Applied Clay Science 29 (2005) 55 – 72

www.elsevier.com/locate/clay

Evaluation of Swat kaolin deposits of Pakistan for industrial uses

Muhammad Ashraf Siddiquia, Zulfiqar Ahmeda,b,*, Akhter Ali Saleemia
a
Institute of Geology, University of the Punjab, New Campus, Lahore-54590, Pakistan
b
Department of Earth Sciences, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran-31261, Saudi Arabia
Received 5 August 2003; received in revised form 20 January 2004; accepted 21 September 2004
Available online 25 November 2004

Abstract

The Swat kaolin deposits are characterized and evaluated for their potential as industrial raw materials. Their particle size,
colour measurement, viscosity, plastic limits, liquid limits, drying, firing shrinkage, water absorption, oil absorption, pH, water
soluble matter, moisture and bulk density are tested for b63, b10, b5 and b2 Am size fractions. Due to low plasticity index and
high Fe2O3, TiO2 and CaO contents, the bwater-washedQ b63-Am fraction of kaolin is unsuitable for ceramic use. The
yellowness of this fraction, 1.3–9.8%, can be reduced by 20.4–61.3%, by chemical bleaching. The b2-Am fraction can be used
for high-solids formulation for publication-grade paper and medium-finish lower cost enamels. The b5-Am fraction is useable in
paper filling. The b10-Am fraction is suitable for the ceramics, paint, plastic and rubber-filler industries.
Published by Elsevier B.V.

Keywords: Kaolin evaluation; China clay; Swat area; Pakistan; Physical properties; Industrial use; Particle size

1. Introduction Previous studies of these deposits include those by

The industrial applications of kaolin or china clay
are diverse and depend largely on the physical
properties, such as particle size, whiteness, platyness,
etc., specific for each kaolin deposit (Bundy, 1993;
Murray and Keller, 1993; Chandrasekhar and Ramas-
wamy, 2002; Murray, 2003). The kaolin deposits of
Swat District of Pakistan (GPS: 348 53V 30U N; 728
53V 30W E), are amongst the oldest known kaolins
from Pakistan. Their industrial attributes are previ-
ously poorly characterized.
* Corresponding author. Fax: +966 3 860 2585.
E-mail address: zulfi@kfupm.edu.sa (Z. Ahmed).
0169-1317/$ - see front matter. Published by Elsevier B.V.
doi:10.1016 / j.clay.2004.09.005
Kyotani et al. (1967), Faruqi and Ahmad (1967),
Faruqi et al. (1970a,b), Moosvi et al. (1974), Ahmed
et al. (1978), and Fujii (1995), though none of these
focussed on the details of kaolin’s physical properties.
Kyotani et al. (1967) estimated about 2.5 million tons
reserves of Swat kaolin, revisable upwards with
working of the deposits. They categorized the clay
into two grades on the basis of grain size (b44 and b5
Am fractions). They carried out mineralogical and
chemical studies and determined the physical proper-
ties, which are used in ceramics. Relatively more
elaborate account of physical properties was given by
Faruqi and Ahmad (1967), and Faruqi et al. (1970a,b).
They studied water-washed samples of the English
56 M.A. Siddiqui et al. / Applied Clay Science 29 (2005) 55–72
kaolin and of the
200 mesh (or 74 Am) Swat kaolin;
to determine the chemical and mineralogical compo-
sition and the following physical properties: specific
gravity, colour and brightness, dry and fired shrink-
age, particle size distribution, reversible thermal
change, transverse strength, viscosity and casting rate,
plasticity and workability.
The present study provides the in-depth evaluation
of physical properties of the Swat kaolin deposits and
their suitability for use in various industries. Four
products with different particle size ranges are
prepared for the evaluation: b2, b5, b10 and b63
Am. These products are then assessed with respect to
established specifications and their potential for
industrial use. The data included in the present study
also pertains to two new localities of Swat kaolin
deposits, Tarkani and Chautar, for which no previous
work exists.
2. Geology of Swat kaolin
These primary kaolin deposits of northern Pakistan
occur within the amphibolites, sensu lato, of the
Cretaceous age Kohistan island arc terrane (Fig. 1a) ,
close to its southern boundary marked by the Main
Mantle Thrust (MMT). These ortho-amphibolites
form the bcountry rocksQ around certain felsic zones
enriched in small leucocratic igneous bodies and dikes
that constitute the bhost rocksQ of kaolin, and lie a few
kilometers northwards of the east–west-trending part
of MMT exposed near Mingora city. The amphib-
olites, by virtue of hornblende abundance, were
named as, bUpper Swat Hornblendic GroupQ, by
Martin et al. (1962), but were renamed as bKamila
amphibolitesQ (Jan, 1979; Tahirkheli, 1979). The
metamorphic facies of these amphibolites grade
southwards into the epidote-amphibolite facies that
surround the Swat kaolin deposits. Northwards, higher
facies may have resulted in almandine-amphibolites
(Ahmed and Ahmad, 1975). Metamorphic segregation
of hornblende to hornblendite levels is commonplace.
Minor bodies of meladiorites also occur widely. The
lithologies of bcountry rocksQ include amphibolites
sensu stricto, epidote amphibolites, hornblendites and
meladiorites. The largest amphibolite outcrop grades
southward into granodiorite gneiss. To its north, it is
in contact with a diorite body along a migmatitic zone.
The other rock units exposed in the area includes a
wide range of intrusives, such as diorite, granodiorite
(Moosvi et al., 1974; Ahmed et al., 1978) and even
ultramafic rocks (Ahmed and Ahmad, 1974).
The bcountry rocksQ are commonly penetrated by
leucocratic intrusives that host kaolin deposits. In
terms of the IUGS classification (Le Maitre, 2002),
most of the bhost rocksQ are diorites, tonalites,
trondhjemite, granite and pegmatite. Most of them
contain modal quartz. Extinction angles of the
twinned plagiocalse grains indicate an abundance of
andesine composition. Hornblende, epidote and
sphene are minor phases. Among accessory micas,
muscovite predominates whereas biotite is mostly
absent. Other accessory phases are epidote and
sphene. Hornblende may show symplectitic inter-
growth with quartz. Acidic pegmatites contain abun-
dant and often partly sericitized feldspars. Degree of
sericitization is variable from low to moderate, and
twinning is often perceptible.
Most of the Swat kaolin deposits are derived from
the parent granodiorite, which occurs widespread in
the form of variously sized patches, veins, layers and
pods in amphibolite, migmatite and hornblende-
feldspar-quartz gneiss. In the amphibolite, it generally
forms elongated bodies along the foliation planes,
while in the migmatite and the gneiss it occurs as
irregular masses complexly mixed up with the
enclosing rock.
Mines are located in the low hilly tracts of Shah
Dheri, Shalhand and Taghma areas (Fig. 1b). The
kaolin deposits extend roughly in the E–W direction
in the Shah Dheri area and in NE–SW direction in the
areas of Shalhand and Taghma. The plagioclase
amphibolite of Taghma, Muhammad Beg, Tarkani
and Chautar areas (Hamidullah et al., 1991) is highly
weathered, fractured, jointed, and dissected by basic
pegmatites comprising of very coarse hornblende and
feldspar (Hussain, 1991). Such pegmatites occur
trending NE to SW within amphibolites at Taghma,
Muhammad Beg, Tarkani and Chautar areas (Fig. 1b).
In outcrops, hornblende pegmatites hardly escape
notice due to their very coarse prismatic hornblende.
They also contain plagioclase, quartz, and dark green
epidote. Quartzo-felspathic dykes and veins of vari-
able size intrude the hornblende pegmatites.
Fujii (1995) reported schlieren and bands of
anorthositic and other leucocratic rocks in hornblen-
 M.A. Siddiqui et al. / Applied Clay Science 29 (2005) 55–72 57

