Chapter 4 Internal flow - Forced convective heat transfer

Course outline
4.1 introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Hydrodynamic considerations
4.3.1 Laminar flow in tubes
4.3.2 Turbulent flow in tubes
4.4 Thermal considerations
4.4.1 Mean temperature
4.4.2 Constant surface heat flux
4.4.3 Constant surface temperature
4.5 Energy balance
4.5.1 Constant heat flux
4.5.2 Constant surface temperature
4.6 Convection heat transfer relations
4.6.1 Laminar flow in tubes
4.6.1.1 Constant heat flux
4.6.1.2 Constant wall surface temperature
4.6.2 Turbulent flow
4.6.2.1 Reynolds analogy
4.6.2.2 Colburn analogy
4.7 Non – Circular tubes
4.8 Summary
References.

4.1 Introduction:
In chapters 2 and 3, convection heat transfer where the fluid flows over a surface
(external) was studied. Laminar flow was considered in chapter 2 while turbulent flow
was considered in chapter 3. The velocity and thermal boundaries that developed on
the surface are bounded on one side (on the plate) only. The boundary layers grow as
the distance from the leading edge increases. In this chapter, we consider the
convection heat transfer for internal flow. In external flow, the boundary layer
development on the surface is allowed to continue without external constraints. But in
internal flow, such as in a pipe, the fluid is confined by a surface. The boundary layer
is therefore unable to develop without being constraint.
One will find internal flow in heating and cooling of fluids common in chemical
processing, environmental control and energy conversions technologies.
We begin by considering velocity (hydrodynamic) effects pertinent to internal flow in
laminar flow. Thermal boundary layer effects are considered next. and an overall
energy balance is applied to determine the fluid temperature variations in the flow
direction. The same considerations are considered for turbulent flow. An overall
energy balance is applied to determine the fluid temperature variations in the flow
direction and finally correlations for estimating the convection heat transfer
coefficient are presented for a variety of internal flow conditions.

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 4.2 Objectives:
The objectives of this chapter are to:
1) Develop an appreciation for the physical phenomena associated
with internal flow.
2) Obtain convection coefficient for flow conditions.
3) Develop an overall energy balance to determine fluid temperature
variations in the flow direction.

4.3 Hydrodynamic considerations:

Heat transfer by convection is much dependent to the prevailing flow conditions.
Detailed analysis of flow is considered in fluid mechanics courses. It is assumed here
that you have taken fluid mechanics courses that deal with internal flow. However we
briefly highlight the results of internal flow relevant to heat transfer both in laminar
and turbulent flow.

4.3.1. Laminar flow:

Consider laminar flow in a circular tube of radius R, (Fig. 4.1). When the fluid makes
contact with the surface, viscous effects become important and boundary layer
develops with increasing axial distance x.
This occurs with the shrinking of the inviscid flow region and concludes with
boundary layer merging at the center line. The distance from the entrance at which
this merger occurs is termed the Entry Length or the hydrodynamic entry length LE.

u(r,x)

 R
u r

bl
LE
Fully developed
region

Figure 4.1 Flow development in a tube

For x greater than LE the boundary layer extends over the entire cross-section and the
flow is said to be fully developed.
For laminar flow (Red  2300), the entry length in a circular tube is approximated as,

. (4.1)
The Reynolds number for flow in a circular tube is defined as,

(4.2)
where um is the mean velocity over the tube cross-section and D is the tube
diameter.

2
In the entry region, the fluid velocity is a function of both the radius and axial length
x. The mean velocity is thus defined at a particular section and it is defined such that
when multiplied by density , and the cross-sectional area of the tube, Ac, we obtain
the rate of mass flow through the tube.

Hence, (4.3)
For steady, incompressible fully developed flow of uniform cross-sectional area, the
mass flow rate and the mean velocity are constants and independent of x. Therefore
the Reynolds number may be expressed as,

(4.4)

Show how equation 4.3 is combined with equation 4.2 to obtain equation
4.4.

