The Iron-Iron Carbide (Fe-Fe 3 C) Phase Diagram

Development of Microstructure in Iron-Carbon Alloys

9.46 Compute the mass fractions of α ferrite and cementite in pearlite.

Solution

This problem asks that we compute the mass fractions of a ferrite and cementite in pearlite. The lever-rule
expression for ferrite is

C Fe C - C 0
Wa = 3
C Fe C - Ca
3

and, since CFe C = 6.70 wt% C, C0 = 0.76 wt% C, and Ca = 0.022 wt% C
3

6.70 - 0.76
Wa = = 0.89
6.70 - 0.022

Similarly, for cementite

C 0 - Ca 0.76 - 0.022
WFe C = = = 0.11
3 C Fe C - Ca 6.70 - 0.022
3
 9.47 (a) What is the distinction between hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels?
(b) In a hypoeutectoid steel, both eutectoid and proeutectoid ferrite exist. Explain the difference between
them. What will be the carbon concentration in each?

Solution

(a) A “hypoeutectoid” steel has a carbon concentration less than the eutectoid; on the other hand, a
“hypereutectoid” steel has a carbon content greater than the eutectoid.
(b) For a hypoeutectoid steel, the proeutectoid ferrite is a microconstituent that formed above the eutectoid
temperature. The eutectoid ferrite is one of the constituents of pearlite that formed at a temperature below the
eutectoid. The carbon concentration for both ferrites is 0.022 wt% C.
 9.48 What is the carbon concentration of an iron–carbon alloy for which the fraction of total ferrite is
0.94?

Solution

This problem asks that we compute the carbon concentration of an iron-carbon alloy for which the fraction
of total ferrite is 0.94. Application of the lever rule (of the form of Equation 9.12) yields

CFe 3C - C 0' 6.70 - C 0'

Wa = 0.94 = =
CFe 3C - Ca 6.70 - 0.022

and solving for C 0'

C 0' = 0.42 w t% C
 9.49 What is the proeutectoid phase for an iron–carbon alloy in which the mass fractions of total ferrite
and total cementite are 0.92 and 0.08, respectively? Why?

Solution

In this problem we are given values of Wa and WFe C (0.92 and 0.08, respectively) for an iron-carbon alloy
3

and then are asked to specify the proeutectoid phase. Employment of the lever rule for total a leads to

CFe 3C - C 0 6.70 - C 0
Wa = 0.92 = =
CFe 3C - Ca 6.70 - 0.022

Now, solving for C0 , the alloy composition, leads to C0 = 0.56 wt% C. Therefore, the proeutectoid phase is a-ferrite
since C0 is less than 0.76 wt% C.
 9.50 Consider 1.0 kg of austenite containing 1.15 wt% C, cooled to below 727°C (1341°F).
(a) What is the proeutectoid phase?
(b) How many kilograms each of total ferrite and cementite form?
(c) How many kilograms each of pearlite and the proeutectoid phase form?
(d) Schematically sketch and label the resulting microstructure.

Solution

(a) The proeutectoid phase will be Fe3C since 1.15 wt% C is greater than the eutectoid compositio n (0.76

wt% C).
(b) For this portion of the problem, we are asked to determine how much total ferrite and cementite form.
Application of the appropriate lever rule expression yields

CFe 3C - C 0 6.70 - 1.15

Wa = = = 0.83
CFe 3C - Ca 6.70 - 0.022

which, when multiplied by the total mass of the alloy (1.0 kg), gives 0.83 kg of total ferrite.
Similarly, for total cementite,

C 0 - Ca 1.15 - 0.022
WFe 3C = = = 0.17
CFe 3C - Ca 6.70 - 0.022

And the mass of total cementite that forms is (0.17)(1.0 kg) = 0.17 kg.
(c) Now we are asked to calculate how much pearlite and the proeutectoid phase (cementite) form.
Applying Equation 9.22, in which C1' = 1.15 wt% C

6.70 - C 1' 6.70 - 1.15

Wp = = = 0.93
6.70 - 0.76 6.70 - 0.76

which corresponds to a mass of 0.93 kg. Likewise, from Equation 9.23

C1' - 0.76 1.15 - 0.76

WFe 3C' = = = 0.07
5.94 5.94

which is equivalent to 0.07 kg of the total 1.0 kg mass.

(d) Schematically, the microstructure would appear as:
 9.51 Consider 2.5 kg of austenite containing 0.65 wt% C, cooled to below 727°C (1341°F).
(a) What is the proeutectoid phase?
(b) How many kilograms each of total ferrite and cementite form?
(c) How many kilograms each of pearlite and the proeutectoid phase form?
(d) Schematically sketch and label the resulting microstructure.

