Session 2022-23

Session 2022-23

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1
 Real Numbers
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
Every composite number can be expressed (factorised) as a product of primes, and this
factorization is unique, apart from the order in which the prime factors occurs.

Important Result
For any two positive integers a and ,

HCF (a, b) × LCM (a, b) = a × b(Product of two numbers)

Polynomials
Polynomial An algebraic expression of the form a0xn + a1xn – 1 + a2xn – 2 + … + an – 1 x
+ an , Where a0, a1, a2, …. an are real numbers, n is a non-negative integer and a0 ≠ 0 is
called a polynomial of degree n.
Degree: The highest power of x in a polynomial p (x) is called the degree of polynomial.
Types of polynomial
(i) Constant polynomial A polynomial of degree zero is called a constant polynomial
and it is of the form p(x) = k.
(ii) Linear polynomial A polynomial of degree one is called linear polynomial and it is
of the form p (x) = ax + b where a, b are real numbers and a ≠ 0.
(iii)Quadratic polynomial a polynomial of degree two is called quadratic polynomial
and it is of the form p(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, c are real numbers and a ≠ 0.
(iv)Cubic polynomial A polynomial of degree three is called cubic polynomial and it is
of the form p(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d where a, b, c, d are real numbers and a ≠ 0.
(v) Bi-quadratic polynomial A polynomial of degree four is called bi-quadratic
polynomial and it is of the form p(x) = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e, where a, b, c, d, e are
real numbers and a ≠ 0.

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2
Zeroes of polynomial
α is said to be zero of a polynomial p(x) if p(α) = 0.
Properties:
(i) Geometrically, the zeroes of a polynomial p(x) are the x coordinates of
the points, where the graph of y = p(x) intersects the x-axis.
(ii) A polynomial of degree ‘n’ can have at most n zeroes. That is, a
quadratic polynomial can have at most 2 zeroes and a cubic polynomial
can have at most 3 zeroes.
(iii) 0 may be a zero of a polynomial.
(iv) A non-zero constant polynomial has no zeroes.

Relationship between the zeroes and the coefficients of a polynomial:

For Quadratic
If α, β are zeroes of p(x) = ax2 + bx + c, then
−𝑏 −(𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥)
Sum of zeroes = α + β = =
𝑎 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 2
𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
Product of zeroes = α β = =
𝑎 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 2

Formation of Quadratic polynomials

If α, β are roots of a quadratic polynomials p(x), then p (x) = x2 – (sum
of zeroes) x + product of zeroes ⇒ p(x) = x2 – (α + β) x + α β
Basic concept of Graph of polynomial
(i) Graph of a linear polynomial p(x) = ax + b is a straight line.
(ii) Graph of a quadratic polynomial p(x) = ax2 + bx + c is a parabola
which open upwards like ∪ if a > 0.
(iii) Graph of a quadratic polynomial p(x) = ax2 + bx + c is a parabola
which open downwards like ∩ if a < 0.
(iv) In general, a polynomial p(x) of degree n crosses the x-axis at, at most
n points.

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3
 Pair of linear equations in two variables
Linear equations in two variables

Algebraic expression: A combination of constants and variables, connected by four

fundamental arithmetical operations of +, -, x and ÷ is called an algebraic expression.

For example, 3x3 +4xy – 5y2 is an algebraic expression.

Equation: An algebraic expression with equal to sign (=) is called the equation.
Without an equal to sign, it is an expression only.

For example, 3x + 9 = 0 is an equation, but 3x + 9 is an expression.

Linear equation: If the greatest exponent of the variable(s) in a equation is one, then
equation is said to be a linear equation.

• If the number of variables used in linear equation is one, then equation is said to
be linear equation in one variable.
For example, 3x + 4 = 0, 3y + 15 = 0, 2t + 15 = 0, and so on.
• If the number of variables used in linear equation is two, then equation is said to
be linear equation in two variables.
For example, 3x + 2y = 12; 4z + 6z = 24, 3y + 4t = 15, etc.
Thus, equations of the form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b are non – zero real
numbers (i.e., a, b ≠ = 0) are called linear equations in two variables.
Solution: Solution(s) is/are the value/values for the variable(s) used in equation
which make(s) the two sides of the equation equal.
• Two linear equations of the form ax + by + c = 0, taken together form a system of
linear equations, and pair of values of x and y satisfying each one of the given
equation is called a solution of the system.
• To get the solution of simultaneous linear equations, two methods are used:
(a) Graphical method
(b) Algebraic method