The mass flow rate is also given as the integral of the mass flux over the cross-
section,

(4.5)
and the mean velocity, for incompressible flow in a circular tube is,

(4.6)

For fully developed flow, the velocity is not a function of x but of r only. For
laminar flow the derived velocity distribution in a tube is given as,

(4.7)

The mean velocity can then be determined by integration as,

(4.8)

and the velocity profile expressed in terms of mean velocity as,

3
 (4.9)

Show the working from equation 4.7 through equation 4.8 to equation
4.9.

The pressure drop in the tube is determined by use of the moody or Darcy friction
factor, f defined as,

. (4.10)

Substituting for mean velocity and Reynolds number, the friction factor may be
obtained as, . (4.11)

Intext Question
- What are the salient features of a hydrodynamic entry region? Are
hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths equivalent? If not on
what do the relative lengths depend?
- What are the salient hydrodynamic features of fully developed
flow? How is the friction factor for fully developed flow affected
by wall roughness?

4.3.2 Turbulent flow:

In turbulent flow in a tube, the friction factor analysis is more complicated than in
laminar. The friction factor not only is a function of Reynolds number but also a
function of the tube roughness. It is smallest for smooth pipes but increases with tube
wall roughness. For smooth pipes the friction factor is approximated by,

for (4.12)
for (4.13)

In fully developed region, f and dp/dx, is constant. The pressure drop over an axial
position x1 to x2 may be expressed as,

(4.14)

The velocity distribution may be described by using the power law distribution similar
to that of the flat surface.

4
 (4.15)

The mean velocity may then be obtained as,

(4.16)

The Blasius relation for flat surface shear stress in terms of boundary layer thickness
may be translated into that for pipe flow.

(4.17)

With The Darcy friction factor may then be found to be,

(4.18)

For higher Reynolds number, the empirical relation, equation 4.13 is used.

4.4 Thermal considerations:

When a fluid enters a tube at a uniform temperature that differs from the surface,
temperature, convection heat transfer occurs and a thermal boundary layer begins to
develop. A thermal fully developed condition is eventually reached as shown in Fig.
4.2; similar to the hydrodynamic conditions.
The surface condition may either be at constant temperature (Tw =constant) or
uniform heat flux (qw = constant).

Tw
Temperature
u distribution

Tr

Figure 4.2 Temperature distribution in pipe flow – surface is hotter than the
fluid.

For laminar flow, the entry length may be approximated to be,

5
 (4.19)

For Pr1, hydrodynamic boundary layer develops more rapidly than thermal
boundary layer.
For Pr1, the inverse is true.
For Pr100 (oils) hydrodynamic entry length is much smaller than the thermal entry
length and fully developed profile may be assumed throughout the thermal entry
region.

4.4.1 Mean temperature:

The mean temperature is defined in terms of the thermal energy transported with the
bulk motion as it moves past a cross-section. The rate of thermal energy transport is
integral of the product of the mass flux and the internal energy per unit mass over the
cross section.

Energy transport at any section E = Mass flux × internal energy

(4.20)

If mean temperature (bulk temperature) is defined such that,

Then the mean temperature may be obtained as,

(4.21)

The mean temperature Tm, changes with the distance x along the flow tube. When
multiplied with the mass flow and specific heat, it provides the rate at which thermal
energy is transported with the fluid as it moves through the tube.

The convective heat transfer is then determined by using the Newton’s law of cooling
with Tm as the convenient reference temperature.

(4.22)
where, h is the local convection heat transfer coefficient. When heat transfer is
occurring, Tm must vary in the flow direction. The value of Tm increases with x if the
heat transfer is from the wall to the fluid (Tw  Tm); it decreases with x if the heat
flows from the fluid to the wall (Tw  Tm).

The mean temperature Tm may not be used to describe thermal fully developed
conditions because it is a function of x. Similarly the variation of the temperature T at
any radius r varies with x and therefore may seem that fully developed conditions may
not be reached.
Thermal fully developed conditions may be described by means of non-dimensional
temperature difference that becomes independent of x as the flow progresses. This
term is of the form,

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 (4.23)

Hence for fully developed thermal conditions,

. (4.24)

This condition is eventually reached in a tube with either uniform surface heat flux
(electrically heated or uniformly radiated) or uniform surface temperature (phase
change on surface – boiling or condensation).

