Geodesy Module.

Geodesy
Compiled by Firehiywot G.
Compiled by Firehiywot G.
12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 1

1. Introduction to Geodesy
– Key Concepts Geodesy
– The Integration of Geodesy
– Classification of Geodesy
– Application of Geodesy

1.1. The concepts of Geodesy
 According to the Geodetic Glossary (NGS 2009), geodesy can

be defined as
 “The science concerned with determining the size and shape of the
Earth” or
 “The science that locates positions on the Earth and determines the
Earth’s gravity field.”
 Modern technology is possible only due to geodesy. For

Example:
 High-accuracy maps of moderate or larger regions and navigations
 Sea level rising observation and monitoring because of climate
change etc…
Cont’d
 Geodesy plays a central role in a wide variety of cutting-
edge sciences, such as geophysics, astronomy, and
climatology.

1.2. Objectives of Geodesy
• The objectives of geodesy are

1. to determine accurately the positions of points
on the Earth’s surface and their variations and,
2. to study the gravity field of the Earth, the shape
and size of the Earth, and the geodynamic
phenomena.

1.3. Classifications of Geodesy
geodesy can be classified into

I. ellipsoidal geodesy (i.e., theoretical geodesy,
higher surveying),
II. geodetic control survey,
III. marine geodesy, and
IV. engineering geodesy (i.e., plane surveying).

1.3.1. Ellipsoidal geodesy
• Ellipsoidal geodesy studies the body of the Earth

as a whole, determines the shape of the Earth and
its external gravity field, and establishes the
geodetic reference system.

1.3.2. Geodetic control survey
• Geodetic control survey measures the coordinates

and heights of a sufficient number of surface points
within one or several countries in an appropriately
chosen reference system and establishes a unified
national geodetic network to meet the needs of
topographic mapping and engineering construction.

1.3.3. Marine geodesy
Marine geodesy establishes a geodetic control

network on the Earth’s surface covered by oceans to
realize positioning on the sea surface and underwater
and to measure the marine gravity field, sea surface
topography, and marine geoid.

1.3.4. Engineering geodesy
• Engineering geodesy determines the details on the Earth’s

surface regionally in a small area and usually refers to the
horizontal plane for measurement.
* Ellipsoidal geodesy, geodetic control survey, marine

geodesy, and engineering geodesy are closely related to
one another

Cont’d
• National geodetic control survey and marine geodesy need the
geodetic constants and reference datums determined by global
geodetic surveying.
– It is to reduce the observational results taking into consideration the
effect of the Earth’s curvature and the gravity field.
– It results in providing of ellipsoidal geodesy with information of geometric

and physical measurements of the Earth’s surface.
• Engineering geodesy has to be connected with the national geodetic

control network to bring its results into the national unified coordinate
system.

Cont’d
 According to the spatial–temporal attributes of the Earth
Geodesy is usually subdivided into:
1. geometrical geodesy,
2. physical geodesy, and
3. Satellite geodesy
,

Cont’d
1. Geometrical geodesy is concerned with describing locations in
terms of geometry.
– coordinate systems are one of the primary products of geometrical

geodesy.
2. Physical geodesy is concerned with determining the Earth’s gravity

field, which is necessary for establishing heights.
3. Satellite geodesy is concerned with using orbiting satellites to obtain

data for geodetic purposes.

1.4. Applications of Geodesy
1. Applications of Geodesy in Topographic Mapping,
Engineering Construction, and Transportation
• In topographic mapping to
– Control error accumulation in mapping
– Unify coordinate systems
– Resolve conflict between an ellipsoid surface and a

plane.

Cont’d
• In engineering construction, the important
roles of geodesy are to :
– Build a mapping control network for large-scale
topographic mapping at the project design stage
– Build a construction control network during
project construction.

• Applications of Geodesy in Space Technology
– The launching, guidance, tracking, remote controlling,

and return of spacecraft need two basic types of support
from geodesy: one is a precise geodetic coordinate system
and accurate positions of surface points.
– Geodetic coordinate system used to describe a spacecraft’s

movement relative to the Earth

• Applications of Geodesy in Geoscience
Research
– It provides precise geodetic information for the
study of plate movement and crustal deformation

• Applications of Geodesy in Resource
Development, Environmental Monitoring, and
Protection
– Resource exploitation, especially for energy
development
• Applications of Geodesy in Disaster Prevention,
Resistance, and Mitigation
– Natural disasters, especially earthquakes, floods, and
severe tropical storms, usually bring huge damage and
loss to human beings.
– monitoring and forecasting of earthquakes

1.5. Earth Geometry
1.5.1. The History of Geodesy
• Geodesy developed from practical needs:
– Cadastral lines-property lines, taxes
– Civil engineering-roads, buildings
– Resources –what? Where? How much?
– Navigation- which way? How far?
• For such needs we may assume that earth is flat.
• But for long distances and large areas this assumption
does not work.
Cont’d
• People assumed that the earth is curved equally over
all (sphere).
• Different observation suggests that the earth is
sphere. How big is the sphere?
1. Erathosthenes
 Lived from 274-194 B.C in Alexandria, Egypt
 Computed the size of earth from watching a sun dial cast
its shadow at noon on certain day, the summer solstice in
June.
Cont’d
• He given the hint of earth has curved shape.
• He introduced the method of combining astronomic angles
with measured distances.
• Measured the circumfrence of the earth by the equation
(3600 / Ø)* (s)
• In the 17th C, it was possible to measure distance and
gravity precisely enough to notice that the curvature of the
earth was not the same at different places.
• This meant that the earth is not sphere at all.
• A boat coming in from the horizon is not in full
view all at once; its superstructure is visible
long before the hull is seen

Traveling north at night, the north pole star appears to
get higher in the sky, as measured from the horizon up.

International disputes on the shape of the
earth
French scholars British scholars
• Measured S in France and • Newton’s new theory of
convinced that the earth gravitation convinced that
was pointed to poles (like the earth was flattened at
an egg). the poles.
• Measured 10 arc in pole • The flattened (oblate
and in equator.. ellipsoid) earth model has
• They assured that the pole been used since
10 arc is longer that the
equator

Sphere spheroid/ Ellipsoid
b b
a a
b= semi major axis a-b = flattening

a= semi minor axis b
a=b a>b

Cont’d
• 1958 is the time when the first satellites went up.
• It was found that the earth was a little less flattened than
had been thought before.
 WHAT SATELLITE DATA TELL US OF THE EARTH'S SHAPE ?

Chapter 2
Geodetic Data Collection Techniques
 commonly used in geodetic survey, such as
– terrestrial triangulateration,
– height measurement,
– space geodetic surveying, and
– physical geodetic surveying

2.1 Terrestrial Triangulateration
2.1.1 Angle Measurement
• In establishing national geodetic control networks, it is
often necessary to carry out horizontal and vertical
angle measurements.
 A, P1, and P2 are three geodetic control points
on the Earth’s surface.
– The angle β between Aq1 and Aq2 is known
as the horizontal
– The angle between the line of sight AP1 and its horizontal Aq1 is called the vertical angle to the
sighted point P1 from A, denoted by α1.
– Likewise, the angle between the line of sight AP2 and its horizontal line Aq2 is referred to as the
vertical angle to the sighted point P2 from A.

The Theodolite
• The theodolite is an instrument for measuring
angles with specific observational methods.