Solution

(a) Ferrite is the proeutectoid phase since 0.65 wt% C is less than 0.76 wt% C.
(b) For this portion of the problem, we are asked to determine how much total ferrite and cementite form.
For ferrite, application of the appropriate lever rule expression yields

CFe 3C - C 0 6.70 - 0.65

Wa = = = 0.91
CFe 3C - Ca 6.70 - 0.022

which corresponds to (0.91)(2.5 kg) = 2.27 kg of total ferrite.

Similarly, for total cementite,

C 0 - Ca 0.65 - 0.022
WFe 3C = = = 0.09
CFe 3C - Ca 6.70 - 0.022

Or (0.09)(2.5 kg) = 0.23 kg of total cementite form.

(c) Now consider the amounts of pearlite and proeutectoid ferrite. Using Equation 9.20

C 0' - 0.022 0.65 - 0.022

Wp = = = 0.85
0.74 0.74

This corresponds to (0.85)(2.5 kg) = 2.12 kg of pearlite.

Also, from Equation 9.21,

0.76 - 0.65
Wa' = = 0.15
0.74

Or, there are (0.15)(2.5 kg) = 0.38 kg of proeutectoid ferrite.

(d) Schematically, the microstructure would appear as:
 9.52 Compute the mass fractions of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite that form in an iron–carbon alloy
containing 0.25 wt% C.

Solution

The mass fractions of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite that form in a 0.25 wt% C iron-carbon alloy are
considered in this problem. From Equation 9.20

C 0' - 0.022 0.25 - 0.022

Wp = = = 0.31
0.74 0.74

And, from Equation 9.21 (for proeutectoid ferrite)

0.76 - C 0' 0.76 - 0.25

Wa' = = = 0.69
0.74 0.74
 9.53 The microstructure of an iron–carbon alloy consists of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite; the mass
fractions of these two microconstituents are 0 .286 and 0.714, respectively. Determine the concentration of carbon
in this alloy.

Solution

This problem asks that we determine the carbon concentration in an iron-carbon alloy, given the mass
fractions of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite. From Equation 9.20

C 0' - 0.022
Wp = 0.714 =
0.74

which yields C 0' = 0.55 wt% C.

 9.54 The mass fractions of total ferrite and total cementite in an iron-carbon alloy are 0.88 and 0.12,
respectively. Is this a hypoeutectoid or hypereutectoid alloy? Why?

Solution

In this problem we are given values of Wa and WFe C for an iron-carbon alloy (0.88 and 0.12, respectively),
3

and then are asked to specify whether the alloy is hypoeutectoid or hypereutectoid. Employment of the lever rule for
total a leads to

CFe 3C - C 0 6.70 - C 0
Wa = 0.88 = =
CFe 3C - Ca 6.70 - 0.022

Now, solving for C0 , the alloy composition, leads to C0 = 0.82 wt% C. Therefore, the alloy is hypereutectoid since
C0 is greater than 0.76 wt% C.
 9.55 The microstructure of an iron-carbon alloy consists of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite; the mass
fractions of these microconstituents are 0.20 and 0.80, respectively. Determine the concentration of carbon in this
alloy.

Solution

We are asked in this problem to determine the concentration of carbon in an alloy for which Wa' = 0.20 and
Wp = 0.80. If we let C 0' equal the carbon concentration in the alloy, employment of the appropriate lever rule

expression, Equation 9.20, leads to

C 0' - 0.022
Wp = = 0.80
0.74

Solving for C 0' yields C 0' = 0.61 wt% C.

 9.56 Consider 2.0 kg of a 99.6 wt% Fe– 0.4 wt% C alloy that is cooled to a temperature just below the
eutectoid.
(a) How many kilograms of proeutectoid ferrite form?
(b) How many kilograms of eutectoid ferrite form?
(c) How many kilograms of cementite form?

Solution

In this problem we are asked to consider 2.0 kg of a 99.6 wt% Fe-0.4 wt% C alloy that is cooled to a
temperature below the eutectoid.
(a) Equation 9.21 must be used in computing the amount of proeutectoid ferrite that forms. Thus,

0.76 - C 0' 0.76 - 0.40

Wa' = = = 0.49
0.74 0.74

Or, (0.49)(2.0 kg) = 0.98 kg of proeutectoid ferrite forms.