In fully thermal developed condition the non-dimensional temperature difference ratio

is not a function of x and hence the derivative of the ratio with respect to r must also
be independent of x. Tw and Tm are both constants in so far as differentiation with
respect to r is concerned. Therefore,

. (4.25)

But surface heat flux may be given by Fourier’s law as,

(4.26)

Hence in thermally fully developed flow of a fluid with constant properties, h/k =
constant and therefore the local convection heat transfer coefficient is a constant,
independent of x.

Intext Question
- To what important characteristic of an internal flow is the mean
or bulk temperature linked?
- If fluid enters a tube at a uniform temperature and there is heat
transfer to or from the surface of the tube, how does the
convection coefficient vary with distance along the tube?
- If fluid enters a tube at a uniform temperature and there is heat
transfer to or from the surface of the tube, how does the
convection coefficient vary with distance along the tube?

4.4.2 Constant surface heat flux:

For constant surface heat flux, both h and qw are constants. From Newton’s law of
cooling, for fully developed flow,

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 (4.27)

Also, (4.28)

and substituting for constant heat flux,

(4.29)
Hence the axial temperature gradient is independent of the radial location.

4.4.3 Constant surface temperature:

In the case of constant surface temperature,

(4.30)

Take Note
The above expressions have been obtained without assumption of
whether the flow was laminar or turbulent and would therefore be
applicable to both type of flows.
The mean temperature is clearly an important variable for internal flows.

Intext Question
- For fluid flow through a tube with a uniform surface heat flux,
how does the mean temperature of the fluid vary with distance
from the tube entrance in a) the entrance region and b) the fully
developed region? How does the surface temperature vary with
distance in the entrance and fully developed region?
- For heat transfer to or from a fluid flowing through a tube with a
uniform surface temperature, how does the mean temperature of
the fluid vary with distance from the entrance? How does the
surface heat flux vary with distance from entrance?

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4.5 Energy balance:
The previous section has shown the variation of temperature during pipe flow. In this
section we consider the energy transfers. Consider a fully developed flow through a
tube. The fluid moves at constant flow rate m and convection heat transfer occurs at
the inner surface.

Tw

Tm

Figure 4.3 Temperatures in a typical tube flow.

For a fluid at constant density and specific heat,

(4.31)
Integrating for the entire tube from inlet to outlet,

(4.32)

m Tm+dTm
Tm
Tmi Tmo

x x

Figure 4.4 Energy balance in tube flow

For the differential element shown in Figure 4.4, the convective heat transfer may be
expressed as,

(4.33)

where, P is the heat transfer area perimeter. Hence,

(4.34)

Therefore, the variation of the mean temperature is given as,

9
 (4.35)

Take Note
- P is normally constant (tubes of constant cross-section)
- mcp, the heat capacity is constant (incompressible fluids)
- h varies at entry region but is constant in the fully developed
flow.

4.5.1 Constant heat flux:

For constant heat flux, qw = constant, the following relations are obtained.

(4.36)

(4.37)

Integrating from xi to xo, the mean temperature variation is then given as,

(4.38)

where, Tm(i) is the mean temperature at inlet.

Fully developed
Entry region
Tw

T Tw - Tm
Tm(x)

qw - constant

Figure 4.5, Temperature variation with constant heat flux.

4.5.2 Constant surface temperature:

For constant surface temperature, let in equation 4.35,

Then,

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 (4.39)

or,

For thermally fully developed flow, h is a constant. However, if the entry region is
included then the average heat transfer coefficient is used.

For fully developed flow,

(4.40)

with h as a constant.

(4.41)

Hence, Tw-Tm decays exponentially with distance along the tube axis.

Consider overall heat transfer,

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But from equation 4.40

Let PL = Surface area As,

Therefore, (4.41)

Where, , (4.42)

The logarithmic temperature difference.

Surface temperature Tw is constant.

Example 4.1:
Water enters a 2.5 cm ID thin copper tube of a heat exchanger at 15°C at a rate of 0.3
kg/s and is heated by steam condensing outside at 120°C. If the average heat transfer
coefficient is 800 W/m2 determine the length of the tube required in order to heat the
water to 115°C.