Fig. 1. (a) Map of northern Pakistan, showing the location of Swat kaolin deposits and their tectonic setting. For more details, see Yamamoto
(1993). (b) Map of the Swat kaolin district, showing location of individual lenses included in this study.
58 M.A. Siddiqui et al. / Applied Clay Science 29 (2005) 55–72
dite and amphibolite of the Shalhand area. These
rocks appear to have replaced amphibolites, and
contain residual mafic bands and spots. Leucocratic
portions selectively host the Swat kaolin. Hornblen-
dite is unaltered, and amphibolite containing plagio-
clase is somewhat softened. The anorthositic rock is
wholly altered to the so-called Swat kaolin excluding
quartz-bearing and other hard rocks, such as those
containing epidote. No alteration effect is seen at the
margin of hornblendite. The intensity of alteration of
anorthositic rocks seems to be inversely related to
their hardness.
3. Methods and material studied
Four size fractions were concentrated. The b63-Am
fraction was extracted from raw material by wet-sieve
screening, the b5- and b10-Am fractions were prepared by
hydrocyclone technique, while the b2-Am fraction was
obtained by the procedure of settling in a bucket following
Stoke’s law. Mineralogical and chemical compositions and
kaolin-specific physical properties of each product were
determined. The physical properties evaluated are: particle
size analysis, colour measurement of washed and fired
material, viscosity concentration, flowability, plastic limit,
liquid limit, drying and firing shrinkages, water absorption,
oil absorption for washed and calcined products, soluble
salts, volatile matter, and pH.
Particle size measurements were carried out using the
laser particle size analyzer, Mastersizer Micro and Micro-
plus, with the displayed size range of 0.31–301 Am. The
samples were used in powder as well as liquid in liquid-
dispersant form. Sample quantity was typically 1
6 g cm
3
dependent on particle size. The dispersant vessel was a
600-ml laboratory beaker; used for N500-ml dispersant. Size
distributions in various fractions obtained from clays are here
given separately for the b63-, b10-, b5- and b2-Am mass
fractions.
Colour measurement on the raw kaolin and unwashed b63
Am samples, and washed samples of b63, b10 and b5-Am size
fractions of the Swat kaolin was performed by the reflected
light colorimeter, model Chroma Meter CR-231, manufac-
tured by Minolta. The beneficiation test for iron removal by
bleaching was also conducted performed on the Swat kaolin
fractions b2, b5 and b10 Am. Samples were treated in an acid
medium with a reductive agent (anhydrous sodium sulphite)
in order to improve its iron extraction. The basis of this
process is ferric iron dissolution and its reduction to ferrous
iron to improve the iron removal in acid medium. It can
enhance the commercial value of the iron-containing kaolin.
In this test, iron extraction was aimed at obtaining iron-free
kaolin, using the following experimental conditions: atmos-
pheric pressure, temperature 90 8C in 100 min with 1 M
H2SO4, 4 g/L sodium sulphite anhydrous and 200 rpm.
Rheological properties were determined by test methods
P106, P 107 and P 108 from Imerys, Cornwall, England.
Atterberg limits were determined using the procedure of
British Standard BS-1377 (1975). Liquid limits were deter-
mined on 200-g samples of washed b63, b25 and b5 Am
fractions. Plastic limits were determined on 20-g air-dried
samples with the detailed procedure given by Siddiqui
(2002).
Drying and firing shrinkage was determined following the
method of Murray (1980). Water absorption values of Swat
kaolin were determined by the routine procedure involving
boiling a previously prepared and fired briquette in a beaker
of water and measuring the amount absorbed. Oil absorption
tests were carried out following the British Standard method
(BS-3483: part B7) for testing pigments for paints. Oil
absorption was determined by the addition of linseed oil
(specific gravity of 0.95) by burette drops to 10 g of kaolin
sample, followed by rubbing with palette knife, till the for-
mation of a paste of smooth consistency. The oil absorption
was calculated on mass/mass basis by using the formula:
Oil absorption ðg=100 gÞ
¼ 93  Volume of oil required in millilitres
=mass of sample in grams:
Changes in colour on firing, firing behaviour, and
quantity of water-soluble matter of the Swat kaolin products
were determined by the methods used by Imerys. Values of
pH for various raw and washed samples of Swat kaolin were
measured at 28 8C, using the pH-meter model HD8602
manufactured by Delta OHM of Italy. Moisture content was
determined by keeping the 2-g of each mass fraction (b63,
b10 and b5 Am) clay sample in oven overnight at 105 8C.
4. Results
The industrial properties determined from samples
of the Swat kaolin are described below, and evaluated
by comparisons with the limits fixed by the industrial
users, and also with the respective properties of better-
known commercial kaolin deposits.
4.1. Particle size analysis
The particle size and size distribution are the key
factors for the industrial uses of kaolin. Coarse-particle
 M.A. Siddiqui et al. / Applied Clay Science 29 (2005) 55–72 59

