Compressible Fluid Flow

- The Compressibility of fluid is basically a measure of the change in density that will be
produced in the fluid by a specified change in pressure.
- Compressible flow is concerned with flows that experience compressibility effects –
flows in which density varies significantly. For such the change in pressure will result in
changes in the fluid flow dynamics such as velocity, temperature.
- The study of compressible flow is involved with the study of the thermodynamics of the
flow simultaneously with its dynamics.
- In compressible flow especially the flow of gases, the changes of pressure and velocity
are associated with significant changes of density.

- Thus compressible flow is defined as a flow in which there are significant or

noticeable changes in fluid density.

- Liquids flows are considered incompressible, while gas flows could either be
incompressible or compressible.

- The main variables which describe state of a flowing fluid in compressible flow are:
velocity, pressure, temperature, and density. For instance, a gas flow will be considered
incompressible when Mach number is less than 0.3 (M < 0.3), since the change in density
will be less than 3% which is negligible.

- Compressible flow theory draws heavily from the fields of fluid mechanics and
thermodynamics. This important branch of fluid mechanics has been developed almost
completely since the year 1900. Its development has been largely driven by the
extraordinary progress in the applied fields of aerodynamics and aircraft technology.

- The basic feature that distinguishes compressible from incompressible flow is the
changing density of the gas. The density of the gas is related to the temperature and
pressure of the gas through the equation of state.

- Changes in density means changes of the thermodynamic state of the fluid, hence all
properties will change.

- The main properties which describe the state of a fluid in compressible flow are:

 velocity, V
 pressure, P
 temperature, T
 density, ρ

1
- Describe the compressible fluid flow field, four equations involving these four variables
need to be obtained. These equations are derived by application of the following
principles:

i). law of conservation of mass (continuity equation)

ii). Law of conservation of momentum (Newton’s law)
iii). Law of conservation of energy (First law of thermodynamics)
iv). The equation of state – for an ideal gas. ( Pv  RT or P   RT )
- The knowledge of compressible fluid flow is required in the design and operation of
several devices encountered in engineering practice, such as;
 Gas turbines: flow in the blading and nozzles
 Steam turbines ; flow in the nozzles
 Reciprocating engines: flow of gases through the valves
 Natural gas transmission
 Combustion chambers

- It should be noted that not all gas flows are compressible. In some applications the gas
velocities are low enough or the pressure drops are small enough that compressible
effects are insignificant

Sonic Speed (Speed of Sound)

- Wave propagation in a fluid is the mechanism through which the presence of boundaries
is communicated to the flowing fluid.
- In a liquid, the propagation speed of the pressure wave (disturbance) is much higher than
the flow velocities, hence the flow has adequate time to adjust to a change in boundary
shape.
- Gas flows can achieve speeds which are comparable or even exceeding the speed at
which the pressure disturbances are propagated – hence the need to incorporate the sound
speed in flow analysis.
- Speed of sound is defined as the rate at which an infinitesimal disturbance (pressure
pulse) propagates in a medium with respect to a reference frame of the medium.
- A disturbance at given point creates a region of compressed molecules that is passed
along to the neighboring molecules – in so doing this creates a traveling wave. The
stronger the wave is, the faster it moves. The speed at which the disturbance is
propagated through the medium is called the wave speed.
- Waves of large amplitude involve relatively large changes in pressure and velocity –
these are referred to as shock waves. While waves of very small amplitudes have their
speed characterized only by the medium and its state – this is the category of sound
waves.
2
 - Consider a small section of a pressure wave propagating at a velocity c through a
medium. As the wave travels through the undisturbed gas of pressure p and density ρ, it
produces infinitesimal changes of dp, dρ, and dV (pressure, density, velocity of the gas).
To relate these changes a thin control volume is considered.

P + dP P P + dP P
dV c c - dV c
ρ + dρ ρ ρ + dρ ρ

Propagating sound wave

Flow relative to the sound wave

Application of the law of conservation of mass for steady flow:

 Net mass flux across the control volume is zero – direction to right is
positive
(   d ) (c - dV) A  cA
Or; - cA  (   d ) (c - dV) A  0

Where A is the cross-sectional area of the control volume.