(b) In order to determine the amount of eutectoid ferrite, it first becomes necessary to compute the amount
of total ferrite using the lever rule applied entirely across the a + Fe C phase field, as
3

CFe 3C - C0 6.70 - 0.40

Wa = = = 0.94
CFe 3C - Ca 6.70 - 0.022

which corresponds to (0.94)(2.0 kg) = 1.88 kg. Now, the amount of eutectoid ferrite is just the difference between total
and proeutectoid ferrites, or

1.88 kg – 0.98 kg = 0.90 kg

(c) With regard to the amount of cementite that forms, again application of the lever rule across the entirety
of the a + Fe3C phase field, leads to

C 0 - Ca 0.40 - 0.022
WFe 3C = = = 0.057
CFe 3C - Ca 6.70 - 0.022

which amounts to (0.057)(2.0 kg) = 0.114 kg cementite in the alloy.

 9.57 Compute the maximum mass fraction of proeutectoid cementite possible for a hypereutectoid iron–
carbon alloy.

Solution

This problem asks that we compute the maximum mass fraction of proeutectoid cementite possible for a
hypereutectoid iron-carbon alloy. This requires that we utilize Equation 9.23 with C ' = 2.14 wt% C, the maximum
1
solubility of carbon in austenite. Thus,

C1' - 0.76 2.14 - 0.76

WFe C' = = = 0.232
3 5.94 5.94
 9.58 Is it possible to have an iron-carbon alloy for which the mass fractions of total ferrite and
proeutectoid cementite are 0.846 and 0.049, respectively? Why or why not?

Solution

This problem asks if it is possible to have an iron-carbon alloy for which Wa = 0.846 and WFe 3C¢ = 0.049. In

order to make this determination, it is necessary to set up lever rule expressions for these two mass fractions in terms
of the alloy composition, then to solve for the alloy composition of each; if both alloy composition values are equal,
then such an alloy is possible. The expression for the mass fraction of total ferrite is

CFe 3C - C 0 6.70 - C 0
Wa = = = 0.846
CFe 3C - Ca 6.70 - 0.022

Solving for this C0 yields C0 = 1.05 wt% C. Now for WFe 3C¢ we utilize Equation 9.23 as

C1' - 0.76
WFe 3C' = = 0.049
5.94

This expression leads to C1' = 1.05 wt% C. And, since C0 = C1' , this alloy is possible.
 9.59 Is it possible to have an iron-carbon alloy for which the mass fractions of total cementite and pearlite
are 0.039 and 0.417, respectively? Why or why not?

Solution

This problem asks if it is possible to have an iron-carbon alloy for which WFe 3C = 0.039 and Wp = 0.417. In

order to make this determination, it is necessary to set up lever rule expressions for these two mass fractions in terms
of the alloy composition, then to solve for the alloy composition of each; if both alloy composition values are equal,
then such an alloy is possible. The expression for the mass fraction of total cementite is

C 0 - Ca C - 0.022
WFe 3C = = 0 = 0.039
CFe 3C - Ca 6.70 - 0.022

Solving for this C0 yields C0 = 0.28 wt% C. Therefore, this alloy is hypoeutectoid since C0 is less than the eutectoid
composition (0.76 wt% ). Thus, it is necessary to use Equation 9.20 for Wp as

C '0 - 0.022
Wp = = 0.417
0.74

This expression leads to C '0 = 0.33 wt% C. Since C0 and C '0 are different, this alloy is not possible.
 9.60 Compute the mass fraction of eutectoid ferrite in an iron-carbon alloy that contains 0.43 wt% C.

Solution

In order to solve this problem it is necessary to compute mass fractions of total and proeutectoid ferrites,
and then to subtract the latter from the former. To calculate the mass fraction of total ferrite, it is necessary to use the
lever rule and a tie line that extends across the entire a + Fe3 C phase field as

CFe 3C - C 0 6.70 - 0.43

Wa = = = 0.939
CFe 3C - Ca 6.70 - 0.022

Now, for the mass fraction of proeutectoid ferrite we use Equation 9.21 as

0.76 - C 0' - 0.76 - 0.43

Wa' = = = 0.446
0.74 0.74

And, finally, the mass fraction of eutectoid ferrite Wa'' is just

Wa'' = Wa – Wa' = 0.939 – 0.446 = 0.493

 9.61 The mass fraction of eutectoid cementite in an iron-carbon alloy is 0.104. On the basis of this
information, is it possible to determine the composition of the alloy? If so, what is its composition? If this is not
possible, explain why.

