Hip Extension Torque

The Scientific Guide to the Posterior Chain

A project by
 Why talk about hip extension torque?
Hip extension is the most important joint action in all of
sports. If you don’t possess superior hip extension strength
and power, you aren’t going to run fast, jump high, or push
opponents forward.
Athletes, coaches, and clinicians employ many different hip
extension exercises depending on their goals. Some of
these exercises might be more tailored toward
rehabilitation or corrective exercise, some could be geared
toward building vertical jump power, and perhaps some
are best suited for developing sprinting speed.
But how do we know which hip extension exercises work
the hips the best? Do we go by feel? Do we listen to lifters
and athletes? Do we consider muscle activation as
measured by EMG?
Do we palpate the hip extensors while others are
exercising to gauge how hard they contract? Or do we
simply perform a bunch of sets and see which exercises
produce the biggest burn or make us the most sore the
following day?
The fact of the matter is, we have each of these tools at
our disposal, yet athletes, coaches, and clinicians still argue
about which hip extension exercises are the most effective.
Many think squats are the best hip extension exercise.
Others feel that the deadlift reigns supreme.
The hip thrust has gained momentum in the strength and
conditioning industry and the same goes for kettlebell
swings and Bulgarian split squats. Olympic lifts and
plyometrics have stood the test of time while sprints and
sled work are staples too.
But how do we take the emotion out of the equation? How
can we judge which exercises work the hip extensors best?
We can do this by determining joint torque, in this case hip
extension torque, calculated via biomechanical formulas.
How do the hip extension torque curves change when
performing straight leg hip extension exercises from
different body positions (e.g. in the good morning, 45-
degree hyper, and horizontal back extension exercises)?
Which hip range of motion is best targeted with the squat?
Does the deadlift lockout require more hip extension
torque than a hip thrust lockout? What about simple
activities such as walking and standing up from a chair?
Which exercise requires the greatest amount of hip
extension torque?
In this book we seek to answer these questions and
increase your understanding of hip extension exercise,
along with various biomechanical topics associated with
the glutes, hamstrings, and adductors. We hope you enjoy
it.
Bret Contreras and Chris Beardsley
The authors

Bret Contreras

Bret Contreras, also known as “The Glute Guy” is the world’s foremost
expert on the strength and conditioning of the gluteals.

He is a peer-reviewed, published research author and PhD student at

Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand, as well as a Certified
Strength and Conditioning Specialist (CSCS) with the NSCA.

He is also a popular online author, with over 60 articles written for

prominent fitness and bodybuilding websites, as well as hundreds more
at his blog at www.bretcontreras.com.

Chris Beardsley

Chris Beardsley is a qualified personal trainer, owner of his own fitness

studio and co-founder of the review service, Strength and Conditioning
Research, which provides summaries of fifty of the latest studies in
strength and conditioning, biomechanics, physiology and physical therapy
to its subscribers every month.

Chris also writes at www.strengthandconditioningresearch.com/blog,

where he clearly outlines the implications of the latest research as it
relates to athletes, coaches, physique competitors and personal trainers.
 Summary contents
1. What is hip extension and hip
extension range-of-motion?
2. What is pelvic tilt?
3. What is muscle architecture?
4. Which are the hip extensor muscles?
5. What is the length-tension
relationship?
6. What is the force-velocity
relationship?
7. What is hip extension torque?
8. How does the degree of hip flexion
affect the strength of the hip
extensors?
9. What effect does knee flexion have
on hip extension exercises?
10. What effect does the direction of force
have on hip extension exercises?
11. How can we estimate torque for various
movements?
12. What is the hip extension torque during
functional activities?
13. What is the hip extension torque during
high velocity activities?
14. What is the hip extension torque during
high force exercises?
15. How does the proportion of hip extension
torque change with increasing load/speed?
16. What are the directions for future
research?
 Detailed contents
1. What is hip extension and hip extension range-of-motion? 3. What is muscle architecture?
1. Why study hip extension range of motion? 1. Why study muscle architecture?
2. What are hip flexion and extension? 2. What is muscle architecture?
3. What are hip flexion and extension ranges of motion? 3. What is pennation angle?
4. What factors affect hip extension range-of-motion? 4. Why is pennation angle important?
5. What is a normal hip extension range-of-motion? 5. What causes the pennation angle to change?
6. How does hip extension ROM change with hip abduction and knee flexion? 6. What is normalized fiber length?
7. How is hip joint flexibility different between males and females? 7. What causes normalized fiber length to change?
8. How does hip extension ROM change with lower back pain? 8. What is physiological cross-sectional area?
9. How does hip extension ROM change with increasing age? 9. What is physiological cross-sectional area?
10. How does hip extension ROM change in development? 10. Why is physiological cross-sectional area important?
11. How does hip extension ROM relate to the functional ability of older people? 11. How are muscle architecture parameters related?
12. Does limited hip extension ROM lead to reduced hip extension strength? 4. Which are the hip extensor muscles?
13. Does limited hip abduction ROM lead to reduced hip abduction strength? 1. Why study the hip extensors?
14. How can hip extension range-of-motion be increased? 2. What are the hip extensor muscles?
2. What is pelvic tilt? 3. How do the hip extensors stack up against the other hip muscles?
1. Why study anterior and posterior pelvic tilt? 4. What are the origins and insertions of the hip extensor muscles?
2. What are anterior and posterior pelvic tilt? 5. Which are the biggest hip extensor muscles?
3. How do muscles create anterior and posterior pelvic tilt? 6. What is the pennation angle of each of the hip extensors?
4. Does muscle activity change with pelvic tilt? 7. What is the normalized fiber length of each of the hip extensors?
5. How does pelvic tilt change during sitting and standing? 8. What is the physiological cross-sectional area of each of the hip extensors?
6. Does muscular balance during hip extension affect pelvic tilt? 9. Why do the hamstrings have different architecture from each other?
7. What is a normal pelvic tilt angle in men and women? 10. How does the muscle architecture of the hamstrings change with joint angle?
8. Is anterior pelvic tilt correlated with lumbar lordosis? 11. How might the architecture of the hamstrings influence their risk of strains?
9. How does lumbar curvature change during a functional lifting task? 12. What is the architecture of the different regions of the hamstrings?
10. How does restricting pelvic motion affect lower back training? 13. What is the architecture of the different regions of the adductor magnus?
11. Do the hip extensors decrease in activity with restricted pelvic motion? 14. What is the architecture of the different regions of the gluteus maximus?
12. Can pelvic tilt angle change because of sporting activities? 5. What is the length-tension relationship?
13. What is the normal tilting behavior of the pelvis during running? 1. Why study the length-tension relationship?
14. Does lumbar lordosis correlate with anterior pelvic tilt during running? 2. How does the length of a muscle affect the force exerted?
15. How does hip extension ROM relate to anterior pelvic tilt during running? 3. What is the active length-tension relationship?
16. When are anterior and posterior pelvic tilt advisable during lifting? 4. What is the passive length-tension relationship?
17. How can we control the degree of pelvic tilt using exercise? 5. How do the passive and active length-tension relationships integrate?
18. Which abdominal exercises are best for reducing anterior pelvic tilt? 6. How does the length-tension relationship apply to a two-joint muscle?
19. Which abdominal exercises do not also activate the hip flexors?
20. How can we control the degree of pelvic tilt using exercise?
 Detailed contents
6. What is the force-velocity relationship? 9. What effect does knee flexion have on hip extension exercises?
1. Why study the force-velocity relationship? 1. Why study the impact of knee flexion?
2. How does the force exerted by a muscle change with contraction velocity? 2. How does knee flexion alter the effect of a hip exercise?
7. What is hip extension torque? 3. How does the degree of knee flexion alter the effect of an exercise?
1. Why study hip extension torque? 4. How does the torque of the hamstrings change with muscle length?
2. What is torque? 5. How does the degree of knee flexion change muscle activity?
3. Why talk about torque and not just force? 6. How does the degree of knee flexion alter the effect of an exercise?
4. How can we visualize torque? 10. What effect does the direction of force have on hip extension
5. What is internal torque? exercises?
6. What terminology is used for internal torque? 1. Why study the impact of direction of force?
7. What is hip extension torque? 2. What are the stretched and contracted positions?
8. What is external torque? 3. How do we specify direction of force?
9. What terminology is used for external torque? 4. What directions of force are possible with hip extension?
10. What factors influence moment arm length? 5. How does direction of force change the effect of an exercise?
11. What are the moment arm lengths in the anatomical position? 6. How can we compare similar exercises that have different directions of
12. How do moment arms change with hip extension range of motion? force?
13. What is the difference in moment arms between men and women? 7. How does the direction of force affect the muscle activity?
14. How can hypertrophy affect the length of muscle moment arms? 8. Why are the stretched or contracted positions important?
15. What are perpendicular muscular forces? 9. Why do some exercises give you a pump in your glutes and hamstrings?
16. What factors influence the size of the perpendicular force? 10. Why do some exercises make your glutes and hamstrings sore?
17. Which hip extensors have the most effective line of action? 11. How can we estimate torque for various movements?
18. How does muscle architecture affect muscular force? 1. How can we calculate torque for various movements?
19. Which muscles are activated best throughout hip extension ROM? 2. How can we calculate torque for various exercises?
20. How does the strength of the hip extensors change with muscle length? 3. How can we estimate torque in a deadlift?
21. How does hip extension torque change with hip flexion? 4. How can we estimate torque in a squat?
22. How does the torque of the hamstrings change with muscle length? 5. How can we calculate torque in the good morning?
23. How does hip extension torque change with contraction velocity? 6. How can we calculate torque in the reverse hyper?
24. How does muscle fiber distribution affect muscular strength? 7. How can we calculate torque in the 45-degree back extension?
25. How does muscle fiber distribution alter between muscles? 8. How can we calculate torque in exercises in other positions?
8. How does the degree of hip flexion affect the strength of the hip 9. Why is it helpful to calculate hip extension torque at different ROMs?
extensors? 10. What is the hip extension torque during a glute-ham raise?
1. Why study where the hip extensors are strongest?
2. How can we measure hip extension torque at different joint angles?
3. How does isometric hip extension strength change with joint angle?
4. How does isokinetic hip extension strength change with joint angle?
5. Why is a comparison of internal and external torque curves helpful?
 Detailed contents
12. What is the hip extension torque during functional activities? 14. What is the hip extension torque during high force exercises? continued…
1. Why study hip extension torque in functional activities? 4. Which requires greater hip extension torque: split squats or back squats?
2. Which functional activities should we study? 5. How does load position affect hip and knee moments in dumbbell squats?
3. Is hip extension or hip flexion torque more important for walking? 6. Which produces more power at the hip joint: front squats or back squats?
4. Is hip extension torque important for faster walking speeds? 7. How does hip extension torque during the lunge change with loading?
5. Is hip extension torque important for bone density? 8. Why might lunges make the quadriceps sorer than other exercises?
6. How is hip extension torque during sit-to-stand affected by load? 9. Which type of lunge maximizes hip extension torque?
7. Is hip extension torque in sit-to-stand affected by age? 10. Which type of step-up maximizes hip extension torque?
8. Is hip extension torque greater in sit-to-stand than in a free squat? 11. How do depth and loading affect hip extension torque during the squat?
9. Is hip extension torque during a sit-to-stand affected by chair height? 12. How does technique affect hip extension torque in the squat?
10. Does foot placement affect hip extension torque during a sit-to-stand? 13. So should we prefer a hip-dominant squat?
11. Is hip extension torque during a sit-to-stand affected by obesity? 14. Does hip extension torque differ between legs in the squat?
12. How do hip and knee moments balance out during sit-to-stands? 15. Does lifting speed affect hip extension torque in the squat?
13. What is the hip extension torque during high velocity activities? 16. Does lifting speed affect hip extension torque in the squat?
1. Why study hip extension torque in high-velocity activities? 17. How can partial squats be used effectively in strength programs?
2. Which high velocity activities involve hip extension torque? 18. Why might squats make the gluteals sorer than other exercises?
3. Does hip extension torque correlate with vertical jumping performance? 19. How does stance width affect hip extension torque in squats?
4. Do jumps in different directions require similar hip extension torques? 20. So is a wider squat stance width better?
5. How much hip extension torque do gymnastic drop landings produce? 21. How does hip extension torque differ between normal, powerlifting and box
squats?
6. Do faster sprinting speeds require greater hip extension torques?
22. How does hip extension torque differ between taller and shorter lifters?
7. How do accelerating sprints and maximum-speed sprints differ?
23. How does hip extension torque differ with foot position in Smith Machine squats?
8. Does hip extension torque increase with increasing side step distance?
24. How similar are the joint angles during the squat and deadlift?
9. What is different about hex-bar jump squats?
25. Can squat performance predict deadlift performance?
10. How much hip extension torque do the Olympic lifts require?
26. How does stance width affect hip extension torque during deadlifts?
11. How does hip extension torque change with load in the Olympic lifts?
27. So is the conventional or sumo stance better?
12. How can we maximize power outputs using the Olympic lifts?
28. How does skill level affect hip extension torque during deadlifts?
13. How can we maximize rate of force development using the Olympic lifts?
29. How is hip extension torque different during straight and bent-leg deadlifts?
14. Do the Olympic lifts improve athletic performance?
30. How is hip extension torque different during hex-bar and conventional deadlifts?
15. How similar are the joint moments in jumping and jerking?
31. How does hip extension torque change with load during deadlifts?
16. What are the shear and compressive forces in the kettlebell swing?
32. How much hip extension torque can powerlifters generate during deadlifts?
17. How do the kettlebell swing and jump squats compare?
33. How does load placement affect hip extension torque during sled dragging?
18. What are the ground reaction forces during the kettlebell swing?
34. What is the hip extension torque during a hip thrust?
14. What is the hip extension torque during high force exercises?
35. How do the torque curves of the key exercises compare?
1. Why study hip extension torque in high-force activities?
36. How does the total body effect of the key exercises compare?
2. Which high force activities involve hip extension torque?
37. How does the effect of the key exercises on the glutes compare?
3. How are the good morning, back extension and 45O back extension
different?
 Detailed contents
15. How does the proportion of hip extension torque change with increasing
load/speed?
1. Why study how the involvement of the hips changes with increasing load or speed?
2. How does hip extension torque change with increasing load/speed?
3. How does hip extension torque change with increasing squat load?
4. How does hip extension torque change with increasing lunge load?
5. How does hip extension torque change with increasing deadlift load?
6. How does hip extension torque change with increasing running speed?
7. How does hip extension torque change with increasing jumping height?
8. How does hip extension torque change with increasing intensity?
9. How does hip extension torque change with forward lean?

16. What are the directions for future research?

1. What do we know that we don’t know?

We would encourage you to refer to this work in your articles and blog posts. You can cite it as follows:
Beardsley, C., & Contreras, B. (2012). Hip extension torque: The scientific guide to the posterior chain. Retrieved from
http://www.strengthandconditioningresearch.com/downloads/hip-extension-torque/
 What are hip extension and
hip extension range-of-motion?
What is hip extension?
What factors affect hip extension range-of-motion?
What is normal hip extension range-of-motion?
Why study hip extension range of motion?
 Hip extension is the most important joint action in all of sports. Without hip extension strength and
power, you aren’t going to run fast, jump high, or push opponents forward. However, some movements
require more hip extension than others.

 Some people don’t have enough hip extension range-of-motion (ROM) to perform all movements safely.
For example, hip extension ROM decreases with age. And without good hip extension ROM, we use
anterior pelvic tilt and lumbar hyperextension to produce similar movements. However, there are
things that can be done to improve hip extension ROM.

Let’s take a closer look at hip extension range-of-motion on the following pages…
What are hip flexion and extension?
The hip joint is capable of movement in every direction. However, in this book we are mainly concerned with movements in
the sagittal plane (i.e. forwards and backwards). These movements are called flexion and extension.

In the first picture, the person has not started moving
and is standing still. In this picture, the hips are in
neither hip flexion nor hip extension but are in a neutral
or anatomical position. In the second picture, the person
has lifted one foot up onto the step but the rear leg is
still on the ground. The front leg is now in hip flexion.
In the third picture, the person is now in motion but with
all of their weight resting upon the front foot. The rear
foot is trailing behind slightly, just before it catches up.
In this picture, since the rear leg has gone beyond the
anatomical position, it is now said to be in hip
hyperextension.

Neutral Hip flexion Hip hyperextension

What are hip flexion and extension ranges of motion?
Hip flexion and extension are not just either-or states. We can quantify them according to how much flexion or how much
extension the hip has moved through from the neutral position.

So again, in the first picture, the person has not moved
from the neutral or anatomical position so hip flexion
and hip extension must both be zero degrees. In the
second picture, the person has lifted one foot up onto
the step but the rear leg is still on the ground. The front
leg is now in 90 degrees of hip flexion.
In the third picture, the rear leg is now in 5 degrees of
hip hyperextension. Since hip hyperextension has a very
small range-of-motion compared to hip flexion, this is
also sometimes called 5 degrees of negative hip flexion.

Neutral Hip flexion Hip extension

What factors affect hip extension range-of-motion?
Hip extension range-of-motion can be affected by a number of different factors, including the following

Gender
Knee
Lower
flexion
back pain
angle

Hip Hip
extension
abduction range-of- Age
angle motion

We will investigate the factors that change hip extension range-of-motion on the following pages…
What is a normal hip extension range-of-motion?
Hip extension from the neutral position is not a movement that has a very large range-of-motion (ROM).
However, this ROM does vary significantly between individuals.

Normal hip extension ROM with a fully extended knee and no Percentile data for passive hip extension ROM,
hip abduction (i.e. a straight leg) was recently investigated by Moreside, 2012
Moreside and McGill (2011). The researchers recorded the
performance of a Modified Thomas Test by 77 young males. 20
They presented their results in the form of percentile data,
shown on the chart opposite. The 5th percentile at the left- 15
hand end of the chart represents the most amount of hip
extension ROM and the 95th at the right-hand end the least.

Degree of hip extension

(N.B. negative values are hip flexion). The chart shows that 10
actual hip extension ROM at the 50th percentile was 8 degrees
of extension. However, normal ROM of young males could
easily range from -4 to +16 degrees. 5

Twenty years ago, Roach (1991) studied 1,683 subjects as part

of a large trial investigating many aspects of hip joint mobility. 0
These researchers found that mean hip extension ROM
averaged 19 degrees of extension. Similarly, ten years ago, Mean hip extension
-5
Schache (2000) found in a study of 14 elite track and field ROM varies widely
athletes that passive hip extension ROM was 17.4 degrees
extension. These greater mean ranges of motion may reflect -10
significant variation between groups of subjects or an overall 5% 10% 25% 50% 75% 90% 95%
trend towards decreasing hip ROM.
Population percentile

The research indicates that hip range of motion can vary widely and while some studies indicate that there is significant hip
extension ROM of c. 15 – 20 degrees, other studies indicate that mean ROM can be much less.
How does hip extension ROM change with hip abduction and knee flexion?

Hip extension range-of-motion (ROM) from the neutral position, or hip hyperextension, can be significantly
affected by the degree of hip abduction and knee flexion.

Different hip extension ROM measurements in healthy

Van Dillen (2000) recorded hip extension ROM
subjects and those with lower back pain, Van Dillen,
measurements from 35 subjects while they moved their 2000
legs into differing degrees of hip abduction and knee
flexion. The chart to the side shows their results. (N.B. 14
negative values are hip flexion). The researchers found that
12 Comparable to research
lower degrees of knee flexion led to significantly increased
by Moreside and McGill
hip extension ROM. They also found that increasing 10
degrees of hip abduction led to an increase in hip

Degree of hip extension ROM

extension ROM. 8

6
Van Dillen et al. gathered their data using a goniometer
rather than by using an infra-red camera and motion 4
capture software. Moreside and McGill (2011) found that
the goniometer had a tendency to overestimate hip 2
extension ROM by 3.9 degrees. 0 Reducing knee flexion increases
hip extension ROM
However, Van Dillen et al. found that normal hip extension -2
ROM with full knee extension and no hip abduction (i.e. a
-4
straight leg) was 7.5 degrees of extension, which was very
80 degrees of 0 degrees of knee 80 degrees of 0 degrees of knee
similar to the figure of 8 degrees that was found by knee flexion, no flexion, no knee flexion, full flexion, full
Moreside and McGill using the infrared method of abduction abduction abduction abduction
measurement. Healthy Lower back pain

Reducing knee flexion from 80 degrees to 0 degrees allows much greater hip extension ROM. Similarly, increasing the
abduction angle of the hip allows for significantly greater hip extension ROM.
How is hip joint flexibility different between males and females?

Hip extension range-of-motion (ROM) is generally greater in females than in males. However, during combined
forward hip and spine flexion actions, such as the sit-and-reach test, there are also other sex differences in respect
of the various joints

Many researchers have found sex differences in hip Sit-and-reach test angles (including individual joint
joint flexibility. Recently, Mier and Shapiro (2012) angles therein) and straight-leg raise test angles, Mier
assessed differences in thoracic, lumbar and pelvic and Shaprio, 2012
angles between men and women. They recruited 120

Degrees of ROM
70 adults (35 male and 35 female) and had them
Men and women use
perform a Sit-and-Reach Test as well as a straight leg 100 different joint ROM
raise test. strategies in spine and
hip flexion movements
The researchers found that on average the women 80
demonstrated higher sit-and-reach scores and a
greater hip joint angle (i.e. greater hip flexion). 60
Additionally, during the sit-and-reach test, the
pelvic angle was higher and the thoracic angle was
lower in women. However, there was no difference 40
in lumbar angle between men and women in this
test. 20

When the researchers matched men and women

with equivalent sit-and-reach scores, the women 0
Sit and reach Thoracic angle Lumbar angle Pelvic angle Straight leg
had greater pelvic hip joint angles but the men had
test raise test
greater lumbar angles. There was no difference in
Men Women
the thoracic angle between men and women.
Men and women employ different joint ROM strategies to achieve the same degree of flexibility in a sit-and-reach
test. The women have greater hip joint flexibility and the men use more lumbar flexion.
How does hip extension ROM change with lower back pain?
Hip extension ROM from the neutral position, or hip hyperextension, can be significantly affected by the existence
of lower back pain.

Different hip extension ROM measurements in healthy

Van Dillen (2000) took hip extension ROM
subjects and those with lower back pain, Van Dillen, 2000
measurements from 35 healthy subjects (including 25
women and 10 men). They also took measurements in 14
10 subjects (6 women and 4 men) who had clinical Individuals suffering from lower
diagnoses of lower back pain. They took measurements 12 back pain display lower hip
extension ROM, especially at
in various degrees of knee flexion and hip abduction and
10 end ranges in the frontal plane
found that the healthy subjects had greater hip
extension ROM than those with lower back pain in all 8

Degree of hip extension ROM

cases measured.
6
It is interesting to note that the biggest variances in hip
extension ROM between healthy and lower back pain 4
subjects were found when starting from the anatomical
position (at 0 degrees of knee flexion and no abduction) 2
and when in 80 degrees of knee flexion and full
0
abduction, suggesting that end ranges of frontal plane
motion were the most problematic for those with lower -2
back pain.
-4
However, whether the lower back pain causes a 80 degrees of knee 0 degrees of knee 80 degrees of knee 0 degrees of knee
reduction in hip joint mobility or whether a lack of hip flexion, no flexion, no flexion, full flexion, full
abduction abduction abduction abduction
joint mobility leads to lower back pain is not clear.
Healthy Lower back pain

Lower back pain is correlated with significantly reduced hip extension ROM, irrespective of the knee flexion angle and hip
abduction angle. However, end ranges in the frontal plane appear to produce the greatest problems for lower back pain sufferers.
How does hip extension ROM change with increasing age?
While hip joint ROM in other directions does not decrease significantly with age in adults, hip extension ROM does
in fact tend to decrease with age

Roach (1991) studied 1,683 subjects as part of a large Normative ranges of motion of the lower limb joints in
trial investigating many aspects of hip joint mobility. various age groups, expressed as a percentage of the 25-
The researchers found that mean hip extension ROM 39 years age group, Roach, 1991
decreased by 6 degrees over a 50 year age range. 120.0%

Percentage of 25-39 year old group ROM

Out of all the measurements taken, only in the case of 100.0%
hip extension did the mean ROM decline by more
than 20% from the 25-39 years category to the 60-74
80.0%
years category. Interestingly, the most significant
decrease in ROM took place between the 25-39 years
to the 40-59 years categories. 60.0%

The researchers therefore concluded that reductions 40.0% Hip extension ROM
in hip extension ROM occur with increasing age and
decreases with age
could in fact be age-related rather than activity-
20.0%
related. Lloyd Roberts (1953) suggested that an early
loss of hip extension might accelerate the onset of
osteoarthritis, as the reduced area of contact between 0.0%
the femur and the acetabulum would wear out more Knee Hip flexion Hip Hip Hip Hip
flexion extension abduction internal external
quickly. rotation rotation

25-39 40-59 60-74

Hip extension ROM is the only hip ROM to decrease significantly with age. The decrease in ROM occurs most significantly
between the 25-39 and 40-59 years age groups.
How does hip extension ROM change in development?
Hip extension ROM decreases markedly in older adults. Similarly, hip extension ROM decreases in children as they
develop, although there are sex differences.

Sankar (2012) measured the hip ROM of 252 Hip extension range of motion in boys and girls of
pediatric patients, including 163 boys and 89 girls various ages, in Sankar, 2012
aged 2 – 17, who were being treated at a hospital for

Joint angles degrees)

an isolated upper extremity fracture. 25

The researchers concluded that there was a

decreasing trend in ROM for almost all of the 20
different hip ROM measurements with increasing
age, although this decline was less apparent among
15
girls.
The chart shows the hip extension ROM Hip extension
10
measurement results, which show that while the hip ROM decreases
extension ROM of boys decreased markedly from 2-5 with age in boys
years through to 11-17 years to an average of 14 5 but not in girls
degrees, the hip extension ROM of girls did not
decrease substantially.
0
The study was limited in that there could have been 2-5 years 6-10 years 11-17 years
underlying factors, such as joint laxity, that could
have predisposed the children to fractures, which
Hip extension ROM - boys Hip extension ROM - girls
would then impact on the ROM results.

Hip extension ROM decreases in boys from the ages 2-5 through to the ages 11-17 years to an average of 15 degrees.
However, hip extension ROM does not decrease as markedly in girls over the same age range.
How does hip extension ROM relate to the functional ability of older people?

So far, we have looked at passive hip extension ROM, as measured by physiotherapists or researchers in the modified
Thomas Test. However, hip extension ROM is commonly required actively in walking.

Kerrigan (2001) found that peak hip extension ROM during Peak hip extension ROM during walking in elderly
walking in elderly people correlated with whether or not people, Kerrigan, 2001

Degrees of hip extension ROM

they had a tendency to fall. This difference was noticeable at 16
(and largely independent of) both comfortable and fast
speeds. Moreover, the researchers found that peak hip 14
extension was the only joint parameter that was both
12
significantly lower in elderly people than in young adults and
even lower in elderly fallers than in elderly non-fallers.
10

The researchers found that the decreases in hip extension

8
ROM were accompanied by increases in anterior pelvic tilt,
which may imply the presence of hip tightness or hip flexor 6 Hip extension ROM is lower
over-activity. They suggest that this occurs because walking in elderly fallers than non-
is the only regular daily activity that uses a full range of hip 4 fallers and may reflect
extension ROM. Therefore any reduction in walking activity reduced walking activity
could lead to increased hip flexor tightness or over-activity. 2

One major limitation of this study was that the researchers 0

did not test to see whether the subjects did indeed have Comfortable speed Fast speed
limited passive hip extension ROM limitations. It is possible Non-fallers Fallers
that peak hip extension ROM during walking is not correlated
with passive hip extension ROM.

Active hip extension ROM is lower in elderly people who have a history of falling compared to elderly people who do
not have a history of falling.
 Does limited hip extension ROM lead to reduced hip extension strength?

Reduced hip extension range of motion leads to reduced hip extension torque and mobilization of the hip
joint by a physical therapist can improve hip extension torque in subjects with normal hip extension ROM.