Soln:

Heat transfer, overall = .

.
.

Applying equation 4.42,

And equation 4.41, , hence =

.
The length of the tube is 61m.

Activity:
Consider the flow of oil at 20°C in a 30 cm diameter pipeline at an
average velocity of 2 m/s. A 200 –m long section of the horizontal
pipeline passes through icy waters of a lake at 0°C. Disregarding the
thermal resistance of the pipe material, determine
a) Temperature of the oil when the pipe leaves the lake
b) The rate of heat transfer from the oil, and
c) The pumping power required to overcome the pressure losses and
to maintain the flow of the oil in the pipe.

[19.74°C, -6.11 × 104W, 16.8 kW]

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 Activity:
Water is to be heated from 15°C to 65°C as it flows through a 3 – cm
internal – diameter 5 – m long tube. The tube is equipped with an electric
resistance heater that provides uniform heating throughout the surface of
the tube. The outer surface of the heater is well insulated so that in steady
operation all the heat generated in the heater is transferred to the water in
the tube. If the system is to provide hot water at a rate of 10 L/min,
determine the power rating of the resistance heater. Also, estimate the
inner surface temperature of the tube at the exit. [34.6 kW, 115°C]

Example 4.2:
An instant water heater consists of a 9.1mm ID tube through which water enters at a
rate of 18.4 kg/h at a temperature of 30°C. The tube is externally wound over by a
nichrome resistance wire with a heating of 400 W per metre tube length, after which it
is insulated.
a) Determine the length of the tube required to raise the temperature of water to 75°C.
b) Find the maximum temperature of water at the outlet.
c) What should be done so that there is no boiling in any part of the flow?

Soln

Bulk mean temperature of water, .

Properties of water at this temperature, ρ = 984 kg/m3, μ = 0.54 × 10-3 kg/ms, k =
0.6445 W/mK, cp = 4187 J/kg K.
a) Mean velocity, .

Reynolds number, . The flow is laminar.

Constant heat flux, .

From equation 5.37, , and P = 2πR, m = ρπR2um. Hence,

The required temperature rise ∆Tm = 75 – 30 = 45°C.

The required length of tube .

b) The maximum temperature of water at any section is that of the wall. The wall
temperature is given by equation 4.49.

. Now, , and .

Therefore, after substitution, =

Tw = 120.2°C.

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c) The water near the wall outlet will tend to boil. Need to limit the outlet temperature
to 100°C, by reducing the heating rate.
Therefore, Tw = 100°C, and Tm = 75°C.
, And thus,

The maximum heating capacity per metre length of the tube is then,
7,738 × π × 0.0091 × 1 = 221 W.
The length of the tubing will thus be increased.

- What is the nature of fully developed flow, and how does it differ
from flow in the entry region?
- How does prandtl number influence the boundary layer
development in the entry region?
- How do thermal conditions in the fluid depend on surface
conditions? For example, how do the surface and mean
temperatures vary with x for the case of uniform surface heat
flux? Or how do the mean temperature and the surface heat flux
vary for the case of uniform surface temperature?
- Why is a log mean temperature difference rather than arithmetic
mean temperature difference used to calculate the total rate of
heat transfer to or from a fluid flowing through a tube with
constant surface temperature?

4.6 Convection heat transfer relations:

Convection heat transfer is often predicted using empirical relations or correlations. In
many situations it is difficult to analyse the flow, especially the turbulent flow.
However, for laminar flow in tubes, relations for Nusselt number have been derived.

4.6.1 Laminar flow in tubes.

Consider an annular element at radius r, of thickness dr and length dx in laminar tube
flow shown in Figure 4.6.

Heat conducted into the element is,

(4.43)

r

Fluid in

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 r

x

Figure 4.6 Heat transfer in a tube – Laminar flow.

Heat conducted out of the element is,

(4.43)

Increase of energy of the fluid in the element due to convection in the x-direction is,

Hence,

Or,

(4.44)

This is the temperature distribution within the fluid.

For fully developed laminar flow equation 4.9,

Where, velocity u is not a function of x.