Solution

This problem asks whether or not it is possible to determine the composition of an iron-carbon alloy for
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determine the alloy composition; and, in fact, there are two possible answers. For the first, the eutectoid cementite
exists in addition to proeutectoid cementite. For this case the mass fraction of eutectoid cementite (WFe C'') is just
3

the difference between total cementite and proeutectoid cementite mass fractions; that is

WFe C'' = WFe C – WFe C'

3 3 3

Now, it is possible to write expressions for WFe C (of the form of Equation 9.12) and WFe C' (Equation 9.23) in terms
3 3
of C0 , the alloy composition. Thus,

C 0 - Ca C - 0.76
WFe C" = - 0
3 C Fe C - Ca 5.94
3

C 0 - 0.022 C - 0.76
= - 0 = 0.104
6.70 - 0.022 5.94

And, solving for C0 yields C0 = 1.11 wt% C.

For the second possibility, we have a hypoeutectoid alloy wherein all of the cementite is eutectoid
cementite. Thus, it is necessary to set up a lever rule expression wherein the mass fraction of total cementite is 0.104.
Therefore,

C 0 - Ca C - 0.022
WFe 3C = = 0 = 0.104
CFe 3C - Ca 6.70 - 0.022

And, solving for C0 yields C0 = 0.72 wt% C.

 9.62 The mass fraction of eutectoid ferrite in an iron-carbon alloy is 0.82. On the basis of this information,
is it possible to determine the composition of the alloy? If so, what is its composition? If this is not possible,
explain why.

Solution

This problem asks whether or not it is possible to determine the composition of an iron-carbon alloy for
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determine the alloy composition; and, in fact, there are two possible answers. For the first, the eutectoid ferrite exists
in addition to proeutectoid ferrite. For this case the mass fraction of eutectoid ferrite (Wa'') is just the difference

between total ferrite and proeutectoid ferrite mass fractions; that is

Wa'' = Wa – Wa'

Now, it is possible to write expressions for Wa (of the form of Equation 9.12) and Wa' (Equation 9.21) in terms of C0,
the alloy composition. Thus,

C Fe C - C 0 0.76 - C 0
Wa" = 3 -
C Fe C - Ca 0.74
3

6.70 - C 0 0.76 - C 0
= - = 0.82
6.70 - 0.022 0.74

And, solving for C0 yields C0 = 0.70 wt% C.

For the second possibility, we have a hypereutectoid alloy wherein all of the ferrite is eutectoid ferrite.
Thus, it is necessary to set up a lever rule expression wherein the mass fraction of total ferrite is 0.82. Therefore,

CFe 3C - C 0 6.70 - C 0
Wa = = = 0.82
CFe 3C - Ca 6.70 - 0.022

And, solving for C0 yields C0 = 1.22 wt% C.

 9.63 For an iron-carb on alloy of composition 5 wt% C-95 wt% Fe, make schematic sketches of the
microstructure that would be observed for conditions of very slow cooling at the following temperatures: 1175°C
(2150°F), 1145°C (2095°F), and 700°C (1290°F). Label the phases and indicate their compositions
(approximate).

Solution

Below is shown the Fe-Fe3C phase diagram (Figure 9.24). A vertical line at a composition of 5 wt% C-95

wt% Fe has been drawn, and, in addition, horizontal arrows at the three temperatures called for in the problem
statement (i.e., 1175°C, 1145°C, and 700°C).

On the basis of the locations of the three temperature-composition points, schematic sketches of the
respective microstructures along with phase compositions are represented as follows:
 9.64 Often, the properties of multiphase alloys may be approximated by the relationship

E (alloy) = EαVα + EβVβ (9.24)

where E represents a specific property (modulus of elasticity, hardness, etc.), and V is the volume fraction. The
subscripts α and β denote the existing phases or microconstituents. Employ the relationship above to determine the
approximate Brinell hardness of a 99.80 wt% Fe– 0.20 wt% C alloy. Assume Brinell hardnesses of 80 and 280 for
ferrite and pearlite, respectively, and that volume fractions may be approximated by mass fractions.

Solution

This problem asks that we determine the approximate Brinell hardness of a 99.80 wt% Fe-0.20 wt% C alloy,
using a relationship similar to Equation 9.24. First, we compute the mass fractions of pearlite and proeutectoid ferrite
using Equations 9.20 and 9.21, as

C '0 - 0.022 0.20 - 0.022

Wp = = = 0.24
0.74 0.74

0.76 - C '0 0.76 - 0.20

Wa' = = = 0.76
0.74 0.74

Now, we compute the Brinell hardness of the alloy using a modified form of Equation 9.24 as

HBalloy = HBa' Wa' + HB pWp

= (80)(0.76) + (280)(0.24) = 128

 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams

10.15 Suppose that a steel of eutectoid composition is cooled to 550°C (1020°F) from 760°C (1400°F) in
less than 0.5 s and held at this temperature.
(a) How long will it take for the austenite-to-pearlite reaction to go to 50% completion? To 100%
completion?
(b) Estimate the hardness of the alloy that has completely transformed to pearlite.