Neglecting products of higher-order (dρ.dV) reduces to

- dV  cd  0
c
Or dV  d (1)

 Momentum equation
 F  momentum out - momentum in
Or; F  Mass of control volume (Velocity out - Velocity in)

Application to the control volume containing the pressure wave, gives

(P  dP) A - PA  cA [ - (c - dV) - (-c)]

(where the direction to right is defined as positive)

Hence, dP  c dV (2)

Combining (1) and (2) to eliminate dV gives,

dP
c2  (3)
d

3
Equation (3) shows how speed of propagation is related to pressure and density.

- If the flow were incompressible; dρ = 0, so the propagation speed is infinite. For

compressible flow the propagation speed is finite, hence of interest.
- Sound wave is a special type of pressure wave which is a reversible and adiabatic process
– an isentropic process,

- For an ideal gas undergoing an isentropic process;

Pvk  constant
P 1
Or; k  constant , i.e., v  (4)
 
k - ratio of specific heats

- Taking differential of equation (5);

dP kP
 (5)
d 
- Equation of state for an ideal gas;
P
 RT (6)

- On using equations (5) and (6) in eqn.(3) gives;
kP
c2   kRT

Hence, speed of sound is given by;
c  kRT (7)
- This indicates that, the speed of sound in an ideal gas varies as the square root of the
temperature.

Mach Number, M

- Mach number is defined as:

V
M 
c
Where: V – the velocity of the medium
c - sonic velocity through the medium

M < 0.3 flow is incompressible

M <1 flow is subsonic
M =1 flow is sonic
M >1 flow is supersonic
Note: both V and c are computed locally for conditions that actually exist at the same
point.

4
- If the velocity is less than the local speed of sound, M is less than 1 and the flow is called
subsonic. If the velocity is greater than the local speed of sound, M is greater than 1 and
the flow is called supersonic.

- Consider an airfoil travelling at speed V. as the airfoil travels through the fluid, the
pressure disturbance generated by the airfoil’s motion propagates as a wave at sonic
speed ahead of the airfoil.

 These pressure disturbances travel a considerable distance ahead of the

airfoil before being attenuated (weakened) by the viscosity of the fluid,
and they warn the upstream fluid that the airfoil is coming.
 The fluid in turn responds such that the fluid particles begin to move apart
in such a way that there is smooth flow over the airfoil by the time it
arrives.
 If the pressure disturbance is attenuated in time  t , then the fluid at a
distance (c - V) t ahead is alerted to prepare for the airfoil’s arrival.

What happens as the speed of the airfoil is increased?

- The relative velocity (c – V) is reduced – hence the upstream fluid has less time to
prepare for the airfoil arrival. If the time available is less, the flow field is modified by
smaller streamline curvatures, and the form drag on the airfoil is increased.
- Also if the airfoil velocity increases to that of the sound speed or greater; then the fluid
has no warning whatsoever that the airfoil is coming and cannot prepare for its arrival.
- At this condition, nature resolves itself by creating a shock wave which stands off the
leading edge. As the fluid passes through the shock wave near the leading edge; it is
decelerated to a speed less than sonic speed and the fluid has time to separate and flow
around the airfoil.
- Thus the ratio of the airfoil’s speed to the sound speed (Mach number, M), becomes an
important parameter in relating to compressibility effects.

- The relationship between the gas velocity and sonic speed is known as the Mach number.
The Mach number is a dimensionless quantity that is the most important parameter in
compressible fluid flow. Relating all parameters to the Mach number greatly simplifies
compressible flow calculations.

5
Case of point source and Mach number

6
 REVIEW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. Equation of state
The pressure, density, and temperature of a substance may be related by the
equation of state
P  RT
Where; R is specific gas constant for each gas of concern

Ru
R 
Mm
Where; Ru – universal gas constant = 8314 N.m/(kg mole.K)
Mm – molecular mass of the gas

At moderate pressure and temperature, most gases of engineering interest can be

represented by the equation of state.

2. Internal energy, u
Internal energy of a simple substance may be expressed as a function of any two
independent properties.

1
e.g., u = u(v, t); where, v  specific volume

 u   u 
then, du    dT    dv
 T  v  v T
specific heat at constant volume is defined as;
 u 
cv   
 T  v
 u 
Hence; du  c v dT    dv
 v T
- For an ideal gas internal energy is a function of temperature only, so
 u 
   0
 v T
And so; du  c v dT for an ideal gas
3. Enthalpy, h
- The enthalpy of any substance is defined as;
h  u  pv
1 P
But for an ideal gas, v  and RT 
 
p
Hence; h  u 

Or, h  u  RT
- For a simple substance, any property can be expressed as a function of any two other
properties:
7
 h = h(v,T) or h = h(P, T)