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4
Algebraic method
(a) Substitution method
(b) Method of elimination
(c) Cross – multiplication method (Not in Syllabus)

Conditions for solvability (or consistency)

If a pair of linear equations is given by 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0, then the following situations can
arise:
𝑎1 𝑏
(a) ≠ 𝑏1 in this case, the pair of linear equations has a unique solution (consistent pair
𝑎2 2

of equations)
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
(b) 𝑎1 = 𝑏1 ≠ 𝑐1 in this case, the pair of linear equations has no solution (inconsistent pair
2 2 2

of equations)
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
(c) = = in this case, the pair of linear equations has infinitely many solutions
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2

[dependent (consistent) pair of equations].

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5
 Quadratic Equations
Quadratic Polynomials: A polynomial of the form ax2 + bx + c is called a
quadratic polynomial in the variable x. This is a polynomial of the second
degree. In quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0 is the coefficient of x2, b
is the coefficient of x and c is the constant term (or coefficient of x0).
Quadratic Equation: An equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0, is
called a quadratic equation in one variable x, where a, b, c are constants.
For example, 4x2 – 3x + 1 = 0 and 3 – x – 7x2 = 0 are quadratic equation in
x.
3 1 1
But 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 5 = 0 is a quadratic equation in 𝑥 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 ≠ 0.

Zeros of a quadratic polynomial or roots of a quadratic

equation
Let ax2 + bx + c be a quadratic polynomial if 𝑎𝛼 2 + 𝑏𝛼 + 𝑐 = 0, then 𝛼 is called
a zero of the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c. if 𝛼 is a zero of ax2 + bx + c
i.e., if 𝑎𝛼 2 + 𝑏𝛼 + 𝑐 = 0, then we say x = 𝛼 satisfies the equation ax2 + bx + c =
0, and x = 𝛼 is a solution or root of equation ax2 + bx + c = 0.

Methods for solving a quadratic equation

By factorization
By completion of square
By solving quadratic formula

Quadratic Formula
If ax2 + bx + c = 0
−𝐛 ± √𝐛 𝟐 − 𝟒𝐚𝐜 −𝐛 ± √𝐃
𝐱= 𝐨𝐫 𝐱 =
𝟐𝐚 𝟐𝐚

Where 𝑫 = 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 is known as discriminant. This result is known as quadratic formula or

Sridharacharya formula

Nature of the roots

Case I: When D > 0, i.e., b2 – 4ac > 0. In this case, the roots are real and
distinct.
Case II: When D = 0, i.e., b2 – 4ac = 0. In this case, the roots are real and
equal.
Case III: When D < 0, i.e., b2 – 4ac < 0. In this case, the roots are not real.

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6
 Arithmetic Progressions

Sequence :-Some numbers arranged in definite order, according to a definite rule are said to
form a sequence.

Progression: -Sequences which follow a definite pattern are called progressions.

Arithmetic Progression
An Arithmetic Progression (AP) is a list numbers in which each term is obtained by adding a fixed
number to the preceding term except the first term.
This fixed number is called the common difference (d) of the AP.
Note-It can be positive, negative or zero.

Calculation of ‘d’
a2 – a1 = d
a3 – a2 = d
a4 – a3 = d
an – an-1 = d and so on.

In General Terms in an A.P

a, a+d, a+2d, a+3d,……. Represent an arithmetic progression.

nth Term of an AP (General Term)

If the first term of an AP is ‘a’ and its common difference is ‘d’ then its nth term is given by the
formula

an = a+(n-1)d

Note-
In an AP, nth term is known as last term of an AP and it is denoted by I, which is given by the formula

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7
nth Term from the End of an AP
Let ‘a’ be the first term, ‘d’ be the commom difference and ‘l’ be the last term of an AP, then nth
term from the end can be found by the formula

Selection of Terms in an AP
Number Terms Common difference
of
terms
3 𝒂 − 𝒅, 𝒂, 𝒂 + 𝒅 𝒅

4 𝒂 − 𝟑𝒅, 𝒂 − 𝒅, 𝒂 + 𝒅, 𝒂 + 𝟑𝒅 𝟐𝒅

5 𝒂 − 𝟐𝒅, 𝒂 − 𝒅, 𝒂, 𝒂 + 𝒅, 𝒂 + 𝟐𝒅 𝒅

Sum of First n Terms of an AP

If first term of an AP is ‘a’ and its common difference is ‘d’ , then the sum of its first n terms Sn , is
given by the formula
𝒏
Sn= [𝟐𝒂 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅]
𝟐

Or

𝒏
Sn = [𝒂 + 𝒍]
𝟐

Calculation of nth term if sum of n terms is given

an = Sn- Sn-1
Arithmetic Mean
𝐚+𝐜
If a,b and c are in AP, then b is known as arithmetic mean of a and c, i.e. 𝐛 = .
𝟐

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8
 Triangles
Similarity:
• Two figures having the same shape but not necessarily the same
size are called similar figures.
• All congruent figures are similar but the converse is not true.
• Two polygons with same number of sides are similar, if
(i) Their corresponding angles are equal and
(ii) Their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (i.e.,
proportion).