Solution

We are called upon to consider the isothermal transformation of an iron-carbon alloy of eutectoid
composition.
(a) From Figure 10.22, a horizontal line at 550°C inters ects the 50% and reaction completion curves at about
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(b) The pearlite formed will be fine pearlite. From Figure 10.30a, the hardness of an alloy of composition
0.76 wt% C that consists of fine pearlite is about 265 HB (27 HRC).
 10.16 Briefly cite the differences between pearlite, bainite, and spheroidite relative to microstructure and
mechanical properties.

Solution

The microstructures of pearlite, bainite, and spheroidite all consist of a-ferrite and cementite phases. For
pearlite, the two phases exist as layers which alternate with one another. Bainite consists of very fine and parallel
needle-shaped particles of cementite that are surrounded an a-ferrite matrix. For spheroidite, the matrix is ferrite, and
the cementite phase is in the shape of sphere-shaped particles.
Bainite is harder and stronger than pearlite, which, in turn, is harder and stronger than spheroidite.
 10.17 What is the driving force for the formation of spheroidite?

Solution

The driving force for the formation of spheroidite is the net reduction in ferrite-cementite phase boundary
area.
 10.18 Using the isothermal transformation diagram for an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid composition
(Figure 10.22), specify the nature of the final microstructure (in terms of microconstituents present and
approximate percentages of each) of a small specimen that has been subjected to the following time–temperature
treatments. In each case assume that the specimen begins at 760°C (1400°F) and that it has been held at this
temperature long enough to have achieved a complete and homogeneous austenitic structure.
(a) Cool rapidly to 700°C (1290°F), hold for 10 4 s, then quench to room temperature.

Solution

Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.

After cooling and holding at 700°C for 104 s, approximately 50% of the specimen has transformed to coarse
pearlite. Upon cooling to room temperature, the remaining 50% transforms to martensite. Hence, the final
microstructure consists of about 50% coarse pearlite and 50% martensite.

(b) Reheat the specimen in part (a) to 700°C (1290°F) for 20 h.

Solution
 Heating to 700°C for 20 h the specimen in part (a) will transform the coarse pearlite and martensite to
spheroidite.

(c) Rapidly cool to 600°C (1110°F), hold for 4 s, rapidly cool to 450°C (840°F), hold for 10 s, then
quench to room temperature.

Solution

Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.

After cooling to and holding at 600°C for 4 s, approximately 50% of the specimen has transformed to pearlite
(medium). During the rapid cooling to 450°C no transformations occur. At 450°C we start timing again at zero time;
while holding at 450°C for 10 s, approximately 50 percent of the remaining unreacted 50% (or 25% of the original
specimen) will transform to bainite. And upon cooling to room temperature, the remaining 25% of the original
specimen transforms to marten site. Hence, the final microstructure consists of about 50% pearlite (medium), 25%
bainite, and 25% martensite.

(d) Cool rapidly to 400°C (750°F), hold for 2 s, then quench to room temperature.
 Solution

Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.

After cooling to and holding at 400°C for 2 s, no of the transformation begin lines have been crossed, and
therefore, the specimen is 100% austenite. Upon cooling rapidly to room temperature, all of the specimen transforms
to martensite, such that the final microstructure is 100% martensite.

(e) Cool rapidly to 400°C (750°F), hold for 20 s, then quench to room temperature.

Solution

Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.
 After cooling and holding at 400°C for 20 s, approximately 40% of the specimen has transformed to bainite.
Upon cooling to room temperature, the remaining 60% transforms to martensite. Hence, the final microstructure
consists of about 40% bainite and 60% martensite.

(f) Cool rapidly to 400°C (750°F), hold for 200 s, then quench to room temperature.

Solution

Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.
 After cooling and holding at 400°C for 200 s, the entire specimen has transformed to bainite. Therefore,
during the cooling to room temperature no additional transformations will occur. Hence, the final microstructure
consists of 100% bainite.

(g) Rapidly cool to 575°C (1065°F), hold for 20 s, rapidly cool to 350°C (660 °F), hold for 100 s, then
quench to room temperature.

Solution

Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.
 After cooling and holding at 575°C for 20 s, the entire specimen has transformed to fine pearlite. Therefore,
during the second heat treatment at 350°C no additional transformations will occur. Hence, the final microstructure
consists of 100% fine pearlite.