Yerys (2002) performed a study limited to 40 individuals
with a measured hip extension range of motion (ROM)
of less than 20 degrees of hip extension but more than
10 degrees of hip extension, which they defined as
normal.
Improvement in hip extension torque before and after
hip joint mobilization, Yerys, 2002
36
Joint torque (foot pounds)
Yerys et al. asked the subjects to perform maximal
isometric hip extension contractions in a
dynamometer while prone and in maximal hip
extension and 90 degrees of knee flexion. The
researchers then performed a mobilization on an
intervention group of 20 of the subjects designed to
release any inflamed tissue in the anterior hip
capsule. The other 20 subjects received a very light
manual treatment that was not thought to have any

35
Limited hip extension ROM significant impact. After the mobilizations, the
leads to reduced hip extension subjects then repeated the maximal isometric hip
34 torque at end range extension contractions on the dynamometer. This
33
occurred almost immediately following the manual
32 therapy.
31
30
The researchers found that the strength of the
intervention group improved by 14%, which was very
29
significant, especially considering that the second
28
round of strength testing was performed only 3
27 minutes following the manual therapy. The control
26 group improved their strength by just 4%, which may
Control Intervention have been due to the light mobilization or a learning
Pre-mobilization Post-mobilization effect.
 Does limited hip abduction ROM lead to reduced hip abduction strength?

Reduced hip abduction range of motion leads to reduced hip abduction torque and mobilization of the hip
joint by a physical therapist can improve hip abduction torque in subjects with normal hip abduction ROM.

We just saw that mobilization can improve hip extension
torque, but what about hip abduction torque? Mafosky
(2007) performed a study limited to 30 individuals who
all displayed a normal hip abduction range of motion
(ROM) of around 45 degrees.
Improvement in hip abduction torque following hip
joint mobilization, Mafosky, 2007
16.0
Joint torque (foot pounds)
Mafosky et al. asked the subjects to perform
maximal isometric hip abduction contractions in a
dynamometer while side-lying and in maximal hip
abduction (c. 45 degrees) and 0 degrees of knee
flexion. The researchers then performed a
mobilization on an intervention group of 15 of the
subjects designed to release any inflamed tissue in
the hip capsule. The other 15 subjects received a
very light manual treatment that was not thought to
have any significant impact. After the mobilizations,

Limited hip extension ROM the subjects then repeated the maximal isometric
15.0
leads to reduced hip extension hip abduction contractions on the dynamometer.
14.0 torque at end range This occurred almost immediately following the
13.0 manual therapy.
12.0
The researchers found that the strength of the
11.0 intervention group improved by 17%, which was very
10.0 significant, especially considering that the second
9.0
round of strength testing was performed only 3
minutes following the manual therapy. The control
8.0
group actually decreased their strength by 4%, which
7.0 was not significant.
6.0
Control Mobilization
Pre-mobilization Post-mobilization
 How can hip extension range-of-motion be increased?
Stretching interventions can increase hip extension range-of-motion (ROM) in individuals who have limited ROM

Godges (1993) performed a study with 25 male students
with limited passive hip extension ROM. They
monitored two interventions: a stretching protocol and
an abdominal exercise protocol. They found that the
stretching protocol led to a significantly improved hip
extension ROM and moved the average of the group
from -10 degrees of hip extension to 2 degrees of hip
extension.
Moreside (2012) performed a similar study with 24
subjects with limited hip ROM. They monitored four
interventions: a stretching protocol, a stretching and
motor control protocol, an abdominal exercise protocol
and a control group. They found that the stretching
protocol had the most effect on increasing hip extension
ROM. However, the other two interventions were also
effective.

Hip extension ROM changes as a result of three Increase in hip extension ROM following four
different interventions, Godges, 1993 different interventions, Moreside, 2012
4 18
Degrees of hip extension ROM

Degrees of hip extension ROM

16 Hip extension ROM
2
improves with stretching
14
0 and trunk muscle
12 endurance exercise
-2
10
-4
8
-6 6
-8 4
-10 2

-12 0
Hip extension ROM Passive Passive Trunk muscle Control
-14 improves with stretching stretching stretching endurance
-16 and motor
Control Hip stretching Trunk exercise control

Before After Before After

Chapter summary
In this chapter, we covered the concepts of hip extension and hip extension range-of-motion (ROM). In the
process, we answered the following questions:

Question Answer

Studies vary on normal hip extension ROM but a range of 10 – 20 degrees hip
What is normal hip extension ROM?
extension is probably normal.

Reducing knee flexion (straightening the leg from a bent position) causes an increase
How does hip extension ROM change
in hip extension ROM. Increasing hip abduction (widening the stance or moving the
with knee flexion and hip abduction?
leg outward) also causes an increase in hip extension ROM.

Men and women use different joint strategies for forward joint flexion movements,
How is hip joint flexibility different
with women making more use of their pelvic flexibility and men using more of their
between males and females?
lower back flexibility.

How does hip extension ROM change Hip extension ROM decreases significantly with age and faster than other hip joint
with age? movement ROMs

How does hip extension ROM change

Hip extension ROM is decreased by c. 5 degrees in subjects with lower back pain
with lower back pain?

How does hip extension ROM relate to Peak hip extension ROM is greater during walking in elderly non-fallers than in
the function ability of older people? elderly fallers

How can hip extension ROM be Stretching protocols can quickly improve limited hip extension ROM, with passive
increased? stretching appearing to be more effective than programs targeting the core.
Practical implications
In this chapter, we covered the concepts of hip extension and hip extension range-of-motion (ROM). But what are
the practical implications?

 Hip extension ROM is lowest when the hip is not abducted and when the knee is flexed, which occurs at toe-off
during sprinting. Therefore, athletes who sprint may require specific stretching, trunk muscle endurance or
perhaps myofascial release interventions to improve hip mobility.

 Females of all ages tend to have better hip mobility than males. Therefore, for the same sport, males may
require more hip mobility intervention than females. This should be taken into consideration when working
with athletes of both sexes.

 Those suffering from lower back pain may be in greater need of hip extension flexibility than healthy
individuals. However, care should be taken to ensure that increases in hip extension occur at the hip joint and
not via increased anterior pelvic tilt.

 Hip extension ROM decreases markedly from the ages of 25-39 to the ages of 40-59. Therefore, masters and
veteran athletes should take extra care to ensure that they have sufficient hip extension ROM for their sport.

 Hip extension ROM appears to predict walking ability in older people. Improving hip extension ROM in older
people may therefore help to improve their functional fitness.

 Full hip extension ROM is key to the activation of the gluteal muscles. Therefore, a lack of hip extension ROM
could inhibit full hip extension power from being expressed in exercises or in sports.

 Hip extension ROM can be improved through a combination of hip flexor stretches, trunk muscle endurance
exercises, hip extension exercises through a full ROM and perhaps also myofascial release interventions.
 What is pelvic tilt?
What are anterior and posterior pelvic tilt?
What muscles control pelvic tilt?
How can we gain control over the degree of pelvic tilt when standing?
What is the optimal pelvic position in weight training?
Why study anterior and posterior pelvic tilt?
 As we saw in the previous chapter, a lack of hip extension range-of-motion is often substituted for by
anterior pelvic tilt and lumbar hyperextension. And some researchers have linked excessive anterior
pelvic tilt to lower back pain. So it’s important to manage anterior pelvic tilt and ensure that an optimal
pelvic tilt angle is maintained in exercise and sport.

Let’s take a closer look at pelvic tilt on the following pages…

What are anterior and posterior pelvic tilt?
Anterior pelvic tilt is where the top edge of the front of the pelvis is lower than the top edge of the rear of
the pelvis. Posterior pelvic tilt is where the top edge of the rear of the pelvis is lower than the front.

Pelvic tilt is an important concept when studying the
biomechanics of hip extension and hip extension torque in
various movements. The hip extensors mainly originate on
the rear of the pelvis, as we will see in a later chapter. The
below diagrams show the relative movements of the pelvis
to the spine, although in real life, obviously, the pelvis is not
box-shaped!
Therefore, the angle of the pelvis alters the angle through
which the legs can travel during walking and running or
during exercises such as reverse lunges. It also changes the
muscle length at which the hip extensors develop force in a
given hip extension movement.

In the simplified diagram In the diagram to the right

to the left (marked as
Neutral tilt) the pelvis is
in neutral. The back and
the front of the pelvis are
parallel and equal in
distance from the ground.
In the diagram to the right
(marked as Posterior tilt),
the pelvis is in posterior
pelvic tilt. The top edge
of the back of the pelvis is
now lower than the top
edge of the front of the
pelvis. The rear edge
(posterior) is said to be be
tilted backwards.
Neutral tilt
(marked as Anterior tilt),
the pelvis is in anterior
pelvic tilt.
The top edge of the front
of the pelvis is now lower
than the top edge of the
front of the pelvis. The
front edge (anterior) is
said to be be tilted
backwards.
Posterior tilt Anterior tilt
How do muscles create anterior and posterior pelvic tilt?
Neumann (2010) explains that muscles form force-couples to move the pelvis into anterior or posterior
pelvic tilt. The hip flexors and the erector spinae contract to pull the pelvis into anterior pelvic tilt. The
gluteus maximus and the abdominals contract to pull the pelvis into posterior pelvic tilt.

Erector spinae pull the Abdominals pull the

pelvis upwards at the pelvis upwards at the
rear to create anterior front to create posterior
pelvic tilt Torso pelvic tilt

Pelvis

Gluteus maximus pulls Hip flexors pull the

the pelvis downwards pelvis downwards at
at the rear to create the front to create
posterior pelvic tilt anterior pelvic tilt
 Does muscle activity change with pelvic tilt?
Posterior pelvic tilt leads to greater gluteus maximus and rectus abdominis activity as well as reduced multifidus
activity. On the other hand, the multifidus is more active during anterior pelvic tilt.

Queiroz (2010) studied the effects of four simple Pilates exercises:
a hip extension in the quadruped position performed on the
Reformer apparatus in posterior, anterior and neutral pelvic tilt.
The exercises were performed by a population of female ballet
dancers and Pilates instructors who had been practicing Pilates for
at least 6 months.
EMG activity of various muscles during four Pilates
exercises with differing pelvic tilt, Queiroz, 2010
50
EMG % of MVC
The researchers reported that in this population there were
significant differences in the EMG activity of the key leg and trunk
muscles.
The researchers reported that, as expected, the gluteus maximus
and the rectus abdominis were more active during hip extension
in posterior pelvic tilt. On the other hand, the multifidus (a lower
back muscle) was less active. This reflects the role of the gluteus
maximus and rectus abdominis in pulling the pelvis into posterior
pelvic tilt during hip extension, or that the posterior pelvic tilt is
the favorable position for gluteus maximus activation during hip

Posterior pelvic tilt produces greater extension.

45 gluteal and abdominal activation
40 However, during anterior pelvic tilt, the multifidus was more
active while the gluteus maximus and rectus abdominis were less
35 active. This reflects the role of the lower back in pulling the pelvis
30 into anterior pelvic tilt. It is unfortunate that the researchers did
not measure the activity of the hip flexors in order to ascertain
25 whether they were also more active during anterior pelvic tilt.
20
Interestingly, the strength of the abdominals does not appear to
15 affect pelvic tilt when standing, as Walker (1987) noted. This may
be because the length of the various force-couple muscles is also
10
relevant. Indeed, Toppenberg (1986) found that a longer rectus
5 abdominis and shorter erector spinae were correlated with
increased lumbar lordosis in adolescent girls. Moreover,
0 Yasakouchi (1997) found that the shortness of the hip flexors
Multifidus Gluteus Rectus External Internal Iliocostalis correlated with anterior pelvic tilt during standing, as we will see
maximus abdominis oblique oblique
on the next page.
Posterior tilt Anterior tilt Neutral
 How does pelvic tilt change during sitting and standing?

Anterior pelvic tilt is greatest during standing and also decreases with decreasing torso angle when seated.

Yasakouchi (1997) assessed the degree of anterior pelvic tilt
during standing and during three seated postures, with varying
torso-hip angles (60, 90 and 120 degrees). They found that
anterior tilt was greatest when standing and significantly
decreased during seated positions. The researchers also found
that pelvic tilt became more posteriorly tilted when the torso-
hip angle was decreased (i.e. increasing hip flexion) during
seated positions.
The researchers also recorded lumbar lordosis and found that there
was a strong relationship between pelvic tilt and lumbar curve, as
expected. Lumbar lordosis was therefore present when standing but
was flattened during seated positions. Additionally, they reported
that the length of the rectus femoris was significantly correlated
with anterior tilt in the standing position, as can be seen in the chart
below. This makes sense in light of the role of the rectus femoris as
a hip flexor. Interestingly, the length of the iliopsoas, another hip
flexor, was nearly significant as well.

Degree of pelvic tilt in different standing and sitting Correlations (modulus values) between muscle lengths
postures, Yasakouchi, 1997 and pelvic tilt in standing and three seated positions,
Yasakouchi, 1997
Pelvic tillt (degrees)

30
0.5
Pelvic tilt is higher Shorter hip
20 in standing than in 0.45 flexors lead to
sitting postures 0.4 anterior pelvic tilt
10
0.35
0
0.3
-10 0.25
0.2
-20
0.15
-30
0.1
-40 0.05
0
-50
Standing Sitting at 120 Sitting at 90 Sitting at 60
Erector Rectus Gluteus Iliopsoas Rectus Hamstrings
degrees torso-hip degrees torso-hip degrees torso-hip spinae abdomins maximus femoris
angle angle angle Standing Sitting 120 Sitting 90 Sitting 60
 Does muscular balance during hip extension affect pelvic tilt?

Reduced gluteal activity leads to increased anterior pelvic tilt during prone hip extension.

Tateuchi (2012) investigated the activity patterns of
various hip muscles during prone single-leg hip
extension and how such patterns related to the degree
of pelvic tilt during that movement.
The researchers found that where the ratio of tensor
fasciae latae activity to gluteus maximus and
semitendinosus activity was higher than average, this
was associated with increased anterior pelvic tilt
during prone hip extension.

Additionally, they found that decreased gluteus

Average pattern of EMG activity of various muscles
during prone single-leg hip extension, Tateuchi,
2012
Ipsilateral erector spinae
Contralateral erector spinae
Ipsilateral multifidus
Contralateral multifidus
Rectus femoris
Tensor fasciae latae
Semitendinosus
Gluteus maximus
0 5
maximus relative to semitendinosus activity was
significantly related to the increased activity of the
ipsilateral erector spinae.
Therefore, in order to reduce anterior pelvic tilt
during hip extension, it may be appropriate to (1)
increase the strength of the gluteals and hamstrings
relative to the hip flexors, and (2) increase the
strength of the gluteals relative to the hamstrings.
Overactive hip
flexors lead to Additionally, it may be the case that the hip flexors
increased were overactive in some of the subjects because
anterior pelvic these muscles were shorter than average. Increasing
tilt during hip
extension the length of the hip flexors may therefore also help
diminish the pull of the hip flexors on the pelvis
during hip extension.
10 15 20
EMG % of MVC
 What is a normal pelvic tilt angle in men and women?
In a modern, normal population, it is most normal for both men and women to display anterior pelvic tilt of c. 6 -
7 degrees when standing, on both right and left sides.

Herrington (2011) found that the large majority of both men
and women in a normal, healthy population displayed
anterior pelvic tilt. The population excluded any subject who
had suffered from lower back pain or pelvic pain or lower
body surgery or fracture. They found that in the subjects who
displayed anterior pelvic tilt, the tilt was c. 6 – 7 degrees in
both men and women.
Also, the researchers found that the men but not women
displayed a significant variance between right and left sides.
The researchers concluded that both anterior pelvic tilt and
side-to-side differences may be typical of a normal
asymptomatic population. Moreover, Bullock-Saxton (1993)
found that there was no difference in the degree of anterior
pelvic tilt between healthy women and women with lower
back pain.

Incidence of anterior, neutral and posterior Degrees of pelvic tilt in anterior and posterior
pelvic tilt in a normal population of men and pelvic tilt groups in a normal population of men
women, Herrington, 2011 and women, Herrington, 2011
Degrees

Degrees
60 8
Normal pelvic tilt Normal pelvic tilt
7
50 is 6 – 7 degrees is 6 – 7 degrees
of anterior tilt 6 of anterior tilt
40
5

30 4

3
20
2
10
1

0 0
Men Women Average Men (left) Men (right) Women (left) Women (right)

Anterior tilt Neutral Posterior Anterior tilt Posterior

 Is anterior pelvic tilt correlated with lumbar lordosis?
Anterior pelvic tilt is very strongly correlated with lumbar lordosis and posterior pelvic tilt is correlated with
lumbar kyphosis.

Levine (1996) studied the correlation of pelvic tilt and lumbar
lordosis in the standing position in 20 young, female subjects.
The researchers found that the mean anterior tilt in the normal
pelvic position was 11.3 degrees.
Maximum anterior tilt was 22.7 degrees and therefore the
movement between the two was 11.4 degrees (shown in the
chart below). Lumbar curve similarly changed from 31.8 to 42.6
degrees, a movement of 10.8 degrees.
Difference in degrees in pelvic tilt and lumbar
lordosis from normal position, Levine, 1996
15
Degrees
Similarly, the researchers found that in moving the pelvis from
normal standing to maximum posterior pelvic tilt, the mean
pelvic tilt changed from 11.3 to 2.6 degrees, which was a
reduction of 8.7 degrees. Similarly, lumbar lordosis reduced
from 31.8 to 22.8 degrees, which was a reduction of -9.0
degrees, as shown in the chart below. All of these changes were
significant.
Moreover, end ranges of pelvic postures did not lead to end
ranges of lumbar posture; at maximum anterior pelvic tilt, the
lumbar spine wasn’t necessarily in maximum lumbar
extension, and at maximum posterior pelvic tilt, the lumbar
spine wasn’t necessarily in maximum lumbar flexion.

The researchers therefore concluded that in a standing posture,

10 Anterior pelvic increasing the degree of anterior pelvic tilt increases the angle
tilt correlates of lumbar lordosis and vice versa. This therefore implies that
with lumbar teaching people to control their pelvic movements is useful for
5
lordosis
reducing lumbar lordosis and therefore the pressure on the
0 intervertebral discs.

-5 A number of researchers have suggested that lower back pain

may result from excessive stress on the lumbar spine and
-10 sacroiliac joints as a result of excessive anterior pelvic tilt,
including Denslow (1962) and many others since. Additionally,
-15 Seay (2011) more recently noted that when runners have lower
Anterior pelvic tilt Posterior pelvic tilt back pain, they tend to attempt to reduce the pelvic motion
when running, by moving the pelvis in phase with the trunk.
Pelvic tilt Lumbar lordosis
 How does lumbar curvature change during a functional lifting task?

During lifting tasks, the degree of lumbar curvature changes with torso inclination.

Maduri (2008) measured the lumbar curvature at various
points during a lifting task using varying weights and speeds.
The lumbar curvature was assessed in relation to the
maximum lumbar curvature possible at that torso angle in
previous tests. The light weight was a milk crate weighing just
0.9kg and the heavy weight was equivalent to 40% of the
maximum voluntary isometric contraction torque at 45
degrees of torso angle.
The researchers found that in the eccentric phase, there was
a tendency for the (untrained) subjects to increase lumbar
kyphosis with increasing torso angle. However, in the
concentric phase, the highest torso angle correlated with the
greatest lordosis. In the concentric phase, the trend was for
lordosis at the beginning of the phase, kyphosis in the middle
portion of the lift and neutral at the end of the lift.
Additionally, the researchers found that greater weight led to
greater lumbar kyphosis.

Percentage of lumbar curvature range during the eccentric Percentage of lumbar curvature range during the
phase of lifts with different weights and speeds at various concentric phase of lifts with different weights and
torso inclinations, Maduri, 2008 speeds at various torso inclinations, Maduri, 2008
Percentage curvature (%)

Percentage curvature (%)

90 100
Increasing hip Increasing hip
80 90
flexion causes flexion causes
70 decreased 80 decreased
lumbar lordosis 70 lumbar lordosis
60
60
50
50
40
40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0-20 degrees 21 - 40 41 - 60 61 - 80 81 - 100 0-20 degrees 21 - 40 41 - 60 61 - 80 81 - 100
degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees

Light - fast Light - slow Heavy - fast Heavy - slow Light - fast Light - slow Heavy - fast Heavy - slow
 How does restricting pelvic motion affect lower back training?

Restricting pelvic motion during lower back training can lead to increased strength gains.

Graves (1994) investigated the effects of a training program in
which two groups performed lumbar extensions for 12 weeks.
One group performed these while restricting the movement of the
pelvis and the other performed them without restricting pelvis
motion.
Change in weight used for lumbar extensions
following a 12-week training program in which one
group stabilized the pelvis and the other did not,
Graves, 1994
Weight (kg)
The researchers found that the group that restricted pelvic
motion improved their lumbar extension strength, measured by
reference to the weight they used by the end of the study, by
39% while the group that did not restrict pelvic motion only
improved by 29%. When the researchers tested the maximum
voluntary isometric contraction strength at various degrees of
torso angle, they found that the restricted group also improved
by more than the unrestricted group in this measure.
The researchers therefore concluded that in order to train the

lumbar extensors effectively, it is necessary to restrict pelvic

90 motion. Moreover, they suggest that the reason that the
unrestricted group produced an inferior increase in lumbar
85 extension strength was that their gluteals and hamstrings were
able to contribute to the movement by rotating the pelvis.
80
Whether or not this is the case, it appears that restricting the
75 Restricting pelvic motion pelvis does lead to greater strength gains of the lower back.
during back extensions
70 The researchers propose that if only hip extension movements
increases strength gains
are trained and the gluteals and hamstrings are strong, then the
65
lumbar spine may not be trained effectively and may become
60 weak. They therefore propose training the lower back specifically
and by restricting the movement of the pelvis. However, many
55 strength coaches believe this practice unwise and maintain that it
50 is more fruitful to focus on motor learning strategies aimed at
No stabilization Stabilization enhancing the ability of the erectors to function statically (lumbar
spine is stable) while the hip extensors function dynamically (the
Initial weight used Weight used following 12-weeks training movement occurs at the hips).
 Do the hip extensors decrease in activity with restricted pelvic motion?

Gluteal and hamstring activity does not decrease during back extensions with restricted pelvic motion.

Udermann (1999) investigated whether the muscle activity
during machine lumbar extensions was affected by whether
the pelvis was restrained or not. They found that the restraint
had no effect on the activity of the gluteals or hamstrings or
on the lumbar extensors. However, San Juan (2005) repeated
the experiment and found that while the biceps femoris was
unaffected, the activity of the multifidus was significantly
increased by pelvic restraint. Similarly, Da Silva (2009) also
found that the activity of the lumbar muscles was increased
by pelvic restraint.
EMG activity of various muscles (right and left sides)
during unrestrained and restrained machine lumbar
extensions, Udermann, 1999
EMG % of MVIC
Da Silva (2009) tried a similar experiment using a Roman chair
and found that the EMG activity of the various muscles was
similarly unaffected by pelvic restriction. They also found no
difference in muscular activity of the gluteals and hamstrings
during restrained and unrestrained pelvic movement. In
contrast, it seems that the activity of some of the back
muscles is increased by pelvic restraint.
Difference in EMG activity of various hip and back muscles
during Roman chair back extensions with and without pelvic
restriction, Da Silva, 2009

45
Restricting pelvic motion during
40 Biceps femoris back extensions increases lower
35 back muscle activity
30 Gluteus maximus

25
Longissimus (T10)
20
15 Restricting pelvic motion Longissimus (L1)
during back extensions does
10 not change gluteal activity
5 Iliocostalis

0
Multifidus
Lumbar Lumbar Gluteus Hamstrings
extensors L1 extensors L5 maximus
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Unrestrained (left) Unrestrained (right) Restraint No restraint Muscular utilization ratio
Restrained (left) Restrained (right)
 Can pelvic tilt angle change because of sporting activities?
Elite cyclists display greater anterior pelvic tilt when standing and when seated on a bicycle as well as greater
lumbar flexion when seated on a bicycle than masters cyclists.

Muyor (2011) reviewed the pelvic tilt angles of 120 male
cyclists including 60 elite cyclists and 60 masters cyclists. The
researchers found that for all of the postures evaluated, the
elite cyclists showed greater anterior pelvic tilt than the
master cyclists.
The researchers also found that the elite cyclists displayed
greater lumbar flexion than the masters cyclists when seated
on the bicycle. When standing, the lumbar curvature was
negative (i.e. in extension/lordosis). When seated, the
lumbar curvature was positive (i.e. in flexion/kyphosis).
When standing, the elite cyclists displayed greater lordosis
than the masters but it was not significant.

Difference in pelvic tilt between elite and masters Difference in lumbar flexion between elite and masters
cyclists when standing and in three seated positions cyclists when standing and in three seated positions on a
on a bicycle, Muyor, 2011 bicycle, Muyor, 2011
Degrees

Degrees
40 40

35 30

30 20

25 10
Elite cyclists display
20 greater anterior pelvic tilt 0
than master cyclists Elite cyclists display
15 -10
greater lumbar flexion
10 -20 than master cyclists

5 -30

0 -40
Standing Upper Middle Lower Standing Upper handlebar Middle Lower handlebar
handlebar handlebar handlebar handlebar
Elite Master Elite Master
 What is the normal tilting behavior of the pelvis during running?

The anterior-posterior tilt during running has been measured at between 5 – 7 degrees by several
researchers at speeds ranging from 2.2 – 3.8m/s.

The pelvis does not remain fixed in relation to the trunk during
running but undergoes some anterior and posterior tilt with
reference to the neutral position. Schache (1999) compared the
results of three studies by Oupuu (1990), Cairns (1986) and
Novacheck (1998) and found that there was good agreement
between researchers in terms of the degree of anterior-posterior
tilt during running, which was between 5 – 7 degrees in total.
Schache et al. also report that the total anterior-posterior
movement oscillates equally about a mid-point, or mean pelvic tilt
angle during the running cycle.
They note that the average pelvic tilt during running is 20 degrees,
which is significantly greater than the average pelvic tilt in standing
posture of c. 11 degrees.
Schache et al. describe the pelvic movement over a running cycle
as follows: in the absorption phase of stance, the pelvis posteriorly
tilts slightly to reach a position of minimum anterior tilt. After mid-
stance, as absorption gives way to propulsion, the pelvis tilts
anteriorly and reaches a position of maximum anterior tilt at toe-
off. The pelvis then tilts posteriorly again during initial swing before
tilting anteriorly during terminal swing.

Extent of rotation of the pelvis about the medio- Novacheck (1998) reported that as running speed increases, the
lateral axis (i.e. anterior/posterior tilt) during mean pelvic anterior-posterior angle becomes more anteriorly
running, Schache, 1999 tilted. Exactly why this occurs is unknown but Slocum (1968)
suggested that anterior pelvic tilt occurs in order to increase stride
8
Degrees

length and increase hip extension impulse. However, Novacheck

7 suggests that too much pelvic tilt would lead to decreased
efficiency during running at faster speeds, most likely because of a
6
reduced ability of the upper body to transfer force to the lower
5 body in lumbar lordosis.
4 Pelvic rotation during
We believe rather that this could very well have to do with data
running averages 5 – 7
3 degrees
presented later in this product: hip extension is stronger (and
therefore most likely more powerful) in positions of hip flexion
2
compared to positions of hip extension. Anterior tilting puts the
1 hips in greater hip flexion which is a more powerful position for
producing propulsion. It also lengthens the hamstrings, potentially
0
increasing their force output capabilities.
Oupuu Cairns Novacheck
 Does lumbar lordosis correlate with anterior pelvic tilt during running?

Lumbar lordosis occurs in concert with increased anterior pelvic tilt during running, which may put stress
on the lumbar spine.