2.1.2 Distance Measurement
• For hundreds of years, graduated tapes
(measuring ropes, tape measures, and steel
tapes) have been used.
• 1940s, optical-electro distance measuring
instrument.
• Later, microwave, laser, and infrared EDM
instruments emerged one after another.
• Even today, the total station electronic
tacheometer that integrates angle and distance
measurements is still available.
Principles of Electromagnetic Distance Measuring
• An electromagnetic wave transmitted from a rangefinder placed at point A

travels to the reflector at point B and back to point A, received by the
rangefinder.
• Round-trip travel time = t2D
• V is the velocity of propagation of the electromagnetic wave in the atmosphere,
• c is the velocity of the electromagnetic wave in vacuum, and
• n is the index of refraction (refractive index) for the electromagnetic wave

Classification of Electromagnetic Distance Measuring
Instruments
• EDM instruments according to the band of their

carrier waves:
1. Microwave EDM Instrument
– The carrier wavelength ranges from 8 mm to10 cm
2. Laser EDM Instrument

– The carrier is usually red visible light of 0.6328 μm wavelength
3. Infrared EDM Instrument

– The carrier wavelength usually ranges from 0.75 to 0.95 μm

2.1.3 Astronomical Measurement
• Astronomical observation is a technique utilized to

determine the position of a point on the Earth’s
surface (astronomical longitude and astronomical
latitude) and the astronomical azimuth by observing
celestial bodies (especially stars).
• An ancient technology

2.2 Height Measurement
2.2.1 Leveling
• A method used for accurate determination of height
difference between two points.
• A precisely graduated staff is held vertically over the
two points whose height difference is to be
determined and then the scale readings are made
with the horizontal line of sight.
• Height difference hAB between A and B is:
hAB = a - b

2.3 Space Geodetic Surveying
2.3.1 GPS Surveying
The entire GPS consists of the
1. space segment,
o is composed of 24 GPS operational satellites which
form the GPS satellite constellation.
2. the ground control segment
o is a monitoring system composed of several tracking
stations around the globe.
3. user segment :
o GPS receivers, the data processing software, and
corresponding auxiliary equipment for users, etc.

2.3 Space Geodetic…
Signals From GPS Satellites
• GPS satellites transmit carrier signals for
civilian use at three frequencies:
o 1,575.42 MHz (L1 carrier wave),
o 1,227.60 MHz (L2 carrier wave), and
o 1,176.45 MHz (L5 carrier wave).

GPS Positioning Services
• GPS offers two positioning services:
1. Precise Positioning Service (PPS)
– US military, certain US government agencies, and civil
users specifically approved by the US government
2. Standard Positioning Service (SPS)
– For common civilian users
– The US Government provides the SPS to take control
of positioning accuracy.

GPS Coordinate System and Time System
• World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84)
– For a worldwide unified geodetic coordinate
system, provided by the US Defense Mapping
Agency (DMA)
– Currently used by GPS, and a more accurate global
geodetic coordinate system.

Features and Functions of GPS
• GPS defines its basic observed quantity as the distance
between stations and the satellites.
• There are two main GPS measurement strategies
1. pseudo-range measurement,
• which measures the propagation time taken for the
pseudo-random code to travel from the satellite to the
user’s receiver.
o advantages of simple data processing, a low demand for
positioning conditions, no integer ambiguity, and an easier
realization of real-time location.
o the low accuracy of observed values (C/A code 3 m and P
code is about 30 cm,

2. The carrier phase measurement,
• which records the phase difference between
the carrier signals from the GPS satellites with
Doppler frequency shift and the reference
carrier signals produced by receivers.
o the high accuracy of observations (2 mm),
o complicated in data processing and has integer
ambiguity (disadvantage).

• GPS is mainly distinguished by :
– Continuous Global Coverage
– Multifunction and High Precision
– High Speed In Real-Time Positioning

Discuss about the application area of
current GPS technology?
Reading Assignment
1. Satellite Laser Ranging & Very Long
Baseline Interferometry

2.3.4 Satellite Altimetry (SA)
• SA
– employs microwave radar altimeters installed in
satellites, radiometers, synthetic aperture radar,
and other equipment to measure in real time the
distance from a satellite to the ocean’s surface.
– data can determine the marine geoid
– Helps to establish an Earth gravity field model
with high accuracy and high resolution.

The Basics
 Suppose that the altitude of the satellite is
and the propagation velocity of the signal
is c; we can then use Δt, the round-trip
time of the radar signal observed, to
calculate:

The Basics…
• The observed value is an
elevation to the average
instantaneous sea level.
• Its difference from the geoid
height is H.
• the satellite altitude with respect
to the reference ellipsoid is h,
• we can simplify the basic satellite
altimetry equation to
• satellite altimetry is an effective
method for directly drawing a
geoid map
Principles of radar altimetry
• Precision of the range
measurement depends on :
o an accurate satellite position
o various instrument errors
o various geophysical errors (e.g.,
atmospheric attenuation, tides,
inverse barometer effects, …)
• Resulting sea surface topography
is a combination of ocean
dynamic topography and the
marine geoid.
2.4 Gravimetry
2.4.1 Absolute Gravimetry
• Absolute gravimetry is a technique utilized to determine
the gravity value (actually, gravitational acceleration) at a
defined geometric point.
• There are two methods for absolute gravity measurement,
1. a reversible pendulum, and
– The period, T, of the oscillation of the pendulum is directly
related to the gravitational acceleration, g,
2. free-fall motion of bodies.
– Refers the accelerated linear motion of a body along
the plumb line under the action of gravity only.

Absolute Gravimetry…
• If the gravity acceleration g in the course of motion
along the plumb line is assumed constant (no gravity
changes with height), then the equation of motion is:
• where
– V0 and l0 denote the initial velocity of the falling body and the
distance from the origin O, respectively, at the computational time t ¼
0, and
– l is the distance of the falling body from the origin O after a period of
time t,
• The dominant method since the 1960s.

2.4.2 Relative Gravimetry
• Relative gravimetry
– is a technique used to determine the gravity difference between two
points, and then to obtain the gravity value of each point in a
pointwise manner through at least one point of known gravity value.

2.4.3 Airborne Gravimetry
• It is a method employed to determine the near-Earth
gravitational acceleration using an integrated airborne
gravity remote sensing system.
o an aircraft as carrier, airborne gravimeter, GPS, altimeter, and
attitude determination devices, etc.
o It can operate in areas where terrestrial gravity
measurement is hard to conduct such as deserts, ice sheets,
marshlands, and primeval forests.
o It fully demonstrated the integrated application of modern
technologies in the field of geodetic survey
o It is of vital significance to geodesy, geophysics,
oceanography, resources exploration, and space science.

2.4.4 Satellite Gravimetry
• The features of satellite gravimetry
o ground tracking satellite,
o satellite-to-satellite tracking (SST),
o satellite gravity gradiometry (SGG), and satellite altimetry
(SA)
• Determining the Earth’s Gravity Field by Means of a
Ground Tracking Satellite
o Determining the Earth’s Gravity Field by Means of
 a Ground Tracking Satellite
 Satellite-to-Satellite Tracking
o Determining the Gravitational Acceleration Differences in
the Earth’s Gravity Field by Satellite Gravity Gradiometry

Chapter 3
Geodetic Datum and Geodetic Control Networks
• To measure terrain, surface features, position

coordinates, heights, and gravity values at points on
the Earth’s surface, corresponding reference points
or surfaces are needed namely geodetic datum's, to
which surveying and mapping results are referred.
• Geodetic datums
– provide initial data for all kinds of surveying and
mapping work and
– serve as the foundation for determining the geometric
shape and spatial–temporal distribution of geospatial
information.

Geodetic Datum and…
• The missions of constructing geodetic datums
• determining and defining
– the coordinate system,
– height system, and gravity reference system, and
establishing and maintaining the coordinate
framework (horizontal and satellite geodetic control
networks),
– elevation framework (vertical control network), and
gravimetric framework (gravity control network).

Geodetic Datum and…
• Classical horizontal and vertical datums are only
be used as regional datums and are usually
applicable countrywide. B/se of their limited
controlling area.
• The three-dimensional coordinate datums and
gravity datums can be used as both global and
regional datums.
• The datums are represented by the position
coordinates, heights, and gravity values at a
series of control points.
– Datums are realized through establishing different
geodetic control networks
3.1 The Horizontal Datum and Horizontal Control
Networks
3.1.1 Geodetic Origin and the Horizontal Datum

• The geodetic origin is the initial or starting point for
computing geodetic coordinates in the national
horizontal control network.
• Geodetic reference data are obtained by determining
with high precision the astronomic longitude and
latitude of the geodetic origin and the astronomical
azimuth from there to another point; according to
the principle of ellipsoid orientation

3.1 The Horizontal Datum …
The Horizontal Datum

• The horizontal datum provides the basis for
establishing the national geodetic coordinate system
and for calculating the geodetic coordinates of each
point in the national horizontal control network.
• The initial point is the geodetic origin in classical
geodetic survey.
• The extension of the horizontal datum is realized by
the horizontal control network formed by a series of
control points.