Taking h = h(P, T), differential gives

 h   h 
dh    dT    dP
 T  P  P T
specific heat at constant pressure is defined as;
 h 
cP   
 T  P
As u = u(T), then it follows enthalpy is a function of temperature only
i.e., h = h(T)

 h 
hence;    0
 P T
thus; dh  c P dT - for an ideal gas

4. Relation between specific heats

- Consider; h  u  RT

Write as: dh  du  R dT

Substituting for dh  cp dT and du  cv dT

Gives; cp dT  cv dT  R dT
Which is reduced to:
cp - c v  R (a)

Note – the difference of the specific heats is a constant

- The ratio of the specific heats is defined as:

c
γ  p (b)
cv
- Using equations (a) and (b) solve for cp and cv in terms of γ and R

R γR
- Thus: c v  and c p 
γ -1 γ -1

5. Changes in internal energy and enthalpy

For moderate temperature ranges, the specific heats are considered constant:
du  c v dT
u2 T2

Or;  du
u1
 c
T1
v dT

This means; u 2 - u1  c v (T2 - T1 )

8
 And, dh  cp dT
h2 T2

Or;  dh
h1
 c
T1
p dT

Meaning; h 2 - h1  cp (T2 - T1 )

values of Mm, R, cp , cv, and γ for common gases are tabulated.

6. Entropy, s
- Entropy is defined by the equation;
 Q 
ds    - for a reversible process
 T  Re v
As a consequence of the second law, we can write;
Q
ds  or T ds  Q
T
Where, equality (=) – for a reversible process
inequality (>) – for an irreversible process
- For an adiabatic process, Q  0
Thus ;
ds = 0 – for reversible adiabatic process
ds > 0 – for irreversible adiabatic process

- A reversible and adiabatic process is also isentropic (entropy remains constant).

ds > 0 – shows that entropy must increase an adiabatic process

- Relationship among the properties (P, v, T, s, u) are obtained by combining the first and
second laws;
Q  du  W  du  p dv
Q
ds  or Q  T ds
T
Combining, T ds  du  p dv (i)
On using , u  h  pv
Or; du  dh  p dv - v dp
Gives; T ds  dh  v dp (ii)
- Equations (i) and (ii) are used to obtain the change in entropy during a process.

- From (i) and (ii)

9
 du p dv
ds 

T T
dh v dp
and ds  
T T
- On using du  cvdT; dh  cp dT; pv  RT

dT dv
ds  c v  R
T v
We get; (iii)
dT dp
ds  c p  R
T p
Integration of equation (iii) yields;
T2 v
s 2 - s1  c v ln  R ln 2
T1 v1
T2 p
s 2 - s1  c p ln  R ln 2 (iv)
T1 p1
p2 v
and s 2 - s1  c v ln  c p ln 2
p1 v1
- For an ideal gas for isentropic process;
T v
s 2 - s1  0  s 2 - s1  c v ln 2  R ln 2
T1 v1
T2 v
c v ln  R ln 2  0
T1 v1
T2 v
Or; - c v ln  R ln 2
T1 v1
R
T  v  cv
hence - ln 2  ln  2 
T1  v1 
Thus;
R
T1  v  cv
  2 
T2  1 
R R

Or, T2 v cv
2  T1 v cv
1
R
Substitute; c v  , gives
γ -1

T2 v2 - 1  T1 v1 - 1  T v -1  constant

Similarly for the same isentropic flow (equation (iv)), when the other relations for change
in entropy are solved for constant entropy, i.e.,

10
 T2 p
0  c p ln  R ln 2
T1 p1
p2 v
0  c v ln  c p ln 2
p1 v1
When solved gives the isentropic flow relations:

γ
p2   T   -1
  2    2 
p1  1   T1 
This relates absolute pressure, density, and absolute temperature for an isentropic process
and is very frequently used in compressible flows.
γ
p2  
  2 
- Or we can write; p1  1 


p2  T   -1
  2 
p1  T1 
1
 2   T   -1
    2 
 1   T1 

Stagnation (Total) Properties in Compressible Flow

- The stagnation properties are sometimes referred to as “total” properties, which is a

synonymous term. In contrast, the temperature, T, is the thermodynamic temperature that
we are accustomed to, and takes on the more descriptive name of static temperature –
the temperature that a thermometer attached to the fluid and moved with it would record.
- The stagnation temperature, stagnation enthalpy and stagnation pressure (and to a lesser
extent, stagnation density) are of great importance in compressible flow systems.
- The stagnation property is made up of the “static” portion (which is the thermodynamic
portion) and the “dynamic” portion (due to the fluid motion). The stagnation property is
that property that would exist if the flow was brought to rest. In a fluid at rest (such as a
large gas tank) the stagnation and static properties are equal.
- Stagnation state – is a reference state defined as that thermodynamic state which would
exist if the fluid were brought to zero velocity and zero potential.
- Note: The stagnation properties take on significance because they combine the effect of
fluid velocity. Thus, a frictionless pipe will have constant stagnation pressures even if the
area (and hence velocity) changes. The stagnation enthalpy will remain constant as long