Schache (2002) investigated whether the anterior pelvic tilt
that occurs during running occurred in synchronization with
lumbar lordosis. They found that both the lumbar spine and
the pelvis rotated about the medio-lateral axis (i.e. moved in
the sagittal plane) during running. They also found that the
lumbar spine rotated 13.3 degrees and the pelvis tilted 7.6
degrees, which is in line with other studies of pelvic tilt during
running.
Lumbar spine angle and anterior pelvic tilt during
running, Schache, 2002
30
Degrees
Schache et al. found that the average angular positions of the
lumbar spine and pelvis, around which the amplitudes of
rotation oscillated, were -23 degrees for the lumbar spine and
16 degrees for the pelvis.
Most importantly, the researchers found that during running,
the lumbar spine was extended whilst the pelvis was
anteriorly tilted. They found that as the anterior tilt of the
pelvis increased towards the end of stance, the lumbar spine
extended.
The chart shows lumbar flexion as positive and anterior pelvic
tilt as positive. Therefore, as lumbar flexion decreases from

initial ground contact to peak extension, anterior pelvic tilt

20 increases from 15 – 20 degrees However, the movements
were not exactly correlated. The researchers found that peak
10
Lumbar lordosis extension of the lumbar spine happened at 36% of the
0 correlates with anterior running cycle while the peak anterior tilt of the pelvis
pelvic tilt during running occurred at 39% of the running cycle.
-10
Importantly, excessive lumbar lordosis and anterior pelvic tilt,
-20 have been identified by several researchers as possible causes
of lower back stress, damage to the intervertebral discs and
-30
pain, by Bach (1985), Klein (1976) and Slocum (1968).
-40
Initial ground contact First peak tilt/extension
Average lumbar spine angle Anterior-posterior tilt
How does hip extension ROM relate to anterior pelvic tilt during running?

So far, we have looked at passive hip extension ROM, as measured by physiotherapists or researchers in the
modified Thomas Test. However, hip extension ROM is commonly required actively in sports.

While Kerrigan (2001) found that peak hip extension

ROM during walking was well-correlated with age and
function, they did not investigate whether this active
hip extension ROM was directly correlated with passive
Anterior pelvic
hip extension ROM. Additionally, they only looked at
tilt angle
walking at two speeds, not running.
Pelvis θ
Schache (2000) investigated both passive and active hip
extension ROM during submaximal running in 14 elite
track athletes. They found that anterior pelvic tilt angle
tended to be increased in those runners who displayed
reduced peak hip extension angle during the stance Peak hip extension ROM
phase of submaximal running. The diagram shows the and anterior pelvic tilt are
two different angles during running. inversely related during
running
However, no significant correlation was found between
anterior pelvic tilt and passive hip extension ROM nor
θ
between peak hip extension ROM during running and Hip extension
passive hip extension ROM. Schache et al. therefore angle
suggest that passive hip extension ROM measurements Foot
may not be helpful in predicting hip extension ROM
during submaximal running.

Where athletes display reduced active hip extension ROM during running, they compensate by increasing anterior pelvic
tilt. However, reduced active hip extension ROM during running is not correlated with passive hip extension ROM
When are anterior and posterior pelvic tilt advisable during lifting?

Posterior pelvic tilt should be used for sit-ups or lifting objects above waist level. Anterior pelvic tilt
should be used for squatting and deadlifting.

Modern physical therapists have identified that many
people who suffer from lower back pain are in need of
additional stability at the lower back.
Clinicians and influential researchers, including McGill
(1998), have proposed that people who suffer from lower
back pain should employ a neutral spine in all exercises in
order to avoid further damage to the spinal structures.
However, it could be the case that some small degree of
anterior or posterior pelvic tilt is appropriate for aiding in
the performance of exercise in healthy individuals. This is
certainly what Verkoshansky and Siff thought. In line with
this, we recommend considering a slight anterior pelvic tilt
at the initial range hip extension phase of squats, deadlifts,
good mornings, Olympic pulls, kettlebell swings, back
extensions, reverse hypers, and pull-throughs. And we
recommend considering a slight posterior pelvic tilt at the
end range hip extension phase of hip thrusts, kettlebell
swings, front planks, deadlifts, back extensions, reverse
hypers, and pull-throughs.

“The pelvis plays a vital role in the ability of the athlete to produce strength efficiently and safely, because it is the
major link between the spinal column and the lower extremities… a neutral pelvic tilt offers the least stressful
position for sitting, standing and walking. It is only when a load (or body mass) is lifted or resisted that other types
of pelvic tilt become necessary. Even then, only sufficient tilt is used to prevent excessive spinal flexion or
extension…

The posterior pelvic tilt is the appropriate pelvic rotation for sit-ups or lifting objects above waist level.
Conversely… the anterior pelvic tilt is the correct pelvic rotation for squatting [and] lifting heavy loads off the floor.“

Verkoshansky and Siff, 2009

How can we control the degree of pelvic tilt using exercise?

Waryasz (2010) suggests that strengthening the abdominals is a key approach for reducing the likelihood
of excessive anterior pelvic tilt. He proposes the following exercises:

Lying
posterior
Overhead pelvic tilt Sideways
medicine ball medicine ball
throws throws

Isometric
bridges
Russian twists
between
benches

Crunches
Abdominal Swiss ball
exercises bridges

Other abdominal exercises may be appropriate. Abdenour (2000) recommends taking time to develop pelvic
motion awareness separately. On the next slide, we review the key principles that underlie exercise choice.
 Which abdominal exercises are best for reducing anterior pelvic tilt?

Waryasz (2010) suggests that strengthening the abdominals for reducing anterior pelvic tilt should involve
exercises that recruit both the upper and lower abdominals.

Waryasz (2010) notes that Sarti (1996) found that certain
exercises recruited the upper and lower abdominals differently
but that Lehman (2001) did not report this effect using basic
abdominal exercises. However, this does not preclude the
possibility that other abdominal exercises might have different
effects on the upper and lower abdominals. And Lehman failed to
utilize a posterior tilting strategy for any abdominal exercises,
which would have likely influenced the results.
EMG activity of the upper and lower rectus abdominis
during various common abdominal exercises, Lehman,
2001
EMG % of MVIC
Moreover, since Lehman’s paper, several studies have emerged, all
showing that the upper and lower abdominals do in fact function
uniquely, including work by Willett (2001), Moreside (2008),
Duncan (2009) and Vera-Garcia (2011). Several different
abdominal exercises may therefore be the best approach.
Waryasz proposes that the posterior pelvic tilt exercise is an
important exercise, as it can help to lengthen the hip flexors and
quadriceps, while simultaneously strengthening the abdominals, as
Kolber (2005) has also argued. However, while Waryasz has
identified the abdominals and the hip flexors as important targets
for exercise to reduce excessive anterior pelvic tilt, our model of
the force-couples also identifies the spinal erectors and gluteals. In

50 addition to strengthening the abdominals and stretching the hip

flexors, it may also be appropriate to strengthen the gluteals and
45
lengthen the spinal erectors. Given the degree of gluteal atrophy
40 or “amnesia” in many populations, it may be the case that
35 developing gluteal strength is in fact the most significant factor for
30 reducing excessive anterior pelvic tilt.
25
Most abdominal exercises
Indeed, as we noted earlier, Walker (1987) found that the strength
20
produce similar activity of the of the abdominals did not affect anterior pelvic tilt when standing
15
upper and lower abdominals and Tateuchi (2012) found that gluteal muscle activity was reduced
10 when anterior pelvic tilt was observed during prone hip extensions.
5 Gluteal strength can likely be developed to a suitable degree for
0 reducing anterior pelvic tilt by using a number of exercises,
Abdominal Abdominal Leg raise Isometric leg Isometric including glute bridges and hip thrusts, kettlebell swings, planks
curl up lift (partial raise curl up with strong gluteal contraction and Romanian deadlifts with a
(crunch) sit up) (crunch) focus on posterior pelvic tilt at end range hip extension.
Upper Lower
 Which abdominal exercises are best for reducing anterior pelvic tilt?

Waryasz (2010) suggests that strengthening the abdominals for reducing anterior pelvic tilt should involve
exercises that recruit both the upper and lower abdominals.

As noted on the previous page, Waryasz proposes that the
posterior pelvic tilt exercise is an important exercise, as it
can help to lengthen the hip flexors and quadriceps, while
simultaneously strengthening the abdominals, as Kolber
(2005) has also argued.
EMG activity of the upper and lower rectus
abdominis, external obliques, erector spinae and
multifidus during various common therapeutic
exercises, Vezina, 2004
EMG (% of MVC)
Waryasz also mentions that the abdominal drawing-in
manoeuvre can be used to activate the abdominals.
However, Vezina (2000) compared the muscle activity of the
abdominal hollowing manoeuvre with the posterior pelvic tilt
and the leg lowering exercise. The researchers found that
both the external obliques and the upper and lower rectus
abdominis were higher in the posterior pelvic tilt exercise and
the leg lowering exercise than the abdominal hollowing
manoeuvre.

However, Oh (2007) found that the abdominal hollowing

30
Posterior pelvic tilt manoeuvre was able to reduce erector spinae activity and
produces greater increase both gluteal and hamstring activity during prone hip
25
activity of the extension. This suggests that it was effective at shortening
20 abdominals than
abdominal hollowing
the abdominals and rotating the pelvis posteriorly.
Unfortunately, the researchers did not compare the effect of
15
the abdominal abdominal hollowing manoeuvre with
10 posterior pelvic tilt so it is not possible to know whether
posterior pelvic tilt would have been superior.
5
We feel that an ideal method of strengthening the posterior
0
pelvic tilt mechanism and increasing the likelihood of positive
Lower Upper External Erector Multifidus
rectus rectus obliques spinae adaptation is to perform static abdominal exercises while in a
abdominis abdominis posterior pelvic tilt. For example, a plank or rollout can be
performed in posterior pelvic tilt via a strong gluteal
Pelvic tilt Abdominal hollowing Leg lowering contraction, which in turn leads to increased abdominal and
oblique activity.
 Which abdominal exercises do not also activate the hip flexors?

Waryasz (2010) suggests that strengthening the abdominals for reducing anterior pelvic tilt should involve
exercises that do not involve the hip flexors or which stretch the hip flexors and quadriceps.

Waryasz (2010) suggests that the use of abdominal exercises EMG activity of the rectus abdominis and rectus femoris
that do not work the hip flexors is important, as this reduces the during various common abdominal exercises, McGill, 1998
likelihood of anterior pelvic tilt during the exercise. Fortunately,
Push-up from knees
both the crunch and the Ab wheel roll-out both allow the Many abdominal
development of the abdominals without hip flexor involvement. Push-up from feet exercises can be used
Gidaris (2009), Hildenbrand (2004) and McGill (1998), have all that do not involve the
found that in fact several exercises are useful for working the Dynamic side plank hip flexors
abdominal muscles without involving the hip flexors, as the Side plank
charts show.
Cross-body crunch (left)

EMG activity of the upper and lower rectus abdominis, Cross-body crunch (right)
external obliques and rectus femoris during two common
abdominal exercises, Hildenbrand, 2004 Isometric hand-to-knee…
EMG (mV)

Isometric hand-to-knee (left)

2500
Straight-leg raise
2000 Both the crunch and
the Ab roller do not Bent-knee leg raise
1500 involve the hip flexors
Bent-knee crunch

1000 Press-heel sit-up

500 Bent-knee sit-up

Straight-leg sit-up
0
Upper rectus Lower rectus External Rectus femoris 0 20 40 60 80
abdominis abdominis oblique
EMG (% of MVC)
Trunk curl (crunch) Ab roller
Rectus femoris Rectus abdominis
How can we control the degree of pelvic tilt using exercise?
Waryasz (2010) suggests that increasing the flexibility of the hip flexors is a key approach for reducing the
likelihood of excessive anterior pelvic tilt. There is no strong rationale for any of these specific stretches, other
than they appear to be effective at increasing hip flexor length and hip extension ROM. However, other research
suggests that actively contracting the muscles during stretch can improve the effects.

Lunge Ober test

stretch stretch

Thomas
Ely test
test
stretches
Hip flexor stretch
stretches

We highly recommend squeezing the gluteus maximus into
a posterior pelvic tilt during hip flexor stretches. This
increases the stretch’s effectiveness by 1) placing more
stretch loading on the hip flexors, 2) incorporating an
active component into the stretch, and 3) activating the
glutes which is usually a good thing.
We recommend performing different hip flexor stretches.
For example, some target the psoas (those that involve less
knee flexion and resemble the lunge exercise) while others
target the rectus femoris (those that involve greater knee
flexion and resemble the Bulgarian split squat exercise).
Chapter summary
In this chapter, we covered the concept of pelvic tilt. In the process, we answered the following questions:

Question Answer

In our oversimplified model to aid in understanding, anterior pelvic tilt is where the top edge of the
What are anterior and
front of the pelvis is lower than the top edge of the rear of the pelvis. Posterior pelvic tilt is where
posterior pelvic tilt?
the top edge of the rear of the pelvis is lower than the front.

How do muscles create The muscles form force-couples to move the pelvis into anterior or posterior pelvic tilt. The hip
anterior and posterior flexors and the erector spinae contract to pull the pelvis into anterior pelvic tilt. The gluteus
pelvic tilt? maximus and the abdominals contract to pull the pelvis into posterior pelvic tilt.

Posterior pelvic tilt leads to greater gluteus maximus and rectus abdominis activity as well as
Does muscle activity
reduced multifidus activity. On the other hand, the multifidus is more active during anterior pelvic
change with pelvic tilt?
tilt.

How does pelvic tilt

Anterior pelvic tilt is greatest during standing and also decreases with decreasing torso angle when
change during sitting
seated.
and standing?

Does muscular balance

Posterior pelvic tilt during quadruped hip extension increased gluteal activity. Reduced gluteal
change pelvic tilt during
activity leads to increased anterior pelvic tilt during prone hip extension.
hip extension?

What is normal pelvic In a modern, normal population, it is most normal for both men and women to display anterior
tilt in men and women? pelvic tilt of c. 6 - 7 degrees on both right and left sides.

Is pelvic tilt correlated Anterior pelvic tilt is very strongly correlated with lumbar lordosis and posterior pelvic tilt is
with lumbar lordosis? correlated with lumbar kyphosis.
Chapter summary
In this chapter, we covered the concept of pelvic tilt. In the process, we answered the following questions:

Question Answer

How does lumbar curvature

change during a functional During lifting tasks, the degree of lumbar curvature changes with torso inclination.
lifting task?
How does restricting pelvic
Restricting pelvic motion during lower back training can lead to increased strength gains in the
motion affect lower back
spinal erectors.
training?
Do the hip extensors
Gluteal and hamstring activity does not decrease during back extensions with restricted pelvic
decrease in activity with
motion.
restricted pelvic motion?

Can pelvic tilt change

Elite cyclists display greater anterior pelvic tilt when standing and when seated on a bicycle as
because of sporting
well as greater lumbar flexion when seated on a bicycle than masters cyclists.
activities?
How large is anterior pelvic
The anterior-posterior tilt during running has been measured at between 5 – 7 degrees by
tilt normally during
several researchers at speeds ranging from 2.2 – 3.8m/s.
running?
How is hip extension ROM
related to anterior pelvic tilt Peak hip extension ROM is inversely related to anterior pelvic tilt during running.
during running?

Does lumbar lordosis

Lumbar lordosis occurs in concert with increased anterior pelvic tilt during running, which may
correlate with anterior
put stress on the lumbar spine.
pelvic tilt during running?
Chapter summary
In this chapter, we covered the concept of pelvic tilt. In the process, we answered the following questions:

Question Answer

When are anterior and

Posterior pelvic tilt should be used for sit-ups or lifting objects above waist level. Anterior
posterior pelvic tilt
pelvic tilt should be used for squatting and deadlifting.
advisable?

How can we change the Researchers believe that strengthening the abdominals and stretching the hip flexors is a key
degree of pelvic tilt using approach for reducing the likelihood of excessive anterior pelvic tilt. However, stretching the
exercise? spinal erectors and strengthening the gluteals may also be relevant.

Researchers believe that training the abdominals for reducing anterior pelvic tilt should involve
Which abdominal exercises
exercises that recruit both the upper and lower abdominals and avoid those exercises that
are best for reducing
activate the hip flexors at the same time. Many common abdominal exercises, such as
anterior pelvic tilt?
crunches, can target both parts of the rectus abdominis.

Which abdominal exercises

Many common abdominal exercises activate the abdominals without the hip flexors, including
do not also activate the hip
the crunch, Ab wheel roll-out and the side plank.
flexors?

Which hip flexor stretches Researchers have identified the Thomas test stretch, the lunge stretch, the Ober test stretch
are best for reducing and the Ely test stretch as appropriate for increasing the length of the hip flexors. However, no
anterior pelvic tilt? comparison of these stretches has been performed.
Practical implications
In this chapter, we covered the concept of pelvic tilt. But what are the practical implications?

 The hip flexors and the erector spinae pull the pelvis into anterior pelvic tilt, while the gluteus maximus and the
abdominals pull the pelvis into posterior pelvic tilt. Therefore, if athletes or personal training clients display
significant anterior pelvic tilt, this could arise from short hip flexors, short spinal erectors, weak abdominals or
weak gluteals. Exercises to strengthen the gluteals and abdominals and to lengthen the hip flexors and lumbar
erectors may therefore be helpful.

 Posterior pelvic tilt leads to greater gluteus maximus and rectus abdominis activity as well as reduced lower
back muscle activity. On the other hand, the lower back muscles are more active during anterior pelvic tilt.
Therefore, when performing exercises to target the gluteals and abdominals, posterior pelvic tilt may be a
useful cue to help increase the activity of those muscles.

 Training the abdominals for reducing anterior pelvic tilt should involve exercises that recruit both the upper and
lower abdominals and avoid those exercises that activate the hip flexors at the same time. Many common
abdominal exercises, such as crunches, can target both parts of the rectus abdominis.

 Posterior pelvic tilt should be used for sit-ups, lifting objects above waist level or carrying things (e.g. farmers’
walks). Anterior pelvic tilt should be used for squatting and deadlifting.

 However, at the end ranges of hip extension movements, it is likely optimal to use a strong gluteal contraction
to bring about maximal hip extension range-of-motion. It may also be helpful to engage in posterior pelvic tilt,
as this will engage the gluteals further. This is similar to the approach used by the RKC in teaching the kettlebell
swing and plank.
Practical implications
In this chapter, we covered the concept of pelvic tilt. But what are the practical implications?

 More experienced cyclists display greater anterior pelvic tilt in standing posture and when on the bicycle.
Athletes may develop postural alterations as a result of their sport. Such postural alterations may include
anterior pelvic tilt. Sports-specific training programs could include exercises to combat these changes if
longevity is the goal. Conversely, short-term strategies to induce these postural adaptations could be used if a
“win-at-all-cost” mentality prevails.

 Restricting pelvic motion during machine lower back extensions can increase the effectiveness of the exercise
but it is not likely that this is because of reduced gluteal and hamstring involvement. Whatever the reason,
pelvic restriction during targeted lower back training appears to be more effective than unrestricted lower back
training. However, increased lumbar movement can lead to pain or injury so care is required.

 Where athletes display reduced active hip extension ROM during running, they compensate by increasing
anterior pelvic tilt. While this may not be caused entirely by reduced hip extension ROM, it may be helpful to
ensure that athletes that perform running or sprinting during their sport do not have short hip flexors or weak
gluteal and abdominal muscles.

 Stretching the hip flexors to help reduce anterior pelvic tilt can be performed using various standard hip flexor
stretches. These stretches can be enhanced by increasing the degree of posterior pelvic tilt, by contracting the
abdominals and gluteals. This increases the length of the hip flexors during the stretch.

 However, active contractions of the stretched muscle have also been found to improve the effects of stretch
and therefore active stretches of the hip flexors should be preferred over passive stretches. Additionally,
eccentric contractions are known to increase the numbers of sarcomeres in series in a muscle. Focusing on
eccentric contractions during hip flexor exercises could therefore be beneficial for improving hip flexor length
where they are contributing to excess anterior pelvic tilt.
What is muscle architecture?
What is pennation angle?
What is normalized fiber length?
What is physiological cross-sectional area?
Why is muscle architecture important?
Why study muscle architecture?
 Muscle architecture is the single most important collection of information about a muscle. It is better
at predicting the strength and function of a muscle than the muscle’s fiber type.

 By studying the muscle architecture of the hip extensors, and comparing these features, we can learn
more about how the hip extensors work and what functions they are intended to perform. This helps
us to understand why certain exercises are effective for targeting a given muscle.

Let’s take a closer look at muscle architecture on the following pages…

What is muscle architecture?
Muscle architecture is the organization of muscle fibers within a muscle with respect to the axis of force
generation. It is better able to predict muscle function than any other parameter, including mass, volume
and fiber type! There are three key aspects of muscle architecture, as follows:

Normalized
fiber length

Physiological
Pennation
cross-
angle
sectional area

Muscle
architecture

We will investigate the three main aspects of muscle architecture on the following pages…
What is pennation angle?
Pennation angle is the angle at which the muscle fibers extend, in relation to the force-generating axis of
the whole muscle.

Lieber (2001) explains that individual muscle fibers Lieber et al. note that when muscle fibers are
often do not run all the way from the origin to the oriented at a single pennation angle, they are called
insertion of a whole muscle. Rather, they are unipennate. However, when they are found to be at
oriented at an angle to the axis of force generation several pennation angles, they are called multi-
(called the pennation angle) and run from one side pennate. The researchers note that multi-pennate
of the muscle to another, as shown below: muscle fibers are by far the most commonly found
and it is rare to find a muscle in which all of the
fibers are parallel to one another.
Axis of force Axis of force
generation generation
Lieber et al. explain that the pennation angle varies
significantly from one muscle to the next and can
range from approximately 0 to 30 degrees.
Additionally, pennation angle varies depending on
whether the superficial of deep part of the muscle is
examined, or whether the proximal or distal parts of
a muscle are measured. However, despite these
large variances, Lieber et al. explain that pennation
angle has the least functional significance of the
main aspects of muscle architecture. You can see
more diagrams of pennation angles on Wikipedia.
Pennation Pennation angle of c.
angle of zero 30 degrees
Why is pennation angle important?
Increasing pennation angle leads to reduced force along the axis of force generation. This can be explained using
Pythagoras’s theorem.

Lieber (2001) explains that an increasing pennation angle
results in a loss of muscle force relative to a muscle with
the same mass and fiber length but without a zero
pennation angle. This happens because the mass and
fiber length determine the strength of the muscle fiber,
while the force that is passed on through the axis of force
is reduced where the angle is not zero degrees.
Axis of force Axis of force
generation generation
In the diagram, the parallel force F created by the parallel
muscle fiber with a pennation angle of zero acts directly
along the axis of force generation. Therefore, if this
muscle fiber were the only active fiber in a movement,
the resultant muscle force on the bone at the insertion
point would be equal to F. However, in the case of a
muscle fiber with a pennation angle of 30 degrees, the
non-parallel force created by the muscle fiber does not
act directly along the axis of force generation. Rather, in
order to calculate the equivalent F, we have to use
Pythagoras’s theorem. In this case, F = fCosθ, which is
substantially less than f.

This explains how the change in pennation angle alters

Non-parallel the force that a muscle can express. However, it does
Parallel force (F) force (f)
not explain why pennation angle is different between
θ muscle groups and why pennation angle changes with
training and detraining. Many researchers and reviewers,
including Folland and Williams (2007), have concluded
that the pennation angle of muscles increases with
training in order to increase the number of muscle fibers
that can be packed into the same volume. It is also
Pennation Pennation angle of c. important to note that work by Fukunaga (1997) has
angle of zero 30 degrees demonstrated that pennation angle changes during a
muscular contraction, as the muscle shortens.
What causes the pennation angle to change?
Researchers have found that the pennation angle of muscle fibers increases significantly with resistance
training.

Aagaard (2001) wanted to investigate the relationships
between anatomical cross-sectional area and muscle
volume, as well as physiological cross-sectional area and
pennation angle, in the human quadriceps muscle
before and after a prolonged period of resistance
training.
Folland and Williams (2007) explain that the
pennation angle of muscles increases with training in
order to increase the number of muscle fibers that can
be packed into the same volume. Whether this
increases or decreases force and power production is
up for debate.

They recruited 11 male subjects who had no history of

Increase in pennation angle of the vastus lateralis,
resistance training. They used ultrasound to determine
Aagaard, 2001
the pennation angle of the muscle fibers and biopsies to
determine the muscle fiber type. A MR scanner was 12

Degrees
used to establish the physiological and anatomical cross-
sectional areas. These measurements were taken both 10
before and after a training intervention.
8
This intervention was a 14-week, supervised program of
38 sessions, with loads ranging between 3 – 10RM and 6 Training increases
exercises including hack squats, incline leg press, pennation angle
4
isolated knee extension, hamstring curls and calf raises.
2
They found that their subjects experienced an increase
in pennation angle of 3 degrees, along with a significant
0
increase in physiological cross-sectional area. Before After
What is normalized fiber length?
Normalized fiber length (NFL) is the length of the muscle fibers, adjusted for a standard sarcomere length in
human skeletal muscle.
NFL gives an indication of the number of sarcomeres in
the fiber, irrespective of how long they actually are and
whether they are under tension at the time of being
measured. It is important to realize that NFL is not the
same as unadjusted or “raw” fiber length. If a muscle
has been stretched or is contracted then this will affect
its raw measurement.
To find NFL, we have to find two pieces of information.
Firstly, we need to know the raw fiber length
(irrespective of whether it has been stretched or is
contracted). Then, we need to know the average length
of a sarcomere in that stretched or contracted fiber.
Then we can normalize it, using the following formula:
NFL = Raw fiber length x 2.7 / average sarcomere length
2.5 2.5 2.5
2.9 2.9 2.9
The number 2.7 is used for normalizing because the
average length of a sarcomere in the human body is
2.7μm.
The schema below shows two muscle fibers, where
muscle fiber one has an average sarcomere length of 2.5
and muscle fiber two has an average sarcomere length
of 2.9. Let us assume that we have measured the raw
length of them and found that muscle fiber one
measures 12.5μm and muscle fiber two measures
14.9μm. Applying the formula to each, we find that
their normalized lengths are the same. This is because
NFL is really a count of the number of sarcomeres in
series.
NFL1 = 12.5 x 2.7 / 2.5 = 13.5μm
NFL2 = 14.5 x 2.7 / 2.9 = 13.5μm
2.5 2.5 Muscle fiber one
2.9 2.9 Muscle fiber two
What causes normalized fiber length to change?
Normalized fiber length (NFL) changes according to the length in which the muscle is most accustomed to being
used.

In their review paper, Lieber (2000) explain that the
normalized fiber length of a muscle varies quickly
when the fiber is subject to immobilization, moment
arm changes and eccentric exercise.
When the normalized fiber length changes, this
means that the number of sarcomeres in series in the
fibers also changes. This is because normalized fiber
length is simply a count of the number of sarcomeres
in series in a muscle fiber.
Brughelli (2010) found that cyclists had greater pennation
angles and shorter fascicle lengths of the vastus lateralis
compared to Australian Rules Football players.
Muscle architecture differences between
cyclists and Australian Rules Football players,
Brughelli, 2010
30
Muscle architecture changes

Degrees / length (cm)

Changing the number of sarcomeres in series in a to accommodate the
25
muscle fiber is important because the length-tension demands of the sport
relationship of a muscle is altered. 20
The length-tension relationship governs how strong a
muscle is at different joint angles. So when 15

normalized fiber length changes, this changes the

joint angle at which the muscle is strongest (called the 10

optimum muscle length).