3.1 The Horizontal Datum …
• In modern geodetic survey, the
horizontal datum is usually
realized by 3-D datum obtained
from the GPS method.
Methods of Establishing a
Horizontal Control Network
• Traversing
• Triangulation Fig 1. Geodetic origin mark of China’s
classical geodetic control network.
• Trilateration and Combination of Source: SBSM
Triangulation and Trilateration

3.1.3 Principles of Establishing a National Horizontal
Control Network
Network Establishment and Control Based on

Hierarchical Order
• A national horizontal control network can be established
based either on a single order or several different orders.
• The single-order control network can serve directly as the
basis for mapping control and is usually established in
countries with smaller territories
• Countries with vast territories often adopt the method of
establishing networks from higher to lower orders.
– first build a nationwide primary control network with higher accuracy
and lower density as a consistent control framework, and then
continue to densify it.

3.1.3 Principles of Establishing…
Sufficient Accuracy
• It have to meet the requirements for mapping of the
basic scale topographic maps and the development of
modern technology.
– such as space technology, precise engineering, earthquake
monitoring, and geodynamics
– for 1:50,000 scale topographic map
• the third- and fourth-order horizontal control networks
are used chiefly for a higher-level control of the
topographic mapping control points.
– to satisfy the needs of fundamental engineering
construction.
– topographic mapping at a scale of 1:10,000
3.1.3 Principles of Establishing…
Necessary Density
• There is usually one single point every several square
kilometers on average.
• It can also be expressed by the average side length of
midpoints in the control network.
• The shorter the side length, the denser the geodetic points will
be.
• The controlling area Q of each point is expressed by the average side
length S, namely:

3.1.4 Plans for Establishing a National Control
Network
• Reading ass.

3.1.5 Establishment of a Horizontal Control
Network
• Establishment of the horizontal control network
includes
– technical design,
• Data Collection : maps of various scales, aerial photo maps,
traffic maps and meteorological information, existing results
of geodetic points
• Drawing Up Designs: facilitates site selection
– reconnaissance for site selection
– erection of survey marks:
• Erection of Survey Marks, Monument Setting
– monument setting:
• first- and second-order triangulation (traverse) points or that
of the third- and fourth-order triangulation (traverse) points

3.2 The Vertical Datum and Vertical Control Networks
• A vertical datum (height datum) is realized by a vertical
control network that provides the basis for determining
the height of a point on the Earth’s surface.
• It is also known as the leveling network
• which is established using leveling as the primary
method, supplemented by trigonometric leveling.
• Leveling can be classified into four orders:
– the first- and second-order leveling is known as precise leveling,
and
– the third- and fourth-order leveling is referred to as ordinary
leveling.
• Correspondingly, the vertical control network can also be
divided into four orders.
3.2.1 The Vertical Datum and Leveling Origin
• A vertical datum provides the reference surface relative to
which heights are measured.
• All leveling heights in the national unified vertical control
network are calculated and determined with respect to the
vertical datum,
• which consists of a zero elevation surface and a
permanent leveling origin.
• Theoretically, the geoid is usually used as the reference
surface for heights.
• practically the mean sea level (MSL) determined by
averaging the level of water at a tide gauge over time is
often used as the level surface to which heights are
referred.

3.2.1 The Vertical Datum…
• Corrections need to be applied to the vertical datum,

When,
– Thermal expansion of ocean water observe.
– The contribution of land-based ice due to
increased melting of glaciers and ice sheets.
• MSL is often defined as zero height for a local area

3.2.2 The Sounding Datum
• For describing seafloor surface features and carrying out
corresponding bathymetric surveys.
• Depth is the sounding value obtained through
bathymetric surveys of oceans and coastal sea waters
starting from the sea surface.
• Due to such effects as tides, sea waves, sea currents, and so
on, the instantaneous sea surface height is subject to
temporal variations.
• Therefor, a fixed water surface should be specified as the
reference surface for depth measurement.
• All the soundings measured at different times should be
reduced to this reference surface, which is known as the
sounding datum.
• The sounding datum is the datum to which depths on the
charts and tide heights are referred.
3.3 The Three-Dimensional Coordinate Datum
and Satellite Geodetic Control Networks
• The satellite geodetic control network, difference lies
in that, it can directly obtain the three-dimensional
coordinates of control points, indicating realization
of the three-dimensional geodetic datum.
• The techniques used to establish control networks
should be space geodetic techniques, such as GNSS,
VLBI, SLR, and DORIS,

3.3.1 The Three-Dimensional Coordinate
Datum
Global Three-Dimensional Coordinate Datum
• The development of space geodetic techniques such
as GNSS, VLBI, SLR, and DORIS has created
conditions for establishing a global three-dimensional
datum,
• which is realized by connecting the above-mentioned
space geodetic stations distributed worldwide
together into a corresponding global network.
• These networks currently consist of 42 laser ranging
sites, 407 GNSS sites, 45 VLBI sites, and 58 DORIS
sites.
Global IGS Network
• The data generated by these networks, as well as products
derived from these data, are available from the Crustal Dynamics
Data Information System (CDDIS, http://cddis.nasa.gov).
• The CDDIS is NASA‘s active archive and information service of
space geodesy data and products and currently serves as a key
global data center for the IGS, ILRS, IVS, and IDS as well as GGOS.
• For over 25 years, the CDDIS has provided continuous, long term,
public access to the data and product records required for the
terrestrial reference frame to the global Earth Science
community.

Fig 1. Global and Regional Network Maps
12/14/2022
Compiled By Firehiywet G.
71 Figure 2. The networks supporting the ILRS, IGS, IVS, and IDS
Continuously Operating Reference System
• Is a major technique for establishing regional three-

dimensional geodetic datums.
• The three-dimensional coordinate datum is defined
and extended by CORS and GPS networks.

Basic Components of CORS
• It is composed of a datum station network, data
processing center, data transmission system,
positioning and navigation data broadcast system, and
user application system.
• Every datum station is connected to the monitoring
and analysis center through the data transmission
system, constituting a special purpose network.
• The datum station network, made up of datum
stations distributed evenly within a certain scope,
– is used to collect observational data from GPS satellites,
transmit them to the data processing center, and provide
services for monitoring the system integrity.

Basic Components…
• The data processing center, as the control center of

the system, is used to receive data from every datum
station and form multiple datum stations’ differential
positioning data for users through data processing.
• Then, the data files formed with a certain format are
distributed to users.
• The data transmission system, where data from every
datum station are transmitted to the monitoring and
analysis center through fiber lines.
– The system comprises hardware devices and software
control module for data transmission .

Basic Components…
• The data broadcast system broadcasts positioning

and navigation data to users in the form of mobile
networks, UHF radio, Internet, etc.
• The user application system consists of a user
information receiving system, a network-based RTK
(real-time, kinematic) positioning system, a fast and
post-processing precision positioning system, an
autonomous navigation system, positioning
monitoring system, and so on.

3.3.2 Establishment of Satellite Geodetic
Control Networks
Principles for Establishment of GPS Control
• Networks Establishment Based on Hierarchical Orders
– Setting GPS network into different orders is conductive to
stage-wise establishment according to the immediate needs
and long-term development of survey areas.
– Use GPS to establish a nationwide high-precision
backbone control network with low density (A- and B-
order networks or first and second-order networks) and
then further densify the network using GPS or
conventional methods based on the survey areas
needed.
3.3.2 Establishment of Satellite…
Density
• Different task requirements and service targets have
different requirements for establishing the GPS
network.
• A rule for the distance between two adjacent points
in GPS networks is made dependent on various
needs: the shortest distance between adjacent points
can be 1/3 to 1/2 of the average distance while the
longest is 2–3 times

3.3.2 Establishment of Satellite…
Accuracy
• The accuracy standard of general GPS
measurement is commonly expressed by the mean
square error of the distance between adjacent points
in the networks as follows:
• where σ is the mean square error of distance (mm), a is the

constant error (mm), b is the coefficient of the ratio error,
and d is the distance between adjacent points (km).