Upon substituting the velocity, the temperature distribution is therefore,

(4.45)

4.6.1.1 Constant heat flux:

For constant wall heat flux, equation 4.29 gives,

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 also,

Separating the variables and integrating, the radial temperature distribution is

obtained.

(4.46)

The boundary conditions,

At r = 0

At r = R

Therefore C1 = 0 and

For fully developed flow with constant surface heat flux, the temperature profile is
given by,

(4.47)

If the velocity and the above temperature profiles are substituted into the expression
of mean temperature (equation 4.21) and integration with respect to r is performed,
the mean velocity is obtained.

(4.48)

The heat transfer coefficient may be obtained from,

and

16
Then, (4.49)

and therefore,

(4.50)
For fully developed laminar flow in a tube with constant heat flux, the Nusselt
number and hence the heat transfer coefficient is a constant independent of Reynolds
number, Prandtl number and axial position.

Intext Question
- What two equations may be used to calculate the total heat rate of
a fluid flowing through a tube with a uniform surface heat flux?
What two equations may be used to calculate the total heat rate to
or from a fluid flowing through a tube with uniform surface
temperature?
- Under what conditions is the Nusselt number associated with
internal flow equal to a constant value, independent of Reynolds
number and Prandtl number?
- How is the characteristic length defined for a non-circular tube?

Activity:
For flow of a liquid metal through a circular tube, the velocity and
temperature profiles at a particular axial location may be approximated as
being uniform and parabolic, respectively. That is, , and

where C1 and C2 are constants. What is the value of

the Nusselt number Nud at this location. (Nud, = 8).

Soln:
Heat transfer coefficient
Obtain Tm from equation 4.21.

Heat flux, , at r = ro.

Substitute into heat transfer coefficient expression.
And Nusselt number,

4.6.1.2 Constant wall surface temperature:

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For constant surface temperature, the axial temperature gradient is not the same as the
mean temperature gradient. However,

(4.51)

The energy balance equation for the element becomes,

(4.52)

For constant surface temperature.

The solution of the above equation is rather involving. However, it results into
Nusselt number of the form,

(4.53)

Which is also a constant.

The fluid properties for both the constant heat flux and constant surface temperature
are to be evaluated at Tm.

4.6.2 Turbulent flow:

The thermal entry length in turbulent flow is difficult quantity to determine. However,
the turbulent entry length is much shorter than that of laminar and the higher the Pr,
the shorter the entry length. Except for liquid metals for which Pr is very small, the
entry length for turbulent flow is of order of 20 to 30 tube diameters.
Due to difficulties in analytical treatment of turbulent flow, the heat and momentum
analogies discussed above are adopted to predict heat transfer situations in pipe flow.
The analogies for flat surface may be translated into corresponding analogies for pipe
flow by replacing Cf/2 by f/8 and U by um and T by Tm.

4.6.2.1 Reynolds analogy:

For fully developed flow the Reynolds analogy is,

(4.54)

4.6.2.2 Colburn analogy:

For fully developed flow, the Colburn analogy becomes,

(4.55)
Substituting for friction factor, for smooth pipes, the following expressions are
obtained.

for (4.56)

18
 for (4.57)
This is the Colburn equation.

The Dittus-Boelter equation is slightly different and preferred and is of the form,

(4.58)

n= 0.4 for heating (Tw  Tm) and,

n=0.3 for cooling (Tw  Tm).

The equations 4.56, 4.57 & 4.58 apply in the range,

The equations are to be used for small to moderate temperature differences, (T w - Tm),
with all properties evaluated at Tm. For large property variations, the equation due to
Seider and Tate may be used.

(4.59)

where all properties except w are evaluated at Tm.

The average Nusselt number , for the entire tube depends on the nature of the
inlet conditions, as well as on the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers. General applicable
correlations are not available. As a first approximation the above equations may be
used to obtain a reasonable estimate of if
In determining , all fluid properties should be evaluated at the arithmetic of the
mean temperatures,

(4.60)
For rough surfaces, the heat transfer is larger and the Nusselt number may be
determined using the friction factor in the Colburn analogy.