(h) Rapidly cool to 250°C (480°F), hold for 100 s, then quench to room temperature in water. Reheat to
315 °C (600°F) for 1 h and slowly cool to room temperature.

Solution

Below is Figure 10.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.
 After cooling and holding at 250°C for 100 s, no transformations will have occurred—at this point, the entire
specimen is still austenite. Upon rapidly cooling to room temperature in water, the specimen will completely
transform to martensite. The second heat treatment (at 315°C for 1 h)—not shown on the above plot—will transform
the material to tempered martensite. Hence, the final microstructure is 100% tempered martensite.
 10.19 Make a copy of the isothermal transformation diagram for an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid
composition (Figure 10.22) and then sketch and label time–temperature paths on this diagram to produce the
following microstructures:
(a) 100% fine pearlite
(b) 100% tempered martensite
(c) 50% coarse pearlite, 25% bainite, and 25% martensite

Solution

Below is shown the isothermal transformation diagram for a eutectoid iron-carbon alloy, with time-
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 CHAPTER 11

APPLICATIONS AND PROCESSING OF METAL ALLOYS

PROBLEM SOLUTIONS

Ferrous Alloys

11.1 (a) List the four classifications of steels. (b) For each, briefly describe the properties and typical
applications.

Solution

This question asks that we list four classifications of steels, and, for each, to describe properties and cite
typical applications.
Low Carbon Steels
Properties: nonresponsive to heat treatments; relatively soft and weak; machinable and weldable.
Typical applications: automobile bodies, structural shapes, pipelines, buildings, bridges, and tin cans.
Medium Carbon Steels
Properties: heat treatable, relatively large combinations of mechanical characteristics.
Typical applications: railway wheels and tracks, gears, crankshafts, and machine parts.
High Carbon Steels
Properties: hard, strong, and relatively brittle.
Typical applications: chisels, hammers, knives, and hacksaw blades.
High Alloy Steels (Stainless and Tool)
Properties: hard and wear resistant; resistant to corrosion in a large variety of environments.
Typical applications: cutting tools, drills, cutlery, food processing, and surgical tools.
 11.2 (a) Cite three reasons why ferrous alloys are used so extensively. (b) Cite three characteristics of
ferrous alloys that limit their utilization.

Solution

(a) Ferrous alloys are used extensively because:

(1) Iron ores exist in abundant quantities.
(2) Economical extraction, refining, and fabrication techniques are available.
(3) The alloys may be tailored to have a wide range of properties.
(b) Disadvantages of ferrous alloys are:
(1) They are susceptible to corrosion.
(2) They have a relatively high density.
(3) They have relatively low electrical conductivities.
 11.3 What is the function of alloying elements in tool steels?

Solution

The alloying elements in tool steels (e.g., Cr, V, W, and Mo) combine with the carbon to form very hard and
wear-resistant carbide compounds.
 11.5 On the basis of microstructure, briefly explain why gray iron is brittle and weak in tension.

Solution

Gray iron is weak and brittle in tension because the tips of the graphite flakes act as points of stress
concentration.
 11.6 Compare gray and malleable cast irons with respect to (a) composition and heat treatment, (b)
microstructure, and (c) mechanical characteristics.

Solution

This question asks us to compare various aspects of gray and malleable cast irons.
(a) With respect to composition and heat treatment:
Gray iron--2.5 to 4.0 wt% C and 1.0 to 3.0 wt% Si. For most gray irons there is no heat treatment
after solidification.
Malleable iron--2.5 to 4.0 wt% C and less than 1.0 wt% Si. White iron is heated in a nonoxidizing
atmosphere and at a temperature between 800 and 900°C for an extended time period.
(b) With respect to microstructure:
Gray iron--Graphite flakes are embedded in a ferrite or pearlite matrix.
Malleable iron--Graphite clusters are embedded in a ferrite or pearlite matrix.
(c) With respect to mechanical characteristics:
Gray iron--Relatively weak and brittle in tension; good capacity for damping vibrations.
Malleable iron--Moderate strength and ductility.
 11.7 Compare white and nodular cast irons with respect to (a) composition and heat treatment, (b)
microstructure, and (c) mechanical characteristics.

Solution

This question asks us to compare white and nodular cast irons.