5

0
Cyclists ARF players

Pennation angle Fascicle length

What is physiological cross-sectional area?
Physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA) is a measurement of how many muscle fibers are arranged in
parallel in a muscle.
Physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA) is an
indication of how many muscle fibers are arranged
in a muscle in parallel. It is important to note that
PSCA is not the same as anatomical cross-sectional
area (ACSA).
The ACSA can be markedly affected by the
pennation angle. Where the pennation angle is very
high, this can lead the ACSA to overstate the actual
number of fibers arranged in parallel. As the picture
below shows, more fibers can be packed in when
the pennation angle is higher.
Pennation Pennation angle of c.
angle of zero 30 degrees
PCSA is calculated as Vcosθ/L, where:
 V is the total volume of the muscle
 θ is the muscle pennation angle
 L is the normalized fiber length (NFL)
This PCSA calculation is a just a combination of
Pythagoras’s Theorem with the basic formula for
volume:
 V = AL, so if V = AL, A = V/ L, where A = PCSA.
 Cosθ = adjacent side / hypotenuse, therefore
Hypotenuse = adjacent side / cosθ
The use of Pythagoras’s Theorem is just to make
sure that we measure the cross-section of the fibers
at right angles to the fibers instead of at the
pennation angle. Most importantly, it is key to
remember that the physiological cross sectional area
of a muscle is the best estimate of its strength.
Why is physiological cross-sectional area important?
Physiological cross-sectional area is the best predictor of the maximum force generation capability of a
muscle.
Aagaard (2001) found that 11 male subjects with no Increase in muscle architecture parameters
experience of resistance training who undertook 14 and knee extension torque of the vastus
weeks of heavy-resistance training experienced an lateralis, Aagaard, 2001

Percentage increase
increase in pennation angle of 3 degrees, along with a
18.0%
significant increase in both anatomical and physiological
cross-sectional areas. 16.0%

14.0%
The intervention involved a 14-week, supervised
program of 38 sessions, with loads ranging between 3 – 12.0%
10RM and exercises including hack squats, incline leg
10.0%
press, isolated knee extension, hamstring curls and calf
raises. 8.0%

6.0% PCSA is proportional to

The researchers noted that the anatomical cross-
4.0% muscular strength
sectional area measurement of muscular hypertrophy
substantially underestimated the actual increase in fiber 2.0%
size, because of the large increase in pennation angle.
The chart shows the increases in anatomical and 0.0%
physiological cross-sectional areas, along with the Anatomical cross- Physiological cross- Knee extension
sectional area sectional area torque
accompanying increase in knee extension torque.

Even in individuals with no experience of resistance training, increases in physiological cross-sectional area are not
dissimilar to increases in muscle torque.
How are muscle architecture parameters related?
The main parameters of muscle architecture (normalized fiber length and physiological cross-sectional area) are
inversely related in most muscles.

In their assessment of the muscle architecture of the hip Muscle architecture of selected hip extensors,
extensors, Ward (2010) explains that there is typically a trade- Ward, 2009
off between physiological cross-sectional area and normalized 40
fiber length. The researchers noted that where physiological 35
cross-sectional area is large, normalized fiber length tends to
be short. On the other hand, where normalized fiber length is 30
NFL and PCSA are
inversely related
long, physiological cross-sectional area tends to be small.
25 except in muscles that

Length (cm) or area (cm sq)

perform two functions
Ward et al. explain that the form of the muscle architecture
20
tends to reflect its function. For example, hip muscles that
need to be strong through short ranges, such as joint 15
stabilizers like the gluteus medius, need to have a large
physiological cross-sectional area and therefore normally 10
have low normalized fiber lengths. 5

On the other hand, prime movers like the biceps femoris 0

need to be able to contract quickly over a long range of Gluteus medius Biceps femoris Gluteus maximus
motion and therefore have a low physiological cross-sectional PCSA NFL
area and a high normalized fiber length.
Lieber (2001) explains that the quadriceps have high
Ward et al. note that some muscles, however, like the gluteus pennation angles, large physiological cross-sectional areas
maximus, have both a large physiological cross-sectional area and short fibers. They are therefore suited for the
and a high normalized fiber length. This is likely because they generation of large forces. On the other hand, the
perform more than one function. hamstrings have relatively long fibers and medium-sized
physiological cross-sectional areas and are well-suited for
moving through large ranges of motion.
Chapter summary
In this chapter, we covered the concept of muscle architecture. In the process, we answered the following
questions:

Question Answer

What is muscle architecture? Muscle architecture is the arrangement of muscle fibers within a muscle.

Pennation angle is the angle at which the muscle fibers extend, in relation to the
What is pennation angle?
force-generating axis of the whole muscle.

Increasing pennation angle leads to reduced force along the axis of force
Why is pennation angle important?
generation.

Pennation angle increases with training and decreases with detraining and ageing.
What causes pennation angle to change
It increases so that more muscle fibers can pack into the same space between the
and why does it?
origin and insertion of the muscle.

Normalized fiber length is the length of the muscle fibers, adjusted for a standard
What is normalized fiber length?
sarcomere length in human skeletal muscle.

What is physiological cross-sectional Physiological cross-sectional area is a measurement of how many muscle fibers are
area? arranged in parallel in a muscle.

Muscle architecture is a better predictor of muscle function than any other

parameter, including the overall muscle mass or volume and the muscle fiber type
Why is muscle architecture important?
distribution (i.e. fast or slow twitch). Additionally, muscle architecture is very
malleable and changes easily with training.
Practical implications
In this chapter, we covered the concept of muscle architecture. But what are the practical implications?

 Muscle architecture helps us determine the primary function of a muscle.

 The function of a muscle tells us how it should best be trained. For example, the gluteus medius (with a
large PCSA) should be trained for stability, while the semitendinosus (with a long NFL) should be trained
for speed.

 Physiological cross-sectional area, a key aspect of muscle architecture, is the only muscular parameter
that is correlated with the maximum force that a muscle is capable of expressing. Significant strength
improvements therefore require hypertrophy and training should be performed with this in mind.

 Normalized fiber length increases by increasing the number of sarcomeres that occur in series in the
muscle fibers. Increasing normalized fiber length therefore changes the optimal length at which muscles
produce force.
Which are the hip extensor muscles?
What are the hip extensor muscles?
How do the hip extensors compare to the other hip muscles?
What are their origins and insertions?
What is the pennation angle of the hip extensors?
What is the normalized fiber length of the hip extensors?
What is the physiological cross-sectional area of the hip extensors?
Why study the hip extensors?
 The hip extensors are the muscles that produce the key sporting action of hip extension. They allow us
to sprint, jump, deadlift, squat side step and throw.

 By studying the size, volume and muscle architecture of the hip extensors, and comparing these
features, we can learn more about how the hip extensors work and what functions they are intended to
perform. This helps us to understand why certain exercises might be effective for targeting a given
muscle.

Let’s take a closer look at the hip extensor muscles on the following pages…
What are the hip extensor muscles?
There are five main hip extensor muscles as follows:

Biceps femoris
(long head)
Adductor
Semi-
magnus (long
tendinosus
head)

Hip
Gluteus Semi-
maximus extensor membranosus
muscles
 How do the hip extensors stack up against the other hip muscles?

The hip extensors are the strongest and largest muscles around the hip joint.

Cahalan (1989) compared the different hip muscle
groups and found that the hip extensors were capable
of exerting far more force than the hip flexors,
abductors, adductors, external rotators or internal
rotators.
Ward (2009) presented the muscle architecture for the
whole lower body. They found that there was a wide
range of values for physiological cross-sectional area for
the hip flexors and extensors.

Comparison of the isokinetic strength of the hip Physiological cross-sectional area of the main hip
muscle groups, Cahalan, 1989 muscles, Ward, 2009
200 40.00
Torque (Nm)

Area (cm sq)

180 The hip extensors 35.00 Average PCSA is
160 are stronger than 30.00 higher for the hip
the other hip extensors than the
140 muscles 25.00 hip flexors
120 20.00

100 15.00

80 10.00

60 5.00

40 0.00

Adductor magnus
Psoas

Vastus lateralis
Rectus femoris
Sartorius

Iliacus

Average hip extensor

Semitendinosus
Gluteus medius
Average hip flexor

Gluteus maximus

Biceps femoris short head

Biceps femoris long head
Gracilis

Vastus medialis
Vastus intermedius

Semimembranosus
20
0
Extensors Flexors Adductors Abductors Internal External
rotators rotators
 Size of fibers (micrometers)

1000
1500
2000
2500

0
500
Extensor digitorum longus
Popliteus
Plantaris
Tibialis anterior
Flexor digitorum longus
Extensor hallucis longus

extensors have
Many of the hip
Peroneus brevis

large muscle fibers

Peroneus longus
Flexor hallucis longus
Tibialis posterior
Gastrocnemius
Gracilis
Iliopsoas
Pectineus
Sartorius
Obturatorius externus
Semitendinosus
Adductor longus
Obturatorius internus
Adductor brevis
Soleus
Biceps femoris short head
Gemellus
Size of fibers in each leg muscle, Ito, 2002

Gluteus maximus
Gluteus medius
The hip extensors are the strongest and largest muscles around the hip joint.

hamstring muscle appears to be intended for large excursions at high velocities.

Tensor fasciae latae

Piriformis
Rectus femoris
Semimembranosus
Vastus lateralis
Vastus intermedius
Gluteus minimus
Biceps femoris long head
Vastus medialis
How do the hip extensors stack up against the other hip muscles?

general rule is the semitendinosus, which is a fusiform muscle with a long normalized fiber length. This

Quadratus femoris
Ito (2002) found that many of the hip extensors have larger muscle fibers. The main exception to this very

Adductor magnus
 How do the hip extensors stack up against the other leg muscles?

The hip extensors are some of the heaviest muscles in the legs and have the largest cross-sectional areas.
Weights of various leg muscles, Ito, 2002 Leg muscle cross-sectional areas, Ito, 2002

Gluteus maximus Gluteus maximus

Gracilis Adductor magnus
Vastus lateralis Vastus medialis
Gluteus medius Gluteus medius
Pectineus Vastus lateralis
Plantaris Soleus
Vastus intermedius Gluteus minimus
Iliopsoas Gastrocnemius
Soleus Vastus intermedius
Biceps femoris short head Iliopsoas
Rectus femoris Quadratus femoris
Tibialis anterior Biceps femoris long head
Semimembranosus Semimembranosus
Adductor brevis
Sartorius
Obturatorius internus
Adductor brevis
Rectus femoris
Gluteus minimus
Adductor longus
Tibialis posterior
Semitendinosus
Extensor digitorum longus
Tibialis anterior
Adductor magnus
Obturatorius externus
Semitendinosus Tensor fasciae latae
Obturatorius externus Piriformis
Tensor fasciae latae Biceps femoris short head
Peroneus brevis Tibialis posterior
Flexor hallucis longus Pectineus
Biceps femoris long head Peroneus longus
Quadratus femoris Flexor hallucis longus
Extensor hallucis longus Gracilis
Obturatorius internus Popliteus
The hip extensors
Adductor longus
are among the
Sartorius The hip extensors
Piriformis Extensor digitorum longus
heaviest leg are among the
Gastrocnemius Flexor digitorum longus
Peroneus longus muscles Extensor hallucis longus largest leg muscles
Flexor digitorum longus Gemellus
Gemellus Peroneus brevis
Popliteus Plantaris

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Weight (g) Cross-sectional area (mm2)
What are the origins and insertions of the hip extensor muscles?

Muscle actions depend on their origins and insertions. Additionally, the muscle torque of a muscle is determined
by where the muscles originate in relation to the center of the joint, in addition to the amount of force they
generate.

Muscle Origin Insertion

Posterior quarter of the crest of the ilium, Oblique ridge on the lateral surface of the
Gluteus maximus posterior surface of the sacrum and coccyx greater trochanter of the femur and the
and fascia of the lumbar spine iliotibial band of the fascia latae

Lower two-thirds of the pectineal line of the

Adductor magnus Front of the inferior pubic ramus just
femur and the upper half of the medial lip of
(posterior head) below the origin of the adductor longus
the linea aspera

Biceps femoris Lateral condyle of the tibia and head of the

Ischial tuberosity of the pelvis
(long head) fibula

Semitendinosus Ischial tuberosity of the pelvis Upper anterior medial surface of the tibia

Posteromedial surface of the medial tibial

Semimembranosus Ischial tuberosity of the pelvis
condyle

Source: Manual of Structural Kinesiology, 14th edition, by Thompson and Floyd

 Which are the biggest hip extensor muscles?
The size and weight of a muscle is a good indication of its ability to produce force and of its relative
importance within a muscle group as a prime mover.

Ito (2002) showed that the gluteus maximus had the
largest cross-sectional area of any of the hip extensors,
followed by the adductor magnus, making these muscles
good candidates for being the prime movers in many
powerful hip extension movements.
Ito (1996) reported the relative muscular weights of the
hip extensors and found that the gluteus maximus was
50% again as heavy as the nearest other hip extensor,
the adductor magnus.

Cross-sectional area of the hip extensors, Ito, 2002 Relative muscle weights for the hip extensors, Ito, 1996

Gluteus maximus Gluteus maximus

Adductor magnus Adductor magnus

Biceps femoris long head Semimembranosus

The gluteus The gluteus
maximus and the maximus and the
Semimembranosus adductor magnus Biceps femoris long head adductor magnus
are the largest hip are the heaviest
extensors hip extensors
Semitendinosus
Semitendinosus

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

0.0% 5.0% 10.0% 15.0%
Cross-sectional area (mm2)
Percentage of total leg muscle
 What is the pennation angle of each of the hip extensors?
Pennation angle is the angle at which the muscle fibers extend, in relation to the force-generating axis of
the whole muscle. The pennation angle of the hip extensors varies significantly across the various
muscles.

Pennation angle of the hip extensors, from Ward, 2009 Ward (2009) found that the pennation
angle of the hip extensors varied
considerably. The gluteus maximus, a
Pennation angle is multi-function muscle, has the largest
Biceps femoris long head
closely related to pennation angle and also has a very
PCSA large physiological cross-sectional area
Semitendinosus
(PCSA).

Semimembranosus On the other hand, the semitendinosus

and the biceps femoris (long head),
which are hip extension prime movers
Adductor magnus
and which have the lowest PCSA of the
hip extensors, have the lowest
Gluteus maximus pennation angles. It therefore appears
that pennation angle follows PCSA
0 5 10 15 20 25 closely.
Degrees

In general, it is possible to see that the hamstrings group (biceps femoris – long head, semitendinosus and
semimembranosus) all have lower pennation angles than the gluteus maximus.
What is the normalized fiber length of each of the hip extensors?

Normalized fiber length (NFL) is the length of the muscle fibers, adjusted for a standard sarcomere length
in human skeletal muscle.

Normalized fiber length of the hip extensors, from Ward, 2009 Ward (2009) measured the NFL of of the
hip extensors. They found that the
NFL is generally longer in
muscles that need to semimembranosus, a hamstring muscle
Semimembranosus move through longer with a very large physiological cross-
ROMs sectional area (PCSA), has a very short
NFL.
Biceps femoris long head
On the other hand, the semitendinosus,
which is a hamstring muscle with a
Gluteus maximus
fusiform structure, and which has the
lowest PCSA of the hip extensors, has the
Adductor magnus longest NFL.

However, it is clear from a comparison of

Semitendinosus both charts that the gluteus maximus (and
to a lesser extent the adductor magnus)
0 5 10 15 20 have very large PCSA and NFL and
Length(cm) therefore each perform a dual role.

A recent study by Kellis (2012) confirmed the same relationships between the hamstring muscles, finding
that the semimembranosus had the shortest NFL of the hamstrings, followed by the biceps femoris long
head and the semitendinosus.
Muscle
architecture
 What is the physiological cross-sectional area of each of the hip extensors?

Physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA) is a measurement of how many muscle fibers are arranged in
parallel in a muscle.

Physiological cross-sectional area of the hip extensors, from Ward (2009) measured the PCSA of the
Ward, 2009 hip extensors. As we noted previously,
there is typically a trade-off between
PCSA is generally PCSA and normalized fiber length (NFL).
Semitendinosus bigger in muscles that Where PCSA is large, NFL is typically
need greater force small and vice versa.
Biceps femoris long head generating ability
Ward measured the gluteus maximus
Semimembranosus and found that it had a significantly
greater PCSA than the adductor magnus
Adductor magnus and the hamstrings. Other researchers
have reported lower pennation values
for the gluteus maximus which would
Gluteus maximus
actually increase its PCSA, so future
clarification is needed. On the other
0 10 20 30 40 hand, the biceps femoris (long head) has
Area (cm sq) a very low PCSA.

A recent study by Kellis (2012) confirmed similar relationships between the hamstring muscles, finding that
the semimembranosus had the largest PCSA of the hamstrings, followed by the biceps femoris long head.
 Why do the hamstrings have different architecture from each other?

There are four muscles in the hamstrings group and while they appear to all perform similar functions,
they have different PCSA and NFL from one another.

PCSA and NFL of medial and lateral hamstrings, Kellis, 2012 Research into the muscle architecture of the
hamstrings has found that they have a relatively
20
The medial and lateral hamstrings groups long NFL and a lower PCSA than many other
18 each have one muscle with a long NFL and muscles.
one muscle with a large PCSA This has led researchers to conclude that these
16
muscles have mainly developed for quick
14 contractions over long distances. However, more
recent studies have reported large differences in
12 the architecture of the individual hamstrings.
PCSA (cm sq) or NFL (cm)

10 Kellis (2012) found that these differences can be

explained by looking at the two groups of
8 hamstrings: the medial and lateral muscles. The
6
chart shows that in each group, there is one muscle
that has high NFL and low PCSA (and is for quick
4 contractions over long lengths) and another that
has low NFL and high PCSA and is for force
2 production.
0 Additionally, the difference in NFL will mean that
Biceps Femoris Biceps Femoris Semitendinosus Semimembranosus each of the hamstrings produces maximum force at
(short) (long) its optimal length at different joint angles.
Combining the properties of all hamstring muscles
Lateral hamstring muscles Medial hamstring muscles
could lead to a smoother overall production of
NFL PCSA force for the hamstrings group.
 How does the muscle architecture of the hamstrings change with joint angle?

Fascicle length of the biceps femoris increases with increasing hip flexion and decreasing knee flexion.
Pennation angle increases with increasing knee flexion and decreasing hip flexion.

Chleboun (2001) performed an ultrasound study on Chleboun et al. concluded that both the fascicle length
the fascicle length and the pennation angle of the and the pennation angle were more sensitive to the hip
biceps femoris (long head). They showed that both joint angle rather than the knee joint angle. Fascicle
the fascicle length (an indicator of normalized fiber length increased with increasing hip flexion and
length) and the pennation angle both changed decreasing knee flexion. Pennation angle increased
significantly with joint angles of the hip and of the with increasing knee flexion and decreasing hip flexion.
knee.
Fascicle length of the biceps femoris (long Pennation angle of the biceps femoris (long
head) during different combinations of hip and head) during different combinations of hip and
knee angle, Chleboun, 2001 knee angle, Chleboun, 2001
Fascicle length (cm)

Pennation angle (degrees)

16 20

14 18
16
12
14
10 12
8 10

6 8
6 Fiber length and pennation
4 Fiber length and pennation
angle change with joint angle 4 angle change with joint angle
2 2
0 0
Knee - 0 degrees Knee - 45 degrees Knee - 90 degrees Knee - 0 degrees Knee - 45 degrees Knee - 90 degrees
Hip - 0 degrees Hip - 45 degrees Hip - 90 degrees Hip - 0 degrees Hip - 45 degrees Hip - 90 degrees
 How might the architecture of the hamstrings influence their risk of strains?

Historically, the biceps femoris has been identified as the most commonly injured muscle of the
hamstrings group. However, this may be a misinterpretation and the semitendinosus may be more at risk.

De Smet (2000) studied the hamstring strains of 15 college
athletes They found that 10 of the 15 athletes had injuries
of a single muscle and 6 of these were injuries of the
biceps femoris, 3 of the semitendinosus, and 1 of the
semimembranosus.
Frequency of the location of hamstring strains
between individual muscles, Slavotinek, 2002
Frequency
De Smet et al. therefore concluded that the biceps
femoris was the most frequently injured hamstring
muscle. Similar findings were reported by both
Garrett (1989) and Slavotinek (2002).
However, Batterman (2011) recently performed an
anatomical analysis of the hamstrings group and
found that the 3 hamstrings muscles are partly
twisted around each other and have common fibrous

16
adhesions.
14 Hamstring injuries are most Moreover, they reported that the biceps femoris and
frequently reported in the
12 semitendinosus muscles form a common head, to
biceps femoris
10
which the biceps tendon is attached as it emerges
from the ischial tuberosity on the pelvis. To this
8 tendon, the semitendinosus is attached with a very
6 steep pennation angle while the biceps femoris is
attached with a much shallower pennation angle.
4
The researchers therefore propose that the high
2
incidence of biceps femoris strains may be a
0 misinterpretation caused by the complex architecture
Sole injury Multiple - primary Multiple - secondary and it may in fact be the semitendinosus that is at risk
Biceps femoris Semitendinosus Semimembranosus because of its steep pennation angle.
What is the architecture of the different regions of the hamstrings?

Each of the hamstrings muscles are divided into separate individual regions that follow a similar pattern to whole
muscles.

Woodley (2005) investigated the structure and muscle Woodley reported that the regions with large physiological
architecture of the hamstrings group. They obtained 6 cross-sectional areas (PCSA) tended to have short fascicle
embalmed human cadaveric lower limbs complete with lengths (generally proportional to NFL) and vice versa.
pelvises (3 female and 3 male, aged 68–88 years at death).
Based on fascicular orientation and areas of insertion, the Physiological cross-sectional areas and fascicle lengths of the
researchers found that the semimembranosus comprises various regions of the hamstrings muscles, Woodley, 2005
three regions (A – C). However, based on both architecture
and pattern of innervation, only the superior (A) and the
Biceps femoris short head - A
inferior (C) regions fulfilled the more rigorous definition of
an anatomical partition, by virtue of both possessing an Biceps femoris short head - B
innervating primary nerve branch. The middle region (B)
was only differentiated from the superior and inferior Semitendinosus - B
regions on the basis of architecture. Semitendinosus - A
Based on all criteria for anatomical partitioning, the
Biceps femoris long head - A The hamstring
researchers found that the semitendinosus comprised two
regions also
distinct regions of muscle fascicles arranged in series. The Biceps femoris long head - B display inverse
researchers noted that the biceps femoris long head relationships
consisted of two regions but they noted inter-specimen Semi-membranosus - A
between NFL
variability in respect of innervation. and PCSA
Semi-membranosus - C
The researchers found that there were at least two
anatomical regions existing within the biceps femoris short Semi-membranosus - B
head, following the strict definition, although there was
0 5 10 15
inter-specimen variation in respect of innervation.
PCSA Fascicle length Length (cm) / area (cm sq)
What is the architecture of the different regions of the adductor magnus?

The adductor magnus also contains sub-sections. Some sub-sections are suited to large ranges-of-motion and
other sub-sections are suited to large degrees of force production.

Takizawa (2012) reported that although the adductor Muscle fiber length and physiological cross-sectional
magnus actually takes up 27% of thigh mass, its exact area of various sub-sections of the adductor magnus,
function has not been made clear. They performed an Takizawa, 2012

Muscle fiber length (cm) and cross-sectional area (cm sq)

investigation and clarified that this fan-shaped muscle is 18
narrow at its proximal origin and wide at its insertion. AM1 has a much lower
16 fiber length than the other
They also found that the proximal section of the adductor sections of the adductor
magnus (AM1) should be considered separately from the 14 magnus
other sections (AM2, AM3, and AM4), based on volume,
muscle length and muscle fiber length. 12

The researchers observed that since AM2, AM3, and AM4 10

have longer muscle fiber length than AM1, they appear to
8
be for moving the hip through a large ROM, while AM1 has
a shorter length but larger cross-sectional area and 6
therefore appears to be more suited for hip joint
stabilization. 4

This research moves away from the traditional model 2

dividing the adductor magnus into a “hamstrings” part and
an “adductor” part. In the traditional model, “hamstrings” 0
part would correspond to AM4 and the “adductor” part to AM1 AM2 AM3 AM4
AM1-3, which is not the natural division found in this study. Muscle fiber length PCSA
What is the architecture of the different regions of the gluteus maximus?

The gluteus maximus contains sub-sections that perform distinctly different functions, as can be shown by both
muscle architecture and EMG muscle activity.

McAndrew (2006) measured the mean contraction time Contraction time of the different subdivisions of
for six subdivisions of the gluteus maximus. They found the gluteus maximus, McAndrew, 2006
that the mean contraction time was significantly
different in all regions. 140.0

Contraction time (ms)

They reported that the superior region had the longest
120.0
contraction time followed by the middle region and
then the inferior region.
100.0
They propose that since contraction time is thought to
be correlated with fiber type, the superior region may 80.0
be comprised of more slow twitch fibers than those
inferior to it. This may suggest it is intended for more
60.0
postural functions, including the control of hip
adduction during gait. Since the upper fibers have a
40.0 The three different regions of the
greater abductor moment arm, this seems logical.
gluteus maximus may have
On the other hand, the researchers suggest that the 20.0 different fiber types
middle and inferior fibers may be comprised of more
fast twitch fibers. They therefore suggest that these 0.0
regions are more involved in powerful and rapid Superior Superior Middle Middle Inferior Inferior
extension and external rotation of the hip joint. lateral medial lateral medial lateral medial
Chapter summary
In this chapter, we covered the concepts of muscle architecture and investigated the muscle architecture of the hip
extensors. In the process, we answered the following questions:
Question
Which muscles are the hip extensors?
How do the hip extensors stack up against
other muscle groups of the hip joint?
What is the pennation angle of the hip
extensors?
What is the normalized fiber length (NFL) of
the hip extensors?
What is physiological cross-sectional area
(PCSA) of the hip extensors?
Why do the hamstrings have different PCSA
and NFL from one another?
Why are the sub-sections of hip extensors
different from one another?
Answer
Gluteus maximus, semitendinosus, semimembranosus, biceps femoris (long head) and
adductor magnus.
The hip extensors are some of the strongest and largest muscles in the hip (by
physiological cross-sectional area).
The pennation angles of the hip extensors vary widely between 11.6 degrees (biceps
femoris long head) and 21.9 degrees (gluteus maximus).
The normalized fiber lengths of the hip extensors vary widely between 6.9cm
(semimembranosus) and 19.3cm (semitendinosus).
The physiological cross-sectional area of the hip extensors varies widely between 4.8cm2
(semitendinosus) and 33.4cm2 (gluteus maximus).
In each of the medial and lateral hamstring groups, there is one muscle that has high NFL
and low PCSA (and is for quick contractions over long lengths) and another that has low
NFL and high PCSA and is for force production. Also, the differences in NFL between
individual hamstrings will mean that each of the hamstrings produces maximum force at
its optimal length at difference joint angles. This could lead to a smoother overall
production of force for the hamstrings group.
The different regions of the hip extensor muscles are suited for different purposes and
therefore have different NFL, PCSA and muscle fiber type.
Practical implications
In this chapter, we investigated the muscle architecture of the hip extensors and compared them to other hip
muscles. But what are the practical implications?

 The hip extensors are the strongest and largest muscles in the body and it’s likely not by accident. As we will see later in
the book, the hip extensors are key muscles in many if not most athletic activities. Making the hip extensors stronger and
more powerful should be a key priority for all athletes and trainers.

 The high physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA) and pennation angle of the gluteus maximus reveals its role as a joint
stabilizer. Strength coaches or physical therapists working with athletes to improve their hip joint stability may find
developing this muscle is therefore helpful.

 The gluteus maximus has unusual muscle architecture, in that it has both large PCSA and normalized fiber length (NFL). It
should therefore be trained both using high forces and at high speeds.

 The gluteus maximus has three functional regions: the superior, middle and inferior fibers. The superior fibers appear to
be more slow twitch and may be for postural support, while the middle and inferior fibers may be for powerful hip
extension movements. Exercises that target the upper glutes should therefore be performed for higher repetitions, while
exercises that target the middle and lower glutes should be performed for lower repetitions or at faster velocities.

 The hamstrings have divergent muscle architecture both between muscles and within each muscle. Each of the lateral and
medial hamstrings have one muscle that has a long NFL and a short PCSA and one muscle that has short NFL and a large
PCSA. Additionally, within each muscle, there are regions with higher NFL and lower PCSA and regions with lower NFL and
higher PCSA. Therefore, the hamstrings should be trained using both high forces and at high speeds.
What is the length-tension relationship?
What is the length-tension relationship?
What is the active length-tension relationship?
What is the passive length-tension relationship?
Why study the length-tension relationship?
 The length-tension relationship is the curve that describes how the strength of a muscle changes
depending on its length. Broadly, according to the length-tension relationship, muscles are strongest at
two points: the optimal length and at very long lengths (i.e. stretched lengths).

 The length-tension relationship is very important for understanding many aspects of exercise and
movement. However, it is rarely discussed or referred to in the fitness industry. Despite this, it is the
most important factor for determining how the length of a muscle affects the force that it can produce.