Technical Design of GPS Control Networks
Design of GPS Control Network Datum

• The design of the GPS control network datum is
fundamental to the implementation of GPS
measurement.
• It aims to find the best possible solution in terms of
accuracy, reliability, and economic efficiency of the
network.
• Practical engineering applications require national
coordinate systems.
• The GPS network datum consists of position datum,
azimuth datum, and scale datum.

Technical Design of GPS …
Point Selection
• Since GPS observation stations do not require
intervisibility with each other.
Marking the Position of the GPS Control Point

Measurement Operations of GPS Control
Networks
• GPS measurement includes field observations and
indoor data processing work.
• The field observations consists installation of
antennae, observation operations, and recording of
field observation results.
• whereas the latter consists of data extraction from
instruments, baseline solution, and adjustment
calculations of three-dimensional GPS control
networks, etc.

3.4 The Gravity Datum and Gravity Control
Networks
• Stations with known absolute gravity values serve as the
reference points for relative gravimetry when determining the
gravity difference between two stations.
• Such a reference point is also known as the gravity origin.
• The reference points acknowledged by the international
surveying organizations are called the international gravity
datum.
• Countries will do their utmost to correlate with the
international gravity datum while determining gravity so as to
test the accuracy of gravity measurements and to ensure
that the surveying results stay unified.
– Vienna Gravity System 1900, Potsdam Gravity System 1909, International Gravity Standardization Net
1971 (IGSN71), and International Absolute Gravity Base Station Network 1987 (IAGBN) are Universally
12/14/2022recognized gravity datums. Compiled By Firehiywet G. 82
Chapter 4
The Geoid and Different Height Systems

Chapter 4
The Geoid and Different Height
Systems
The Geoid and Different Height
Systems
• The geoid can be understood as the physical shape of
the Earth.
• A reference ellipsoid can be interpreted as the
mathematical shape of the Earth, and a normal
ellipsoid is the mathematical and physical shape of the
Earth.
• The reference ellipsoid or normal ellipsoid is a close
approximation of the geoid.
• The shape of the Earth studied in geodesy primarily
refers to the shape of the geoid.
• The geoid also serves as a reference surface for height
determination of a given point on the Earth’s surface.
4.1 Gravity Potential of the Earth and Geoid
4.1.1 Gravity and Gravity Potential
• Newton’s law of universal gravitation,
– any two bodies in the universe, possessing mass, exert
gravitational attraction on each other, which will thus create a
gravitational field around the point mass.
• F is used to represent this attractive force.
• The force F is directly proportional to the product of
their masses m and m’ and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance r between them, and can be
expressed as:
G (gravitational constant) =
4.1.1 Gravity and Gravity…
• In geodesy, the particle of mass m is referred to
as the attracting mass, while the other particle of
mass m’ is the attracted mass, the mass of which
is used as a unit, i.e., m’ = 1.
• The Earth can be regarded as a body constituted

by infinite number of continuous point masses.
• The attraction that the Earth has exerted on the
unit point mass F is the integral:
• The attraction that the Earth has exerted on

the unit point mass F is the integral:
• where dm is the differential mass element of the Earth and r

represents the position vector between dm and the attracted
mass, which is a variable of integration; the integral area is
the total mass of the Earth.
• Due to the rotation of the Earth, every point on the Earth
experiences an inertial centrifugal force P .
• The attracting mass

m and the attracted
• where ρ denotes the vertical distance
mass m0
vector between the unit point mass and
the spin axis of the Earth and ω
represents the angular velocity vector
of the Earth rotation, which can be
determined precisely using
astronomical methods. Fig 1.The attracting mass m and the
attracted mass m’
• Its value is ω 7.292115 10⁻⁵ rad/s.
• P is perpendicular to the axis of
rotation and is directed against the spin
axis.
• The force of gravity of the Earth g ! is the resultant

of the gravitational force acting upon a unit point
mass and the centrifugal force of the Earth, namely:
• The gravity acceleration is measured in centimeters

per second squared (cm/𝑠 2 ), known as gal (after
Galileo; symbol Gal) in geodesy.
• Gravitational force, centrifugal force, and gravity

force all have their corresponding potential
functions.
• The function of gravitational potential is a numeric function
with respect to the variables of coordinate axes x, y, and z. Its
partial derivatives with respect to the three coordinate axes
correspond to the components Fx, Fy, Fz of the gravitational
force F ! in these three directions respectively, namely:
• As shown in Fig.1, m is the mass of the gravitationally
attracting body at the point (0,0,0); m0 is the attracted
mass at the point (x, y, z); the distance r between them is
given by:
𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = 𝑟2
• Gravity Potential of the Earth and Geoid
Apparently,
• This gives the components of the gravitational force F ! along the
three coordinate axes.
• This indicates that the numeric function V is the gravitational
potential function of a point mass.
• assume that the unit point mass m0 moves from point B1

(distance r1) to point B2 (distance r2); then the work
(energy transfer) done by the gravitational force is:
– where dr denotes the displacement in the direction of the force.

• The potential difference between the two points is the
energy needed to move the point mass from the point of
lower potential to that of higher potential.
• If the potential value at point B1 is zero, then the
potential of a point equals the energy needed to move the
point mass from B1 to this point.
• Particle systems consist of a large number of point masses,
and the gravitational potential is the sum of the gravitational
potentials of the masses 𝑚1 𝑚2 ,… 𝑚𝑛
• The mass is continuously distributed within the body, and

hence it only requires conversion of the sum of (4.9) to an
integral to obtain the formula for gravitational potential of
the body:
• where dm denotes the differential mass element at the point (a, b, c)

• r = (𝑥 − a)2 + (𝑥 − b)2 +(𝑥 − c)2
• The centrifugal force or acceleration is given by:

4.1.2 Earth Gravity Field Model
• The precise knowledge of the Earth’s gravity field
is fundamental to provide information about
the Earth’s shape, its interior and fluid envelope.
• It is essential for many Earth system research areas.
– such as quantifying mass distribution and mass transport,
monitoring oceanic transport, continental hydrology, ice
mass balance and sea level, and dynamics of mantle and
crust.
• global gravity field models are indispensable for
an improved understanding of the Earth system and
the interactions between its sub-components.
• relevant for geosciences, such as geophysics, glaciology,
hydrology, oceanography, and climatology.
Geoid from combined global gravity field model
EIGEN-6C4
Types of global gravity field models
1. satellite-only and combined models
• Satellite-only gravity field models are solely
determined by observed orbit perturbations
(e.g. CHAMP, GRACE, GRACE-Follow-On) and by
satellite gravity gradiometry (GOCE),
• Combined models are computed by adding
terrestrial, airborne, ship and altimetric gravity
observations to the satellite data.
Types of global gravity…
2. Static and time-variable gravity field models.
• Time variable gravity field models can only be
determined from satellite data as they perform
repeated observations depending on the chosen orbit
and the satellite lifetime (e.g. time series of monthly
models).
• All other data have been collected over decades and
one hardly can define the observation epoch.
Therefore, combined models can always be regarded
as static (averaged) gravity field models.
Types of global gravity…
• Altimetry satellites as well as terrestrial, marine
and airborne gravity measurements are used for the
computation of high-resolution combined gravity
field models with significant better accuracy and
spatial resolution.
• Many institutions and agencies worldwide are
computing such gravity field models for different
applications by applying different mathematical
approaches and analysis strategies.
International Association of Geodesy
(IAG) Services
• Within the International Gravity Field
Service (IGFS) of IAG, the International Centre for
Global Earth Models (ICGEM), provides the
scientific community with a state-of-the-art archive
of static and temporal global gravity field models of
the Earth.
International Association of Geodesy…
• ICGEM
– collects temporal and topographic global gravity field
models.
– Validates the models, and made these models publicly
available in a standardized format with digital object
identifiers (DOIs) assigned through GFZ Data Services.
– provides a web interface to calculate gravity field
functionals on freely selected grids or user-defined
coordinates, as well as a 3-D interactive visualization
service for these functionals using static and time variable
gravity field models.
– the users can perform quality checks of the models by
comparing them with other models in terms of
visualization and with respect to geoid undulations .
Source: http://icgem.gfz-potsdam.de/tom_longtime
4.1.3 Level Surface and the Geoid
• The geoid is the equipotential surface, which
approximately coincides with the mean sea level (MSL) in
the ocean and its extension under the continents.
• The geoidal body closely approximates the natural surface
of the Earth.
• The geoid serves as
– a reference surface for height determination of a given
point on the Earth’s surface while studying the shape
of the Earth’s surface.
– It is also employed as the reference surface for
reduction of the astronomical longitude, latitude,
azimuth, and the values of gravity.
4.1.3 Level Surface…
• The geoid is an irregular curved surface.