11
 as no heat transfer and no elevation change occurs. If the stagnation enthalpy is constant,
the stagnation temperature remains constant.
- the stagnation state must be reached at;
i. without energy exchange (i.e., Q = W = 0)
ii. without losses
That is, stagnation state is attained isentropically. Hence the stagnation process is
isentropic.
- The stagnation state is also referred to as local reference state.
- Local isentropic stagnation properties are local because the actual flow can be any kind of
flow e.g., with friction, or may not be isentropic. Hence each point in the flow will have
its own or local isentropic stagnation properties.

Stagnation Energy Equation:

- Consider a fluid that is flowing and has static properties as at point (1) as shown. At point
(2) the fluid is brought to zero velocity and zero potential
P1, V1, Z1

Stream tube as
1 control volume

P2, V2, Z2

- Application of the energy equation to the control volume for steady one dimensional
flow;
v12 v2
h1   gz1  q1-2  h 2  2  gz 2  w1-2
2 2
For isentropic flow; q = 0, and for no work, w = 0
v12 v2
Thus, h1   gz1  h 2  2  gz 2
2 2
Neglecting change in potential energy for gas flow

12
 v12 v2
h1   h 2  2 - this is the general energy equation used in gas
2 2
flow between different locations.
- This energy equation can be expressed in terms of temperature for an ideal gas, with
h = cpT;
v12 v2
cp T1   cpT2  2 - energy equation in terms of temperature
2 2
If the fluid is brought to stagnation, it means v2 = 0, hence
v12
h1   h0
2
v12
Or, c p T1   c p T0
2
Where h0 and T0 are the stagnation enthalpy (total enthalpy) ant stagnation (total)
temperature respectively.

Ideal gas Equations in Terms of the Mach Number

 Continuity Equation
- For steady one-dimensional flow with a single inlet and a single outlet;
m  AV  constant
Or m1 = m2
Meaning, 1A1V1   2 A 2 V2
From the perfect gas equation;
P
 
RT
And from the definition of Mach number;
V = Mc
Again for sonic velocity (sound velocity) in a perfect gas:
c  γRT
Substitution of these equations into the continuity equation;
P
m  ρAV  AMc
RT
P
 AM γ R T
RT
γ
 PAM
RT
Thus for one-dimensional flow of a perfect gas, the continuity equation becomes;
13
 γ
m  PAM  constant
RT
γ γ
or P1A1M1  P2 A 2 M 2
RT1 RT2

 Stagnation energy relation

- For an ideal gas, we have
V2
h0  h 
2
From Mach number and sonic velocity relations, we have;
V 2  M 2 c 2 and c 2  γ RT
Again for an ideal gas the specific heat at constant pressure can be written as
γR c (γ - 1)
cp  or R  p
γ -1 γ
- Making substitutions in the stagnation enthalpy relation;
V2
h0  h 
2
M 2 c2
or; h 0  h 
2
M 2 γ RT
Substitute for c; h0  h 
2
c p (γ - 1)
On putting; R 
γ
M 2 γ T c p (γ - 1)
h0  h  .
2 γ
Gives;
M 2 (γ - 1)
or; h 0  h  . cp T
2
On using; h = cpT
M 2 (γ - 1)
h0  h  h
2
 γ -1 2 
Or; h 0  h 1  M 
 2 
We now use; h = cpT and h0 = cp T0

14
  γ -1 2 
c p T0  c p T 1  M 
 2 
 γ -1 2 
or; T0  T 1  M 
 2 
T0  γ -1 2 
Or as a ratio;  1  M  (a)
T  2 
h0, results from the kinetic energy term combined with the static enthalpy, and is called
the total enthalpy or stagnation enthalpy.
V2
The term, T0  T  is called the total or stagnation temperature, and represents the
2c p
temperature an ideal gas will attain when it is brought to rest adiabatically.
V2
Corresponds to the temperature rise during such a process and is called the dynamic
2c p
temperature (or impact temperature rise).