(a) With regard to composition and heat treatment:
White iron-- W
R ZW & DQG OHVV W
KDQ ZW 6L 1 R KHDWW
UHDW
P HQW KRZHYHU FRROLQJ LV
rapid during solidification.
Nodular cast iron--2.5 to 4.0 wt% C, 1.0 to 3.0 wt% Si, and a small amount of Mg or Ce. A heat
treatment at about 700°C may be necessary to produce a ferritic matrix.
(b) With regard to microstructure:
White iron--There are regions of cementite interspersed within pearlite.
Nodular cast iron--Nodules of graphite are embedded in a ferrite or pearlite matrix.
(c) With respect to mechanical characteristics:
White iron--Extremely hard and brittle.
Nodular cast iron--Moderate strength and ductility.
 11.8 Is it possible to produce malleable cast iron in pieces having large cross-sectional dimensions? Why
or why not?

Solution

It is not possible to produce malleable iron in pieces having large cross-sectional dimensions. White cast
iron is the precursor of malleable iron, and a rapid cooling rate is necessary for the formation of white iron, which may
not be accomplished at interior regions of thick cross-sections.
 Nonferrous Alloys

11.9 What is the principal difference between wrought and cast alloys?

Solution

The principal difference between wrought and cast alloys is as follows: wrought alloys are ductile enough
so as to be hot or cold worked during fabrication, whereas cast alloys are brittle to the degree that shaping by
deformation is not possible and they must be fabricated by casting.
 11.11 What is the chief difference between heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable alloys?

Solution

The chief difference between heat-treatable and nonheat-treatable alloys is that heat-treatable alloys may be
strengthened by a heat treatment wherein a precipitate phase is formed (precipitation hardening) or a martensitic
transformation occurs. Nonheat-treatable alloys are not amenable to strengthening by such treatments.
 11.12 Give the distinctive features, limitations, and applications of the following alloy groups: titanium
alloys, refractory metals, superalloys, and noble metals.

Solution

Titanium Alloys
Distinctive features: relatively low density, high melting temperatures, and high strengths are possible.
Limitation: because of chemical reactivity with other materials at elevated temperatures, these alloys are
expensive to refine.
Applications: aircraft structures, space vehicles, and in chemical and petroleum industries.
Refractory Metals
Distinctive features: extremely high melting temperatures; large elastic moduli, hardnesses, and strengths.
Limitation: some experience rapid oxidation at elevated temperatures.
Applications: extrusion dies, structural parts in space vehicles, incandescent light filaments, x-ray tubes,
and welding electrodes.
Superalloys
Distinctive features: able to withstand high temperatures and oxidizing atmospheres for long time periods.
Applications: aircraft turbines, nuclear reactors, and petrochemical equipment.
Noble Metals
Distinctive features: highly resistant to oxidation, especially at elevated temperatures; soft and ductile.
Limitation: expensive.
Applications: jewelry, dental restoration materials, coins, catalysts, and thermocouples.
 Casting

11.15 List four situations in which casting is the preferred fabrication technique.

Solution

Four situations in which casting is the preferred fabrication technique are:

(1) For large pieces and/or complicated shapes.
(2) When mechanical strength is not an important consideration.
(3) For alloys having low ductilities.
(4) When it is the most economical fabrication technique.
 11.16 Compare sand, die, investment, lost foam, and continuous casting techniques.

Solution

For sand casting, sand is the mold material, a two-piece mold is used, ordinarily the surface finish is not an
important consideration, the sand may be reused (but the mold may not), casting rates are low, and large pieces are
usually cast.
For die casting, a permanent mold is used, casting rates are high, the molten metal is forced into the mold
under pressure, a two-piece mold is used, and small pieces are normally cast.
For investment casting, a single-piece mold is used, which is not reusable; it results in high dimensional
accuracy, good reproduction of detail, and a fine surface finish; and casting rates are low.
For lost foam casting, the pattern is polystyrene foam, whereas the mold material is sand. Complex
geometries and tight tolerances are possible. Casting rates are higher than for investment, and there are few
environmental wastes.
For continuous casting, at the conclusion of the extraction process, the molten metal is cast into a
continuous strand having either a rectangular or circular cross-section; these shapes are desirable for subsequent
secondary metal-forming operations. The chemical composition and mechanical properties are relatively uniform
throughout the cross-section.
 Annealing Processes

11.19 In your own words describe the following heat treatment procedures for steels and, for each, the
intended final microstructure: full annealing, normalizing, quenching, and tempering.