 It is important to note that the length-tension relationship refers to isometric contractions and
therefore doesn’t apply perfectly to dynamic contractions.

Let’s take a closer look at the length-tension relationship on the following pages…
How does the length of a muscle affect the force exerted?
Researchers have found that muscles display different levels of force depending on their starting length.
This is called the length-tension relationship. There are two aspects of length-tension relationship: active
and passive.

Active Passive
relationship relationship

The active length-tension
relationship occurs because
tension generation in skeletal
muscle is a direct function of
the degree of overlap between
actin and myosin filaments
within a sarcomere.
How muscle
length The passive length-tension
affects force relationship occurs because
of the elastic components of
the muscle fiber, including
titin and the connective
tissue.

See how these two relationships arise on the following pages…

 What is the active length-tension relationship?
The active length-tension relationship is the phenomenon whereby the starting length of a muscle alters
its ability to express force.

Between 1.3μm and 2.0μm the force expressed by the sarcomere

increases rapidly with increasing sarcomere length. In this Between 2.0μm and 2.2μm
section, the actin and myosin filaments are so overlapped that there is no change in force
they interfere with neighboring sarcomeres and reduce the with increasing length as no
potential for strength expression additional cross-bridges can be
formed

100% Between 2.2μm and 3.6μm

Percentage there is decreasing overlap
of maximum between actin and myosin
force (%) filaments and therefore the
force that the sarcomere is
capable of expressing
decreases with increasing
length.

Beyond a sarcomere length of

3.6μm there is no overlap
Length of sarcomere
between actin and myosin
filaments. Therefore, no
myosin cross-bridges are close
1.3μm 1.8μm 2.0μm 2.2μm 3.6μm enough to the actin active sites
in order to bind with them and
so no force generation can
Remember, this is just the active relationship. Turn the page to see occur.
the passive relationship…
 What is the passive length-tension relationship?
The passive length-tension relationship is the phenomenon whereby the starting length of a muscle alters
the degree to which the elastic elements within it are stretched by any resulting movement.

Until after 2.2μm, or well after After 2.2μm, the force exerted
the optimum length of the by the passive structures within
muscle is exceeded, the passive the sarcomere increases
tension exerted by a sarcomere is exponentially. Passive forces
practically zero. arise for various reasons,
including the role of titin within
100%
the sarcomere but also because
Percentage of other elastic structures, such
of maximum as connective tissue.
force (%)

Passive
force

Length of sarcomere

1.3μm 1.8μm 2.0μm 2.2μm 3.6μm

Remember, this is just the passive relationship. Turn the page to see how the two relationships add together…
 How do the passive and active length-tension relationships integrate?

The active and passive length-tension relationships add together and produce the following curve.

The resultant force line follows the

active force line until the passive force
ceases to be zero, at which point it
Resultant diverges (see the dotted line). So
Active force force
100% there are two lengths at which the
muscle force is very high. One is
Percentage where muscle length is optimal for the
of maximum active force only and the other is
force (%) where active and passive forces sum
to produce a high force together
(although passive force is the greater
contributor).
Passive
force

Length of sarcomere

1.3μm 1.8μm 2.0μm 2.2μm 3.6μm

For hip extension torque, therefore, we can say that muscle length profoundly affects the degree to which
muscle force is expressed. Very short muscle lengths produce small forces and both optimal and very long
lengths produce very large forces.
How does the length-tension relationship apply to a two-joint muscle?

In a two-joint muscle, the length-tension relationship is particularly important because two-joint muscles can easily become
either very long or very short. When a two-joint muscle is not able to shorten enough to cause a full range of movement in
all joints at the same time, it is said to display active insufficiency.

Schoenfeld and Contreras (2012) explain that single-joint
exercises can be employed to manipulate the concept of
active insufficiency where there is a two-joint muscle
crossing the same joint. When the attachments of a muscle
are close together, the muscle is slack and therefore at its
lowest point on the length-tension curve.
The hamstrings are two-joint muscles and therefore the
principle of active insufficiency applies to these muscles.
The glute bridge movement can be used to take advantage of
the active insufficiency of the hamstrings.
The hamstrings act to produce hip extension and knee
flexion. Therefore, when the hip is fully flexed and the knee
is fully extended, the length of the hamstrings will be
greatest. Similarly, the length of the hamstrings will be
shortest when the hip is fully extended and the knee is fully
flexed. At the top of the movement during hip thrust
exercise variants, the hip joint is in hyperextension at the
same time as the knee undergoes flexion. This means that
the hamstrings are weakest at this point as they are slack.
Consequently, hip thrust exercise variants are especially
effective at recruiting the gluteal muscles at this point in the
movement.

At the bottom of a glute bridge, the hip is flexed and At the top of a glute bridge, the hip is extended and
the knee is also flexed. At this point, the hamstring is the knee is still flexed. At this point, therefore, the
partially shortened and can contribute somewhat to hamstring is very short indeed and can contribute
the movement. little to the movement.
Chapter summary
In this chapter, we covered the concepts of the length-tension relationship. In the process, we answered the
following questions:

Question Answer

What is the length-tension

It is the curve that describes how the strength of a muscle changes depending on its length.
relationship?

Very short muscle lengths produce small forces while both optimal and very long lengths
What is the implication?
produce very large forces.

What curves make up the

The active and passive length-tension curves.
length-tension relationship?

What mechanism underpins the The active length-tension relationship occurs because tension generation in skeletal muscle
active length-tension is a direct function of the degree of overlap between actin and myosin filaments within a
relationship? sarcomere.

What mechanism underpins the

The passive length-tension relationship occurs because of the elastic components of the
passive length-tension
muscle fiber, including titin and the connective tissue.
relationship?

Why is the length-tension A two-joint muscle can easily become either very long or very short. When a two-joint
relationship special in a two- muscle is not able to shorten enough to cause a full range of movement in all joints at the
joint muscle? same time, it is said to display active insufficiency.
Practical implications
In this chapter, we investigated the length-tension relationship. But what are the practical implications?

 The length-tension relationship in single-joint muscles is very simply understood. Very short muscle lengths do
not allow for very strong contractions. Optimal muscle lengths and very long (i.e. stretched) muscle lengths
produce the most force through different proportions of active and passive tension. Therefore, strength
coaches should consider where the peak torque and peak muscle tension positions during an exercise occurs.

 The length-tension relationship in two-joint muscles is more complex. Where both joints lead to shortening of
the muscle, it can shorten so much that it becomes incapable of producing force. At this point, its synergists
must take over the work of moving the joints further. An example of where strength coaches can use this
principle is the hip thrust. In hip extension and knee flexion, the hamstrings are contracted to very short lengths
and therefore the gluteals must perform the bulk of the hip extension movement.
What is the force-velocity relationship?

How does the force exerted by a muscle change with contraction velocity?
Why study the force-velocity relationship?
 The force-velocity relationship is much simpler than the length-tension relationship. It is simply the
phenomenon that as the velocity of a contraction increases, the force decreases.

Let’s take a closer look at the force-velocity relationship on the following pages…
How does the force exerted by a muscle change with contraction velocity?

The force exerted by a muscle decreases with the velocity of the concentric contraction and increases with
the velocity of eccentric contraction.

The chart shows that as force increases,

velocity decreases. As the line hits the
100% horizontal axis, maximum force is reached
and velocity slows to zero. Above the level of
Percentage maximum force, velocity is negative and
of maximum contractions are eccentric.
velocity (%)

Percentage
of maximum
30% force (%)

Concentric contractions Eccentric contractions

Force -velocity
relationship

Studies have found that the crossbridge connections between actin and myosin are only able to attach and detach
at a certain rate. Moreover, at any given point the force generated by a muscle depends on the total number of
attached crossbridges. Consequently, since this is a mechanism by which muscular force is related to filament
velocity , this may help explain how force can change with contraction velocity.
Chapter summary
In this chapter, we covered the concepts of the force-velocity relationship. In the process, we answered the
following questions:

Question Answer

What is the force velocity It is simply the phenomenon that as the velocity of a contraction increases, the
relationship? force decreases.

As force increases, velocity decreases. As maximum force is reached, velocity

What does the force-velocity slows to zero. Above the level of maximum force, velocity is negative and
curve imply? contractions are eccentric. Eccentric contractions are opposite of concentric in
that they produce greater force at faster velocities.
Practical implications
In this chapter, we investigated the force-velocity relationship. But what are the practical implications?

 The force-velocity relationship is well-known to strength coaches, who note its existence every time they specify
lower loads for dynamic squats than for heavy conventional squats. Higher forces require slower velocities and
higher velocities require lower forces. This means that when strength coaches want athletes to move at sports-
specific velocities, they often have to decrease loading, which can also reduce the training effect.

 Various techniques are available to strength coaches for increasing the training effect while maintaining sports-
specific speeds, including the use of ballistic training and accommodating resistance. For optimal power
potential of a muscle, it is ideal to train at a variety of forces and speeds both concentrically and eccentrically.
What is hip extension torque?
What is torque?
What is hip extension torque?
What factors influence hip extension torque?
Why study hip extension torque?
 Hip extension torque is what produces the key sporting action of powerful hip extension (or decelerates hip
flexion). It allows us to sprint, land, jump, deadlift, squat, cut and throw. Torque is the product of muscle force
and the moment arm.

 Examining external factors allows us to discover the joint angles that require the greatest amount of hip
extension torque during resistance exercises.

 By studying how hip extension torque is affected by factors that cause the force and the moment arms to
change, we can understand better which joint angles and therefore which exercises produce the best effects on
the various hip extensor muscles.

 Examining internal factors allows us to discover the muscles that have the greatest potential to produce torque
through their leverages and muscle forces at a given joint angle.

Let’s take a closer look at hip extension torque on the following pages…
What is torque?
Torque (T) is simply the turning force about a pivot.
It is also called a moment. Torque is calculated by Point at which
force is connected Length of
multiplying together two factors: moment
to moment arm
arm (L)
• L = the distance of the force from the pivot, Non- Pivot
called the length of the moment arm; and perpendicular
force (f) θ
• F = the force exerted at right-angles to the
moment arm, the Perpendicular Force. Direction of Perpendicular
pull of actual Force (F)
We can write this formula as T = FL. force on the
femur
The moment arm is easy to calculate, as it is simply
the distance from where the force is attached to the
moment arm to the pivot. However, the force is not To calculate the component of the non-
so straightforward to calculate because it is often perpendicular force that is perpendicular to the
not perpendicular to the moment arm. moment arm, we need Pythagoras’s Theorem. In
this instance, F = fsinθ, where θ is the angle
Where the force is not perpendicular to the moment between the line of force and the length of the
arm, the component of the non-perpendicular force moment arm L.
that is perpendicular can be taken as the
Perpendicular Force in the Torque equation. So, we can write this formula as T = fsinθL.
Why talk about torque and not just force?
Increasing the moment arm or the applied force can both increase the torque. Increased forces coupled
with increased moment arms lead to the greatest torques. Here are some worked examples:

Small torque with Medium torque with

small force and small force and large
small moment arm moment arm
L = 0.1m L = 0.2m
Torque Torque
= =
10Nm 20Nm

Force = 100N Force = 100N

Medium torque with Large torque with

large force and small large force and
moment arm large moment arm
L = 0.1m L = 0.2m
Torque Torque
= =
20Nm 40Nm

Force = 200N Force = 200N

How can we visualize torque?
We can visualize torque by imagining using a wrench. There are two ways to increase the torque. We can
either increase the force or increase the leverage.

Example 1 Example 2
In the two adjacent pictures, we can
imagine that Bret is using a wrench for
some DIY in his new condo.

In Example 1, he shows that if he wants to

increase the torque of the wrench he can
leave his hand halfway up the handle of
the wrench but increase the force.

In Example 2, he shows that instead of

increasing the force, he can increase the
leverage instead and apply less force but
still achieve the same level of torque.
Large force, small moment Small force, large moment
arm arm
What kinds of torque are there?
There are two basic kinds of torque that are referred to in biomechanics:

External Internal

Torque

Over the next few pages, we will look at both external and internal torque.
What is external torque?
External torque is the moment that exists externally to the human body and is created by the human body
acting on an object, such as in a deadlift.

External torque is the moment that exists externally to the human

body and is created by gravity acting upon the body as well as
external sources of resistance, such as barbells or elastic bands.
External torque is calculated in the same way as internal torque.
However, the force is generated by two factors. Firstly, there is
the external weight or loading. This moment arm is calculated as
the horizontal distance between the external load (usually a
barbell) and the pivot (usually the hip joint).
Secondly, there is the body weight, which is the load created by
the weight of the various segments applicable – in this case the
torso (since it is superior to the hip joint and therefore producing
an external hip flexion moment which needs to be overcome by
the hip extensors). Together, the external load and body weight
comprise the system load.
The diagram shows a deadlift. The resistance moment arm L for
Length of the external load is calculated as the distance between the hip
Perpendicular force (F)
moment joint (the pivot) and the barbell in the horizontal plane.
arm (L) Therefore, the further back the lifter is able to push their hips, the
greater the moment arm at the point of lift-off and the greater
the hip extension torque. Obviously, the moment arm for
external load torque is constantly changing. This is why it is
calculated at various different points during a lift.
What terminology is used for external torque?
The studies discussing external torque often use a bewildering array of different terms. Here is a quick guide to
the most commonly used descriptions.

External
Resistance
resistance
moment
torque

Resistance Moment of
torque load

Moment of
External External the
moment resistance
torque arm

External torque is the moment that exists externally to the human body and is created by the human body
acting on an object, such as in a deadlift.
What is internal torque?
Internal torque is the moment that exists internally to the human body and is created by the muscle or
elastic force exerted by the stretched elastic structures acting upon the joint to which it is connected.
Point where
moment Internal torque is just torque in the context of
arm meets the human body. The force involved is the
muscle contractile force exerted by the muscle.

Non- The length of the moment arm is the distance

Joint
perpendicular between the effective center of the joint and
force (f)
θ the perpendicular distance from the line of pull
of the muscle.
Direction of Force (F)
pull of actual
muscle force How internal torque works is most easily seen
on the femur by looking at examples of different muscles. On
the next page, we will look at the internal
torque in the case of the hip extensors and later
in this chapter we will also see an example
This is the moment arm. It is the perpendicular using the biceps brachii in various different
distance from the line of pull of the muscle to the
ranges-of-motion.
center of movement of the hip joint.
What is hip extension torque?
Hip extension torque is the internal torque that is created by the hip extensor muscles acting upon the hip
joint.

Length of The diagram shows a hip joint on the pelvis,

Hip axis with the femur coming vertically downwards
moment
arm (L) out of it.

The non-perpendicular force (f) is created by

the hamstrings pulling between their origin on
Pelvis the pelvis and their insertion on the tibia. The
Muscle
origin hamstrings contract and pull the tibia
backwards, clockwise towards the pelvis.
Hip joint
The muscle moment arm L is the perpendicular
distance between the center of the hip joint
Femur
Non- and the line of pull of the hamstrings.
perpendicular θ
force (f) The angle θ is the angle of pull of the
hamstrings from the pelvis and helps us
Muscle insertion point calculate the component of the non-
Perpendicular force (F) perpendicular force that is perpendicular and
therefore equal to F, the Perpendicular Force.
Tibia

Hip flexion
What terminology is used for internal torque?
The studies discussing internal torque often use a bewildering array of different terms. Here is a quick guide to the
most commonly used descriptions.

Internal
Effort
muscle
moment
torque

Effort Moment
torque of effort

Internal Moment
Internal
of the
moment torque effort arm

Internal torque is the moment that exists internally to the human body and is created by the muscle or
elastic force exerted by the stretched elastic structures acting upon the joint to which it is connected.
What are muscle moment arms?
Muscle moment arms are one of the two factors that dictate internal torque. The muscle moment arm is
the perpendicular distance from the muscle's line of action to the joint's center of rotation. The following
sequence of diagrams shows the moment arm changing during a biceps curl.

Shoulder Shoulder Shoulder Shoulder

Hand

Hand
Elbow Elbow
Elbow c. 4.7cm Elbow

Hand

Hand

The diagrams show that the moment arm changes throughout the movement although the distance
between the elbow and the insertion remains the same (c. 4.7cm). The moment arm (shown in red) is
greatest when the elbow is at 90 degrees. You can see a video of the changing moment arm here.
What are muscle moment arms?
Muscle moment arms are one of the two factors that dictate muscle torque. The muscle moment arm is
the perpendicular distance from the muscle's line of action to the joint's center of rotation.
Muscle moment arms are determined by the
distance between the joint center and the line of
action of the muscle.
Though the origin and insertion of a muscle are
static and don’t change during movement, the line
of action does change and therefore the
perpendicular distance between the joint and
muscle can increase or decrease throughout the
joint range of motion. We saw this on the
preceding page with the diagrams of the biceps
curl shown at various stages in the range-of-
motion.
A larger moment arm is ideal for strength, but a
smaller moment arm is better for velocity. This
holds true because at equal muscle shortening, a
muscle with a smaller moment arm will create a
greater change in joint ROM.
Men and women have slightly different moment
arms for the same muscles, due to differences in
anatomy.
Also, bigger muscles mean that moment arms are
larger. For example, Sugisaki (2010) found that the
maximum anatomical cross-sectional area of the
triceps brachii was significantly correlated with the
moment arm length at all joint angles tested.
Consequently, it seems that hypertrophy increases
muscle moment arm length as well as the ability of a
muscle to exert force.
Finally, and purely hypothetically, if one were to
surgically remove an attachment point and reattach
it further from the joint, the muscle moment arm
would increase, as would the maximum force
generation.
What factors influence moment arm length?
The length of the muscle moment arm is the distance between the joint center and the line of action of
the muscle. Here are some factors that influence moment arm lengths.

Degree of hip
Gender
flexion

Moment arm
length in
Hypertrophy
anatomical Length of
position
moment
arm

See how moment arms change with various factors on the following pages…
 What are the moment arm lengths in the anatomical position?
The distance from the muscle's line of action to the joint's center of rotation is the muscle moment arm.

Moment arms in the sagittal plane in the anatomical position, Dostal (1986) took a number of
Dostal, 1986 measurements from cadavers in order
Adductor magnus (post.) to establish the basic moment arm
Semitendinosus lengths in the anatomical position.
Biceps femoris
They found that the hip extensors with
Gluteus maximus
the greatest moment arms in the
Semimembranosus
anatomical position are the posterior
Gluteus medius (post.)
Adductor magnus (ant.)
fibers of the adductor magnus, the
Gluteus medius (middle)
hamstrings and the gluteus maximus.
Gluteus medius (ant.) The adductor magnus, hamstrings and Since the muscle torque is equal to the
Gemellus inferior gluteus maximus all have very long moment arm (L) x the perpendicular
Gemellus superior moment arms in the anatomical position,
force (F), this means that having a
Gluteus minimus (post.) which makes them very effective at
generating high levels of torque larger moment arm means that these
Obturator internus
muscles are more readily able to
Quadratus femoris
produce large forces on the hip joint.
Piriformis
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Length of moment arm (cm)

Blemker (2005) produced a 3D model of the hip for the gluteus maximus and gluteus medius fibers and found that the
moment arm length of the gluteus maximus ranged between 1.5 – 6.5cm, with a median value of c. 4cm, which agrees
with the data from Dostal. The median moment arm for the gluteus medius was found to be c. 1cm, which is also
closely in agreement.
 How do moment arms change with hip extension range of motion?
The moment arm length as measured in the anatomical position is not the same in all degrees of hip flexion. As
hip flexion increases, the moment arms of some muscles improves and the moment arms of other muscles gets
smaller.
Length of moment arms (men), Nemeth, 1984 Nemeth (1984) found that the three
main hip extensors have very
90
different moment arms depending
80 on the degree of hip flexion. Where
70 the hip is in 0 degrees of flexion (i.e.
standing straight up), the gluteus
Length of moment arm (mm)

60 maximus has the greatest moment

50 arm. However, when the hip is at 90
40
degrees of flexion and the person is
squatting down, the adductor
30 The moment arms of the gluteus magnus has the greatest moment
maximus, hamstrings and adductor arm length.
20
magnus change with changing degrees
10 of hip flexion The data in the anatomical position
0 are slightly different from Dostal
-10 10 30 50 70 90 (1986) and Blemker (2005) on the
Degrees of hip flexion previous page and possibly slightly
overstate the change in moment arm
Gluteus maximus Hamstrings Adductor magnus
that occurs with hip flexion.

The chart shows that as hip flexion increases, the adductor magnus moment increases hugely from c. 10mm up to c.
60mm and in the process becomes the hip extensor with the greatest leverage. However, the moment arm of the
gluteus maximus is greatest in the anatomical position but decreases to be the least effective at 90 degrees of hip
flexion. The hamstrings are the most constant throughout the ROM.
 What is the difference in moment arms between men and women?
Men and women have different moment arm lengths, which also change depending on the degree of hip flexion.

Length of moment arms of the adductor magnus, from Nemeth, 1984 Nemeth (1984) found that men
and women have very different
70
moment arms of the adductor
magnus in the anatomical position
Length of moment arm (mm)

60
(at 0 degrees of hip flexion). At
50 this point, women have a moment
arm of c. 20mm and men have a
40 moment arm of just 10mm.
30
Women have a greater moment Additionally, Nemeth found that
arms of the adductor magnus in the moment arm changes
20
the anatomical position but not differently with increasing hip
at 90 degrees of hip flexion flexion. While the moment arm
10 increases significantly with
increasing hip flexion for both
0
sexes, men have a greater moment
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
arm at 90 degrees of hip flexion
Men Women Degrees of hip flexion than women, despite having a
much lower moment arm length in
the anatomical position.

Nemeth (1985) found sex differences in the anatomy of the adductor magnus. He noted that approximately one
third of the origin of the adductor magnus was found to be anterior to the center of the hip joint in male subjects,
when the hip was in the anatomical position. He noted that, in this position, this portion of the adductor magnus
does not contribute to hip extension. However, the whole of the muscle was found to be posterior to the center of
the hip joint in women. Therefore, it is likely that females are able to recruit more of the adductor magnus to help
increase strength at lockout during a hip thrust or deadlift.
How can hypertrophy affect the length of the moment arm?
The degree of hypertrophy affects the length of the moment arm, most likely at all joint angles tested, because a
bigger muscle belly changes the muscle’s line of action and pushes it further away from the joint center. The
following diagrams show the effect of hypertrophied gluteal muscles on the moment arms.

Normal Hypertrophied
Hypertrophy leads to greater
active force production
Pelvis Pelvis because of more contractile
units. It also leads to greater
passive force production
because of more elastic
units. Additionally, the
Upper gluteus greater moment arms
Upper gluteus created by the larger muscle
maximus fibers maximus fibers allow for increased torque
production, as Sugisaki
Lower gluteus Lower gluteus (2010) has shown. Finally,
maximus fibers maximus fibers the greater size of the muscle
Femur Femur causes a greater insertion
angle of the fibers on the
femur.

The diagrams show that the moment arm of the muscles increases in size when the muscle size is larger.
Remember, torque has a force component and a leverage component. For maximum torque, the muscle
needs to have a large PCSA to generate force as well as a large moment arm for leverage.
Section summary
In this section, we investigated the factors that affect muscle moment arm lengths, as follows:

Factor Why does this factor influence hip extension torque?

Distance to origin
The length of the muscle moment arm is the distance between the joint center and the line of
in anatomical
action of the muscle.
position

The degree of hip flexion changes the length of the moment arm. The degree of
Degree of hip
external/internal rotation and abduction/adduction likely does too, but we currently don’t
flexion
have data on this.

Men and women have slightly different moment arm lengths in the anatomical position and
Gender
also with changing degrees of hip flexion.

The degree of hypertrophy affects the length of the moment arm, most likely at all joint
Hypertrophy angles tested, because a bigger muscle belly changes the muscle’s line of action and pushes it
further away from the joint center.
Practical implications
In this section, we investigated how muscle moment arm lengths affect torque production. But what are
the practical implications?

 Internal moment arms lengths change depending on the joint angle. Knowing how internal moment arm
lengths change allows coaches and trainers to understand which muscles are likely to be most involved in a
movement at different points.

 In the anatomical position, the long head of the adductor magnus, hamstrings and gluteus maximus all have
long moment arms, which make them very effective at generating high levels of torque at 0 degrees of hip
flexion. Based on all of the data available, the gluteus maximus appears to be the most effective hip extensor at
locking out a deadlift or hip thrust.

 At higher degrees of hip flexion, the gluteus maximus has a much less effective moment arm, while the
adductors have an even more effective moment arm at this joint angle. The adductors are therefore important
muscles for getting out the hole during a squat. Since force production consists of an active and passive
component, the gluteus maximus may provide impressive levels of force at the bottom of a squat on account of
passive force contribution since it’s stretched, which might make up for its lousy leverage in this position.

 Women have smaller adductor moment arms in higher degrees of hip flexion and longer moment arms in the
anatomical position, making the adductors slightly less important for women when getting out of the hole in a
squat, but more helpful at the top of a hip extension exercise like a hip thrust or deadlift.

 Increasing the size of a muscle, for example the gluteus maximus, will positively impact torque production in
several ways. First, by increasing its leverage (the distance of the muscle’s line of action from the hip joint).
Second, by increasing its force production via increased physiological cross-sectional area(which will increase
active and passive force potential). And third, by slightly affecting the angle of pull on the femur since the outer
fibers will act on the joint in a more perpendicular fashion.
What factors influence the size of the perpendicular force?
The following factors influence the size of the perpendicular muscular force:

Length of muscle
EMG activity at
at different
different degrees
degrees of hip
of hip flexion
flexion

Velocity of
Muscle
muscular
architecture
contraction

Perpendicular
Muscle fiber
Line of action muscular distribution
force

Muscle architecture has a surprisingly important role in governing the muscular force under any
circumstances but there are many other factors that can change the force that a muscle is capable of
producing under various conditions.
 Which hip extensors have the most effective line of action?
The hip extensor muscles typically insert on the femur, or in the case of the bi-articular hamstrings, on the tibia (or
in the case of the gluteus maximus – many insert into the iliotibial tract). While the moment arm describes the
horizontal distance from the joint to the line of force and the pennation angle describes the angle of the muscle
with respect to the line of force, the line of force is the angle at which the muscle inserts on the long bone.

Direction of line of force in the sagittal plane, in Neumann, Neumann (2010) used data from
2010, data from Dostal, 1986 Dostal (1986) to show that the various
hip extensors attach to the leg bones
in the sagittal plane at different angles.
Semimembranosus In this chart, an angle of 90 degrees
The hamstrings have the
would represent a perpendicular force,
Semitendinosus most advantageous line of
action in the anatomical which would be optimal.
position
Biceps femoris Therefore, muscles with angles closer
to 90 degrees have increased ability to
Adductor magnus produce force in the anatomical
Gluteus medius (posterior
position.
fibers)
The chart shows that the hamstrings
Gluteus maximus have the most advantageous line of
action, while the gluteus maximus has
0 20 40 60 80 100 the least advantageous line of action,
Degrees in the anatomical position.

It is likely, however, that such lines of force change with changing joint angle and therefore conclusions about the
muscles’ ability to generate force as a result of their line of force in hyperextension or in hip flexion are not easy to
make.
 How does muscle architecture affect muscular force?
The torque a muscle can produce is determined by where the muscle originates in relation to the center of
the joint in addition to the amount of force it can generate. Muscle architecture is the key feature in
determining the force a muscle can generate, particularly physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA).

Physiological cross-sectional area of the hip Ward (2009) measured the PCSA of of the hip
extensors, from Ward, 2009 extensors. As we noted previously, there is
typically a trade-off between PCSA and normalized
Semitendinosus PCSA is generally bigger in fiber length (NFL). Where PCSA is large, NFL is
muscles that need greater typically small and vice versa.
force generating ability
Biceps femoris long head The gluteal muscles have significantly greater PCSA
than the adductor magnus and the hamstrings.
Semimembranosus The gluteus medius, a hip joint stabilizer with a
very short NFL, has the greatest PCSA. On the
Adductor magnus other hand, the biceps femoris, which is a hip
extension prime mover, has a very low PCSA.
Gluteus maximus
Muscle architecture can change with changing size
0 10 20 30 40
and joint angle. Kawakami (1993) reported that
pennation angles were greater in hypertrophied
Area (cm sq) muscles. And Narici (1996) found that joint angle
also leads to changes in the pennation angle.