- Note: Although the same final temperature; T0 is attained whether the slowing down
process is reversible or irreversible, the density and pressure finally reached will vary
with the degree of irreversibility associated with the slowing down process.
P2
T
P3
2 3
T0
P1

1
s

So T2 = T3, but P2 ≠ P3, but its stagnation process gives T0 = T2 = T3

V12
c p T1   c p T2 (frictionl ess process 1 - 2 : - reversible )
Note:
2
V2
c p T1  1  c p T3 (frictiona l process 1 - 3 : - irreversib le)
2

 Total pressure, P0 – this is the pressure obtained when the gas is brought to rest
isentropically.
- For isentropic stagnation process;

15
 γ
P0  T γ - 1
  0
P T
 γ -1 2 
- On using; T0  T 1  M 
 2 
γ γ
P0  T γ - 1   - 1 2 γ - 1
- We have;   0  1  M  (b)
P T  2 
γ
 γ - 1 2 γ - 1
Or; P0  P 1  M 
 2 
 Total density, ρ0
- Total density of the flowing fluid is the density obtained when the gas is brought to rest
isentropically.
- From the isentropic relation:
1
ρ0  T γ - 1
  0
ρ T
1 1
ρ0  T γ - 1   - 1 2 γ - 1
Or;   0  1  M  (c)
ρ T  2 
1
 γ - 1 2 γ - 1
Or; ρ0  ρ 1  M 
 2 
Note:
1. Total properties are constant throughout an isentropic flow and are easily measured –
so are convenient tools for evaluating the changes in compressible fluid flow.
2. The local value of stagnation property depends only upon the local value of the static
property and the local Mach number, and is independent of the flow process.
Equations (a), (b), and (c) may be used to determine the local stagnation values even for
non-isentropic flow, assuming that the local static property and local Mach number are
known.
3. The equations (a), (b), and (c) allow to relate the stagnation properties between any two
points in the compressible flowfield.

- If the actual flow between points 1 and 2 in the flowfield is isentropic (reversible and
adiabatic), then the total (stagnation) properties (h0, T0, P0, ρ0) have constant values at
every point in the flowfield.

16
 - If the flow is irreversible and adiabatic (non-isentropic), then only h0 and T0 will
remain constant at every point in the flow. So for irreversible flow P0 and ρ0 are not
constant – will vary from point to point.
- The equation of state, P0 = ρ0 R T0, also applies for isentropic flow.

Ratio of static properties

- Since the stagnation properties T0, P0 and ρ0 are all constant for isentropic flow, the ratio
of the free-stream conditions (static properties) at two different stations in the flow may
be obtained by taking the ratio of the stagnation properties evaluated at the two stations,
i.e.,
P1
P01 P1

P2 P2
P02
Resulting temperature, pressure and density ratios as:
 -1 2
1 M2
T1 2

T2  -1 2
1 M1
2

γ
 γ - 1 2  γ -1
P1 1  M2 
  2 
P2  1  γ -1 M2 
 1 
 2 

1
 γ - 1 2  γ -1
ρ1 1  M2 
  2 
ρ2  1  γ -1 M2 
 1 
 2 

P ρ T
- For isentropic flow the values of , , are tabulated versus Mach number (M) at
P0 ρ0 T0
γ = 1.4 for air. Also the same quantities are plotted versus Mach number.
- Since Mach number is a quantity that can be measured in the flow problem, and
stagnation properties are constant in isentropic flow – use of the tables and/or charts
simplifies the work required to calculate T, P and ρ at a given station in the flow.

17
 CRITICAL FLOW CONDITIONS
- Critical condition is a flow condition that exists when the flow is such that M = 1, i.e., a
point where the flow speed is equal to the local speed of sound (V = c). The flow can also
be referred to as sonic flow.
- Critical condition is also useful as a reference condition for the flow.
- Asterisks (*) are used to denote conditions at M = 1.
So at sonic flow; V* = c*

a) Relation between critical and stagnation conditions

- At critical conditions, put M = 1 in the isentropic flow relations.
T0  γ -1 2 
 1  M 
T  2 
γ
P0   - 1 2 γ - 1
 1  M 
P  2 
1
ρ0   - 1 2 γ - 1
 1  M 
ρ  2 
Thus for critical condition (sonic flow)
T0  γ 1 
  