• The geoid, everywhere perpendicular to the
direction of the plumb line, is correspondingly an
irregular curved surface with slight undulations.
• The MSL is not the level (equipotential) surface, for
many factors can exert influence on the oceans such
as temperature and pressure variations, salinity,
winds, currents, rotation of the Earth, etc.
• It is measured value using tide gauges in different
countries or areas also varies.
4.1.3 Level Surface…
• If a certain equipotential
surface is chosen as the
standard sea level, then
separation between MSL
and the standard sea level is
referred to as the sea
surface topography or sea
surface slope.
• The rise and fall is about 1–
2 m on a global scale
• MSL is not an equipotential
surface.
https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/ihr/arti
cle/viewFile/23325/27100
4.2 Earth Ellipsoid and Normal Ellipsoid
4.2.1 Earth Ellipsoid
• The ellipsoid of rotation that represents the Earth’s
shape and size is referred to as the Earth ellipsoid,
shortened to ellipsoid.
• The Earth ellipsoid is specified by four parameters:
– the semi major axis a and flattening f that represent
geometric properties of the Earth; ….
– the total mass M of the ellipsoid, which represents
the physical properties of the Earth; and
– the angular velocity ω of the ellipsoid rotating
around its minor axis
4.2.1 Earth Ellipsoid…
• The four geometric and physical parameters of the

Earth ellipsoid have been calculated using data from
global terrestrial geodetic measurements and
satellite geodetic surveys .
• The plane that contains the rotation axis (minor
axis) of the reference ellipsoid is called the geodetic
meridian plane.
– It is the intersection of the plane containing the rotation
axis with the surface of the ellipsoid.
• The plane through the center of the ellipsoid and
perpendicular to the axis of rotation is the Earth’s
equatorial plane.
• The equator is the intersection of the equatorial plane
with the ellipsoid.
• A parallel circle (parallel line) is an intersection of the
plane parallel to the equator with the ellipsoid, also
termed circle of latitude.
• The northernmost point N of the spin axis on the Earth
is the North Pole, lying diametrically opposite the
South Pole, S.
• To facilitate the study of gravity and the gravity
field, the Earth ellipsoid is introduced, which is
called the normal ellipsoid.
Table 1 Earth ellipsoid parameters (semimajor axis a,

flattening f, gravitational constant X total mass GM, and
angular velocity ω)
Fig.4 Earth ellipsoid

4.2.2 Normal Ellipsoid and Normal Gravity
• The normal ellipsoid is an imaginary rotational
ellipsoid with regular shape and homogeneous
mass distribution that satisfies certain conditions.
• It is the regular shape of the geoid and is used to
represent the ideal body of the Earth.
• The gravity field generated by the normal ellipsoid
is termed the normal gravity field.
• Corresponding gravity, gravity potential, and level
surface are called normal gravity, normal gravity
potential, and the spheropotential surface
(spherop), respectively.
4.2.2 Normal Ellipsoid and…
The normal gravity field is a close approximation to the
actual Earth’s gravity field. In order to narrow down the
difference between the two, we select the normal ellipsoid in
accordance with the requirements below:
1. The spin axis of the normal ellipsoid coincides with the
Earth’s axis of rotation, and with equivalent angular
velocity.
2. The center of the normal ellipsoid is at the Earth’s center
of mass. The coordinate axis coincides with the Earth’s
principal axis of inertia.
3. The total mass of the normal ellipsoid is equal to that of
the actual Earth.
4. The sum of squares of the deviations of the geoid from
the normal ellipsoid is the least.
• The normal ellipsoid is defined by these four basic

parameters: semimajor axis of the ellipsoid a,
flattening f, are specify the geometric shape of the
ellipsoid and
• total mass M of the ellipsoid, and the angular
velocity ω of the ellipsoid identify the physical
properties of the ellipsoid.
• The normal ellipsoid is regular, so obviously its
gravitational potential is independent of λ and is only
a function of ρ and θ .
• The gravitational potential of the normal ellipsoid is
symmetric with respect to the equator.
• Find the cosine of θ and 180 θ for the two points that
are symmetric to the equator with opposite signs.
• Therefore, in the spherical harmonics series expansion
of the Earth’s gravitational potential, there are only
even zonal harmonics.
4.2.3 Disturbing Potential
• After introducing the normal ellipsoid, there exist two

values of gravity potential for any arbitrary points on
the Earth: the true (measured) potential W of the real
Earth and the normal gravity potential U.
• There is a difference in value between the two
potentials.
• Subtracting the normal gravity potential from the
true potential W of the real Earth, the result is defined
as T, the disturbing potential.
T =W + U
4.2.3 Disturbing…
• Earth’s gravity potential is equal to the sum of the normal
gravity potential and the disturbing potential.
• T = VE - VN + QE - QN:
o The subscript E is for the actual Earth, and the subscript N for the normal
ellipsoid.
o When the normal ellipsoid is chosen, its axis of rotation is made coincident
with the spin axis of the actual Earth and with equal angular velocity; thus
QE = QN.
o T = VE - VN:
o the disturbing potential can be interpreted as the difference in
gravitational potential caused by the differences in mass distribution
between the Earth and the normal ellipsoid
o The mass difference between the Earth and the normal ellipsoid is called
the disturbing mass
4.3 Height Systems
4.3.1 Requirements for Selecting Height Systems
• The height of a point on the Earth’s surface is

geometrically defined as the distance from the point
along the reference line to the reference surface.
• Different reference lines or reference surfaces for heights
will constitute different height systems.
• Essentially, there are two classes of height system:
– ones that ignore the Earth’s gravity field and thus use straight-
line paths; and
– those that are naturally linked to the equipotential
surfaces and plumblines of the Earth’s gravity field
and thus follow curved paths.
4.3 Height Systems…
• For the height system to be chosen, the following

requirements need to be fulfilled.
1. To represent the position of a point, the height of the
point is required to be unambiguous and independent of
the leveling path.
2. In practice, when converted to the adopted height system,
the corrections to the measured height differences for
points in a limited area should be very small so that they
can possibly be ignored while dealing with low-order
leveling data
3.From the geometric problem-solving perspective,

the ellipsoidal height is the sum of the measured
height and the geoid height; thus it requires that the
adopted height system should make the method for
determining the difference between the geoid and the
reference ellipsoid (normal ellipsoid) sufficiently
rigorous and convenient, as well as practical.
4. From the physical problem-solving perspective, the
chosen height system is also required to ensure that the
height of each point on the same level surface be
equivalent as much as possible.
• This is because the leveling data is actually used to
determine the physical problem of the relative position
of the Earth’s natural surface and the level surface of
the real gravity field, which is essential in avoiding the
“water runs uphill” phenomenon in engineering
application.
• In practice, choosing the most appropriate height
system requires compromise according to the different
requirements of the application
4.3.2 Non-uniqueness of Leveled
Height
• Historically, the most commonly used technique for
the practical determination of heights is spirit
levelling.
• This technique measures the (geometrical) height
difference between two points (staves), where the
reference surface is the local horizon defined by the
set-up of the levelling instrument.
• Both staves and the levelling instrument are aligned
with the direction of the local plumbline (specifically,
the gravity vector) at each respective point.
Height Systems Not Related to Gravity: Ellipsoidal
Heights
• It is conceptually simpler to first deal with purely