clays differ from fine-particle clays in certain other
physical and optical properties as well (Murray, 2000,
2003). The particle shape and size distribution also
control brightness, slurry-viscosity, opacity, gloss,
ceramic strength, shrinkage and the paper-filling and
paper-coating properties such as the mechanical, op-
tical and printing characteristics of paper sheets (Prasad
et al., 1991). The filler clays composed of coarser
particles usually contain an abundance of stacks, and
the coating clays with finer particles exhibit a pre-
ponderance of thin plates (Olivier and Sennett, 1973).
The results of particle-size analysis of different
products of Swat kaolin are given in Table 1. The
comparison of particle size in the four fractions (b63,
b10, b5, and b2 Am), of two samples (A and G) are
displayed in Fig 2, which shows that the weight
percent of b2 Am size increases with the decrease of
product grain size. The equivalent spherical diameters
(0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, and 10 Am) show that b2 Am
fraction is coarse and not suitable for paper-coating;
and b5 Am fraction lies within the required range
suitable for paper-filling.
4.2. Colour measurement
Commercially valuable kaolin combines both, a
desirable colour, and a suitably fine particle size
(Bloodworth et al., 1993). The average brightness and
yellowness values of different mass fractions of Swat
kaolin (Table 2) show that the brightness of all the
fractions conforms to the specifications for coating-
clays and filler-clays (I.S.O.; Prasad et al., 1991).
There is only a small variation in the brightness and
yellowness values in the upper, middle and lower
parts of each clay lens (Table 3). It also shows that the
mineral content causing yellowness is more or less
evenly spread out within each of the lenses. The
average yellowness values (4.86–6.25%) are higher
than the required values of 4.2–4.7% for paper coating
usage (Highley, 1984).
Pure kaolin occurs in nature as finely divided
particulate dispersion of white colour. Kaolins are
ubiquitously contaminated by small amounts, often
0.5–3%, of impurities of ferruginous oxides, rutile,
siderite, pyrite, mica and tourmaline (Toro et al.,
1990). These raw materials contain iron and if its
concentration is above threshold, an unacceptable
colouring masks the kaolin. Its white colour can be
enhanced by froth flotation (Yoon et al., 1992) or by
the removal of its paramagnetic coloured bodies by
the gradient magnetic separation or superconducting
magnetic separation (Wastion, 1994).
The brightness of raw samples of Swat kaolin
ranges from 82.10% to 93.18% (average, 88.61%)
while that of washed b63 Am samples ranges from
85.97% to 95.58% (average, 88.0%). Brightness in
excess of 80% would be required for kaolin to be used
in paper-filling or paper-coating. The yellowness is
generally a function of the presence of the iron-
bearing minerals. The yellowness of the raw fraction
ranges from 1.78% to 11.26% (average, 5.51%) while
in the washed b63-Am samples, yellowness increases
as compared to raw material, and ranges from 1.30%
to 9.80% (average 4.86%).
The relatively high values of yellowness in Swat
kaolin, spanning the range from 4.88 to 11.99 in the

Table 1
Particle size percentages in different mass fractions of the Swat kaolin deposits
Fraction b63 Am b10 Am b5 Am b2 Am
Sub-fraction %b2 Am % N10 Am %b2 Am % N10 Am %b2 Am % N10 Am %b2 Am % N10 Am
Sample #
A-1 20.66 37.14 35.23 12.57 49.75 1.29 77.51 0.00
A-5 20.63 33.16 40.04 8.62 50.48 0.68 78.46 0.00
B-1 16.09 49.27 32.33 15.25 48.88 1.31 76.86 0.00
C-5 15.14 57.08 35.32 11.09 53.19 0.76 81.27 0.00
G-1 16.35 45.34 25.04 20.26 40.60 1.30 80.94 0.00
H-1 17.57 40.05 30.90 15.22 43.02 2.01 66.90 0.55
I-1 14.78 45.59 25.41 16.29 36.72 2.10 74.79 0.60
J-1 11.58 61.46 17.86 27.03 31.17 2.57 57.72 0.70
F-5 08.58 73.01 24.67 28.75 52.83 1.06 79.36 0.00
Average 15.70 49.12 29.64 17.23 45.08 1.45 74.86 0.20
60 M.A. Siddiqui et al. / Applied Clay Science 29 (2005) 55–72

Fig. 2. Particle size distribution in the fractions obtained from the lenses A and G, respectively.

b5-, b10- and b63-Am fractions, renders it unsuitable
for certain industries, especially the paper industry.
Employing methods to improve the quality of wet-
processed clay, brightness values of 90 and over are
attainable using techniques such as bleaching, ultra
flotation, delamination (Velho and Gomes, 1991),
calcination and magnetic filtration (Coope, 1979). The
results of bleaching test, as mentioned in Section 3
above, are tabulated in Table 4, which shows that the
yellowness of various samples decreased by 20.4–
61.3%. This test also demonstrates that it is possible to
exploit a mineral with a very low commercial value.
4.3. Viscosity
The rheological properties in Table 5 show that the
Swat kaolin fractions b10 and b5 Am fall closest to
the commercial ceramic grade group (b5 Am=
 M.A. Siddiqui et al. / Applied Clay Science 29 (2005) 55–72 61

Table 2
The brightness and yellowness of raw and washed b63, b10 and b5 Am fractions
Lens Sample # Raw Washed b63 Am Washed b10 Am Washed b5 Am
Brightness Yellowness Brightness Yellowness Brightness Yellowness Brightness Yellowness
A 1 90.14 3.64 92.32 2.59 89.48 6.27 92.36 4.25
2 85.79 6.10 92.87 3.94 93.60 5.06 92.52 5.65
5 89.94 3.57 91.82 4.88 87.49 7.79 88.93 8.57
B 1 93.99 3.67 95.58 3.01 90.93 5.37 90.03 6.66
2 82.10 7.63 91.20 5.22 92.26 2.75 90.77 3.43
C 5 89.41 3.51 91.36 4.83 94.36 4.65 95.16 3.77
D 1 84.25 1.78 91.27 1.30 92.81 5.22 91.30 6.88
3 82.33 4.94 88.42 5.74 89.81 6.55 88.04 8.10
4 87.62 2.47 93.30 1.93 92.86 3.60 90.79 4.86
E 4 91.87 5.30 92.16 3.54 94.34 5.46 94.22 5.80
7 82.56 9.51 88.61 9.16 88.96 10.57 87.51 11.87
12 91.27 5.66 90.67 6.85 91.16 7.79 93.36 5.86
F 3 88.50 3.86 93.04 3.82 93.79 3.84 92.93 5.23
G 1 87.08 7.37 91.04 6.04 88.37 7.66 88.82 7.89
3 90.28 5.85 93.24 4.08 91.62 4.64 91.84 6.18
4 92.86 4.60 94.67 3.59 90.70 8.25 93.00 5.15
H 1 90.15 6.04 92.21 4.82 91.72 5.78 92.15 5.92
I 1 90.94 6.28 93.08 6.28 93.00 5.33 90.89 6.64
J 1 85.08 9.37 87.77 9.77 92.15 5.99 80.32 11.99
CHA 1 90.37 3.11 90.71 3.64 90.37 3.11 90.71 3.64
2 85.29 11.26 85.97 9.80 85.29 11.26 85.97 9.80
3 93.18 4.32 94.72 3.30 83.18 4.32 94.72 3.30
4 89.17 8.04 93.68 4.87 89.17 8.04 93.68 4.87
5 93.00 4.59 95.19 3.75 93.00 4.59 95.19 3.75
Average (%) 88.61 5.51 88.00 4.86 90.85 5.99 91.04 6.25