The muscle that has the greatest potential for creating high levels of hip extension torque is therefore the
gluteus maximus. The next two muscles in line are the adductor magnus and semimembranosus. But of course,
it all depends on the hip joint angle and other previously-mentioned factors.
 Which muscles are activated best throughout hip extension ROM?

The EMG activity of a muscle changes depending on the degree of hip flexion. Some muscles have higher degrees
of activity in the anatomical position and others have higher degrees of activity in higher degrees of hip flexion.

Worrell (2001) found that while hip extension torque increases
significantly from 0 degrees of hip flexion through to 90 degrees of
hip flexion, EMG activity of the gluteus maximus decreases
significantly. However, the mean EMG of the hamstrings group
remains steady with increasing hip flexion. In other words, the hips
are much stronger in a deep squat or lunge position compared to a
deadlift or hip thrust lockout. Why muscles aren’t fully activated
throughout all ranges of hip extension is unclear. Perhaps the brain
knows which muscles possess the best leverage at various ranges of
motion and activates muscles accordingly.
This phenomenon has been shown to exist with upper body
muscles acting on the shoulder joint by Brown (2007) who referred
to the phenomenon as “functional differentiation.” Also, when a
muscle is not active at a particular range-of-motion, it will not
contribute maximally to a sporting movement in that degree of hip
flexion unless it is stretched to its limit (recall the length-tension
curve). For example, the gluteus maximus has lower EMG activity
at greater degrees of hip flexion and is therefore less effective in a
low squat position, but it is possible that it produces considerable
elastic force at this range of motion.

Mean EMG activity of the hip extensors and mean hip EMG of the gluteus maximus and hamstrings during
extension torque, Worrell, 2001 isometric contractions at four different joint angles,

Percentage of maximum EMG

120 Worrell, 2001
EMG activity % of MVIC

Muscle activity changes 100%

100 with hip flexion
90%
80%
80
70%
60% Muscle activity changes
60
with hip flexion
50%
40 40%
30%
20
20%
0 10%
0 degrees 30 degrees 60 degrees 90 degrees 0%
0° 30° 60° 90°
Hip extension torque Gluteus maximus EMG
Hamstrings EMG Gluteus Maximus EMG Hamstring EMG
How does the strength of the hip extensors change with muscle length?

Remember the length-tension relationship? Well, muscle length is conventionally discussed in terms of
joint angle. However, not all of the hip extensors are affected by only one joint.

Single
Two-joint
joint
muscles
muscles
The adductor magnus is very
clearly a single-joint hip extensor Hip The hamstrings group
(semimembranosus, biceps
that connects the pelvis with the
femur. extensors femoris (long head) and
semitendinosus) are all two-
joint muscles, running from the
pelvis to the tibia.

The gluteus maximus connects to the pelvis, sacrum, coccyx and fascia of the lumbar spine. It inserts on the femur but
also on the iliotibial (IT) band of the fascia latae, which runs from the pelvis to the lateral condyle of the tibia. While its
actions as a hip extensor largely involve a single joint action between the pelvis and the femur, as a stabilizer it interacts
with both the lumbar spine and the knee. Exactly how the gluteus maximus behaves with changing joint angles is
therefore unclear.
 How does hip extension torque change with hip flexion?
Hip extension torque decreases with decreasing hip flexion in both men and women, as a result of both the
changing moment arm length and the changing EMG activity of the muscles.

Nemeth (1984) looked at how hip torque decreases with
decreasing hip flexion in both men and women. Nemeth et al.
concluded that the greatest hip extension moments are
achieved at 90 degrees of hip flexion. They also noted that hip
extension strength decreases significantly with reducing hip
flexion to 56% of maximum at 0 degrees of hip flexion.
Bret’s own experiments on a Humac Norm (Isokinetic
Dynamometer) also show that hip extension torque increases
with increasing hip flexion angle. Therefore, maximum hip
extension torque occurs at 90-degrees of hip flexion.
Additionally, Bret found that he only had c. 33% of maximum
hip extension torque in the anatomical position (compared to
that at 90 degrees of hip flexion).

Hip extension torque at degrees of hip flexion, Isometric hip extension torque at four different
Nemeth, 1984 joint angles, Bret Contreras

Percentage of maximum hip torque (Nm)

350 120%
Hip torque (Nm)

Hip extension torque increases Hip extension torque

300 with increasing hip flexion angle increases with increasing
100%
hip flexion angle
250
80%
200

150 60%

100 40%

50
20%
0
90 60 30 0 0%
Degrees of hip flexion 0° 30° 60° 90°

Men Women Degrees of hip flexion

How does the torque of the hamstrings change with muscle length?

Knee flexion torque increases with increasing hip flexion, as this action lengthens the hamstrings.

Lunnen (1981) tested the isometric knee flexion
torque of the hamstrings group during four positions
of hip flexion (0 – 135 degrees). Throughout the
experiment, the knee angle was maintained at 60
degrees of knee flexion. They found that increasing
the hip flexion angle (i.e. lengthening the hip
extensors) caused an increase in knee flexion torque
production.
Guex (2012) carried out isometric and isokinetic knee
flexion contractions at four hip flexion angles (0 – 90
degrees). The isometric contractions were performed at
45 degrees of knee flexion. They confirmed that
increasing the hip flexion angle (i.e. lengthening the hip
extensors) caused an increase in knee flexion torque
production, both isometrically and isokinetically.

Joint torque of the hamstrings in isometric Hamstrings torque during isometric and
contractions at various degrees of hip flexion isokinetic maximal contractions at various hip
during maximal effort, Lunnen, 1981 flexion angles, Guex, 2012

Joint moments (Nm)

140
Knee flexion torque (Nm)

70
120
60
100
50
80
40
Joint torque 60 Joint torque
30 increases with increases with
increasing hip 40 increasing hip
20 flexion angle flexion angle
20
10
0
0 0 30 60 90
0 degrees 45 degrees 90 degrees 135 degrees
Isometric Isokinetic - 60 degrees/s Eccentric - 60 degrees/s
 How does the torque of the hamstrings change with muscle length?

Knee flexion torque increases with decreasing knee flexion, as this action lengthens the hamstrings.

Higashihara (2010) tested the knee flexion torque of the
hamstrings in 15-degree intervals during isokinetic
contractions, while hip flexion angle was maintained at 0
degrees. They found that decreasing the knee flexion
angle (i.e. lengthening the knee flexors) caused an increase
in knee flexion torque production. Similarly, Onishi (2002)
reported that torque at 60 degrees was 121% of the value
at 90 degrees.
Mohammed (2002) presented a combined hip angle and knee
angle study of isometric knee flexion torque. They found that
the position of 0 degrees hip flexion and 90 degrees knee
flexion did indeed produce the lowest torque, which they
ascribed to active insufficiency. It was only 36% of the
maximum torque displayed in the other angles.

Eccentric knee flexion torque with decreasing knee Combined effect of different hip flexion and knee
flexion angle, Higashihara, 2010 flexion joint angle positions on the torque of the
hamstrings, Mohammed, 2002
180
Eccentric knee flexion torque (Nm)

800

Torque (Kgcm)
160
700
140
600
120
500
100
400
80 Joint torque In 0 degrees hip flexion
300
60 increases with and 90 degrees knee
decreasing 200 flexion, knee flexion
40 knee flexion torque is minimal
angle 100
20
0
0 Hip flexion - 0 degrees Hip flexion - SLR Hip flexion - 90 degrees
90-75 75-60 60-45 45-30 30-15 15-0
degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees Knee flexion - 0 degrees Knee flexion - 45 degrees Knee flexion - 90 degrees
 How does hip extension torque change with contraction velocity?

Hip extension torque changes depending on the speed of the movement, because of the force-velocity
relationship. However, specialized athletes generally possess different force-velocity curves.

Cahalan (1989) found that hip extension torque
decreases with decreasing speed of movement. In
their study, they used a large pool of of 72 subjects
aged 20-81 years (37 women and 35 men). This
makes their data very useful as a baseline.
Blazevich (1998) found that sprinters had a shallower
force-velocity curve than weight-trained controls, in that
their strength decreased less with speed, suggesting
either a sprint-training-specific effect or genetic
predisposition to faster movements.

Hip extension torque at changing speed of Comparison of peak hip extension torque between
movement, Cahalan, 1989 weight-trained sprinters and weight-trained non-
sprinters, Blazevich, 1998
200
Torque (Nm)

400

Torque (Nm)
180
380 Sprinters have greater
160 strength at faster speeds
360
140 340
120 320

100 300
280
80
260
60 Hip extension torque 240
40 decreases with increasing 220
speed of movement 200
20
Peak hip ext. Peak hip ext. Peak hip ext.
0 torque - 60 torque - 270 torque - 480
30 90 150 210 degrees/s degrees/s degrees/s
Degrees per second of movement (rad/s) Sprinters Non-sprinters
 How does hip extension torque change with contraction velocity?

The ratio of hip extension to hip flexion torque changes depending on the contraction velocity, making injury more
likely at higher speeds and also at end ranges of motion.

Pontaga (2003) found that higher-speed movements
considerably increase the ratio of hip flexion to
extension torques in positions of hip flexion (50°- 60°).
They noted that the ratio at 200 degrees/s was
approximately two times the size as the ratio at 100
degrees/s, as can be seen in the chart below.
Pontaga concluded that the ratio of hip extensor to hip
flexor strength is much lower at end ranges of motion
and at high speeds. They also concluded that this
reduced ratio is caused by the weakness of the hip
extensors (isokinetically) at these points, as can be seen
in the chart below.

Ratio of hip flexor to hip extensor torque at 100 and Hip flexor and extensor torque at 200 degrees/s,
200 degree/s at different joint ranges of motion, Pontaga, 2003
Pontaga, 2003
Ratio between hip flexor and extensor (%)

120
100.0
90.0 110

80.0 100

70.0 90
60.0 80
50.0
70
40.0
Hip extension to hip 60
30.0 Hip extension
flexion torque ratio 50 torque is weak
20.0
changes with speed at end ranges
10.0 40

0.0 0 50 100 150 200 250

50 60 70 80 90 100
Torque (Nm)
200 degrees/s 100 degrees/s Extensor Flexor
How does muscle fiber distribution affect muscular strength?
Muscular strength increases where fiber distribution is more heavily weighted towards fast twitch fibers.

Inbar (1981) investigated the impact of muscle Gollnick (1972) measured the slow twitch proportion of
fiber type distribution on aerobic and anaerobic various populations and found that the endurance
performance capacities. They measured the athletes had much greater slow twitch fiber proportions.
muscle fiber type composition of the vastus
lateralis in 29 healthy males sedentary subjects,
physical education students and short- and long-
distance runners. Slow twitch fiber distribution of the lower leg
muscles of various populations, Gollnick, 1972
Inbar et al. correlated their results with the results
80
of various physical tests, including a 40m sprint, a

Percentage slow twitch

75 Endurance athletes have more
300m run, and a 2000m run. They found that the slow twitch fibers than normal
average speed during the 40m sprint was 70
populations or weightlifters
positively correlated with the percentage of fast- 65
twitch fibers in the trained subjects. 60
55
On the other hand, they found that the average 50
speed during the 2000m run was negatively 45
correlated with the percentage of fast twitch
40
fibers.
35
Fast twitch fibers are therefore important for high 30

Swimmers
Untrained age 24-30

Untrained age 31-52

Cyclists

Runners
Olympic weightlifters

Canoeists
Trained age 17-32

Orienteers
force production and short-distance sporting
activities, while slow twitch fibers are important
for long-distance endurance events.
 How does muscle fiber distribution affect muscular strength?
Fiber distribution does not affect muscular strength at all speeds to the same degree but rather has a greater
impact on force production at faster velocities.

Coyle (1979) investigated the correlation between vastus
lateralis muscle fiber composition and isokinetic peak
torque production through a range of leg extension
velocities in 21 males. They suggested that muscle fiber
composition is increasingly more related to power
performance as movement velocity increases.
Fitts (1996) explains that all muscular force
generation involves cross-bridge interactions and
transitions from a weakly bound, low-force state to a
strongly bound, high-force state. They explain that
this transition is thought to be the rate limiting step
in terms of rate of force development.

Percentage by which the performance of fast-twitch Additionally, the researchers explain that fast and
dominant subjects exceeded that of slow-twitch slow skeletal muscles generate approximately the
dominant subjects, Coyle, 1979 same amount of peak force (c. 200 – 250 kN/m2 of
Percentage improvement

50 muscle tissue). However, the rate of transition from

45 the low- to high-force state is 7 times faster in fast-
40 Muscle fiber composition is twitch fibers compared to in slow-twitch fibers.
increasingly important for
35
power production at higher Consequently, the researchers explain that
30 speeds
25
individuals who have a higher percentage of fast-
20
twitch fibers generate a greater torque and higher
power at a given velocity than those with
15
predominantly slow-twitch fibers.
10
5 Moreover, this difference becomes increasingly
0 important at higher speeds, when the duration of
115 200 287 400
force expression is shorter.
Isokinetic velocity of movement (rad/s)
 How does muscle fiber distribution differ between muscles?
Muscle fiber distribution is very different between muscles, even between muscles of the same group.

Edgerton (1975) measured the fiber type distribution within
four leg muscles (gastrocnemius, soleus, vastus lateralis and
intermedius) in 32 humans and found significant differences,
as can be seen in the chart below.
Johnson (1973) reported the mean fiber types of various leg
muscles of six young men, shown below.
Muscle fiber types for various leg muscles, Johnson, 1973

Soleus (deep)
Soleus (superficial)
Slow twitch fiber distribution of various lower leg Tibialis anterior (superficial)
muscles, Edgerton, 1975 Tibialis anterior (deep)
Biceps femoris
90
Percentage slow twitch

Adductor magnus (deep)

80 Muscle fiber distribution is Vastus medialis (deep)
significantly different Adductor magnus (superficial)
70 between muscles, even
between synergists Gluteus maximus
60 Gastrocnemius (medial head)
Gastrocnemius (lateral head deep)
50
Sartorius
40 Iliopsoas
Vastus lateralis (deep)
30 Vastus medialis (superficial)
20 Gastrocnemius (lateral head…
Rectus femoris (medial head)
10 Rectus femoris (lateral head deep)
0 Vastus lateralis (superficial)
Soleus Vastus Gastrocnemius Vastus lateralis Rectus femoris (lateral head…
intermedius
0.0% 50.0% 100.0%
Type !! Type I Percentage fiber type
Section summary
In this section, we investigated what factors affect perpendicular force production, as follows:

Question Why does this factors influence hip extension torque?

Which hip extensors have

The hamstrings have the most advantageous line of action, while the gluteus maximus has the
the most effective line of
least advantageous line of action, in the anatomical position.
action?

The torque a muscle can produce is determined by where the muscle originates in relation to the
How does muscle
center of the joint in addition to the amount of force it can generate. Muscle architecture is the
architecture affect
key feature in determining the force a muscle can generate, particularly physiological cross-
muscular force?
sectional area (PCSA).

Which muscles are

The EMG activity of a muscle changes depending on the degree of hip flexion. Some muscles have
activated best
higher degrees of activity in the anatomical position and others have higher degrees of activity in
throughout hip extension
higher degrees of hip flexion.
ROM?

How does the strength of Remember the length-tension relationship? Well, muscle length is conventionally discussed in
the hip extensors change terms of joint angle. However, not all of the hip extensors are affected by only one joint.
with muscle length? Therefore, we have to consider both hip flexion and knee flexion.

How does hip extension

Hip extension torque decreases with decreasing hip flexion in both men and women, as a result of
torque change with hip
both the changing moment arm length and the changing EMG activity of the muscles.
flexion?
Section summary
In this section, we investigated what factors affect perpendicular force production, as follows:

Factor Why does this factors influence hip extension torque?

How does the torque

of the hamstrings
Knee flexion torque increases with decreasing knee flexion, as this action lengthens the hamstrings.
change with muscle
length?

How does hip

extension torque Hip extension torque changes depending on the speed of the movement, because of the force-
change with velocity relationship. However, specialized athletes generally possess different force-velocity curves.
contraction velocity?

How does muscle fiber

Muscular strength increases where fiber distribution is more heavily weighted towards fast twitch
distribution affect
fibers.
muscular strength?
Practical implications
In this section, we investigated what factors affect perpendicular force production. But what are the
practical implications?

 Muscle architecture, particularly physiological cross-sectional area, affects the ability of a muscle to express force. In
other words, a bigger muscle is a stronger muscle , both actively and passively. To get the hip extensors stronger,
therefore, a focus on hypertrophy may well be necessary, particularly if no specific effort has previously been made for
some of the key muscles.

 Muscle activation, and therefore muscular strength, alters with joint angle. For the hip extensors, it is important to note
that hamstring activation is broadly constant with hip angle, while the activation of the gluteus maximus decreases with
increasing hip angle. Exercises involving the hamstrings may not therefore be strongly determined by where in the hip
angle peak contraction occurs, while exercises involving the gluteus maximus will likely be most effective if the peak
contraction occurs at low hip angles, (at least neurally-speaking).

 The starting length of a muscle affects its ability to express force. Exercises that involve peak contractions at optimal
lengths for force production will therefore likely lead to the strongest contractions and the greatest adaptations. Optimal
lengths can occur on both the active length-tension curve and on the passive length-tension curve. The optimal length on
the active length-tension curve is determined by the length at which the muscle is most accustomed to contracting, which
may be sports-specific. The optimal length on the passive length-tension curve is when the muscle is stretched.

 Muscles can therefore be strong and weak at different joint angles. Isokinetically, the hip extensors appear to be very
strong in the middle of the range of motion and much weaker at either end. This makes them imbalanced with the hip
flexors at end ranges. Training to improve the strength of the hip extensors at end ranges may therefore be a useful
programming tool to reduce the incidence of injury.

 Where two-joint muscle lengths are made very short, they can be prevented from expressing significant amounts of force.
This is called active insufficiency. The hamstrings can be prevented from expressing significant amounts of force when the
hip is extended and the knee is flexed, as during a hip thrust. Hip extension should be strengthened with both straight legs
and bent legs to maximize hamstring and glute strength.
Practical implications
In this section, we investigated what factors affect perpendicular force production. But what are the
practical implications?

 The speed of muscle contraction affects its ability to express force. To train at higher velocities, for sports-specificity or for
training muscles with long normalized fiber lengths, less weight must be used. Athletes whose sports involve very fast
movements often display adaptations such that they are able to produce higher forces at higher speeds. Training methods
should therefore be designed to increase the ability to produce higher forces at sports-specific speeds.

 The ratio of hip flexor torque to hip extensor torque increases at higher speeds. Therefore, athletes who perform hip
extension movements at high speeds, such as sprinters, should perform training to improve their hip extensor at high
speeds to help avoid injury.

 Additionally, there are sex differences in the ratio of hip flexor to hip extensor torque at varying speeds. Women display
much less variance in the ratio than men. Men may therefore require more work to improve their hip extensor torque at
higher speeds than women.

 Fast twitch fibers increase the ability to express high levels of force, particularly at high speeds. Sports requiring high
degrees of force or high-speed movements will therefore benefit from training programs that target fast-twitch fibers and
have high contraction velocities.

 Additionally, different muscles have different proportions of fast and slow twitch fibers. Physique athletes can therefore
benefit from gearing their training protocols towards the type of fibers that predominate in a muscle. For example, while
the soleus is a mainly slow-twitch muscle, the gastrocnemius is approximately 50% slow and fast twitch. Training them
separately might sound difficult. However, since the gastrocnemius is a two-joint muscle and the soleus is only a single-
joint muscle, active insufficiency can be used. By training plantar-flexion seated, the soleus can be focused on, by
reducing the length of the gastrocnemius. Higher rep calf raises might therefore best be done seated, while lower rep calf
raises might be best done standing. Similar strategies can be utilized to enhance the training effect on the various fibers of
the gluteus maximus and hamstring musculature.
 How does the degree of hip flexion
affect the strength of the hip extensors?
At what joint angles are the hip extensors strongest?
Why study where the hip extensors are strongest?
 As we have seen previously, various factors affect the amount of torque that muscles can produce at
different joint angles. Torque is affected by force production and moment arms.

 Force production at different joint angles is changed by the muscle activity, the muscle length and the
pennation angle. Moment arm lengths also change with changing joint angle.

 By understanding the joint angle at which the hip extensors are strongest, we can make better informed
decisions about exercise selection in training programs for athletes and for personal training clients.

Let’s take a closer look at where the hip extensors are strongest on the following pages…
How can we measure hip extension torque at different joint angles?

There are two basic methods for measuring the hip extension torque at different joint angles using a
dynamometer: isometric and isokinetic.

Isometric Isokinetic

Isometric joint angles are tested Researchers can also measure

by placing the hip in the correct
angle in the dynamometer and
measuring the maximum hip
extension strength that subjects
are able to produce.
the strength of the hip
extensors by measuring the
Dynamometer torque produced at various
torque testing joint angles within a single
movement that is constrained
to an isokinetic speed.

The two methods are both useful, as isometric testing tells us about the torque production when a
muscle is starting at that joint angle, while isokinetic testing tells us about the torque production when a
muscle has arrived at that joint position from a point of greater hip flexion.
 How does isometric hip extension strength change with joint angle?

Isometric hip extension strength is greatest where hip flexion angles are greatest.

Da Silva (2009) showed that the isometric strength of the hip Cahalan (1989) showed that the isometric strength of the hip
extensors is greater at 40 degrees of hip flexion (as in a extensors is greater at 40 degrees of hip flexion (as in a
partial squat) than at 0 degrees of hip flexion (standing up partial squat) than at 0 degrees of hip flexion (standing up
straight). straight).

Isometric hip extension torque measured Isometric hip extension torque measured using
using a dynamometer in varying degrees of a dynamometer in two degrees of hip flexion,
hip flexion, Da Silva, 2009 Cahalan, 1989
300 250
Joint torque (Nm)

Joint torque (Nm)

250
200

200
150
150

100
100 Hip extension torque is
greater at 40 degrees than Hip extension torque is
at 0 degrees hip flexion greater at 90 degrees than
50 50 at 45 degrees hip flexion

0
0
0 degrees 40 degrees
45 90
Men Women
Young men Old men Young women Old women
 How does isometric hip extension strength change with joint angle?

Isometric hip extension strength is greatest where hip flexion angles are greatest.

Worrell (2001) showed that the strength of the hip Pohtilla (1969), showed that the strength of the hip
extensors increases steadily from 0 degrees of hip extensors increases steadily from 15 through to 75
flexion through to 90 degrees of hip flexion. degrees of hip flexion.

Isometric hip extension torque measured Isometric hip extension torque measured using
using a dynamometer in varying degrees of hip a dynamometer in varying degrees of hip
flexion, Worrell, 2001 flexion, Pohtilla, 1969
Joint torque (Nm)

120 200

Joint torque (Nm)

180
100
160
Hip extension torque Hip extension torque
increases with increasing 140 increases with increasing
80
hip flexion hip flexion
120
60 100

80
40
60

20 40

20
0
0
0 degrees 30 degrees 60 degrees 90 degrees
15 degrees 30 degrees 45 degrees 60 degres 75 degrees
 How does isokinetic hip extension strength change with joint angle?

Isokinetic hip extension strength is greatest where hip flexion angles are c. 60 – 90 degrees.

Pontaga (2004) showed that the strength of the hip
extensors increases quickly from 0 degrees of hip flexion
through to 60 to 90 degrees of hip flexion (depending on
movement speed) before reducing again at end ranges.
Isokinetic hip extension torque measured using
a dynamometer subdivided into degrees of hip
flexion, Pontaga, 2004
300
Joint torque (Nm)
The researchers performed this experiment by
measuring the torque produced during the isokinetic
movement. Therefore, the results are likely to be
different from isometric torque measurements taken at
each individual joint angle. This is because the length-
tension relationship only applies during isometric tests
of torque and not during moving dynamic movements.
The length-tension relationship explains how muscle-
length dictates how much force a muscle is capable of

expressing at a given joint angle. The underlying reason

for this changing level of force is thought to be the
250
degree of sarcomere overlap. When a muscle fiber is
changing length, however, sarcomeres do not
200
necessarily behave in the same way as when muscle
length is constant.
150
In any event, even when isokinetic movements are
100
Hip extension torque considered, the hip extensors are much stronger at 90
increases with increasing degrees of hip flexion than at 0 degrees of hip flexion.
hip flexion to 60 – 90
degrees and then declines However, we should be cautious of assuming that even
50
greater degrees of hip flexion will automatically lead to
greater hip extension torque, as this is likely not the
0 case.
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
100 degrees/s 200 degrees/s
Why is a comparison of internal and external torque curves helpful?

By arranging the internal and external torque curves in relation to each other, we can create different
training effects. Here is a summary of three examples:

Internal External
Example
maximal or maximal or Training implication
exercise
minimal? minimal?

Maximal at Maximal at The standing cable hip extension likely trains the hip extensors little at the strongest
Standing
90 degrees; 0 degrees; point and challenges the strength of these muscles at weaker points in the torque
cable hip
minimal at 0 minimal at curve. This is therefore a useful rehabilitation exercise, for building strength
extension
degrees 90 degrees throughout the movement.

The squat requires the greatest hip extension strength at the strongest point in the hip
Maximal at Maximal at
extension torque curve, which helps build strength throughout the movement.
90 degrees; 90 degrees;
Squat However, it is understood that the external torque curve is steeper than the internal
minimal at 0 minimal at
torque curve and the squat is still easier at reduced hip flexion angles, making it a
degrees 0 degrees
useful target for accommodating resistance by way of bands or chains.

The horizontal back extension likely trains the hip extensors little at the strongest
Maximal at Maximal at
Horizontal point and challenges the strength of these muscles at the weakest points in the torque
90 degrees; 0 degrees;
back curve: at full hip extension. This is therefore a useful sports performance and
minimal at 0 minimal at
extension rehabilitation exercise, for building strength at end range hip extension, which is
degrees 90 degrees
where sprinters need both power and resilience.
Section summary
In this section, we investigated where the hip extensors are strongest, as follows:

Question Answer

What methods are available There are two methods for measuring hip extension torque at different joint angles and they
for measuring hip extension are both useful, as isometric testing tells us about the torque production when a muscle is
torque at different joint starting at that joint angle, while isokinetic testing tells us about the torque production when
angles? a muscle has arrived at that joint position from a point of greater hip flexion.

How does isometric hip

extension strength change Isometric hip extension strength is greatest where hip flexion angles are greatest.
with joint angle?

How does isokinetic hip

extension strength change Isokinetic hip extension strength is greatest where hip flexion angles are c. 60 – 90 degrees.
with joint angle?

An isokinetic dynamometer fixes the speed at which it travels and the muscles exert force to
How would an isoinertial
different degrees throughout the whole movement. But if the force were fixed instead, it
dynamometer feel to move?
would appear easy in the beginning and very hard at the end.
Section summary
In this section, we investigated where the hip extensors are strongest, as follows:
Question
Where are cable hip
extensions easiest and
hardest?
Where are squats easiest and
hardest?
Where are horizontal back
extensions easiest and
hardest?
Why is a comparison of
internal and external torque
curves helpful?
Answer
Cable hip extensions are easy to study, as they act on a single joint and the load is always the
same. However, because the line of pull changes, the force that is required at different joint
angles changes. Body position and cable position influence the loading. Standing with the
cable at around hip height is easy up top and difficult at the end-range. Lying with the cable
at around hip height is difficult up top and easy at end-range.
The hip extensors are strongest in squats at the bottom of the movement. However, squats
require the vast majority most torque production at the same point, thereby rendering the
thigh-parallel position (hips-flexed) the most challenging.
The horizontal back extension likely trains the hip extensors little at the strongest point and
challenges the strength of these muscles at the weakest points in the torque curve: at full hip
extension.
By arranging the internal and external torque curves in relation to each other, we can create
different training effects.
Practical implications
In this section, we investigated where the hip extensors are strongest. But what are the practical implications?