geometrical height systems, where the heights are
measured along straight lines.
• The most common geodetic height system not
directly related to gravity is the ellipsoidal height
system.
Height Systems Not Related to Gravity…
• The ellipsoidal height is a straight-line distance reckoned

along the ellipsoidal normal from the geometrical surface
of a reference ellipsoid to the point of interest.
• The geometrical surface of the ellipsoid provides the
height reference surface by definition, on which the
ellipsoidal heights are zero.
• ellipsoidal height of a point is a function of the location,
orientation, size and shape of the reference ellipsoid used.
• the same point can have different ellipsoidal heights on
different ellipsoids
Height Systems Related to Gravity: Natural or
Physical Heights
• These height systems come in several forms,
depending principally on the treatment of gravity and
thus the curved path over which the one-dimensional
metric distance (height) is defined.
• They also depend on the choice of the reference
surface used, though this is not as noticeable as it is
for the ellipsoidal heights (e.g., maximum differences
of ~2 m).
Height Systems Related to Gravity…
• Geopotential Numbers Strictly, all natural or

physical height systems must be based on
geopotential numbers C.
• It is the difference between the Earth’s gravity
potential at the point of interest W and that on the
reference geopotential surface chosen W0 (i.e.,
C=W-W0).
The Dynamic Height System

• The dynamic height system is most closely related to
the system of geopotential numbers.
• Dividing the geopotential number by a constant
gravity value (for a certain region, or even globally)
yields the dynamic height
Orthometric Height
• Orthometric height (Ho) is the length between the
geoid (reference surface) and a point on the Earth’s
surface measured along the plumb line.
Normal Height
• If the normal height of each surface point is HN,
measuring HN downward along the plumb line
(the normal gravity line in fact) results in the
corresponding points of each surface point.
• A continuous curved surface as the reference
surface for normal heights can be formed by
connecting these corresponding points.
• It is also called the quasi-geoid because of its
close approximation to the geoid.
• Therefore, the so-called normal height system
is the height system with the quasi-geoid as its
reference surface.
• The normal height of a surface point is the
distance from this point to the quasi-geoid
along the plumb line (the normal gravity line).
Chapter 5
Reference Ellipsoid and the Geodetic Coordinate
System
5.1 Fundamentals of Spherical Trigonometry
Reading Ass.
5.2 Reference Ellipsoid
• Reference ellipsoid used as the reference surface for
geodetic surveying computations.
• Conventional terrestrial surveys can only determine
directions, distances, and astronomical azimuths
between points on the Earth’s surface.
• To obtain coordinates of the horizontal control
points, a series of computations need to be carried
out .
Reference Ellipsoid…
• The reference surface that fits for the geodetic
surveying computations should satisfy the following
three conditions:
1. The reference surface should be a curved surface that approximates
the physical shape of the Earth, so that the corrections for reduction
of the terrestrial observations are small.
2. The curved surface should be a mathematical surface on which
computations are easily performed so as to assure the possibility of
calculating coordinates through observational quantities.
3. The positions of the curved surface relative to the geoid should be
fixed so as to establish the one-to-one correspondence between the
points on the Earth’s surface and those on the reference surface.
• The North Pole bulges out by 16 m and the South
Pole is depressed by approximately 16 m when the
geoid is compared with a properly defined ellipsoid.
• 21.4 km of difference between the Earth’s equatorial
radius and the polar radius .
• The intersection line between the geoid and the
equatorial plane is not a perfect circle, but more
closely approximates an ellipsoid.
• The major axis of the ellipsoid on the equator is at
15⁰ west longitude.
• The difference between the semimajor axis (equatorial
radius) and the semiminor axis (polar radius) is 69.5
m.
• The equatorial flattening is 1:91,827, which is
approximately one three-hundredth of the polar
flattening
• As a result, the “pear-shaped” sphere is a
mathematical surface that is an approximation to the
true shape of the Earth.
Fig. 1 Intersection line between the geoid

and the meridian plane (L =90:) Fig. 2 Intersection line between the geoid
and the equatorial plane
• When a set of ellipsoidal parameters or an
Earth ellipsoid is selected, its location relative
to the geoid should be determined, namely to
complete the orientation of the ellipsoid.
• Therefore, the corresponding relationship
between the Earth’s surface and the ellipsoid
can be established to reduce the observations
from the terrestrial geodetic control network
to the ellipsoid.
• The reference ellipsoid is the Earth ellipsoid
with defined parameters and orientation.
• The terrestrial observations in the geodetic
control network need to be reduced to the
reference ellipsoid and computations are to be
performed on this surface.
• Hence, the reference ellipsoid becomes the
reference surface for surveying computations.
• The points from the physical surface of the Earth
are projected directly onto the ellipsoid along the
ellipsoidal normal.
• As a result, the ellipsoidal normal becomes the
datum line for surveying computations.
• The reference ellipsoid has defined the geodetic
coordinate system
• The reference ellipsoid has played prominent roles in
surveying and mapping, as follows:
1. Used as the reference surface for the determination
of the horizontal coordinates (geodetic longitude
and latitude) and the geodetic height of a point on
the Earth’s surface.
2. Is the reference surface to describe the shape of
the geoid
3. Serve as the reference surface for map projection
• To study global geodetic problems, there needs to be
a reference ellipsoid that best fits the geoid
throughout the entire Earth.
• Its center must coincide with the center of the
Earth.
• If the study is conducted both geometrically and
physically, then the general Earth ellipsoid can be
defined as the normal ellipsoid that best represents
the shape of the geoid.
• The normal ellipsoid is the reference surface for
studying the Earth’s gravity field in physical
geodesy.
• The reference ellipsoid, on the other hand, is the
reference surface for studying geodetic computations
in geometric geodesy.
• Practically, due to the same mathematical properties,
the normal ellipsoid can be used as both the physical
and mathematical reference surface in geodesy
5.2.2 Geometric Parameters of the
Reference Ellipsoid
• The six commonly used geometric parameters
in the Earth ellipsoid are as follows:
Earth’s flattening
WGS 84 ellipsoid:
• a = 6,378,137m
• b = 6,356,752.3m
• equatorial diameter = 12,756.3km
• polar diameter = 12,713.5km
• equatorial circumference = 40,075.1km
• surface area = 510,064,500km2
• The flattening ranges from 0 to 1. A flattening value of 0