T*  2 
γ
P0  γ  1  γ -1
  
P*  2 
1
ρ0  γ  1  γ -1
  
ρ*  2 
For the case of air flow, put γ = 1.4

b) Relation between critical and static conditions

P1 ρ1 T1 c1
- Simply in the expressions , , , set M1 = 1, and put T1 = T*, P1 = P*
P2 ρ 2 T2 c 2
and ρ1 = ρ*. The let M2, P2, T2, ρ2 take the general case.
T
*
 2 γ -1 2 
Gives:    M 
T  γ 1 γ 1 
1
c
*
 2 γ -1 2 2
   M 
c  γ 1 γ 1 

18
 γ
P
*
 2 γ -1 2  γ -1
   M 
P  γ 1 γ 1 
1
ρ*  2 γ -1 2  γ -1
   M 
ρ  γ 1 γ 1 
Note:
- The relation between the critical conditions and the stagnation can be formed by setting
M equal to zero in the above equations.
*
T 2

T0 γ 1
1
c
*
 2 2
  
c0  γ 1
γ
P
*
 2  γ -1
  
P0  γ 1 
1
ρ*  2  γ -1
  
ρ0  γ 1 
For air, γ = 1.4, thus:

* * *
T c P ρ*
 0.833  0.913  0.528  0.634
T0 ; c 0 ; P 0 ; ρ 0

Both stagnation and critical conditions are used as reference conditions in compressible
flows.
Isentropic flow with Area Changes
1. Continuity Equation
- Consider a differential short control volume to which the principle of conservation of
mass is applied.

Control
volume
A A+ dA,
V V+ dV,
ρ Ρ+ dρ

dx

19
 Mass in = Mass out
VA  (   d ) (V  dV) (A  dA)
VA  ( V  dV  Vd  ddV) (A  dA)
VA  VA  VdA  AdV  dVdA  VAd  ddVdA

Neglecting higher-order terms since they are small;

VAd  AdV  VdA  0

Dividing this equation by ρVA, gives;

d dV dA
   0
 V A

This equation relates the fractional changes in density, velocity, and area over a
short control volume.
- If the density can be assumed constant this equation indicates that the fractional changes
in velocity and area are equal and opposite signs, i.e., if the area increases the velocity
will decrease, and vice versa.
- For compressible flow dρ is significant.

MOMENTUM EQUATION (EULER’S EQN)

- Euler’s equation or momentum equation is obtained by applying the principle of

conservation of momentum to a differential control volume.
- Steady flow is assumed, and the forces acting on the CV are considered;

Pressure force on
curved surface of CV A+ dA
V+ dV
A,V, ρ ρ+ dρ
P P + dP

dx
Control
volume
- For steady flow; conservation of momentum requires
Net force in Rate of momentum Rate of momentum
x-direction = leaving CV in x- entering CV in x-
-
direction direction

- The only forces acting on the CV are the pressure forces and the frictional force exerted
on the surface of the CV.
20
- Net force on the control volume in the x-direction;

PA - (P  dP) (A  dA) 
1
P  (P  dP)(A  dA) - A - dF
2

This term represents the component of the force due to

the pressure on the curved outer layer in the x-direction.

- Since dx is small, the component of force due to pressure on the curved surface is equal
to the mean pressure on the curved surface multiplied by the projected area of the curved
surface.
- dPµ - the frictional force acting on the control surface in the x-direction.
- Rearranging, the net force on the CV in the x-direction is;
- AdP - dF (higher-order terms are neglected)
- Change in momentum across the CV;
m (V  dV) - mV
 ρVA (V  dV) - V  ρVAdV
- Application of principle of conservation of momentum;
- AdP - dF  ρVAdV
- Neglecting viscous (frictional) effects – i.e., assume dFµ is negligible;
- AdP  VAdV
dP ____ This is Euler’s equation for steady flow
or; -  VdV
ρ
- The equation indicates that an increase in velocity is always associated with a decrease in
pressure and vice versa.
- If Euler’s equation is integrated in the x-direction along a stream tube it gives;
V2 dP
  constant
2 ρ
- To evaluate the integral, the relation between density and pressure has to be known.
- If density is constant, the equation gives;
V2 P
  constant
2 ρ
- This is Bernoulli’s equation. Thus it is clearly understood that Bernoulli’s equation only
applies to incompressible flow.
- Considering the continuity and momentum equations:

21
 d dV dA
   0
 V A

dP  VdV  0

- Rearranging the continuity and momentum equations,

dA d dV
 - 
A  V
dP
 -
VdV

- Substitute for ρ,
dA dV  - VdV 
  - dρ  
A V  dP 
dA dV  V2 
  1 - 
Or; A V  dP dρ 
dP
 c2
- On using; dρ

dA dV  V 2 
 - 1 - 
- Gives; A V  c 2 
dA A
 (M 2 - 1)
- Or; dV V

- NB/: Property changes are of opposite sign for subsonic and supersonic flow. This is
because of the term (M2 – 1) in the above equation.
- There are four combinations of area change and Mach number:

Subsonic flow: M < 1

M<1 M>1
dA > 0 dA < 0
dV < 0 dV > 0

Supersonic flow: M > 1

M>1 M>1
dA > 0 dA < 0
dV < 0 dV > 0
- For sonic flow (M = 1),
22
 dA
 0
dV this indicating that the area associated with sonic
flow is either a minimum or a maximum.
- The minimum area is the only physically realistic solution.
- It is clear the sonic condition (M = 1) can occur in a converging-diverging duct at the
minimum area location referred to as throat of a converging-diverging channel.
- Therefore, for the steady flow of an ideal gas to expand isentropically from subsonic to
supersonic speeds, a convergent-divergent channel must be used. E.g., Rocket engines
have large bell-shaped exhausted nozzles.
- For an ideal gas to compress isentropically from supersonic to subsonic speeds it must
also flow through a convergent-divergent channel with a throat where M = 1.

Mach number – Area Variation in a nozzle

- This is obtained by combining the continuity equation (ṁ = ρVA =constant) with the
ideal gas, and isentropic flow relations.
- Then equate the mass flow rate at any section of the nozzle to the mass flow rate under
sonic conditions (at the throat), the flow is sonic and the conditions are denoted by an
asterisk and referred to as critical conditions.
Continuity equation;
ρVA  ρ*V*A*
A ρ*V *

Or; A* ρV

But, V = Mc
A ρ * M *c *

⁖ A* ρMc

c  γRT V *  c*  γRT*
On using; and at the throat;
A ρ*M* RT *
*

Gives; A ρM γRT

Introducing ρ0 and T0 and also putting M* = 1, gives

A 1   *    0  T* T0
   
A* M   0     T T0

23
 For isentropic flow ρ0 and T0 are constant throughout the flow.
- Recall;
T0  γ -1 2 
 1  M 
T  2  and;
1
ρ0   - 1 2 γ - 1
 1  M 
ρ  2 
Also recall;
*
T 2

T0 γ 1
1
ρ*  2  γ -1
And ,   
ρ0  γ 1 

Substituting and simplifying gives the area ratio to be;

γ 1
A 1  2  γ - 1 2  2(γ - 1)
 1  M 
A* M  γ  1  2 
A
- Numerical values of
A*
versus M are tabulated alongside stagnation properties;
P0 T0 ρ
- , and 0
P T ρ
A
For each values of , there are two possible isentropic solutions : one subsonic and the
A*
other supersonic .

24
 A
Also, versus M can be presented in a figure.
A*
A
For example, for  1.5, we have M  0.43 and also M  1.85
A*
- Mass flow rate through a nozzle can be calculated in terms of M and the stagnation
properties T0 and ρ0;
 P  γ
 ρAV    A (M γRT )  PAM
 RT  RT
On using the stagnation relations;
γ
T0  γ -1 2  P   - 1 2 γ - 1
 1  M  and, 0  1  M 
T  2  P  2 
γ 1
-
.
γP0 AM  γ - 1 2  2(γ - 1)
Gives; m 1  M 
γRT0  2 
Thus the mass flow rate, ṁ, of a particular fluid through a nozzle is a function of the
stagnation properties of a fluid, the flow area, and the Mach number.
- The maximum flow rate through a nozzle can be obtained by differentiating the above
equation with respect to M for constant P0 and T0 and equate to zero.
- Only at M = 1, we have a minimum flow area (throat) – thus maximum possible mass
flow passes a nozzle when its throat is at the critical or sonic condition. At this condition
the nozzle is said to be choked and cannot carry any additional mass unless the throat is
widened.
- If the throat is constricted further, the mass flow rate through the nozzle must decrease.
25
 γ 1
 2  2 (γ - 1) P0 A*
Maximum mass flow rate; m*  γ   .
 γ 1 γRT0
From this equation, or a given throat area and gas, the maximum flow rate is fixed by the
stagnation pressure and temperature of the inlet flow.