 There is a difference between using an exercise to get better at that exercise and using an exercise to improve at
sport. An exercise develops the strength of a muscle at specific points in the torque curve, corresponding to the
point in which the external torque curve of that exercise most challenges the internal torque curve of the muscles. If
the sport requires strength and power at different points in the joint angle range-of-motion from the exercise used to
train for it, the results will be suboptimal.

 For example, if the sport is powerlifting, then the action for which the athlete must prepare themselves is squatting.
Therefore, the required external torque curve that the internal torque curve must adapt to is the one that
corresponds to the competition squat weight. If the external torque curve changes with load, then squatting with
lighter loads may lead to difficulty in competition if near-maximal loads are not used in training.

 On the other hand, for example, if the sport is sprinting, we can manipulate the exercise selection to help the
internal torque curve to adapt to the external torque curves of that activity. Sprints require significant hip extension
strength and power and full range hip extension. Therefore, if only squats are used, which develop strength only in
full hip flexion, this may lead to suboptimal strength development in the ranges of motion required.

 We can also manipulate exercise selection to help reduce injury, by training muscles to develop strength at end
ranges. Injuries often occur when athletes perform powerful movement from end ranges. Exercises like the cable
hip extension or horizontal back extensions are therefore useful in this regard.

 Exercises can be selected for bodybuilders to help develop maximal hypertrophy. Exercises can be selected that
match the internal torque curve of the muscles to the external torque curve of the muscles. This keeps tension on
the muscles maximally all the way through the movement.
 How does knee flexion change
the effect of a hip exercise?
Knee extension = long hamstrings
Knee flexion = short hamstrings
Training the hamstrings at optimal length on the passive length-tension curve
Training the glutes by reducing the role of the hamstrings using active insufficiency
Why study the impact of knee flexion?
 Many exercises and sporting movements involve a flexed knee. Sometimes the knee is flexed
throughout most or all of the movement. Sometimes, it is only partly flexed. Sometimes, it is fully
extended.

 However, knee flexion changes the length of the hamstrings. So, when performing hip flexion with
various different degrees of knee flexion in play, we know that the hamstrings length can differ, even
though the hip angle is the same. Different hamstrings length means that the muscle could be at a
different point on the length-tension curve and the muscle activity could also be different!

 Also, since the hamstrings are a two-joint muscle, the principle of active insufficiency could apply. That
means, at very short hamstring lengths, with both knee flexion and hip extension, the hamstrings could
produce very little force at all…

Let’s take a closer look at the impact of knee flexion on the following pages…
How does knee flexion alter the effect of a hip exercise?
Knee position determines hamstring length. This influences the contribution of the hamstrings to the
movement as well as the synergist’s contribution. It also affects how hard the hamstrings contract.

Knee Knee
extension flexion

What
effect on
the hip
muscles?

Knee extension leads to long hamstrings and therefore we need to remember the length-tension
relationship. Knee flexion leads to short hamstrings and therefore we need to remember the concept
of active insufficiency. Let’s recap both of those quickly…
Remember the length-tension relationship?
The active and passive length-tension relationships add together to produce the following relationship
curve. The curve shows that very short muscle lengths produce small forces while both optimal and very
long lengths produce very large forces.

Percentage
of maximum
force (%) Resultant
Active force force
100%

Passive
force

Length of
sarcomere
1.3μm 1.8μm 2.0μm 2.2μm 3.6μm

So when the hamstrings are stretched to long lengths, they are working at maximal force production.
But don’t forget there is also an optimal length at which they also work at maximal force levels…
Remember the length-tension relationship in two-joint muscles?
The hamstrings act to produce hip extension and knee flexion. Therefore, when the hip is fully flexed and
the knee is fully extended, the length of the hamstrings will be greatest. Similarly, when the hip is fully
extended and the knee is fully flexed, the length of the hamstring will be shortest.

At the bottom of a hip thrust, the hip is flexed and the
knee is also flexed. At this point, the hamstring is
partially shortened and can contribute somewhat to
the movement.
At the top of a hip thrust, the hip is extended and
the knee is still flexed. At this point, therefore, the
hamstring is very short indeed and can contribute
little to the movement. The higher the hips rise, the
greater the hamstring shortening and the lesser
their contribution to hip extension torque.

So when the hamstrings are at very short lengths, they are not significantly involved in the exercise…
How does the degree of knee flexion alter the effect of an exercise?
So what happens when we perform a hip exercise with and without knee flexion?
Knee extension = long hamstrings
Phenomenon Length-tension relationship (passive curve)
Explain the The starting length of a muscle alters its ability to
phenomenon? express force. It occurs because tension
generation in skeletal muscle is a direct function
of the degree of overlap between actin and
myosin filaments within a sarcomere.
What does it Where a muscle is placed under load while being
mean for hip stretched, it will contract more forcefully than if it
extension? is placed under load while shortened.
Why is this When muscles contract more forcefully as a
helpful? result of contracting while stretched, this leads to
greater training adaptations.
Knee flexion = short hamstrings
Active insufficiency
Active insufficiency is the inability of a muscle that
spans two or more joints to exert enough tension and
shorten sufficiently to cause a full range of movement in
both of the joints at the same time.
In hip extension, the hamstrings are two-joint muscles
and therefore active insufficiency can apply, where the
hamstrings are shortened to the point where they
cannot effect significant amounts of force. Where this
happens, the prime mover in the movement will
become the gluteus maximus.
When the gluteus maximus takes over as the prime
mover, this forces it to do more work and contract more
forcefully, leading to greater training adaptations.
Moreover, a bent-knee hip extension exercise, though of
great importance for maximizing gluteal strength, would
be insufficient for maximizing hamstring strength.
 How does the torque of the hamstrings change with muscle length?

Knee flexion torque increases with decreasing knee flexion, as this action lengthens the hamstrings.

Higashihara (2010) tested the knee flexion torque of the
hamstrings in 15-degree intervals during isokinetic
contractions, while the hip flexion angle was maintained at
0 degrees. They found that decreasing the knee flexion
angle (i.e. lengthening the knee flexors) caused an increase
in knee flexion torque production. Similarly, Onishi (2002)
reported that torque at 60 degrees was 121% of the value
at 90 degrees.
Mohammed (2002) presented a combined hip angle and knee
angle study of isometric knee flexion torque. They found that
the position of 0 degrees hip flexion and 90 degrees knee
flexion did indeed produce the lowest torque, which they
ascribed to active insufficiency. It was only 36% of the
maximum torque displayed in the other angles.

Eccentric knee flexion torque with decreasing knee Combined effect of different hip flexion and knee
flexion angle, Higashihara, 2010 flexion joint angle positions on the torque of the
hamstrings, Mohammed, 2002
180
Eccentric knee flexion torque (Nm)

800

Torque (Kgcm)
160
700
140
600
120
500
100
Joint torque 400
80
increases with 300
In 0 degrees hip flexion
60 decreasing and 90 degrees knee
knee flexion 200 flexion, knee flexion
40 angle torque is minimal
100
20
0
0 Hip flexion - 0 degrees Hip flexion - SLR Hip flexion - 90 degrees
90-75 75-60 60-45 45-30 30-15 15-0
degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees Knee flexion - 0 degrees Knee flexion - 45 degrees Knee flexion - 90 degrees
 How does the degree of knee flexion change muscle activity?

The degree of knee flexion ROM changes the length at which the hamstrings contract maximally.

Kreutzfeldt Zebis (2012) found that different The researchers recruited 16 young female elite
hamstring exercises caused differing levels of EMG team sports athletes (handball and soccer) who were
activity in the muscles at different joint angles. strength-trained but who had no previous history of
knee or hamstring injury. The researchers measured
the EMG activity of the various hamstring muscles
Degree of knee joint ROM at which maximal EMG using surface electrodes while the subjects
occured in two hamstring muscles, Kreutzfeld performed 5 different balance/coordination and 9
Zebris, 2012 strength exercises.
Romanian deadlift Different exercises
produce different The researchers found that some of the exercises –
Hip extension
degrees of peak the Nordic hamstring curl (glute-ham raise) and
Hip extension with barbell muscle activity at supine pelvic lift (glute bridge) – both activated the
different degrees
Kettlebell swing of knee flexion hamstrings during high degrees of knee flexion,
Prone leg curl which is in its most contracted position.
Supine leg curl The seated leg curl, supine leg curl and prone leg curl
Seated leg curl all activated the hamstring during medium degrees
Supine pelvis lift of knee flexion. Finally, the kettlebell swing, hip
(horizontal back) extensions and Romanian deadlifts
Nordic hamstring
all activated the hamstrings during low degrees of
0 20 40 60 80 knee flexion ROM, as these exercises involve less or
Degree at which maximal EMG activity occurred no significant knee bend.

Biceps femoris (long head) Semitendinosus

How does the degree of knee flexion alter the effect of an exercise?

However, exercises do not always involve completely long or completely short hamstrings, all of the time.
This chart shows what happens during the various combinations of knee and hip joint movements:

Exercise Length-tension Length-tension Active

Exercise examples Knee action
description at bottom at top insufficiency?

Fixed straight leg Back extensions, reverse hypers and Knee remains fully Maximum length Mid-range length No
straight leg bridges extended while hip of hamstrings of hamstrings
flexes then extends

Semi-straight leg Deadlifts, Good Mornings, and single leg Knee slightly flexes Near maximum Mid-range length No
RDLs while hip flexes, then length of of hamstrings
knee slightly extends hamstrings
while hip extends

Fixed bent leg Glute bridges, hip thrusts, pendulum Knee remains flexed Short length of Shortest length Yes – for most of
quadruped hip extensions, bent leg back while hip flexes then hamstrings of the hamstrings the action but
extensions and bent leg reverse hypers extends more at the top

Simultaneous hip Squats, lunges, Bulgarian squats, step Knee flexes while hip Mid-range length Mid-range length No
extension and ups and single leg squats , pull-throughs, first flexes and then of hamstrings of hamstrings
knee extension Kettlebell swings and reverse leg presses both extend
together

Simultaneous hip Glute-ham raises, stability ball leg curls, Knee flexes while hip Mid-range length Shortest length Yes – but just at
extension and lying leg curls and sliding leg curls extends of hamstrings of the hamstrings the top
knee flexion
Chapter summary
In this chapter, we investigated how knee flexion alters the effect of a hip extension exercise, as follows:

Question Answer

Long hamstrings during hip extension is ideal since these movements involve greater
How does knee extension (i.e. long
muscle activation, greater active force due to more activation and a more optimal
hamstrings) alter the effect of a hip
length during various portions of the movement, and much greater passive force
extension exercise?
due to the stretch at the longest ROMs, leading to significant adaptations.

Which exercises best take advantage of Fixed straight leg exercises: back extensions, reverse hypers and straight leg bridges;
and
the length-tension relationship for
training the hamstrings? Semi-straight leg exercises: deadlifts, good mornings, and single leg RDLs

How does knee flexion (i.e. short Short hamstrings means that they display active insufficiency and therefore they do
hamstrings) alter the effect of a hip not contribute significantly to the exercise, leaving the gluteal muscles to do most of
extension exercise? the work.

Which exercises best take advantage of Fixed bent leg exercises: Glute bridges, hip thrusts, pendulum quadruped hip
the active insufficiency principle for extensions, bent leg back extensions and bent leg reverse hypers
training the gluteal muscles?
Practical implications
In this chapter, we investigated how knee flexion alters the effect of a hip extension exercise. But what are
the practical implications?

 Knee extension during a hip extension exercise means that the hamstrings are long. Long hamstrings
during hip extension is ideal since these movements involve greater muscle activation, greater active
force due to more activation and a more optimal length during various portions of the movement, and
much greater passive force due to the stretch at the longest ROMs, leading to significant adaptations.
Training the hamstrings using a peak contraction in the stretched position is therefore a very effective
way of training these muscles.

 Good examples of exercises that produce peak contractions in the stretched position are: fixed straight
leg exercises: Back extensions, reverse hypers and straight leg bridges; and fixed semi-straight leg
exercises: deadlifts, good mornings, and single leg RDLs.

 Knee flexion during a hip extension exercise means that the hamstrings are short. This means that they
display active insufficiency and therefore they do not contribute significantly to the exercise, leaving the
gluteal muscles to do most of the work.

 Good examples of exercises that involve active insufficiency of the hamstrings are therefore: fixed bent
leg exercises: glute bridges, hip thrusts, pendulum quadruped hip extensions, bent leg back extensions
and bent leg reverse hypers.
How does the direction of force change
the effect of an exercise?
How can we define the direction of force?
What directions of force are possible with hip extension?
How does the direction of force change the effect of an exercise?
How can we compare similar exercises that have different directions of force?
Why is direction of force important?
Why study the impact of direction of force?
 Many exercises and sporting movements involve vertical movements with respect to the body (also
called axial), like squats, deadlifts, jumping in athletics, in the rugby line-out and in volleyball spikes.
However, other actions involve horizontal movements (also called antero-posterior), like sprinting and
throwing.

 This direction of force tends to correspond with where the stretched position and the contracted
position of the prime movers occurs in an exercise or movement. In axial exercises, the peak
contraction of the prime movers tends to occur in the stretched position (e.g. the quadriceps and
gluteals during a squat) but in antero-posterior exercises, it tends to occur in the contracted position
(e.g. the gluteals during hip thrust). Moreover, peak torque in axial movements occurs in more flexed-
joint positions, whereas peak torque in antero-posterior movements occurs in more extended-joint
positions. The direction of force therefore influences the torque curve.

 Because the length-tension relationship specifies the force that a muscle can produce at a given length
and because muscle activity changes with length, the peak contraction point is critical for strength
coaches to understand so that they can program the best exercise for developing strength at the points
when it is required in their sport.

 Also, since adaptations occur differently at short and long muscle lengths, strength coaches need to be
aware that strengthening a muscle at one length does not necessarily confer strength on that muscle
optimally at another length.

Let’s take a closer look at the impact of the direction of force on the following pages…
What are the stretched and contracted positions?
In 2001, Ironmag Magazine writer Steve Holman released a book titled, Train, Eat, Grow: The Positions of
Flexion (POF) Manual. In this book, Steve outlined a plan for maximal hypertrophy.

“Positions of Flexion is a multi-angular bodybuilding protocol that trains a muscle in three positions that
constitute full range of motion (ROM). Understand that it’s not simply doing an exercise through its
complete stroke, although that’s important too. It takes two to three exercises to work a muscle through its
complete arc of flexion, or range of motion, which consists of three positions: midrange, stretch, and
contracted.” – Steve Holman

What Steve is describing is positions of peak muscle
tension or peak joint torque.
We believe that Steve was ahead of his time, and
therefore even though his terminology might not be
best from a Sports Scientist’s perspective (Steve
targets bodybuilders with his writing), nor does he
use the best exercises for each range, we will use
some of his terminology in honor of his ingenuity.
Therefore, a midrange exercise is one that
produces peak muscle force or peak joint torque
in a midrange position. A stretch exercise is one
that produces peak muscle force or peak joint
torque in a stretched (elongated) position.
And a contracted exercise is one that produces
peak muscle force or peak joint torque in a
contracted (shortened) position.
How do we specify direction of force?
We can specify direction of force with respect to the position of the exerciser’s body.

It is the direction of the force with respect to the

body that is key and with respect to the ground, or
Axial force gravity. This is because we are interested in the
role of the muscles in developing force in a given
direction away from the body.
Axial
/anteroposterior The two diagrams show the body in two different
blend force positions. The directions of force in respect of the
body are the same in both cases but are different
with respect to the ground.

Anteroposterior Anteroposterior
force Axial
force
/anteroposterior
blend force

Axial force
What directions of force are possible with hip extension?
As shown on the previous page, there are three possible force directions with hip extension:

Force direction: Axial Antero-posterior Axial / antero-posterior

Where does the direction Top to bottom (or vice Front to back (or vice Halfway between axial and
of resistance come from versa) versa) anteroposterior at a 45
with reference to the degree angle
anatomical position?

Which exercises provide Squat variations Single Leg Glute Bridges Walking Lunges
hip extension in these Deadlift variations and Single Leg Hip Thrusts 45 Degree Hypers
categories? Good Morning variations Barbell Glute Bridges and Pull Throughs
Olympic Lifts Barbell Hip Thrusts Kettlebell Swings
Vertical jumps Pendulum Quadruped Hip Acceleration Sprinting
Extensions Forward Leaping
Back Extensions and
Reverse Hypers
Glute Ham Raises and Leg
Curls
Max Speed Sprinting
How does direction of force change the effect of an exercise?

Direction of force is important, as it specifies whether the strongest contraction of the prime mover
muscle takes place in the stretched or contracted position.

During the squat, which is an axial exercise, the
strongest contraction of the prime movers takes place
at the bottom of the movement. At this point, the
prime movers are in their most stretched position.
During a glute bridge or hip thrust, which are
anteroposterior exercises, the strongest contraction of
the prime movers takes place at the top of the
movement. At this point, the prime movers (the
gluteals) are in their most contracted position.

Anteroposterior force
Axial force

Strong contraction in stretched position Strong contraction in contracted position

 How can we compare similar exercises that have different directions of force?

The good morning, 45-degree back extension and horizontal back extension have identical ROM and joint movement
profiles and can be loaded identically. However, they have different directions of force.

Hip torque for three different exercises using a 45kg load at Contreras (awaiting publishing) calculated that for
different degrees of hip flexion, Contreras, awaiting publishing identical loading patterns (100lbs), the good morning
produces maximum hip torque at 90 degrees of hip
Torque (Nm)

600
flexion and no hip torque at 0 degrees of hip flexion.
On the other extreme, the horizontal back extension
500 produces no hip torque at 90 degrees of hip flexion
and maximum hip torque at 0 degrees. The maximum
and minimum hip torque measured for each exercise
400 was the same. However, the maxima and minima
were measured at completely opposite degrees of hip
flexion.
300
This is because of the position of the trunk with
respect to gravity throughout the movement.
200 Importantly, the three different exercises produce
maximum torque at different lengths of the prime
100 mover muscles, which are in this case the hamstrings
and gluteus maximus. Out of the three similar
movement patterns, the 45 degree back extension
0 maximized hip extension torque (and therefore
0 degrees loading on the prime movers) in mid-range position
90 degrees Good Morning and also kept the most constant tension on the
45 degree Back Extension Degree of hip flexion prime-movers as there are no built-in “rest periods”
Horizontal Back Extension throughout the set.

Let’s take a closer look at each of these exercises on the following pages…
The good morning = axial (stretched position)
The Good Morning produces maximum torque when hip flexion is 90 degrees and the hamstrings are in the
stretched position.

Axial force

Hamstrings Hamstrings
contracted stretched

Hip flexion angle = 0 degrees Hip flexion angle = 90 degrees

Hip extension torque = nil Hip extension torque = maximum
Muscular contraction = nil Contraction = maximum
(contracted position) (stretched position)
The back extension = anteroposterior (contracted position)
The horizontal back extension produces maximum torque when hip flexion is 0 degrees, which is the
anatomical position.

Hamstrings Hamstrings
contracted stretched

Anteroposterior
force

Hip flexion angle = 0 degrees Hip flexion angle = 90 degrees

Hip extension torque = maximal Hip extension torque = nil
Contraction = maximal Contraction = nil
(contracted position) (stretched position)
 The 45-degree back extension = axial/anteroposterior blend (halfway position)

The 45 Degree Back Extension produces maximum torque halfway in-between the top and bottom positions.
This makes it a mid-range exercise according to Steve.

Axial
/anteroposterior
blend force

Hamstrings Hamstrings mid- Hamstrings

stretched length contracted

Hip flexion angle = 90 degrees Hip flexion angle = 45 degrees Hip flexion angle = 90 degrees
Contraction = 50% Contraction = maximal Contraction = 50%
(stretched position) (midrange position) (contracted position)
 How does the direction of force affect the muscle activity?
The position at which maximal torque is produced is most likely related to the position in which maximal
EMG activity in the prime mover is produced.

Kreutzfeldt Zebis (2012) found that different hamstring The researchers recruited 16 young female elite team sports
exercises caused differing levels of peak muscle activity in the athletes (handball and soccer) who were strength-trained
muscles at different joint angles. but who had no previous history of knee or hamstring injury.
The researchers measured the EMG activity of the various
Degree of hip joint ROM at which maximal EMG hamstring muscles using surface electrodes while the
occured in two hamstring muscles, Kreutzfeld subjects performed 5 different balance/coordination and 9
strength exercises.
Zebris, 2012
Kreutzfeldt Zebis found that three of the exercises activated
Supine leg curl both hamstrings at high degrees of hip flexion ROM (seated
Different exercises
Prone leg curl produce different degrees leg curl, Romanian deadlift and kettlebell swing). This means
of EMG muscle activity at that the hamstrings were activated in the stretched position.
Glute-ham raise
different degrees of hip Note that the Romanian deadlift is an axial exercise, and the
Glute bridge flexion kettlebell swing is actually an axial/anteroposterior blend
Hip extension since the movement involves the projection of the kettlebell
forward and upward.
Hip extension with barbell
Romanian deadlift The other exercises activated the hamstrings at low degrees
Kettlebell swing
of hip flexion ROM. This means that the hamstrings were
activated during these exercises in the contracted position.
Seated leg curl Note that these exercises are all anteroposterior exercises.
0 20 40 60 80 100 Since single joint exercise machines attempt to center the
movement around the targeted joint, they cannot be
Degree at which maximal EMG activity occured
classified as axial or anteroposterior as they place rather
consistent torque on the joints throughout the entire ROM.
Biceps femoris (long head) Semitendinosus
At which hip angle do exercises require their greatest force?
The following chart shows at which approximate hip angle some common exercises stress the hip extensors
with their maximum force:

Squat
Lunge
Deadlift
Flexed
Split squat
hip
Step-up
Good morning

45-degree back
extension
Midrange Sled pushing

Extended
hip Hip thrust
Glute bridge
Back extension
Pull-throughs
Why are the stretched or contracted positions important?
What happens if maximal EMG muscle activity is different at different points in the ROM?

Davis’s Law
Regional
of soft tissue
hypertrophy
growth

Wolff’s Law
Neurological
of bone
adaptations
growth
Muscular
adaptations

Anatomical adaptations occur in line with each of these factors at different points in the ROM…
Why are the stretched and contracted positions important?
If the strongest contraction is performed in the stretched or contracted position, this affects the following
factors:

Factor Question Answer

When the highest level of muscular activity occurs with either stretched or contracted position exercises,
What neurological
Neurological this leads to maximal strength increases in those positions but not in others. Certain muscles are
adaptations occur
adaptations activated highest in a particular muscle length and failure to perform exercises at that length will fail to
differently?
yield maximal neurological adaptations.

How is regional
hypertrophy different Stretch position exercises likely lead to more hypertrophy in different regions than contracted position
Regional
between axial and exercises. Regional hypertrophy has been shown to exist in nearly all muscles, so it makes sense to
hypertrophy
anteroposterior perform movements from different loading directions in order to fully strengthen a muscle.
exercises?

Davis’s Law How does Davis’s Law

Stretched position exercises, which for the hips are usually axial in nature, will likely cause more soft-
(soft tissue affect the adaptations
tissue adaptations due to the greater elastic involvement compared to anteroposterior exercises.
adapts to the from axial and
However, it’s important to incorporate a variety of loading patterns in order to maximize soft-tissue
demands anteroposterior
strength.
placed upon it) exercises?

How does Wolff’s Law

Wolff’s Law Axial exercises will cause bone to strengthen longitudinally. Powerlifters have the highest recorded bone
affect the adaptations
(bone adapts to densities known to man. Anteroposterior exercises will cause bone to strengthen horizontally. Sprinters
from axial and
the demands have been shown to have greater bending strength in their tibias, which is likely due to repetitive
anteroposterior
placed upon it) anteroposterior loading.
exercises?

If athletes stick solely to one directional loading pattern, they do not develop strength, muscle size, and bone
and connective tissue strength equally along the various structures.
Why do some exercises give you a pump in your glutes and hamstrings?

Axial or antero-posterior?

Exercises make your glutes or hamstrings pumped when the muscles are contracted strongly at the top of
the movement. This happens during antero-posteriorly loaded exercises. When exercises contract strongly
at the top of the movement, the muscular tension never subsides and blood is literally trapped and
incapable of escaping. This is what causes the pump in the muscle. This rarely happens with axial exercises
as the movements inherently involve “rest periods” at the top where torque and muscle force are
minimized, thereby allowing blood to escape and failure to induce a pump.

Active insufficiency?

To determine whether the exercise will make the glutes or the hamstrings pumped, we need to look at
whether there is active insufficiency of the two-joint hamstrings muscles. Active insufficiency means that
the hamstrings are less involved and more stress is therefore placed on the gluteal muscles. This occurs
where the legs are bent and therefore occurs in fixed, bent-leg antero-posterior exercises. The combination
of antero-posterior loading and active insufficiency provides much of the explanation as to why hip thrusts
produce significant glute pump. On the other hand, leg curl variations tend to produce a good hamstring
pump because of the constant knee flexion torque and constant tension on the hamstrings.
Why do some exercises make your glutes and hamstrings sore?

Axial or antero-posterior?

Exercises make your glutes or hamstrings sore when the muscles are contracted strongly while lengthened. This happens
in axially-loaded exercises because the peak contraction occurs when the muscles are longest. To determine whether the
exercise will make the glutes or the hamstrings sore, we need to look at which muscles are most actively stretched at the
bottom-position during the axially-loaded exercise (meaning they’re simultaneously highly activated and lengthened).

In a full squat, the gluteus maximus is stretched the most while highly activated, which explains why this exercise is well-
known for producing serious glute DOMS. In a Romanian deadlift, the hamstrings are stretched the most while highly
activated, thereby rendering considerable hamstring DOMS.

Eccentric or concentric work?

Another factor that can increase the likelihood of an exercise causing soreness in axial exercises is the degree of eccentric
work that a muscle performs. Of course, the body gets accustomed to exercises. In particular, the eccentric component
of exercise creates more soreness than the concentric component. But after even a single session, the body becomes
familiar (known as the repeated-bout effect) and therefore less sore.

So any “new” movement that hasn’t been performed in a while will likely create soreness if performed with sufficient
volume and intensity. But certain exercises are notorious for creating soreness, and there is a scientific explanation for
this. In addition to the degree of stretch-loading, studies have shown that leg muscles do not all perform the same
relative amounts of concentric and eccentric work during a given exercise.

For example, in a forward lunge, the quadriceps perform a large amount of eccentric work while the hip extensors
perform more concentric work. The eccentric work of the quadriceps is likely to decelerate the knee when stepping
outwards. This larger amount of eccentric work contributes to the greater soreness in the quadriceps felt during forward
lunges than during squats.
Chapter summary
In this chapter, we investigated how direction of force alters the effect of a hip extension exercise, as
follows:

Question Answer

How do we specify
We can specify direction of force with respect to the exerciser’s body.
direction of force?

What are the main

directions of force in The three main directions of force are: (1) axial, (2) anteroposterior and (3) axial-anteroposterior blend
respect of hip extension?

Why is it important to Direction of force with respect to the exerciser’s body allows us to establish at what point the maximum
specify direction of force? contraction of the muscle occurs, whether stretched, mid-range or contracted

Why are stretched or Whether the strongest contraction occurs in the stretched or contracted position affects the point at which
contracted positions there is the greatest level of muscular activity. This then dictates the points and patterns at which strength,
important? muscular size, connective tissue and bone are increased most.

What happens if an
If an athlete performs just stretched position exercises, they do not develop strength, muscle size, bone
athlete just performs axial
growth and connective tissue equally along the various curves and structures.
exercises?

Why do some exercises Exercises make your glutes or hamstrings pumped when the muscles are contracted strongly at the top of
give you a pump in your the movement, which is indicative of a torque pattern that keeps constant tension on the muscle. This
glutes and hamstrings? happens during antero-posteriorly loaded exercises.

Why do some exercises Exercises make your glutes or hamstrings sore when the muscles are contracted strongly while lengthened.
make your glutes and This happens in axially-loaded exercises because the peak contraction is when the muscles are longest and
hamstrings sore? therefore they receive the greatest activated stretch-load.
Practical implications
In this chapter, we investigated how direction of force alters the effect of a hip extension exercise. But
what are the practical implications?