means the two axes are equal, resulting in a sphere. The
flattening of the earth is approximately 0.003353
61
5.3. Which Spheroid to use?
• Hundreds have been defined depending
upon:
– Available measurement technology
– Map extent
– Country, Continent or Global
– Area of the globe
• e.g North America, Africa
62
Which Spheroid …
• There are now two Ellipsoids/Spheroids most
commonly used to describe the shape of the Earth:
• The first was determined by the International
Association of Geodesy (IAG) is the Geocentric
Reference System 1980, or GRS 80
• The second was determined by the US Defence
Department and is known as the World Geodetic
System 1984, WGS 84 (a=6,378,137 b=6,356,752.31)
63
5.4. Fitting an Ellipsoid/Spheroid to the Earth
• In Geodetic terms every point on the surface of
the Earth‘s Geoid is defined by 3 values.
• The most common method Geodesists use
involves measuring the distance from the
centre of the Earth to the point on the surface
of the Ellipsoid/Spheroid. This is called an
Earth-centred Cartesian Coordinate System.
• Three values are recorded (x, y and z), and
there are no angles - only distance.
64
Cont‘d
• Another way is to use latitude, longitude and
ellipsoidal/spheroidal height (the height
above or below the datum‘s ellipsoid/spheroid
surface). The first two are angles and the
third is a distance.
• It is important to note that if a point is
identified using either system it is possible to
rigorously convert one to the other - provided
they use the same datum.
65
Fit…Cont‘d
66
Cont’d
67
5.5. Datum:
• A datum is a system which allows the location of
latitudes and longitudes (and heights) to be
identified onto the surface of the Earth – i.e onto
the surface of a ‘round‘ object.
• A spheroid only gives you a shape—a datum
gives you locations of specific places on that
shape. Hence, a different datum is generally
used for each spheroid
• Two things are needed for datum: spheroid and
set of surveyed and measured points
68
Datum: Ethiopia
• The Ethiopian Datum of 1936 was established
by the Italians at the West End of Metahara
Base (10,083.560 m) where Φ0 = 8°53′22.53″±
0.18″N, Λ0 = 39°54′24.99″ East of Greenwich,
the reference azimuth to Mont Fantalli was
α0 = 13°05′21.97″+ 0.43″, and the presumed
ellipsoid of reference was the International
1924 where a = 6,378,188 m and 1/f = 297.
69
Blue Nile Datum of 1958
• The Blue Nile River Basin Investigation Project
was funded by the United States, and the
geodetic work was performed by the U.S. Coast
& Geodetic Survey. The origin of the geodetic
work was in southern Egypt near Abu Simbel,
south of Lake Nasser, at station Adindan where
Φ0 = 22°10′07.1098″N, Λ0 = 31°29′21.6079″ East
of Greenwich, the deflection of the vertical ζ =
+2.38″ and η = –2.51″, and the ellipsoid of
reference was the Clarke 1880 (modified) where
a = 6,378,249.145 m and 1/f = 293.465.
70
Cont’d
• The Blue Nile Datum of 1958 appears to be
the established classical datum of Ethiopia
and much of North Africa.
• Adindan is the name of the origin, it is not
the name of the datum; a most common
mistake found in many ―reference works.‖
71
Cont’d
• The Ethiopian Transverse Mercator grid is
based on a central meridian where λ0 =
37°30′E, scale factor at origin where mo =
0.9995, False Easting = 450 km, and False
Northing = 5,000 km.
72
Common Datums:
• Previously, the most common spheroid was Clarke 1866; the
North American Datum of 1927 (NAD27) is based on that
spheroid, and has its center in Kansas.
• NAD83 is the new North American datum (for Canada/Mexico
too) based on the GRS80 geocentric spheroid. It is the official
datum of the USA, Canada and Central America
• World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) is a newer
spheroid/datum, created by the US DOD; it is more or less
identical to Geodetic Reference System 1980 (GRS80).
• The GPS system uses WGS84.
73
6. Coordinate systems
• A coordinate system is a reference system used to represent

the locations of geographic features, imagery, and
observations such as GPS locations within a common
geographic framework.
• Coordinate systems enable geographic datasets to use

common locations for integration.
74
6.1. Type of Coordinate systems
1. A global or spherical coordinate system such as latitude-

longitude. These are often referred to as geographic coordinate
systems.
2. A projected coordinate system based on a map projection such
as transverse Mercator, Albers equal area, or Robinson, all of
which (along with numerous other map projection models)
provide various mechanisms to project maps of the earth's
spherical surface onto a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate
plane. Projected coordinate systems are sometimes referred to as
map projections. 75
6.1.1. Geographic coordinates
• Spherical Co-ordinates
– To locate the position of places on a spherical earth we depend
on geographic coordinates.
– To know whether a map is representing the position of places
exactly or not, we need a frame of reference.
– The most common frame of reference is the system of
geographic coordinates
– These coordinates are related to the earth’s axis of rotation and
plane of the equator.
Cont’d
• Geographic coordinate Systems (GCS) defines location on
the earth using a three dimensional spherical surface.
– They are networks of parallels and meridians
– These networks of parallels and meridians are known as graticules
• The rings around the earth parallel to the equator are called
parallels of latitude
– Which help to measure angular distance north or south of the equator
Cont’d
• Lines of parallels of latitude run east-west but measure north-
south distances from the equator.
• Starting with 0° at the equator, the parallels of latitude are

numbered to 90° north and south.
• The distance of a point north or south of the equator is known

as its latitude.
Cont’d
• A second set of rings around the globe that crosses at right
angles to lines of latitude and passing through the poles are
known as meridians of longitude or simply meridians.
• Meridians of longitude measures angular distance east or west

of the prime meridian.
• Lines of longitude (meridians) run north-south but east-west

distances from the prime meridian are measured between them.
• Starting with 0° at the prime meridian, longitudes are measured

both east and west around the world.
Cont’d
• Lines east of the prime meridian are numbered to 180° and identified as
east longitude; lines west of the prime meridian are numbered to 180° and
identified as west longitude.
• The direction E or W must always be given

Origin of Geographic coordinates Network of latitudes and Longitudes ( Graticules)
Basic Properties of the Earth’s Graticules
 All latitudes are parallel and are equally spaced along

meridians.
 The ground distance covered by one degree of latitude is about

111 kilometers
 One minute is equal to 1.85 km (111/60) while one second is

equal to about 30 meters (1.85/60).
 They run in west east directions and measure angular distances

north or south of the equator ranging from 00 to 900.
Cont’d
 Equator divides the earth into two halves (Northern and Southern Hemisphere).
 Latitudes (except 900 lat.) seem as concentric circles when they are viewed from the
poles.
Cont’d
 The only great circle of all parallels of latitude is equator, while
others are small circles. Therefore the circumference of any latitude
will be
C=2∏r x cos θ;
Θ = represents degree latitude.
r = represents radius of the earth
Example
The circumference of the 00 latitude (Equator) is
= 2x3.14x 6378.5x cos θ = 40057 km
Calculate the circumfrence of 600 and 850 of latitude?

Cont’d
• Meridians are equally spaced along a given parallel, but
different along other parallels.
• Meridians and parallels intersect at right angles.
• Thus quadrilaterals formed by the same two parallels and the
same longitudinal dimensions have the same areas.
• Therefore area scale and distance scale are uniform.

• Thus, the distance of one degree of longitude varies from approximately
111 km at the Equator to 0 km at the poles. At any latitude, the distance of
1 degree of longitude can be calculated by multiplying the ground distance
of 1 degree of longitude at the Equator times the cosine of the latitude.
10 longitude= 111 x Cos θ; θ represents latitudinal location

Cont’d
Example
• At 00 latitude the distance of one degree longitude is
• 111xcos θ = 111km
Question
1. At 600 latitude the distance of one degree longitude will be?
---------------------------------------------------------
-
Distance Calculation using Spherical Coordinates
• Emphasizes on how distances are measured using spherical

coordinates.
• The great circle distance between two points is often difficult

to measure on a globe.
• Great circle or arc distances (shortest distance) can be

calculated easily; given the latitudinal and longitudinal
location of two points or places is known, using the following
formula from spherical trigonometry:
Cont’d
Cos D = ( sin a )(sin b) + (cos a)(cos b)(cos P)
where: D is the angular distance between points A and B
a is the latitude of point A
b is the latitude of point B
P is the longitudinal difference between points A and B

6. 1. 2. Projected Coordinate system(UTM)
• On a global map, UTM lines are straight.

• UTM is a type of projection, calculated to make a flat map of
the round Earth.
• UTM zones are numbered east to west and lettered north to
south.
• Each zone is equivalent to 6o.
• The measurement unit is meters.
89
UTM
90
Each coordinate system is defined by
• Its measurement framework which is either geographic (in

which spherical coordinates are measured from the earth's
center) or planimetric (in which the earth's coordinates are
projected onto a two-dimensional planar surface).
• Unit of measurement (typically feet or meters for projected
coordinate systems or decimal degrees for latitude-
longitude).
91
Coordinate system…cont‘d
• The definition of the map projection for projected

coordinate systems.
• Other measurement system properties such as a spheroid of

reference, a datum, and projection parameters like one or
more standard parallels, a central meridian, and possible
shifts in the x- and y-directions.
92
• Brainstorming
• How Geoid, Ellipsoid, Spheroid and Datum are
related?
93
6.1.3. vertical coordinate systems
• The vertical coordinate system defines the origin for height

and depth values.
• Without the correct vertical coordinate system defined, you

may see your data incorrectly shifted vertically, this is
especially relevant when working with datasets with different
vertical coordinate systems.
Vertical Datum Definition
 Vertical datum is defined by the surface of reference – geoid or