Solution

Full annealing--Heat to about 50°C above the A3 line, Figure 11.10 (if the concentration of carbon is less
than the eutectoid) or above the A1 line (if the concentration of carbon is greater than the eutectoid) until the alloy

comes to equilibrium; then furnace cool to room temperature. The final microstructure is coarse pearlite.
Normalizing--Heat to at least 55°C above the A3 line Figure 11.10 (if the concentration of carbon is less than
the eutectoid) or above the Acm line (if the concentration of carbon is greater than the eutectoid) until the alloy

completely transforms to austenite, then cool in air. The final microstructure is fine pearlite.
Quenching--Heat to a temperature within the austenite phase region and allow the specimen to fully
austenitize, then quench to room temperature in oil or water. The final microstructure is martensite.
Tempering--Heat a quenched (martensitic) specimen, to a temperature between 450 and 650°C, for the time
necessary to achieve the desired hardness. The final microstructure is tempered martensite.
 11.20 Cite three sources of internal residual stresses in metal components. What are two possible adverse
consequences of these stresses?

Solution

Three sources of residual stresses in metal components are plastic deformation processes, nonuniform
cooling of a piece that was cooled from an elevated temperature, and a phase transformation in which parent and
product phases have different densities.
Two adverse consequences of these stresses are distortion (or warpage) and fracture.
 11.21 Give the approximate minimum temperature at which it is possible to austenitize each of the
following iron–carbon alloys d uring a normalizing heat treatment: (a) 0.20 wt% C, (b) 0.76 wt% C, and (c) 0.95
wt% C.

Solution

(a) For 0.20 wt% C, heat to at least 905°C (1660°F) since the A3 temperature is 850°C (1560°F).
(b) For 0.76 wt% C, heat to at least 782°C (1440°F) since the A3 temperature is 727°C (1340°F).
(c) For 0.95 wt% C, heat to at least 840°C (1545°F) since the Acm temperature is 785°C (1445°F).
 11.22 Give the approximate temperature at which it is desirable to heat each of the following iron–carbon
alloys during a full anneal heat treatment: (a) 0.25 wt% C, (b) 0.45 wt% C, (c) 0.85 wt% C, and (d) 1.10 wt% C.

Solution

(a) For 0.25 wt% C, heat to about 880°C (1510°F) since the A3 temperature is 830°C (1420°F).
(b) For 0.45 wt% C, heat to about 830°C (1525°F) since the A3 temperature is 780°C (1435°F).
(c) For 0.85 wt% C, heat to about 777°C (1430°F) since the A1 temperature is 727°C (1340°F).
(d) For 1.10 wt% C, heat to about 777°C (1430°F) since the A1 temperature is 727°C (1340°F).
 11.23 What is the purpose of a spheroidizing heat treatment? On what classes of alloys is it normally
used?

Solution

The purpose of a spheroidizing heat treatment is to produce a very soft and ductile steel alloy having a
spheroiditic microstructure. It is normally used on medium- and high-carbon steels, which, by virtue of carbon
content, are relatively hard and strong.
 Precipitation Hardening

11.30 Compare precipitation hardening (Section 11.9) and the hardening of steel by quenching and
tempering (Sections 10.5, 10.6, and 10.8) with regard to
(a) The total heat treatment procedure
(b) The microstructures that develop
(c) How the mechanical properties change during the several heat treatment stages

Solution

(a) With regard to the total heat treatment procedure, the steps for the hardening of steel are as follows:
(1) Austenitize above the upper critical temperature.
(2) Quench to a relatively low temperature.
(3) Temper at a temperature below the eutectoid.
(4) Cool to room temperature.
With regard to precipitation hardening, the steps are as follows:
(1) Solution heat treat by heating into the solid solution phase region.
(2) Quench to a relatively low temperature.
(3) Precipitation harden by heating to a temperature that is within the solid two-phase region.
(4) Cool to room temperature.
(b) For the hardening of steel, the microstructures that form at the various heat treating stages in part (a)
are:
(1) Austenite
(2) Martensite
(3) Tempered martensite
(4) Tempered martensite
For precipitation hardening, the microstructures that form at the various heat treating stages in part (a) are:
(1) Single phase
(2) Single phase--supersaturated
(3) Small plate-like particles of a new phase within a matrix of the original phase.
(4) Same as (3)
(c) For the hardening of steel, the mechanical characteristics for the various steps in part (a) are as follows:
(1) Not important
(2) The steel becomes hard and brittle upon quenching.
(3) During tempering, the alloy softens slightly and becomes more ductile.
(4) No significant changes upon cooling to or maintaining at room temperature.
 For precipitation hardening, the mechanical characteristics for the various steps in part (a) are as follows:
(1) Not important
(2) The alloy is relatively soft.
(3) The alloy hardens with increasing time (initially), and becomes more brittle; it may soften with
overaging.
(4) The alloy may continue to harden or overage at room temperature.
 11.31 What is the principal difference between natural and artificial aging processes?

Solution

For precipitation hardening, natural aging is allowing the precipitation process to occur at the ambient
temperature; artificial aging is carried out at an elevated temperature.