4.7 Non-Circular tubes:

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The results for circular tubes may be applied to non-circular tubes by using an
effective diameter as the characteristic dimension. This is termed the hydraulic
diameter defined as,

(4.61)
where Ac and P are the flow cross-sectional area and the wetted perimeter
respectively. It is the diameter that should be used in calculating the Reynolds number
and the Nusselt number.
Table 4.1 gives results of some simple duct geometries for fully developed laminar
flow.
Table 4.1 Nusselt number of selected geometry – laminar flow.

Duct Geometry
Circle 4.364 3.657
Equilateral triangle 3.111 2.47
Square 3.608 2.976
Infinite parallel planes 8.235 7.541

Nut is the Nusselt number for constant wall temperature while Nuq is that for constant
wall heat flux.

Example 4.3:
A concentric pipe heat exchanger is used to cool lubricating oil for a large diesel
engine. The inner pipe of radius 30mm and has water flowing at a rate of 0.3 kg/s.
The oil is flowing in the outer pipe of radius 50mm at a rate of 0.15 kg/s. Assume
fully developed flow in both inner and outer pipes. Calculate the heat transfer
coefficient for water and oil sides respectively. Evaluate oil properties at 80°C and
water properties at 35°C.

Soln:

For oil at 80°C, cp = 2131 kJ/kg K, μ = 3.25 × 10-2 kg/ms, k = 0.138 W/m K.

For water at 35°C cp = 4178 kJ/kg K, μ = 7.25 × 10-4 kg/ms, k = 0.625 W/m K

Water:
Equation, 4.4

Since Re > 2300, the water flow is turbulent.

Equation, 4.58, , where n = 0.4 (heating water)
The heat transfer coefficient,

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Oil: Oil is flowing in an annular shape pipe. We use the hydraulic diameter, equation

4.61 .= .

= 2(0.05 – 0.03) = 0.036m.

. Then, .

Since Red < 2300, the oil flow is laminar.

For pipe flow and assuming a wall with constant heat flux,
Nud = 4.36.
Then,

Take Note
Note that the heat transfer coefficient on the oil side is significantly lower
than the water side. If the pipe material is a good conductor, this then will
be the limiting parameter in the heat exchange and to improve it, we need
to increase the heat transfer coefficient by increasing the oil flow velocity
or reduce outer diameter or both.

4.8 Summary:
In this chapter, we have considered heat transfer in internal flow.
Convective heat transfer is influenced by the prevailing hydrodynamic
conditions. We therefore began by highlighting the necessary laminar and
turbulent hydrodynamic relations in tube flow. Relations for mean
velocity and friction factor for both laminar flow and turbulent flow were
stated. We then discussed general thermal relations for flow in tubes. In
this case the mean temperature and its variation with tube length were
derived, both for constant surface heat flux and constant surface
temperature.
In convection, the heat flux is determined by use of Newton’s law of
cooling. This however requires the determination of heat transfer
coefficient. In laminar flow attempts have been made to derive the
Nusselt number for constant heat flux. Analysis of heat transfer in
turbulent flow is complicated and analogies and experiments are widely
used in estimating the Nusselt number.

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Activity:

1. For a flow of a liquid metal through a circular tube, the velocity

and temperature profiles at a particular axial location may be
approximated as being uniform and parabolic respectively. That

is, and , where C1 and C2 are

constants. What is the value of the Nusselt number at this

location?
2. In a particular application involving fluid flow at a rate m through
a circular tube of length L and diameter D, the surface heat flux is
known to have the following sinusoidal variation with x