Porcelain and b10 Am=Treviscoe). The viscosity of a
kaolinite clay suspension in water is a parameter for
use in paper-making and cast ceramic bodies (Murray,
1980, Jepsion, 1984). The apparent viscosity of a
liquid may be measured by the amount of shear
required to induce flow. The presence of halloysite,
paragonite, smectite in the Swat kaolin (Siddiqui and
Ahmed, in press) may have increased viscosity
because of their unique shape and high water
absorption capacity (Bloodworth et al., 1993).
According to Bloodworth et al. (1993), kaolin slurry
viscosity is influenced by a number of factors

Table 3
Colour measurement of washed samples from vertical profiles at four different lenses
Lens Level Sample # Whiteness Yellowness
b63 Am b10 Am b5 Am b63 Am b10 Am b5 Am
B upper B-1 89.36 90.33 88.57 7.20 7.16 7.76
middle B-2 92.46 91.20 90.57 5.38 5.94 6.73
lower B-3 90.42 91.02 92.70 4.62 5.45 5.14
C upper C-1 93.06 93.40 92.12 4.48 4.28 4.62
middle C-2 95.14 95.36 94.97 2.66 3.74 3.33
lower C-3 96.02 95.40 95.09 3.22 4.40 3.45
D upper D-1 Not determined because of hard nature of the sample.
middle D-2 88.99 84.44 88.82 6.97 10.75 8.37
lower D-3 89.20 90.18 86.13 5.31 5.80 7.75
E upper E-1 84.55 80.57 77.87 10.24 12.11 3.01
middle E-2 85.79 79.56 80.00 10.67 13.75 12.66
lower E-3 83.72 – 80.29 – 12.18 14.33
62 M.A. Siddiqui et al. / Applied Clay Science 29 (2005) 55–72

Table 4
Results of the bleaching test on samples of Swat kaolin
Sample Size fraction Unbleached Bleached Decrease (%)
(Am) Whiteness Yellowness Whiteness Yellowness in yellowness

J-1 b5 80.32 11.99 84.79 4.75 60.08

J-1 b10 90.48 5.99 92.15 4.66 22.37
J-1 b63 87.77 9.77 87.79 6.55 53.75
A-5 b5 88.93 8.57 92.24 3.32 61.26
A-5 b10 87.49 7.79 93.50 3.54 58.29
A-5 b63 91.82 4.88 92.80 3.55 27.20
CHA b63 85.97 9.80 86.95 7.80 20.40
CHA b10 85.39 11.15 87.21 6.85 40.43

including viscosity of fluid medium, solids concen-
tration, particle geometry, particle interaction, par-
ticle-size distribution, non-kaolinite mineralogy
(especially smectite), soluble salt content, pH and
temperature. In the viscosity concentration graph in
Fig. 3, the effect of solids concentration is obvious
for four of the sample fractions.
4.4. Plasticity
Plasticity changes the shape of a clay–water mass in
non-elastic, non-reversible fashion (Moore, 1965). As
almost all of the clay materials are used in plastic state,
the significant parameters include two of the Atterberg
limits (the liquid limit, LL, and plastic limit, PL); and
the plasticity index (PI). LL is the water content of clays
at which flow just begins when jarred in a specific
manner. PL is the minimum water content at which the
clay can just be rolled by hand into 3-mm-thick
uncrumbled threads. Values measured for Swat kaolin
are compared to those known for kaolinite in different
ion forms after Müller-Vonmoos and Løken (1989);
and those for the Cornish clays in Table 6. The clay
identification chart of Bain (1971) is used in Fig. 4 to
display Atterberg limits for several bindividual
samplesQ from specific locations and a bbulk sampleQ
of average clay from several locations of the Swat
kaolin. It includes the results of washed b63 Am sample
and bulk samples of b63, b25 and b5 Am; all of which
reflect broadly similar behaviour of different samples.

Table 5
Rheological properties of selected samples of Swat kaolin and those of some commercial kaolins
Sample Kaolinite Particle size Flowability Deflocculant Viscosity
content (%) b10 Am b2 Am (wt.%) demanda (ml) concentration (wt.%)

Coating Grade (after Bloodworth et al., 1993)

SPS 82 97 79 67.5 1.4 66.3
Supreme 95 98 92 66.6 1.5 66.4
Dinkie 88 97 70 70.5 1.3 71.1

Ceramic Grade standard (after Bloodworth et al., 1993)

Porcelain 85 97 65 64.6 1.3 64.7
Treviscoe 83 89 37 66.3 1.7 62.1

Swat kaolin samples

# A-9 (b10 Am) 89.0 47.4 69.6 1.5 58.2
# C-10 (b10 Am) 85.5 44.2 66.6 1.2 60.3
# G-4 (b10 Am) 90.7 52.1 72.9 1.6 57.4
# A-11 (b5 Am) 97.7 60.0 68.7 1.6 57.1
# C-1 (b5 Am) 97.1 60.2 67.2 1.3 55.8
# G-4 (b5 Am) 98.6 56.7 68.9 1.3 56.1
a
Deflocculant demand values represent volume (ml) of sodium hexametaphosphate (Calgon) 25% solution required per 100 g of sample to
attain minimum viscosity.
 M.A. Siddiqui et al. / Applied Clay Science 29 (2005) 55–72 63

Fig. 3. Viscosity concentration graphs for kaolin fractions from selected samples.

