue
pattern.

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The angle between the axis of the antenna (boresight axis) and the direction of the target is also
known as OBA-value (Off-Boresight Angle,∆𝐴𝑧 ). The elevation angle is also measured at 3D
radars as a third coordinate. The second difference channel () is called „Delta Elevation” now.
The Mono pulse antenna is divided up into four quadrants ∆𝐸𝑙 now, as shown below;

Figure: Two-dimensional Four Horn Mono-Pulse

The following signals are formed from the received signals of these four quadrants:
1. Sum - signal Σ [(A + B + C+ D)]
2. Difference - signal ∆𝐴𝑧 [(A + B) - (C+ D)]
3. Difference - signal ∆𝐸𝑙 [(B + D) - (A + C)]
The Auxiliary Signal Ω also, shall to complete the picture be mentioned, although this one isn't
tied to the mono pulse antenna. This channel to the compensation of side lobes always has
practically its own small antenna and has a very wide antenna diagram and also serves for the
reconnaissance of active jamming. All these signals need an own receiver channel. Well, modern
3D- radar sets have at least four parallel receivers- channels.

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Figure: Functional Diagram of Mono-pulse Tracking Radar

Amplitude Comparison Mono-pulse Method: Mono pulse Tracking Radar
Use pairs of slightly offset beams to determine the location of the target relative to the antenna
boresight (error signal) and use this information to re-steer the antenna (or beam) to keep the
target very close to the antenna boresight. For dish antennas, two off-set receive beams are
generated by using two feeds slightly displaced in opposite directions from the focus of a
parabolic reflector.
The sum and difference of the two squinted beams are used to generate the error signal. each
channel (sum, azimuth difference, and elevation difference) requires a separate receiver.
Mono-pulse radar is a radar system that compares the received signal from a single radar pulse
against itself in order to compare the signal as seen in multiple directions, polarizations, or other
differences. In this technique, The RF signals received from two offset antenna beams are
combined so that both the sum and the difference signals are obtained simultaneously. the sum
and difference signals are multiplied in a phase-sensitive detector to obtain both the magnitude
and the direction of the error signal. to determine the angular error is obtained on the basis of a
single pulse; hence the name mono-pulse is quite appropriate.

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Figure: Block diagram of amplitude-comparison mono-pulse Tracking radar (one angular

coordinate)

Figure: Block diagram of amplitude-comparison mono-pulse radar (Two angular coordinate)

Limitations to Tracking Accuracy
1. Major effects that determine the accuracy of a tracking radar:
2. Glint or angle noise or angular scintillation: which affects all tracking radars especially

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at short range.
3. Receiver noise: affects all radars and mainly determines tracking accuracy at long range.
4. RCS scintillation or Amplitude fluctuations of the target echo that bother conical scan
and sequential lobbing trackers but not mono-pulse.
5. Servo noise
5.5 Tracking in Range
Target range is measured by estimating the round-trip delay of the transmitted pulses. The
process of continuously estimating the range of a moving target is known as range tracking.
Since the range to a moving target is changing with time, the range tracker must be constantly
adjusted to keep the target locked in range. This can be accomplished using a split gate system,
where two range gates (early and late) are utilized. The concept of split gate tracking is illustrated
in Figure below, where a sketch of a typical pulsed radar echo is shown in the figure. The early
gate opens at the anticipated starting time of the radar echo and lasts for half its duration. The
late gate opens at the center and closes at the end of the echo signal. For this purpose, good
estimates of the echo duration and the pulse center time must be reported to the range tracker so
that the early and late gates can be placed properly at the start and center times of the expected
echo. This reporting process is widely known as the “designation process.” The early gate
produces positive voltage output while the late gate produces negative voltage output. The
outputs of the early and late gates are subtracted, and the difference signal is fed into an integrator
to generate an error signal. If both gates are placed properly in time, the integrator output will be
equal to zero. Alternatively, when the gates are not timed properly, the integrator output is not
zero, which gives an indication that the gates must be moved in time, left or right depending on
the sign of the integrator output.
Two gates are generated; one is an early gate; the other is a late gate. In this example, the portion
of the signal in the early gate is less than that of the late gate. the signals in the two gates are
integrated and subtracted to produce the difference error signal. the sign of the difference
indicates the direction the two gates have to be moved in order to have the pair straddle the echo
pulse. the amplitude of the difference determines how far the pair of gates are from the centroid.

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Figure: Split range-gate tracking (range gate interval not aligned with target echo pulse).

Figure: System Block Diagram of Tracking in Range (Split range-gate tracking)

5.6 Acquisition
The first function of the range tracker is acquisition of a desired target. Although this is not a
tracking operation, it is a necessary first step before range tracking or angle tracking may take
place in a typical radar. Target acquisition is the detection, identification, and location of a target
in sufficient details. A tracking radar must first find and acquire its target before it can operate

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 Page 13 of 13

as a tracker. Search must be done with care to cover the entire volume uniformly and efficiently.

Figure: Manual target search and acquisition.

5.7 Comparison of Trackers
1. S/N ratio- S/N ratio is greater in mono pulse radar than in conical scan radar, it is because
in mono pulse, antenna views target at the peak of its sum pattern. Where as in conical
scan radar views the Target at some angle off the peak of the antenna beam.
2. Accuracy: Accuracy is higher in mono pulse (due to 1) in range as well as angle.
3. Complexity: Mono pulse radar is more complex, due to Rf combining circuitry at the
antenna & 3 receiving channels while in conical scan radar has only one receiving
channel & uses a single feed. However, due to solid state and digital technology,
complexity is seldom a reason for not choosing mono pulse.
4. Minimum no of pulses: In case of mono pulse, single pulse is sufficient, while in conical
scan radar requires a minimum of 4 pulses per revolution of the beam, to extract an angle
measurement in two coordinates.
5. Angle Measurement; Mono pulse first makes angle measurement and then integrates a
number of measurements to obtain the required s/n ratio. While in conical scan radar,
integrates a number of pulses first, and then extracts the angle measurement.
6. Susceptibility to ECM; Conical scan radar is more susceptible to ECM, a well –
designed mono pulse tracker is much hard to deceive.
7. Application-Mono pulse; Mono pulse trackers are used when good angle accuracy is
required and when susceptibility to ECM is to be minimized. While in conical scan
tracker; it is used because of lower cost and reduced complexity.
** End of CHAPTER 5 **

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