ellipsoid
 An access to the vertical datum is provided by a vertical control
network (similar to the network of reference points furnishing the
access to the horizontal datums)
 Vertical control network is defined as an interconnected system
of bench marks
 Why do we need vertical control network?
• to reduce amount of leveling required for surveying job
• to provide backup for destroyed bench marks
• to assist in monitoring local changes
• to provide a common framework
6.2. Map Projections
• Mathematical method for systematically
transforming a 3-D earth into a 2-D map.
• Three traditional types:
– cyllindrical
– conical
– planar (azimuthal-zenithal)
• Newer Mathematical Projections
– Robinson
96
97
98
99
100
101
Grid North = very close to true north. Used
to place grids on maps for archaeology,
mines, artillery targeting.
102
103
Mercator’s Navigation
Technique
Gnomonic Projection shows great

circles as straight line.
Mercator Projection shows
constant compass headings
(azimuth) as straight lines.
Rhumb
Lines
104
105
6.2.1 Process of Map Projection
• the process of map projection is accomplished in three specific

steps:
a) ellipsoidal or spherical surfaces are used to represent the surface of
the Earth.
b) curved reference surfaces are then projected on a map formed into a
cylinder, cone or flat plane reduced in size.
c) each point on the reference surface of the Earth with geographic
coordinates may be transformed to set of Cartesian coordinates or
map coordinates representing positions on the map plane.
– The systematic transformation of curved surfaces into flat plane is
called map projection.
106
The process of representing the Earth on a flat map.
107
108
• Hundreds of map projections are developed in order to
accurately represent a particular map or to best suit a
particular type of map.
• Map projections are typically classified according to the
geometric surface from which they are derived: cylinder,
cone or plane.
• The three classes of map projections are respectively
cylindrical, conical and azimuthal.
109
• A map projection is a mathematically described technique
of how to represent the Earth‘s curved surface on a flat
map.
• Mapping onto a 2D mapping plane means transforming

each point on the reference surface with geographic
coordinates (lat,long) to a set of Cartesian coordinates (x,y)
representing positions on the map plane (figure below).
110
Example of a map projection where the reference surface with
geographic coordinates (f,l) is projected onto the 2D mapping plane with
2D Cartesian coordinates (x, y).
111
6.2. Classification of map projections
• Map projections can be described in terms of their:

• class (cylindrical, conical or azimuthal),
• point of secancy (tangent or secant),
• aspect (normal, transverse or oblique), and
• distortion property (equivalent, equidistant or

conformal).
112
i. Classes of map projections
– Cylindrical, conical and azimuthal.
– The Earth's reference surface projected on a map wrapped around

the globe as a cylinder produces a cylindrical map projection.
– Projected on a map formed into a cone gives a conical map

projection.
– When projected directly onto the mapping plane it produces an

azimuthal (or zenithal or planar) map projection.
– The figure below shows the surfaces involved in these three classes of
projections.
113
The three classes of map projections: cylindrical, conical and azimuthal. The projection
planes are respectively a cylinder, cone and plane.
114
ii. Point of secancy (tangent or secant),
– The planar, conical, and cylindrical surfaces in the figure above are
all tangent surfaces; they touch the horizontal reference
surface in one point (plane) or along a closed line (cone and
cylinder) only.
– Another class of projections is obtained if the surfaces are chosen to
be secant to (to intersect with) the horizontal reference surface;
illustrations are in the figure below.
– the reference surface is intersected along one closed line (plane) or
two closed lines (cone and cylinder).
– Secant map surfaces are used to reduce or average scale
errors because the line(s) of intersection are not distorted
on the map.
115
Three secant projection classes
116
iii. Aspect (normal, transverse or oblique)
– Projections can also be described in terms of the direction of the
projection plane's orientation (whether cylinder, plane or cone) with
respect to the globe. This is called the aspect of a map projection.
– The three possible apects are normal, transverse and oblique.
– In a normal projection, the main orientation of the projection surface
is parallel to the Earth's axis (as in the figures below for the cylinder
and the cone).
– A transverse projection has its main orientation perpendicular to the
Earth's axis.
– Oblique projections are all other, non-parallel and non-
perpendicular, cases. The figure below provides two examples.
117
A transverse and an oblique map projection.
118
• The terms polar and equatorial are also used. In a polar azimuthal
projection the projection surface is tangent or secant at the pole.
• In an equatorial azimuthal or equatorial cylindrical projection, the

projection surface is tangent or secant at the equator.
119
iv. distortion property (equivalent, equidistant or conformal)
– The distortion properties of map are typically classified according to
what is not distorted on the map:
– In a conformal (orthomorphic) map projection the angles between

lines in the map are identical to the angles between the original
lines on the curved reference surface. This means that angles (with
short sides) and shapes (of small areas) are shown correctly on the
map.
120
• In an equal-area (equivalent) map projection the areas in the map are
identical to the areas on the curved reference surface (taking into account
the map scale), which means that areas are represented correctly on
the map.
• In an equidistant map projection the length of particular lines in
the map are the same as the length of the original lines on the
curved reference surface (taking into account the map scale).
• A particular map projection can have any one of these three
properties. No map projection can be both conformal and
equal-area.
• A projection can only be equidistant (true to scale) at certain places or in
certain directions.
121
V) Name of Inventor
• Another descriptor of a map projection might be the name of the
inventor (or first publisher) of the projection, such as Mercator,
Lambert, Robinson, Cassini etc., but these names are not very helpful
because sometimes one person developed several projections, or several
people have developed similar projections.
• For example J.H.Lambert described half a dozen projections. Any of

these might be called 'Lambert's projection', but each need additional
description to be recognized.
122
• Based on these discussions, a particular map projection can be classified.
• An example would be the classification ‗conformal conic projection
with two standard parallels‘ having the meaning that the
projection is a conformal map projection, that the intermediate surface
is a cone, and that the cone intersects the ellipsoid (or sphere) along two
parallels; i.e. the cone is secant and the cone‘s symmetry axis is parallel
to the rotation axis.
• This would amount to the projection of the figure above (conical
projection with a secant projection plane).
123
• Other examples are:
– Polar stereographic azimuthal projection with secant projection
plane;
– Lambert conformal conic projection with two standard parallels;
– Lambert cylindrical equal-area projection with equidistant

equator;
– Transverse Mercator projection with secant projection plane.
124

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Geodesy

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 1

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 2

 According to the Geodetic Glossary (NGS 2009), geodesy can

 Modern technology is possible only due to geodesy. For

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 4

• The objectives of geodesy are

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 5

geodesy can be classified into

II. geodetic control survey,

III. marine geodesy, and

IV. engineering geodesy (i.e., plane surveying).

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 6

• Ellipsoidal geodesy studies the body of the Earth

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 7

• Geodetic control survey measures the coordinates

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 8

Marine geodesy establishes a geodetic control

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 9

• Engineering geodesy determines the details on the Earth’s

* Ellipsoidal geodesy, geodetic control survey, marine

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 10

– It results in providing of ellipsoidal geodesy with information of geometric

• Engineering geodesy has to be connected with the national geodetic

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 11

2. physical geodesy, and

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 12

– coordinate systems are one of the primary products of geometrical

2. Physical geodesy is concerned with determining the Earth’s gravity

3. Satellite geodesy is concerned with using orbiting satellites to obtain

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 13

– Unify coordinate systems

– Resolve conflict between an ellipsoid surface and a

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 14

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 15

– The launching, guidance, tracking, remote controlling,

– Geodetic coordinate system used to describe a spacecraft’s

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 16

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 17

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 18

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 22

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 23

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 24

b= semi major axis a-b = flattening

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 25

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 26

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 27

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 28

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 29

• An electromagnetic wave transmitted from a rangefinder placed at point A

• Round-trip travel time = t2D

• V is the velocity of propagation of the electromagnetic wave in the atmosphere,

• c is the velocity of the electromagnetic wave in vacuum, and

• n is the index of refraction (refractive index) for the electromagnetic wave

12/14/2022 Compiled By Firehiywet G. 31

• EDM instruments according to the band of their

2. Laser EDM Instrument

3. Infrared EDM Instrument