However, slight increase of plastic limit and plasticity hydrothermal like Swat deposits (Siddiqui, 2002;
index accompanies relative increase in finer fractions, Siddiqui and Ahmed, in press). Plasticity of such
which itself is linked to larger specific surface kaolins can be increased by removal of non-clay
(Raimondo et al., 2003). The results of washed, b63 components. In terms of the clay workability chart
Am samples are near to bNa-form kaoliniteQ (LL, 33; (Fig. 4b), the Swat samples fall outside of the
PL, 24; and PI, 09) reported by Müller-Vonmoos and bacceptableQ or boptimumQ moulding properties fields;
Løken (1989). In Fig. 4, all samples fall in the field of and in the region of poorer cohesion. Such a clay can
kaolinite. The coarse washed kaolinite of b63 Am find use in bricks, pipes, tiles and pottery (Scott, 1990).
fraction shows PI from 3.96 to 8.48. Some kaolinites
are virtually non-plastic and give plasticity indices of 4.5. Drying and firing shrinkage
below 10 (Bain, 1971), especially when the kaolins are
Shrinkage on drying and firing at various temper-
Table 6 atures is determined for the Swat kaolin products
Plasticity parameters for Swat samples; those for kaolinite in (Table 7). Shrinkage is related directly to the amounts
different ion forms after Müller-Vonmoos and Løken (1989); and
those measured for standard Cornish kaolin
of clay minerals and water in the plastic clay. Drying
shrinkage is higher as compared to firing shrinkage.
Kaolinite ion form Liquid Plastic Plasticity
limit limit index
Firing shrinkage ranges from 0.84% to 8.18%. It
slightly increases with the temperature of firing for
Ca-form 74 31 43
Na-form 69 31 38 each product (Fig. 5). For the 10- and 5-Am products,
Na-form+Na4 P2O7 33 24 9 shrinkage at 1200 8C is twice than that at 1100 8C. At
China clay of Cornwall 52 37 15 1280 8C, the shrinkage is lowest (2.6%) for the b63-
Processed china clay of Cornwall 65 40 25 Am product, and highest (8.18%) for the 25-Am (bulk)
Swat kaolin samples (b63 Am) 25.3–42.6 20.3–37.6 3.1–8.5
product.
64 M.A. Siddiqui et al. / Applied Clay Science 29 (2005) 55–72

Fig. 4. Plots on the clay identification chart after Bain (1971) showing: (a) values of plasticity index and plastic limits for different fractions of
Swat kaolin in comparison with other standard materials. (b) Plot of washed fractions of Swat kaolin on the clay workability chart.
 M.A. Siddiqui et al. / Applied Clay Science 29 (2005) 55–72 65

4.6. Water absorption
The values of water absorption obtained for the
Swat kaolin are given in Table 7. The water absorption
values of briquettes fired at 1000 8C are higher than
those of briquettes fired at higher temperatures. At
1280 8C, water absorption decreases to lower values,
and the porosity of the fired briquettes is low.
4.7. Firing behaviour
Firing induces no colour change in the purer
samples of Swat kaolin; but the samples with iron
impurities turn light cream to buff. The firing
behaviour of the Swat kaolin at 1200 8C exhibits
similarities to that of commercial kaolins (Ligas et al.,
1997). Firing renders the Swat kaolin less porous with
respect to the commercial kaolins of Italy, UK,
Germany and France, but Swat kaolin has signifi-
cantly higher shrinkage as compared to that from
Romana, Italy (Ligas et al., 1997).
Swat kaolin 10 and 5 Am (bulk) fractions possesses
linear shrinkage of 5.40 and 5.66 and water absorption
values of 10.29 and 10.63, respectively. The com-
mercially used kaolin of Bavaria (Ligas et al., 1997)
exhibits linear shrinkage of 6–10 and water absorption
of 12–21. The Swat kaolin fractions b10 and b5 Am
are comparable to a large extent to some commercially
marketed kaolins, such as those from Bavaria. The
Swat kaolin possesses some rather interesting proper-
ties for its applications in the ceramic sector,
especially the quite low iron content and the moderate
firing shrinkage.
In pure kaolin, the relationship between linear
shrinkage (%) and water absorption (%) shows
positive correlation as linear shrinkage increases with
increasing percentage of water absorption. In this
study, the Swat kaolin is mainly dispersed in a field
characterized by lower values of shrinkage and water
absorption (Fig. 5). This behaviour is explained by the
abundance of binertQ component such as mica,
feldspar, and epidote minerals in b5, b10, b25 and
b63 Am fractions. Presence of these minerals leads to
lower shrinkage with respect to hypothetical raw
material consisting entirely of kaolinite. Romana
kaolins of Italy possess abundant inert components.
Silica minerals show lower values of shrinkage and
water absorption (Ligas et al., 1997).
A general use of the Swat kaolin b63 Am fraction
could be to manufacture tiles. The Swat kaolin
fractions richest in kaolinite are suitable for sanitary-
ware manufacture.
4.8. Oil absorption
The oil absorption values (Table 8) correspond to
those required by the application of kaolin as filler or
extender in paint and plastics. The oil absorption
values increase with decrease of grain size. The
washed b63-Am fraction-product shows oil absorp-
tions ranging from 30 to 44, b10 Am fraction-product
shows a range from 32 to 47, and b5 Am fraction-

Table 7
Drying shrinkage (DS) and firing behaviour of Swat kaolin at different temperatures
Sample no. Fraction DS (%) Firing shrinkage (%)
1000 8C 1100 8C 1200 8C 1280 8C
C-9 b63 Am 5.13 0.00 0.00 0.84 2.60
Bulk-1 b25 Am 10.07 1.78 3.60 4.42 8.18
C-9 b10 Am 11.69 1.78 2.70 5.40 7.27
Bulk-1 b5 Am 11.88 2.72 2.73 5.66 6.54
A-9 b5 Am 12.90 2.76 2.85 5.70 6.65
B-6 b5 Am 12.09 2.66 2.90 5.72 6.70

Water absorption (%) Linear shrinkage (%)

1000 8C 1100 8C 1200 8C 1280 8C 1200 8C
Bulk-1 b63 mm 17.30 15.02 14.81 12.82 0.84
Bulk-1 b25 mm 11.63 11.58 10.64 8.58 4.42
Bulk-1 b10 mm 13.00 10.53 10.29 8.65 5.40
Bulk-1 b5 mm 12.16 12.05 10.63 7.95 5.66
66 M.A. Siddiqui et al. / Applied Clay Science 29 (2005) 55–72

Fig. 5. Field of fired kaolins marketed in Italy plotted on the water absorption versus linear shrinkage graph. Point-symbols represent Swat
kaolin fired at different temperatures.