Criterion for similarity of triangles

(i) AAA similarity criterion
(ii) AA similarity criterion
(iii) SSS similarity criterion
(iv) SAS similarity criterion

BPT or Thales Theorem

𝑨𝑫 𝑨𝑬
If DE is Parallel to BC Then =
𝑫𝑩 𝑬𝑪

D E

B C

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9
 Coordinate Geometry
A system of geometry where the position of points on the plane is described using an
ordered pair of numbers.
The coordinates of a point on x-axis is taken as (x, 0) while on y-axis it is taken as (0,
y).
The distance between two points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) is given by

AB = √(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )𝟐 + (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )𝟐

Note-
The distance of a point (x, y) from the origin (0, 0) is √(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 ).

Section formula: The coordinates of the point P (x, y) which divides the line segment
joining A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) internally in the ratio m: n are given by

𝒎𝒙𝟐 + 𝒏𝒙𝟏 𝒎𝒚𝟐 + 𝒏𝒚𝟏

𝒙= , 𝒚=
𝒎+𝒏 𝒎+𝒏

Mid-point formula: coordinates of mid-point of AB, where A(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and B(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )

are:
𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐
( , )
𝟐 𝟐

Centroid of a triangle and its coordinate: The medians of a triangle are concurrent.
Their point of concurrence is called the centroid. It divides each median in the ratio 2 :
1. The coordinates of centroid of a triangle with vertices A (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) , 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) and
C(𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) are given by
𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝟑
( , )
𝟑 𝟑

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10
 Introduction to trigonometry

Note 1: It should be noted that sin θ is an abbreviation for “sine of angle θ”, it is not
the product of sin and θ. Similar is the case for other trigonometric ratios.
Note 2: The above trigonometric ratios are defined for an acute angle θ.

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 Some Applications of Trigonometry
Line of Sight
The line of sight is the line drawn from the eye of an observer to the point where the object is
viewed by the observer.

Horizontal Line
The line which goes parallel from eye to ground, is called horizontal line.

Angle of elevation
The angle of elevation of an object viewed, is the angle formed by the line of
sight with the horizontal when object viewed is above the horizontal level, i.e.
the case when we lower our head to look at the object.

Angle of Depression
The angle of depression of an object viewed, is the angle formed by the line of sight with the
horizontal, when it is below the horizontal level, i.e. the case when we lower our head to look at the
object.

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12
 Chapter–10 Circles
Circles-A circle is a collection of all those points in a plane which are at a constant
distance (radius) from a fixed point of that plane. Constant distance is length of radius and
fixed point is centre.

Note- Two or more circles having the same centre are called concentric circles.

Secant: A line which intersects circle in two distinct points is called a secant of the circle.

Tangent: The tangent to a circle is a line that meets the circle at exactly one point.

Length of the Tangent

• The length of the segment of the tangent from the external point and the point of
contact with the circle is called the length of the tangent from the external point to the
circle.

In the above figure, AB is called the length of tangent.

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Number of Tangent from a Point on a Circle

(i) There are exactly two tangents to a circle through a point lying outside the circle.
circle ,i.e. PT1 and PT2

(ii) There is one and only one tangent to a circle passing through a point lying on the circle.

(iii) There is no tangent to a circle passing through a point lying inside the circle.

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Some Important Terms Related to Chapter 12 Area Related to Circles

Chord :-A line segment joining any two points on the circumference of the circle is called a chord
of the circle. If this chord passes through the centre, then the chord (or diameter) is the longest
chord of the circle

Semi – Circle
A diameter of a circle divides it into two equals parts or in two equal arcs. Each of these two arcs is
called a semi-circles

Circumference
The length of the complete circle is called the circumference of the circle.