The maximum flux qwm, is known to be constant, and the

fluid enters the tube at a known temperature Ti. Assuming the
convection coefficient to be constant, how do the mean
temperature of the fluid and surface temperature vary with x?
3. When 0.5 kg of water per minute is passed through a tube of
20mm diameter, it is found to be heated from 20C to 50C. The
heating is accomplished by electrical heating and subsequently
the surface temperature of the tube is maintained at 85C.
Determine the length of the tube required. Take properties of
water at 60C.
4. Water at a rate of 0.8 kg/s is heated from 35C to 40C in a 2.5
cm diameter tube whose surface is at 90C. How long must the
tube be to accomplish this heating?
5. In a straight tube of 50mm diameter, water is flowing at a velocity
of 15 m/s. The tube surface temperature is maintained at 60C
and the flowing water is heated from the inlet temperature 15C
to an outlet temperature of 45C.
Calculate:
(i) The heat transfer coefficient from the tube surface to
the water
(ii) The length of the tube.
6. 34.2 m3/hr of air at 15C and 1 bar is to be heated to 285C while
flowing through a 25mm diameter tube, which is maintained at
45C. Calculate the length of the tube required. Assume that the
simple Reynolds analogy is valid and take for
turbulent flow. Properties to be taken at the mean bulk
temperature.
7. Water at a flow rate of 2 kg/s enters a long section of pipe with a
temperature of 25C and a pressure of 100 bars. The pipe wall is
heated such that 105 W are transferred to the water as it flows
through the pipe.
a) If the water leaves the pipe with a pressure of 2
bars, what is its outlet temperature?
b) What value of the outlet temperature would be

22
 obtained by using simple energy balance
calculations?
8. Water enters a tube at 27C with a flow rate of 450 kg/hr. The
heat transfer from the tube wall to the fluid is given as
, where a is equal to 20 W/m2 and x(m) is the axial
distance from the tube entrance.
a) Derive an expression for the temperature
distribution T(x), of water.
b) What is the outlet temperature of the water for a
heated section 30m long?
9. Atmospheric air enters the heated section of a circular tube at a
flowrate of 0.005 kg/s and a temperature of 20C. The tube is of
diameter 50mm, and fully developed conditions with heat transfer
coefficient of 25 W/m2 K exist over the entire length of 3m.
a) For the case of uniform heat flux at 1000 W/m2,
determine the total heat transfer rate, and the
mean temperature of the air leaving the tube.
What is the value of the surface temperature at
the tube inlet and outlet? Sketch the axial
variation of the tube temperature and the mean
air temperature. On the same figure, also sketch
(qualitatively) the axial variation of the surface
temperature and mean air temperature for the
more realistic case in which the local convection
coefficient varies with x.
b) If the surface heat flux varies linearly with x,
such that , what are the
values of heat transfer rate, mean outlet
temperature of air, and the surface temperature at
the inlet and outlet. Sketch the axial variation of
the tube temperature and the mean air
temperature. On the same figure, also sketch
(qualitatively) the axial variation of the surface
temperature and mean air temperature for the
more realistic case in which the local convection
coefficient varies with x.
10. An instant water heater consists of a 9.1mm ID tube through
which water enters at the rate of 18.4 kg/hr at a temperature of
30C. The tube is externally wound over by a Nichrome
resistance wire with a heating capacity of 400 W per metre length
of the tube, after which it is insulated.
a) Determine the length of tube required to raise the
temperature of water to 75C.
b) Find the maximum temperature of water at the
outlet.
11. Heated air at 50C and 0.09 Mpa pressure flows through a
circular duct of internal diameter 200mm and thickness 3mm at a
mean velocity of 7.5 m/s. On the outside, atmospheric air at 25C
flows across the duct at a velocity of 2 m/s. Neglecting the

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 thermal resistance of the duct wall, determine the duct length over
which the heated air temperature drops by 10C assuming the
flow to be both thermally and hydro dynamically fully developed.
The bulk mean temperature may be taken as the average of the
inlet and outlet.

Forced convection over an isothermal horizontal cylinder

for

Forced convection in a pipe

for .

References:
1. Introduction to Heat Transfer, Frank P. Incropera, David P.
DeWitt, Third Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1996
2. Heat and Mass Transfer, C. P. ARoRa, Third Edition, Khanna
Publishers, 1986.
3. Introduction to Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer, Yunus A.
Cengel, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill Primis, 2006.
4. Heat Transfer, J.P Holman, Tenth Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2010.
5. Heat Transfer, Chris long, Nasser Sayma, Ventus Publishing Aps
2009.
6. Engineering Thermodynamics, Work & Heat Transfer, G.F.C
Rogers & Y.R. Mayhew, Fourth Edition, Pearson Prentice Hall,
1992.
7. Applied Thermodynamics, for Engineering Technologists, T.D.
Eastop & A. McConkey, Fourth Edition, Longman Scientific &
Technical, 1986.

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