product shows oil absorption values between 32 and
53. The less oil absorbed by the filler/extender means
the greater quantity of active material involved in
actually binding the compound. British Standard BS
1795 suggested a range of 30
60 g/100 g for kaolin.
Results of Swat kaolin for oil absorption fall within
the same range.
4.9. Hydrogen ion concentration (pH)
The pH values of Swat kaolin raw material samples
from all the locations show a wide range of values
from 6.2 to 8.1. The pH values of washed b63 Am
material fall in the range of 6.9–8.2. Most of the
samples show pH values below 7.5. These resemble
the range of 4–7 known from natural kaolins, 3.5–8
from processed kaolins, and 4.5–6.5 from untreated
kaolin slurries (Murray, 1980). However, in industry,
the pH values are adjusted to user specifications
(Murray, 1984). The deflocculation of kaolin under
alkaline conditions is assisted by adding a polyanion
(Jepsion, 1984).
4.10. Water-soluble matter
A high soluble-salt content adversely affects the
dispersion of the paint ingredients and alters paint
properties (Murray, 1986). Water-soluble matter in
paint is required to be b0.5% (BS Standard 1795 for
paint) .The average of three samples of Swat kaolin of
b63, b10 and b5 Am fractions shows water-soluble
matter of 0.3%, 0.46% and 0.4%, respectively.

Table 8 4.11. Moisture

Oil absorption values for various mass fractions of Swat kaolin
Sample b63 Am b10 Am b5 Am Average moisture values (2.16–4.0%) obtained
A 34 40 44
from each fraction are high as compared to required
B 35 47 53 values of b2% (BS Standard 1795 for paint). These
C 33 39 38 may be due to presence of smectite.
D 40 46 50
E 36 47 48
F 35 47 53
G 41 45 46
5. Discussion
H 44 47 48
I 35 40 42 Kaolin finds diversified industrial uses, which are
J 30 32 36 determined mainly by its physical properties (Bundy,
CHA 37 43 52 1993), which in turn, may depend on its chemical
 M.A. Siddiqui et al. / Applied Clay Science 29 (2005) 55–72 67

and mineral composition. Individual kaolin deposits Table 9

possess characteristics specific for each (Murray and Industrial attributes of Swat kaolin averages (*) weighted by
required industrial specifications
Keller, 1993; Murray, 2003). The study of Swat
kaolin by Kyotani et al. (1967) found that its 2nd b2 Am fraction*
grade (b44 Am) kaolin still contains fairly large Paper-coating (Prasad et al., 1991; Dawson, 1991)
Kaolinite 93–99% Kaolinite N90%
quantities of remnant CaO and falls somewhat
Mica 7–10% Paragonite b10%
behind the English kaolin in respect to particle size. SiO2 45–47% 44.86%
The present study reveals that the b63-Am fraction is Al2O3 37–38% 36.64%
also unsuitable for paper filling, paint, plastic and Fe2O3 0.5–1.0% 0. 622
rubber industries (Table 9). Swat kaolins contain TiO2 0.5–1.3% 0.06%
Loss on ignition 13.9–14.3% 12.99%
smectite and paragonite in its b2 Am fraction
b10 Am fraction 100% 99.26%
(Siddiqui, 2002; Siddiqui and Ahmed, in press). b2 Am fraction 89–92% 74.86%
The particle size values (76.86–81.27%) of the b2- Brightness 90–92% 91.04%
Am product from all but two of the kaolin lenses (H- Viscosity (cps) 66–70% 68%
1 and J-1), lie within the range for the paper-coating
grade. The average values (74.86% of b2 Am and b5 Am* b10 Am* b63 Am*
0.2% of N10 Am) of eight lenses of Swat kaolin lie Ceramics (after Prasad et al., 1991)
within the required range given by Bloodworth et al. SiO2 48–49 50.17 46.1 51.27
(1993), but differ from the specification by Prasad et Al2O3 36.1–37 32.1 35.97 26.31
Fe2O3 0.6–1.0 0.94 0.89 1.23
al. (1991). The particle size of b5 Am product lies TiO2 0.02–0.10 0.14 0.11 1.52
within the range of specifications for paper-filling Loss on 11.2–12.5 12.66 11.78 9.08
(Bloodworth et al., 1993), and ceramic use (Blood- ignition
worth et al., 1993; Prasad et al., 1991). Particle size b2 Am 40–70 45.18 29.64 16.6
particle
of the b10-Am product falls within the range specified
size
for rubber filler. b10 Am 80–96 96.84 80.99 49.65
The brightness for different uses of kaolin, after particle
Bloodworth et al. (1993), is specified as follows: size
paper coating, 81.5–90.5%; paper-filling, 76–82%; b63 Am 100 99.84 99.29 96.28
porcelain (at 1180 8C) 95%; earthenware and particle
size
tableware at (1180 8C) 86%; sanitary-ware (at 1180 Brightness 75–90 91.05 90.85 91.87
8C) 82%. Specifications by Prasad et al. (1991) (N=24) (N=24) (N=24)
range from 90% to 92% for paper coating, and 82%
to 85% for paper filling. Highley (1984) observed Paper-filler specifications (Prasad et al., 1991)
the required brightness values to be 83–91% for Kaolinite 95–90 75–87% 60–75% 51–66%
Mica 5–10 10–12% N15% N15%
ceramic products (at 1180 8C), 76–90% for paint Others 3–traces 3% N9% 19%
filler; 70–92% for plastic filler, 70–92% for rubber SiO2 46–48 50.17 46.1 51.27
filler, 76.5–84% for paper-filler, 85–88% for paper- Al2O3 37–38 32.1 35.97 26.71
coating clays, which require yellowness in the range Fe2O3 0.5–1.0 0.94 0.89 1.23
TiO2 0.04–1.5 0.14 0.11 1.52
of 4.2–4.7%.
Loss on 12.3–13.7 12.5 11.78 9.08
Average brightness and whiteness of Swat kaolin ignition
qualifies it as one of the best paper-coating materials b10 Am 85–97 93.72a 80.99a 49.65a
which require minimal brightness of 80% (Toro et al., b2 Am 60–80 45.18a 29.64a 15.70a
1990). The average yellowness of raw material is in Brightness 82–85 91.05 90.85 91.87
excess of the required yellowness, as given by
Paint-filler
Highley (1984). Yellowness may be reduced by the Brightness 76–90% 91.05% 90.85% 91.87%
removal of iron oxide impurities by the reduction of Oil adsorption 30–60 36–53 32–47 30–44
Fe3+ to Fe2+ by means of sodium hydrosulphite in an (per 100 g) mg
acid medium with H2SO4 (Conley and Lloyd, 1970). (continued on next page)
68 M.A. Siddiqui et al. / Applied Clay Science 29 (2005) 55–72