Arc (Minor and Major)

A continuous piece of a circle is called an arc. In adjoining figure, P and Q are two points on a circle
which divide it into two parts, called the arcs. The larger part is called the major arc QRP and the
smaller part is called the minor arc PMQ

Sector
The region between an arc and the two radii, joining the ends of the arc to the centre, is called a
sector.

The sector formed by minor arc, is called minor sector and

The sector formed by major arc, is called major sector

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15
Segment
The region between a chord and either of its arc is called a segment of the circular region or simply a
segment of the circle. The segment formed by minor arc along with chord, is called minor segment
and the segment formed by major arc, is called the major segment.

Important Results based on Class 9th

(i) The perpendicular drawn from the centre of a circle to a chord bisects it and vice-versa.
(ii) Equal chords of a circle are equidistant from the centre
(iii) The angle subtended by an arc (or corresponding chord ) at the centre of the circle is twice the
angle subtended by the same arc at any point on the remaining part of the circle

(iv) Equals chords of a circle subtend equal angles at the centre.

(v) The angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.
(vi) Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.
(vii) The sum of any pair of opposite angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is 180o.
(viii) If two circles intersect at two points, then the line through the centres in the perpendicular
bisector of the common chord.

Theorem Related to Tangent of circle (Class 10th Theorem on Latest Syllabus)

Theorem 1 The Tangent at any point of a circle is perpendicular to the radius through the point of
contact.

Here, O is centre of circle and AB is tangent of circle at P and it is point of contact and OP is radius.

∴ 𝐎𝐏 ⊥ 𝐀𝐁.

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Theorem 2 The lengths of two tangents drawn from an external point to a circle are equal.

Here,P is exterior point and PA and PB are tangents PA=PB

Important Results
(i) If two circles touch internally or externally, then point of contact lies on the straight line through
the two centres .

(ii) The opposite sides of a quadrilateral circumscribing acircle subtend supplementary angles at the
centre of the circle.

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 Surface Areas and Volumes
Cuboid:
TSA(Total Surface Area) = 2(lb + bh + hl)
Lateral Surface Area (LSA) = 2h (l + b)

Volume = lbh.
Diagonal of cuboid = √𝑙 2 + 𝑏 2 + ℎ2

Cube: LSA = 4a2

TSA = 6a2

Volume = a3,
Diagonal of cube = √3𝑎

Right circular cylinder

CSA(Curve Surface Area) = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ

TSA = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ + 2𝜋𝑟 2 = 2𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + ℎ)
Volume = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ

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Hollow cylinder
Thickness of cylinder = R – r
External CSA = 2𝜋𝑅𝐻

Internal CSA = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ

TSA = External curved area + internal curved area + area of two ends
= 2𝜋𝑅ℎ + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ + 2𝜋(𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 )
= 2𝜋(𝑅ℎ + 𝑟ℎ + 𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 )
Volume of material = 𝜋𝑅 2 ℎ − 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ = 𝜋(𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 )ℎ

Cone

CSA = 𝜋𝑟𝑙 = 𝜋𝑟 √𝑟 2 + ℎ2
TSA = 𝜋𝑟𝑙 + 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋𝑟(𝑙 + 𝑟)
1
Volume = 3 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
Slant height = 𝑙 = √(𝑟 2 + ℎ2 )

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 Sphere
CSA = 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐
TSA = 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐

4
Volume = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 ,

Spherical Shell
Thickness = R – r

4
Volume = 3 𝜋 (𝑅 3 − 𝑟 3 ).

Hemisphere
CSA = 2𝜋𝑟 2
TSA = 3𝜋𝑟 2
2
Volume = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 ,

Hemispherical Shell
External CSA = 2𝜋𝑅 2
Internal CSA = 2𝜋𝑟 2
TSA = 2𝜋𝑅 2 + 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 𝜋(𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 ) = 𝜋(3𝑅 2 + 𝑟 2 )
2
Volume of material = 3 𝜋(𝑅 3 − 𝑟 3 )

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20
 Statistics

Statistics measures of central tendency

Mean – the arithmetic mean (or, simply mean) is the sum of the values of all
the observations divided by the total number of observations.

Mean of ungrouped data

The mean of n numbers x1, x2, x3, … xn denoted by 𝑋 (read as X bar) is
defined as:
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + … + 𝑥𝑛 ∑ 𝑥
𝑋= =
𝑛 𝑛
Where Σ is a Greek alphabet called sigma. Thus, ∑ 𝑥 means sum of all x.