ISENTROPIC FLOW IN A CONVERGING NOZZLE

For steady flow through a varying-are nozzle, emanating from a very large reservoir;
 Due to reservoir size, A is large so velocity is negligible.
 Steady flow; ρAV = constant
 Hence, the static pressure and temperature of gas in the reservoir are taken to be
identical (equal) to the stagnation pressure and temperature.
 As the flow is accelerated through the nozzle, the static pressure and temperature
decreases. However, if the flow is isentropic both the stagnation pressure and
stagnation temperature are constant within the nozzle flow and must be equal to
the reservoir values.

A = Large
Vr = 0
Pr = P0
Tr = T0

Flow from a large reservoir through a converging

nozzle
At some arbitrary section 1, the equations governing the flow are;
Continuity equation : ρ1A1V1  comstant  m - mass flow rate ……….(a)
V12 V2
Energy equation : h1   h0  0
2 2
or; 2 C p T1  V1  2 C p T0 ………………………….…..(b)
2

2 2
further; V12  c12  c 02
( - 1) ( - 1)
γR
i.e., these relations were applied; (Cp  and c 2  γγRT)
γ -1
The isentropic relation applies at all points:

26
 1 γ -1 γ -1
c1  T  2  P  2γ ρ  2
  1   1   1 ………………………………….(c)
c0  T0   P0   ρ0 
 2  2  c12 
Rearranging equation (b) : V   2
 c0 1 - 2  ………………..……………..(d)
  - 1   c0 
1

The conditions existing at the arbitrary section 1 of the duct can be related to the pressure
ratio P1/P0 existing at this section, so equation (d) becomes:
1
  γ -1
 2
     γ 
V1   0  1 -  1  
2
2c P
 - 1    P0  
  
P0
on using : c02  γ γ 0 and  RT0
ρ0
1
  γ -1
 2
  2γ  P0     P1 γ 

V1      1 -    ………………………………..(e)
γ   ρ 0    P0  

- 1
 
- Equation (e) shows the velocity at any section can be determined if the pressure at this
section and the stagnation conditions are known.
- Substituting equation (e) into the continuity equation(a) and using the isentropic relations
gives;
1
1
  γ -1
 2
ρ1 P  γ
 2γ   P    P  γ 

m  ρ 0 V1A1  ρ 0 A1  1   0  1
 γ - 1   ρ  1 -  P   ………..(f)
ρ0  P0     0    0  
 
m – is a constant for steady flow, so this equation can be used to relate the pressure at any
point in the duct to the area; e.g., using subscript 2for section 2;
1
1
  γ -1
 2
ρ2 P  γ
 2γ   P    P  γ 

m  ρ 0 V2 A 2  ρ 0 A 2  2   0  2
 γ - 1   ρ  1 -  P   …………..(g)
ρ0  P0     0    0  
 
Divide equation (g) by (f);
1
 
γ -1 2

1
 
1 -  1  
P γ

A2  P γ   P0  
  1   γ -1 
…………………………..(h)
A1  P2   P  γ 
1 -  2  
  P0  

27
 Equation (h) relates the pressures at any two sections of the duct to the areas of these
sections.

- Considering the critical section; M = 1; energy equation gives;

2 2
V*  c0 and since V*  c* we can write;
2

γ 1
2
 c*  T* 2
    …………………………..(i)
 c0  T0 γ 1
Using the isentropic relation results into;
γ
P*  2  γ -1
   …………………………….(j)
P0  γ 1
Substitute (j) into (f) – gives an equation that can be used to find the area of the duct
where the critical conditions exist (for a known mass flow rate and stagnations);
1 1

 2  γ -1   2γ  P0    - 1  2
m  ρ 0 A*        
 γ 1   γ - 1  ρ 0     1 
 1
m  2  2 (  1)
rearranging; A*   
γP0ρ 0   1

Calculation Notes:
 A technique of constructing products of ratios to form the particular ratio that is
required is employed.
 For example if P2/P1 is required given M1 and M2 as well as P02/P01, the desired
pressure ratio is obtained by;
P2  P2   P02   P01 
   
P1  P02   P01   P1 
Notice how the relation terms cancel with each other to produce the desired ratio.
For isentropic flow P01 equals P02, = P0 hence;
P2  P2   P0 
   
P1  P0   P1 
 Similarly area ratio between any two sections is;
A2  A2   A1 
   *  , same applies to the other properties.
A*  A1  A 
 Mass flow rate for convergent nozzle, at exit conditions;

28
  P 
m   e A e Ve   e  A e M e γRTe
 RTe 

29