Table 9 (continued) By such chemical bleaching, the yellowness of b5 Am,

b5 Am* b10 Am* b63 Am* b10 Am, and b63 Am fractions of Swat kaolin
Paint-filler decreases by 20.4–61.3% (Table 5).
Alkalis 1.2–2.7% 1.28% 1.63% 1.87% The SEM study of Swat kaolin indicates the
(average) presence of halloysite. The presence of smectite in
Fe2O3 0.6–1.1% 1.06% 0.89% 1.23%
the kaolin causes high viscosity. Halloysite also causes
(average)
high viscosity and lowers the opacity of hiding power
BS Standard 1795 for paint (Murray, 1980). The presence of halloysite increases
N63 Am 0 0.00–0.81% 0.03–0.93% 0.18–6.44% viscosity because the rod-shaped particles have
fraction
a higher swept volume than plates and also have a
b2 Am 15–70% 45.18% 29.64% 16.60%
fraction tendency to tangle with each other (Bloodworth et al.,
b10 Am 70–99% 89.43– 80.99% 49.65% 1993).
fraction 98.96% The water absorption values of briquettes fired at
Organic matter b2% 3.80% 4.00% 2.16% 1000 8C are higher than those of briquettes fired at
Loss on ignition 10–14% 12.50% 11.78% 9.08%
higher temperatures. At 1280 8C, water absorption
Water-soluble b0.5% 0.40% 0.46% 0.30%
matter decreases to lower values, and the porosity of the
pH aqueous 4.5–9.5 8.90 8.14 7.43 fired briquettes is low. The firing behaviour of Swat
solution kaolin at 1200 8C exhibits similarities to that of the
commercially marketed kaolin. The b63-Am product
Plastic filler kaolins
Brightness 70–92% 91.05% 90.85% 91.87% of Swat kaolin after burning at 1280 8C shows
Brightness 45–90% 92.19% 93.37% 91.87% properties close to the specification of floor and wall
(calcined) tiles. Swat kaolin after firing is less porous and
Redness 2.54% 0.42% 0.42% higher in shrinkage as compared to the other
Yellowness 8.80% 2.85% 3.07%
commercial kaolins produced by Italy, UK, Germany
b2 Am 17–90% 45.18% 29.64% 15.70%
particle size and France.
NI0 Am 0–22% 1.45% 17.23% 49.12% The oil absorption values of various fractions of
particle size Swat kaolin (30–53) resemble values in the demanded
Oil adsorption 25–55 36–53 32–47 30–44 range of 30–60, for usage as filler or extender in the
(mg)
manufacture of paints and plastics. The oil absorption
ASTM D-281 values of Swat kaolin increase with decrease of grain
Oil adsorption 45–90 44 44 46 size.
(mg) (1200 8C) (1200 8C) (1200 8C) Most of the samples of Swat kaolin show pH
Oil adsorption 42 40 34 values below 7.5. However, the pH values of the 22
(calcined) (1280 8C) (1280 8C) (1280 8C)
Kaolinite High High High Low
raw samples from all the lenses range from 6.16 to
Fe2O3 (%) 0.3–1.7 1.06 0.89 1.23 8.12 (average, 7.23); and washed b63 Am material
(average) (average) (average) falls in the range of 6.87 to 8.18 (average, 7.47).
TiO2 (%) b1 0.14 0.11 1.52 Commercially used kaolin in paper industry has pH
Alkalis (%) b0.3 1.28 1.63 1.87 values 5–7.5 as white pigment and 6.5–7.5 as
Bulk 25–50 82.33 118.14 127.65
density coating clays, whereas extenders in paint require
(lb/ft3) pH value 4.5–9.5. This conforms to the potential of