Mean of grouped data

Direct method: if the variates observations x1, x2, x3, … xn have frequencies
f1, f2, f3, …. Fn respectively, then the mean is given by:
Mean
𝑓1 𝑥1 + 𝑓2 𝑥2 + … + 𝑓𝑛 𝑥𝑛 ∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑋= =
𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + … + 𝑓𝑛 ∑ 𝑓𝑖

Short cut method: in some problems, where the number of variates is large
or the values of xi or fi are larger, then the calculations become tedious. To
overcome this difficulty, we use short cut or deviation method.

Assumed mean method

Find the class mark or mid-value of each class, as:
𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡+𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
Xi = class mark = ( )
2
In this method, an approximate mean, called assumed mean or provisional
mean is taken. This assumed mean is taken preferably near the middle, say
A and the deviation di = xi – A for each variate xi.
The mean is given by the formula:

∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑖
Mean 𝑋 = 𝐴 + ∑ 𝑓𝑖

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Mode – The mode of a distribution is the value of observation with highest
frequency. In a continuous frequency distribution with equal class interval,
mode is obtained by locating a class with the maximum frequency.
𝑓1 − 𝑓0
𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 𝑙 + ×ℎ
2𝑓1 − 𝑓0 − 𝑓2
Where,
l = lower limit of the modal class
f1 = frequency of the modal class
f0 = frequency of the class preceding the modal class
f2 = frequency of the class succeeding the modal class.
h = size of the modal class.

Median
The median gives the value of the middle – most observation in the data.
Median of ungrouped data
For finding median of ungrouped data, we first arrange the data in
ascending order.
𝑛+1
• If n is odd, median = ( 2 ) 𝑡ℎ observation
1 𝑛 𝑛
• If n is even, median = 2 [ 2 𝑡ℎ + ( 2 + 1) 𝑡ℎ ] observation.
•
Median of grouped data

To find median class, we locate the class whose cumulative frequency is

greater than (nearest to) /2 median of a grouped or continuous frequency
distribution
𝑛
−𝑐𝑓
Median= l + ( 2
)×ℎ
𝑓
Where, l = lower limit of the median class
n = number of observations
f = frequency of the median class
h = size of the median class (assuming class size to be equal)
cf = cumulative frequency of the class preceding the median class

Empirical relationship between the three measure of central tendency.

3 median = mode + 2 mean

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22
 Probability
Probability is a quantitative measure of likelihood of a given event’s occurrence. It is
expressed as a number between 0 and 1.

Experiment:
An operation which gives some well-defined outcomes.
Random experiment:
An experiment whose outcome has to be among a collection of possible outcomes, which are
known, is called a random experiment.

Sample Space-
The sample space of an experiment is the set of all possible outcomes.

Elementary Event:
An outcome of a random experiment is called an elementary event.
Compound Event:
An event associated to a random experiment is a compound event, if it is obtained by
combining two or more elementary events associated to the random experiment.
Sure events:
Those events whose probability is one
Impossible event:
Those events whose probability is zero.

Complement/Negation of an event:
corresponding to every event A associated with a random experiment, we define an event
‘not A’ or 𝐴 which occurs when and only when A does not occur, for any event A, P(A) +
P(𝐴) = 1 ; P(𝐴) = 1 - P(A).

Probability:
If there are n elementary events associated with a random experiment and m of them are
favourable to an event A then the probability of happening of event A is defined as the ratio
and is denoted by P(A).
P(A) = m/n
Probability of any event always lies between 0 and 1, i.e,
(a) Probability of an event cannot be negative
(b) Probability of an event cannot be more than 1.

Board Exam में फोड़ना है - A4S Army

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Important Outcomes-
Coins
1 Coin – {H, T}
2 Coins – {HH, HT, TH, TT}
3 Coins – {HHH, HTH, THH, TTH,HHT,HTT,THT,TTT}

Dice
1 Die-{1,2,3,4,5,6}
2 Dice-{(1,1) (1,2) (1,3),(1,4), (1,5),(1,6),(2,1) (2,2) (2,3),(2,4), (2,5),(2,6), (3,1) (3,2)
(3,3),(3,4), (3,5),(3,6), (4,1) (4,2) (4,3),(4,4), (4,5),(4,6), (5,1) (5,2) (5,3),(5,4), (5,5),(5,6),
(6,1) (6,2) (6,3),(6,4), (6,5),(6,6)}

Cards
52 Cards
13 Spade(Black), 13 Club(Black) , 13 Diamond(Red) ,13 Heart(Red)
Cards
Note-Jack, Queen and King are face Cards

Board Exam में फोड़ना है - A4S Army

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