Rubber-filler specifications
Brightness (%) 70–92 91.05 90.85 91.87
Notes to Table 9:
b2 Am 20–80 – – –
*Hard Kaolinite is of finer grades 78–80% b2 Am size, and has
(hard) %
valuable reinforcing properties.
b2 Am 25–85 45.18 29.64 15.7
*Soft Kaolinite is of coarse grades, with 20–45% b2 Am size, is
(soft) % (average) (average) (average)
non-reinforcing, but provide a low-cost filler.
N10 Am (%) 0–22 1.45 17.23 49.12
N=number of samples from all lenses of Swat kaolin.
Kaolinite High High High Low a
Average particle size from eight lenses.
 M.A. Siddiqui et al. / Applied Clay Science 29 (2005) 55–72
the Swat kaolin usage as white pigment in paper
industry and as extender in paint manufacture.
6. Industrial use evaluation
Proper industrial utilization of kaolin is con-
strained by its attributes, which should conform to
the standard specifications by the kaolin-consuming
industries.
6.1. Paper coating
The particle size of Swat kaolin for the b2-Am
fraction (Table 1) would require fractionation to finer
grades to conform to the paper-coating specifications
given by Prasad et al. (1991). However, the average
values (74.86% b2 Am, and 0.20% N10 Am) of eight
lenses of Swat kaolin fall within the required range
given by Bloodworth et al. (1993).
The particle size 73% of b2 Am mass fraction of
the Georgia paper-coating kaolin grade 3 (Murray,
1986) is similar to the average particle size 74.86% of
b2 Am mass fraction of the Swat kaolin (Table 1). The
brightness value of the b2-Am fraction of the Swat
kaolin is N90%, which exceeds that of the Georgia
kaolin at 85.5–86.5% (Murray, 1986). The grade 3 of
Georgia kaolin is generally used in high-solids
formulations for publication-grade paper and
medium-finish lower cost enamels (Murray, 1986).
The Al2O3 content (36.64%) of Swat kaolin is
low as compared to the 37–38% Al2O3 content
specification. Fe2O3 and TiO2 values fall within the
specification range (Table 9). XRD patterns show the
presence of dominant kaolinite with some para-
gonite; and lack of quartz and feldspar. Montmor-
illonite is not present in all the lenses. Swat kaolin
b2 Am fraction may be used for high-solids
formulations for publication-grade paper and
medium-finish lower cost enamels.
6.2. Paper filler
Currently, the use of kaolin in paper-filling has
diminished. For paper filling, the desired properties
of kaolin include fine, uniform and controllable
particle size, softness and low abrasiveness (Highley,
1984). Most of the mineralogical and chemical
69
properties of b5 Am fraction are comparable to the
specifications for filler grade but the proportion of b2
Am grain size is lower than the specification by Prasad
et al. (1991). The chemical properties and mineral
composition (e.g., kaolinite and mica) of b10 Am
fraction are within the specifications range, except the
presence of quartz and albite (Prasad et al., 1991).
Particle size of b10 Am is also coarser than the
specification (Table 9).
The b63-Am fraction is not suitable for paper
filling due to the coarse particle size and mineralogical
composition. A coarser-particle kaolin differs greatly
in its physical and optical properties, from the finer-
particle kaolin (Murray, 2000).
All the samples of Swat kaolin studied show
brightness N88% which is more than typical filler-
grade clay prepared by Imerys of England (brightness,
81; yellowness, 5.5), and Arvors of France (brightness,
82.9; yellowness, 6.7) from kaolin of hydrothermally
kaolinised granite. The average brightness value of raw
to washed b5 Am fractions of Swat kaolin is 88.61–
91.04% while average yellowness value is 5.51–6.25
(Table 2). From eight studied samples of Swat kaolin,
five samples show the Fe2O3 b1% .The chemical
analyses of all the eight samples show TiO2 b1%,
which is less than that of the Georgia kaolin (1.44%), of
paper-filling grade. The XRD study of b5 Am fraction
shows absence of quartz and feldspar in most samples;
and presence of paragonite in all the samples.
6.3. Ceramics
The key to ceramic use is low Fe2O3 content and
a good fired brightness and casting rate. The b63-Am
fraction of Swat kaolin is unsuitable for ceramics
(Prasad et al., 1991). The chemical composition and
grain size of the washed b63-Am fraction of the Swat
kaolin do not conform to the required range of 40–
70% of b2 Am size and 80–96% of b10 Am size.
The brightness values are within the range of the
specifications (Table 9). The mineralogical and
physical properties of the b10-Am fraction are
suitable for ceramic products (Prasad et al., 1991),
although its SiO2 and Al2O3 contents are slightly
deviant (Table 9). Relatively pure Swat kaolin
samples exhibit low shrinkage and white firing
colours required for the production of porcelain
and wall and floor tiles.
70 M.A. Siddiqui et al. / Applied Clay Science 29 (2005) 55–72
6.4. Paint filler
The brightness, alkalis, Fe2O3, TiO2, oil absorption
and pH values of b10 and b5 Am fractions of Swat
kaolin agree with its use in for paint fillers (Table 9).
6.5. Plastics filler
The b63-Am fraction of the Swat kaolin does not
conform to the specified b2- and N10-Am particle size
and alkali content (Table 9). Most of the physical and
chemical parameters of b5 and b10 Am fractions of
Swat kaolin, except their alkali content, conform to the
specifications for plastic fillers (Table 9). However,
high alkali concentrations in the grade made by Imerys-
grade C (UK) 1.48, Arvors-20B (France) 1.35 and
Imerys-Alphafill (Brazil) 1.11 are being used as filler-
clays (Bristow, 1987). Out of eight studied samples of
Swat kaolin, five samples contain b1.6% alkalis.
6.6. Rubber filler
The rubber industry uses kaolin of very fine grain
size, low amounts of coarse materials and impurities,
a pH value of 4.5–5.5 and a constant specific gravity
so that it can be formulated with the other ingredients
of the rubber compound (Prasad et al., 1991). Fine
particle-size kaolin gives good resistance to abrasion,
and is used extensively in non-black rubber goods
(Murray, 1986). A distinction is made between bhardQ
and bsoftQ kaolin (Table 9). Hard kaolins possess
relatively finer particle size and smaller surface area;
and possess valuable reinforcing properties; but the
soft kaolins are coarser, non-reinforcing but still
valuable as low-cost fillers.
The b63-Am fraction of the Swat kaolin is
unsuitable as a rubber filler as its ~49% of N10 Am
particle size is higher than the required b22%.
However, the properties of b5 and b10 Am fractions
of Swat kaolin fall within the ranges proper for rubber
fillers (Table 9).
7. Conclusions
This evaluation of the Swat kaolin deposits is
based on the kaolin-specific physical properties
including the particle size, colour measurement,
viscosity, plastic limit, liquid limit, drying, firing
shrinkage, water absorption, oil absorption, volatile
matter and water soluble matter. The deposits are
found to be suitable for certain industrial applications
evaluated in this study for different size fractions. The
b2-Am fraction is suitable for paper coating; fraction
b5 Am is suitable for paper filler, plastic filler and
ceramic use; while the b10-Am fraction is suitable for
rubber filler. The b63-Am fraction is unsuitable for
paper, ceramic, plastic rubber and paint industries due
to coarser particle size, low plasticity index value
(3.08–8.48), low Al2O3 (26.31%), and high SiO2
(51.27%), Fe2O3 (1.23%), TiO2 (1.52%), and CaO
(2.97–8.56%) contents. For the ceramics industry, the
washed b63-Am fraction is unsuitable, due to the
impermissible particle size, presence of non-clay
minerals (albite, epidote, quartz, calcite and horn-
blende), and chemical components (too high SiO2,
Fe2O3 and TiO2); combined with too low Al2O3.
However, the b10- and b 5-Am fractions of Swat
kaolin are suitable for ceramic use in terms of the
mineralogical, chemical composition and physical
properties, inclusive of their firing shrinkage, colour
and water absorption behaviour.
The brightness values of Swat kaolin of all the
fractions are within the required range of paper
coating and paper filling clays. The whiteness of
b63, b10 and b5 Am fractions fall within the range
required for paper-filler or paper-coating usage.
Demonstrably, the excess yellowness due to the
presence of iron-bearing minerals can be decreased
by 20.4–61.3% by chemical bleaching.
The b2-Am fraction may be used in high-solids
formulations for publication-grade paper and medium-
finish lower cost enamels. The b5-Am fraction is
found to be suitable for paper-filling industry. The
fraction of b10 Am is within the ranges of specifica-
tions for ceramic, paint, plastic and rubber fillers
industries. These results are at variance with certain
previous notions such as the ceramics use suitability
of a mixture of (5+46 Am) and b74 Am fraction of
Swat kaolin deposits.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank King Fahd University of
Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, for support; and
 M.A. Siddiqui et al. / Applied Clay Science 29 (2005) 55–72
the Punjab University, Pakistan, for providing the
specific laboratory facilities.
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