 Exercises can be selected such that the peak contraction occurs in the stretched, midrange or the
contracted position. Where the strongest contraction occurs likely dictates the point at which there is
the greatest level of muscular activity. This then dictates the points and patterns at which strength,
muscular size, connective tissue and bone are increased most.

 Athletes and strength coaches should therefore take care to select exercises that provide the
neuromuscular, tendinous and bone strength and size increases where they are desired.

 From a balance and injury-prevention point of view, selection of exercises is likely to involve a broad
range. Coaches, athletes and general populations who want to improve health and reduce injury risk
should ensure that their resistance training programs contain a balance of contracted, midrange and
stretched position exercises (which happens naturally when a blend of force vectors are utilized) for all
the key muscle groups.

 From a sports-performance point of view, selection of exercises is likely to involve those that bring about
the most effective adaptations for the sport concerned. For example, most sports have an optimal
length of contraction for many of the key muscle groups. Though all muscles should ideally be strong in
full ranges of motion, there are indeed ranges that are more important than others for many muscle
groups, and this depends on the sport and position.
How can we calculate hip extension
torque for various movements?
Squats
Deadlifts
Good mornings
45-degree back extensions
Horizontal back extensions
How can we calculate torque for various movements?

 In order to compare the effects of different hip extension exercises, one of the first things we need to
do is to learn how to estimate the external hip extension torque. This is actually fairly straightforward
for certain exercises, typically axial or single-joint movements, as torque is just the product of the
resistance moment arm and the load.

 The total external hip extension torque is the sum of two hip extension moments: the moment created
by the barbell or dumbbell and the moment created by the center of mass of the relevant body
segments.

 We can estimate the hip extension moment created by the barbell by measuring the moment arm
length, which is the horizontal distance between the center of mass of the barbell or dumbbell and the
hip joint, and the load, which is simply the mass of the barbell or dumbbell expressed in Newtons.

 We can estimate the hip extension moment created by the center of mass of the relevant body
segments by estimating the mass of these segments, estimating the point of their center of mass and
then measuring the horizontal distance of this center of mass from the hip joint.

Let’s take a closer look at how to calculate torque on the following pages…
How can we calculate torque for various movements?
Here are some helpful notes before we get started with some calculations:

 It is critical to note that the estimations on the following pages are only valid for slow, heavy movements. If
there is considerable momentum involved, then these estimations are not valid. However, torque estimates for
heavy movements have been shown in studies to be 98% accurate.

 In order to convert pounds (lbs) to kilograms (kg), multiply by 0.454. To convert kilograms (kg) to pounds (lbs),
multiply by 2.2. To convert kilograms (kg) to Newtons (N), multiply by 9.81. To convert pounds (lbs) to Newtons
(N), multiply by 4.448.

 There are online resources available to help us estimate the weight of body segments. Quite often we’re only
concerned with the head, arms, and trunk (HAT), since this is the body mass that acts on the hip during many
hip extension movements.
How can we calculate torque for various exercises?
We can obtain an estimate for the external torque in an exercise by adding together two moments: the
moment caused by the external load (i.e. the barbell) and the moment caused by the body’s center of
mass.

Good
morning
45-degree
Squat back
extension

Horizontal
Deadlift Exercise back
extension
How can we estimate torque in a deadlift?
The maximum hip extension torque during a deadlift occurs at the point of lift-off. This is because the hips
are furthest from the barbell at this point.

Length of Perpendicular Length of Perpendicular force

moment force (F) for moment (F) for center of HAT
arm (L) for barbell = 200kg arm (L) for = 52kg or 510N
barbell = or 1960N center of
20cm body mass
20cm

So as an example, Chris deadlifts 200kg (1960N) at a bodyweight of 80kg (784N). His HAT can be estimated at 65%
of this (52kg = 510N). The distance between his hip and the barbell is 20cm and the distance between his hip and his
HAT is also 20cm, then our total external hip extension torque = (1960 x 0.2) + (510 x 0.2) = 494Nm.
How can we estimate torque in a squat?
The maximum hip extension torque during a squat occurs at the bottom of the lift, at a thigh-parallel
position. This is because the hips are furthest from the barbell at this point. Going deeper than this does
not increase the hip extension moment.

Length of Perpendicular Length of Perpendicular

moment force (F) for moment force (F) for HAT =
arm (L) for barbell = 180kg arm (L) for 52kg or 510N
barbell = or 1764N body center
15cm of mass =
15cm

So as an example, if Chris squats 180kg (1764N) at a bodyweight of 80kg (784N). His HAT is again 52kg (510N). The
distance between his hip and the barbell is 15cm while the distance between his hip and the center of mass of the
HAT is 15cm, then our total external hip extension torque = (1764 x 0.15) + (510 x 0.15) = 342Nm.
How can we calculate torque in the good morning?
The good morning produces maximum torque when hip flexion is 90 degrees and the hamstrings are in the
stretched position.

Length of Perpendicular Length of Perpendicular

moment force (F) for moment force (F) for
arm (L) for barbell = 45kg arm (L) for body segments
barbell = body = 60kg
55cm segments =
40cm

So as an example, if Bret performs a good morning with 45kg (441N) and the weight of his HAT is 60kg (588N) and
the distance between his hip and the barbell is 55cm while the distance between his hip and his HAT center of mass
is 40cm, then our total external hip extension torque = (441 x 0.55) + (588 x 0.4) = 478Nm.
How can we calculate torque in the back extension?
The horizontal back extension produces maximum torque when hip flexion is 0 degrees, which is the
anatomical position.

Length of Perpendicular Length of Perpendicular

moment force (F) for moment force (F) for
arm (L) for barbell = 45kg arm (L) for body segments
barbell = body = 60kg
55cm segments =
40cm

So as an example, if Bret performs a horizontal back extension with 45kg (441N) and the weight of his HAT is 60kg
(588N) and the distance between his hip and the barbell is 55cm while the distance between his hip and his HAT
center of mass is 40cm, then our total external hip extension torque = (441 x 0.55) + (588 x 0.4) = 478Nm.
How can we calculate torque in the 45-degree back extension?

The 45-degree back extension produces maximum torque halfway in-between the top and bottom positions.

Length of Perpendicular Length of Perpendicular

moment force (F) for moment force (F) for
arm (L) for barbell = 45kg arm (L) for body segments
barbell = body = 60kg
55cm segments =
40cm

So as an example, if Bret performs a 45-degree back extension with 45kg (441N) and the weight of his HAT is 60kg
(588N) and the distance between his hip and the barbell is 55cm while the distance between his hip and his HAT
center of mass is 40cm, then our total external hip extension torque = (441 x 0.55) + (588 x 0.4) = 478Nm.
How can we calculate torque in exercises in other positions?

The 45-degree back extension produces maximum torque halfway in-between the top and bottom positions
but it also produces torque at the top and bottom positions.

The preceding examples showed the various exercises at the points

of peak torque production. However, most exercises also involve
significant levels of torque production at other points during the
movement and this is why it’s important to examine the torque
curve profiles of various hip extension exercises.
The key thing to remember when calculating torque at other points
in the movement is that while the loads will remain the same, the
moment arm lengths will change.
In the example of the 45-degree hip extension, we can look at the
same worked example with Bret, in which his head, arms and torso
weight is 60kg and his barbell load is 45kg. At the point of peak
torque, the moment arms were 55cm for the barbell and 40cm for
the segments center of mass. The equation therefore showed that
the total hip extension torque was 478Nm.
However, at the top position (and also at the bottom position, as
Length of
Perpendicular they are mirror images of each other), the moment arm lengths are
moment arm (L)
for barbell = force (F) for reduced and the total hip extension torque is just 338Nm.
55cm barbell = 45kg
 Why is it helpful to calculate hip extension torque at different ROMs?

Calculating hip extension torque at different ranges of motion (ROMs) helps us to assess the potential hypertrophy
effects of an exercise.

Hip torque for three different exercises with 45kg loads at We have seen before that the good morning, 45-
different degrees of hip flexion, Contreras, awaiting publishing degree back extension and back extension can be
performed in such at way that they have identical
peak torques but at different positions. The
600
Torque (Nm)

three primary mechanisms leading to muscular

growth are mechanical tension, muscular
500 damage, and metabolic stress, as Schoenfeld
(2010) has noted.

400 Consequently, we can see that although the three

exercises produce identical peak torques, the 45-
degree back extension produces the most
300 constant mechanical tension by never dropping
below 338Nm. On the other hand, the good
200 morning is likely to produce the most muscular
damage by contracting the hardest at the longest
muscle length. Finally, the back extension and
100 45-degree back extension will likely produce the
most metabolic stress by contracting the hardest
while the muscle length is shortest and therefore
0 leading the greatest level of cell swelling or pump
90 degrees Good Morning 0 degrees in the muscles. We can therefore see that a
45 degree Back Extension combination of the various exercises is likely
Degree of hip flexion
Horizontal Back Extension optimal for greatest levels of hypertrophy.
 What is the hip extension torque during a glute-ham raise?
We can also calculate the hip and knee extension torques during a glute-ham raise. This shows that the hip
extension torque in comparison to the knee extension torque is small: the glute-ham raise is therefore a
hamstring-dominant exercise.

Length of moment arm (L) Perpendicular Length of moment Perpendicular

between center of mass force (F) for arm (L) between force (F) for
and knee joint = 60cm center of mass of center of mass and center of mass
head, arms, trunk hip joint = 40cm of head, arms
and thighs and trunk
(HAT+T) = 88kg (HAT) = 65kg

So as an example, if Bret performs a natural glute-ham raise and the weight of his HAT is 65kg (637N) and the weight
of his HAT+T is 88kg (863N) and the distance between his hip joint and the center of mass of the HAT is 40cm while
the distance between his knee joint and his HAT+T center of mass is 60cm, then our total external hip extension
torque = (637 x 0.4) = 255Nm while the knee flexion torque = (863 x 0.6) = 518Nm. Bearing in mind that since the
knee flexion torque capability of athletes is typically around 60-85% of the hip extension torque capability, glute-ham
raises are therefore unlikely to challenge the glutes (but they’re great for the hamstrings).
Chapter summary
In this chapter, we investigated how to calculate the external torque of a hip extension exercise, as follows:
Question
What is external torque?
How do we calculate the total external
torque?
How do we calculate the moment
created by the barbell?
How do we calculate the moment
created by the relevant body
segments?
Why should we calculate torque at
different ranges of motion for various
exercises?
Answer
Torque is just the product of the moment arm and the load.
The total external torque is the sum of two moments: the moment created by the
barbell and the moment created by the center of mass of the relevant body
segments.
We can calculate the hip extension moment created by the barbell by measuring the
moment arm length, which is the horizontal distance between the center of mass of
the barbell or dumbbell and the hip joint, and the load, which is simply the mass of
the barbell or dumbbell expressed in Newtons.
We can estimate the hip extension moment created by the center of mass of the
relevant body segments by estimating the mass of these segments, estimating the
point of their center of mass and then measuring the horizontal distance of this
center of mass from the hip joint.
The three primary mechanisms leading to muscular growth are mechanical tension,
muscular damage, and metabolic stress, as Schoenfeld (2010) has noted.
Depending on the properties of their torque curves, different exercises produce
differing levels of mechanical tension throughout the movement, in addition to
different levels of muscular damage and metabolic stress.
Practical implications
In this chapter, we investigated how to calculate the external hip extension torque of a hip extension
exercise. But what are the practical implications?

 Calculating the hip extension torque of various exercises at various different degrees of hip flexion is a useful
way of establishing the best exercises for an athlete to develop their maximum hip extension strength in
different positions. Selecting an exercise based on the hip-angle specificity for the athlete’s sport thereby
becomes straightforward.

 Calculating the hip extension torque of various exercises at various different degrees of hip flexion is a useful
way of establishing the best exercises for creating hypertrophy via the various different mechanisms of
mechanical tension, muscular damage and metabolic stress.

 Finding exercises that involve a high degree of peak mechanical tension can be done by finding the exercise that
produces the highest absolute torque. A high mean mechanical tension can be found by looking for smooth,
relatively constant torque curves (or simply a high average torque).

 Finding exercises that involve a high degree of metabolic stress can be done by looking for exercises that involve
high mean torques and perhaps more important, high peak torques in the contracted position or in the mid-
position.

 Finding exercises that involve a high degree of metabolic stress can be done by looking for exercises that involve
peak torques in the contracted position or in the mid-position.

 We can also use hip extension torque estimations to find out whether a given exercise is effective for challenging
the muscles at a given joint. For example, in the glute-ham raise, we can see that the main stress of the exercise
falls at the knee joint and requires significant knee-flexion strength, which is provided by the hamstrings. At the
same time as the knee flexors are being stressed, the hip extensors are under approximately 50% of the loading,
which given that they are much stronger muscles suggests that they are not particularly challenged during this
movement.
 What is the hip extension torque
during functional activities?
How important is hip extension torque during walking?
What factors affect hip extension torque during sit-to-stand movements?
Why study hip extension torque in functional activities?

 Many personal trainers work extensively with elderly people to restore and improve function that these
individuals often thought they would not regain.

 Hip extension torque is a critical element of function in elderly people. Developing greater hip
extension torque can radically improve quality of life and help avoid many people becoming dependent
upon others for their daily care.

Let’s take a closer look at hip extension torque in functional activities on the following pages…
Which functional activities should we study?
There are two main functional activities that involve hip extension torque:

Sit-to-
Walking
stand

Functional
activities

See how each of these key movements produce differing hip torque on the following pages…
Is hip extension or hip flexion torque more important for walking?

Hip extension torque is used extensively during walking and peak hip extension torque is higher than peak
hip flexion torque during walking, as well as during ascending and descending stairs.

Kirkwood (1999) recruited 30 elderly subjects (17
men and 13 women), all of whom were older
than 55 years. The subjects had an average age
of 65.4 years.
90
Peak hip flexion and extension moments during
level walking, ascending stairs and descending
stairs, Kirkwood, 1999

Hip moments (Nm)

The researchers recorded their movements using
a motion capture system and their ground 80 Hip extension
reaction forces using a force plate, while the torque is greater
70 than hip flexion
subjects performed various functional tasks, torque during
including level walking and ascending and 60 walking
descending stairs. The information gathered 50
allowed the researchers to calculate the moments
at the hip joint in each case. 40

The researchers found that the hip extension 30

moment was larger than the hip flexion moment 20
in each walking test, although the greatest
difference was in ascending stairs. 10

This indicates that it is more important to perform 0

resistance training of the hip extensors than of Walking Ascending stairs Descending stairs
the hip flexors in order to maintain function in
elderly people. Hip flexion Hip extension
Is hip extension torque important for faster walking speeds?
While hip extension torque is not significant during walking, hip extension torque increases steadily with increasing walking
speeds from just under 20Nm to just under 40Nm at quick walking speeds.

Riley (2001) wanted to establish which muscles are
responsible for increasing gait speed. So they recruited 24
subjects (16 female and 8 male) and asked them to walk at
three different speeds along a 10m walkway.
While the subjects walked along the walkway, the
researchers recorded their movements. They also recorded
the ground reaction forces using two force plates. The
researchers then used inverse dynamics to calculate the net
The researchers conclude that it is the hip extensors that act
primarily in order to propel the body forward during walking
while the ankle's role is predominantly one of supporting the
upper-body mass.
Joint moments at three different self-selected
walking speeds as a percentage of normal speed,
Riley, 2001

Normalized moments (Nm /kgm

joint moments during gait. 180.0%
The researchers observed that the hip and ankle moments 160.0%
contribute primarily to propulsion at all speeds and that the 140.0%
knee moments do not contribute significantly to propulsion 120.0%
at any speed.
100.0%
They also noted that the magnitude of the contribution of 80.0%
the hip and ankle moments changed with speed and the Hip extension torque is
60.0%
relative contribution of the hip and ankle joint moments to responsible for increased
40.0%
propulsion also changed with speed. walking speed
20.0%
The researchers noted that the hip extensor moment is
0.0%
responsible for the propulsive force in late swing and early
Slow Normal Fast
stance.
Hip extensors Ankle plantar-flexors

Similarly, Burnfield (2000) investigated the association between leg joint torques and stride characteristics in elderly men. They
found that hip extension torque was the best predictor of walking speed. No other torque variable improved the correlation
between torque and walking speed in their study.
 Is hip extension torque important for bone density?
Hip joint moments observed during walking and stair stepping are correlated with femoral bone density in
women.

Wang (2009) measured the hip extension torque during
various functional movements in 16 elderly subjects (70
– 85 years) including walking and sit-to-stand to a chair
of 43.8cm. They found that the moments were similar
in each, although the height of the chair likely caused
the hip moments in the sit-to-stand to be lower than in
other studies.
Hip extension torque during various functional
movements performed by elderly subjects, Wang,
2009
Joint moment (Nm)
The researchers also investigated the bone mineral
density and bone mineral content of the subjects in this
study using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA).
They took measurements at the dominant-limb proximal
femur, femoral neck, and greater trochanter.
They found that in men, only height was significantly
related to bone mineral content, and this was found at
the greater trochanter.
On the other hand, in women, the researchers found

120 that hip bone mineral density and bone mineral content
at all measurement sites were all significantly correlated
100 with the sum of all hip joint moments (i.e. hip
flexion/extension, abduction/adduction and
80
external/internal rotation during walking and stair
60 stepping but not sit-to-stand.

40 Hip extension torque is similar The researchers noted that stair stepping activity best
in walking, sit-to-stand and
stair stepping in elderly people
explained the hip bone mass of the three activities. They
20 proposed that this strong relationship was primarily
because of the larger abduction moments that occur
0
during this activity.
Walking Sit-to-stand Stair stepping
Total Male Female
 How is hip extension torque during sit-to-stand affected by load?

The sit-to-stand requires more hip extension torque than walking. It also seems to increase with
increasing load, rising from c. 110Nm without load to c. 150Nm with 45% of bodyweight, although this
may depend upon the strategy used.

Savelberg (2007) looked at how hip extension torque and
rising strategies alter with increasing percentages of
bodyweight lifted during a functional sit-to-stand exercise
(15%, 30% and 45% of body weight). They found that
increasing loads led to increasing hip moments.
Van der Heijden (2009) found that increasing loads during
knee-dominant and hip-dominant sit-to-stands had different
effects on the joint moments. Increasing loads during knee-
dominant sit-to-stands caused large increases in knee
moments but actually reduced hip moments. Hip moments
in hip-dominant sit-to-stands were not changed by load.

Hip extension torque at different percentages of Hip extension torque during hip- and knee-dominant
bodyweight during a sit-to-stand exercise, unloaded and loaded sit-to-stand exercise, Van der
Savelberg, 2007 Heijden, 2009

Joint moment (Nm)

160 140
Hip extension torque (Nm)

140 120

120 100

100 80
Hip extension moments
80 60
were lower in knee-
60 Hip extension torque 40 dominant sit-to-stands
increases with added with greater loads
40 loading 20

20 0
Knee-dominant Hip-dominant - Knee-dominant Hip-dominant -
0
- no load no load - +45% +45%
100% 115% 130% 145%
bodyweight bodyweight
Bodyweight percentage
Hip moment Knee moment
Is hip extension torque in sit-to-stand affected by age?
The hip extension torque involved in the sit-to-stand movement increases with age, as movement strategies alter.

Schultz (1992) analyzed data collected from a previous Joint torques when rising from a chair without
experiment involving both young adult and two groups hands, Schultz, 1992
of elderly subjects (healthy and unable). These data

Joint torques (Nm)

were collected while the subjects rose from a standard 140 Age affects joint torques
chair. during a sit-to-stand
120
The researchers wanted to investigate what joint angle
and joint torque differences existed between the 100
groups of subjects.
80
The young group comprised 17 healthy young adults,
the healthy old group comprised 23 healthy elderly 60
adults who were able to rise both with and without the 40
use of hands from a chair, and the unable old group
comprised 11 elderly females who were unable to rise 20
from a chair without using their hands to help them.
0
When comparing the results between the two groups
who were able to rise without the use of hands, the -20
researchers found that the old healthy subjects made Ankle Knee Hip Shoulder
less use of knee extension torque and more use of hip
extension torque and ankle plantar-flexion torque. Young Old healthy
Is hip extension torque greater in sit-to-stand than in a free squat?

Hip extension torque is greater during a chair squat (i.e. a sit-to-stand) than in a free squat without a chair.

Flanagan (2003) recruited 21 elderly subjects (9 Difference in hip, knee and ankle joint moments
male and 13 female) and asked them to perform during chair squat and free squats, Flanagan, 2003
both chair squats and free squats while the
researchers recorded their movements using a

Joint moments (Nm/kg)

1.2
Hip moments are
motion capture system and the ground reaction greater during a chair
forces using a force plate. squat while knee
1
moments are greater
The researchers found that there was a significant during a free squat
difference in the joint moments during chair
0.8
squats and during free squats. They found that
chair squats required much greater hip extension
torque than free squats, while free squats 0.6
required much more knee extension torque than
chair squats.
0.4
The researchers concluded that clinicians could
use the chair squat for home-based rehabilitation
programs for the elderly to develop their hip 0.2
extensors, while the free squat could be used to
develop their knee extensors. 0
Hip Knee Ankle

Squat Chair squat

Is hip extension torque during a sit-to-stand affected by chair height?

The sit-to-stand exercise is affected by the height of a chair and by whether hands are used to help in the
movement.

Burdett (1985) wanted to compare joint movements Joint torques when rising from a chair with
and moments between a normal chair and a higher and without the assistance of hands, Burdett,
chair that had an attached, sturdy footstool that could 1985

Joint torques (Nm)

be used as a step for getting up onto and out of the 180
chair.
160
Hip extension torque is is
They recruited 10 healthy male subjects and 4 male 140 reduced in sit-to-stand by the
subjects with a variety of lower body disabilities. The 120
use of hands or a higher chair
researchers placed reflective markers on the key 100
anatomical markers of each of the subjects and asked
80
them to rise from each of the two chairs both with and
without the use of hands while they recorded the 60
movements using a camera. The subjects were also 40
placed such that they rose with their feet upon a force 20
plate. 0
Hip Hip Knee Knee Ankle Ankle
The researchers found that the higher chair with a extension - extension - extension - extension - plantar plantar
footstool significantly reduced the hip and knee standard modified standard modified flexion - flexion -
chair chair chair chair standard modified
extension moments, even without the use of hands. In chair chair
addition, they found that the use of hands reduced the
hip and knee extension moments. Without hands With hands
 Does foot placement affect hip extension torque during a sit-to-stand?

The sit-to-stand exercise is affected by the height of a chair and by foot placement. Placing the feet further back
under the body leads to greater knee moments and reduced hip moments. Increasing the height of the seat leads
to reduced hip moments and greater knee moments.

Similar to Burdett (1985), Gillette (undated) also found that The researchers also found that the foot placement during a
lower seats resulted in higher hip extension torques than higher sit-to-stand affected the hip extension torque. They found
seats. that placing the feet back under the body while in the
seated position lead to the lowest hip extension torque,
while keeping the feet under the knees (described as
Hip extension torque during various seat neutral), led to the greatest hip extension torque.
heights and foot placements in a sit-to-stand,
Gillette, undated The researchers commented that shifting from a foot-back
to a foot-neutral placement substantially increased hip
Foot-neutral Hip moments are greater
extension moments by 46%, which would be a noticeable
when feet are placed difference for any elderly person. However, although they
Non-dominant foot staggered further forward noted that moving one foot from the anterior to the
posterior position produced dramatic changes in ankle
Foot-intermediate plantar-flexion and knee extension moments, they did not
alter hip extension moments as significantly.
Low seat
The same observations were made by Mathiyakom (2005),
High seat who reviewed the behavior of low and high seats as well as
forward and backward foot placements but not staggered
Dominant foot staggered foot positions.

Intermediate stagger In summary, to maximize hip extension moments during a

sit-to-stand movement, the feet should be placed under the
Foot-back knees, or as far forwards as possible while safely maintaining
balance.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Joint torque (Nm)
 Is hip extension torque during a sit-to-stand affected by obesity?

The obese use different strategies from the non-obese when performing a sit-to-stand movement.

Sibella (2003) observed that obese subjects displayed
significantly less trunk flexion upon starting the sit-to-stand
exercise. Consequently, the trunk moved through a smaller
angle. In order to achieve this movement, the subjects
performed a backward foot movement from the initial position.
This allowed the subjects to move their center of mass closer to
the ankle without leaning forwards, as the degree of knee
flexion was increased.
The researchers found that as a result of this different joint
movement strategy, the obese subjects performed the sit-
to-stand exercise with a significantly reduced level of hip
extension torque and a significantly increased degree of
knee extension torque. The researchers suggested that this
may have been intended to reduce the load on the lower
back during the movement.

Trunk angle with respect to the horiztonal in a sit-to- Hip and knee extension torques during a sit-to-
stand exercise, Sibella, 2003 stand exercise, Sibella, 2003
Joint angles (degrees)

80

Joint moments (Nm)

80 The obese use less hip extension torque
70 and more knee extension torque
70
60 60

50 50

40
40
30
30
The obese make use of a steeper 20
20 trunk angle during a sit-to-stand
10
movement
10 0
Healthy Healthy Obese subjects Healthy
0 subjects (first subjects (tenth (first rep) subjects (tenth
Healthy subjects Healthy subjects Obese subjects Obese subjects rep) rep) rep)
(first rep) (tenth rep) (first rep) (tenth rep)
Hip extension torque Knee extension torque
 How do hip and knee moments balance out during sit-to-stands?

Greater hip moments are accompanied by reduced knee moments and greater knee moments are accompanied by
reduced hip moments.

Yoshioka (2007) performed a computational modelling
exercise of the sit-to-stand movement patterns of 5
individuals. They found that there was a pattern between
the peak hip moments and the peak knee moments,
depending on the joint angles that were used.
The researchers found that when the torso was more
upright, the knee moments were increased and the hip
moments were reduced. Similarly, they found that
when the torso was leaning more forwards, the knee
moments were reduced and the hip moments were
increased.

In fact, they discovered that the knee moments

Interrelation of hip and knee moments during observed when the torso was upright were greater than
sit-to-stand exercise, Yoshioka, 2007 the hip moments. And they found that the hip
100 moments when the torso was leaning more forwards
Joint moment (Nm)

90 were greater than the knee moments.

80
This suggests that the two movement patterns were
70 Upright sit-to-stand involves more knee very different, as one required greater knee moments
moments and leaning forward sit-to-
60 stand involves more hip moments
than hip moments and the other required greater hip
50
moments than knee moments.
40 The researchers also commented that the moments
30 were around the same total of 110Nm or 1.5Nm/kg for
20
both upright and leaning forward variations, suggesting
that the same total joint torques are required but that
10
there are two basic options, with a variety of possible
0 variations in-between.
Torso upright Torso leaning forward

Maximum knee moments Maximum hip moments

Chapter summary
In this section, we investigated how hip extension torque is involved in two key functional activities, as
follows:

Question Findings

Is hip extension or hip

Peak hip extension torque is greater than peak hip flexion torque during walking as well as during stair
flexion torque more
ascending and descending.
important for walking?

Is hip extension torque

While hip extension torque is not significant during walking, hip extension torque increases steadily with
important for faster
increasing walking speeds from just under 20Nm to just under 40Nm at quick walking speeds.
walking speeds?

Is hip extension torque

Hip extension torque is responsible for propulsion during walking. It is therefore important for achieving
important for faster
faster walking speeds in the elderly.
walking speeds?

Is hip extension torque

Hip joint moments observed during walking and stair stepping are correlated with femoral bone density in
important for bone
women.
density?

How does hip extension

torque compare to The sit-to-stand requires more hip extension torque than walking.
walking?

Is hip extension torque

Hip extension torque during the sit-to-stand increases with increasing load, rising from c. 110Nm without load
important for bone
to c. 150Nm with 45% of bodyweight, although this may depend upon the strategy used.
density?

Is hip extension torque

Elderly people tend to make more use of hip extension torque and less use of knee extension torque when
in sit-to-stand affected
performing a sit-to-stand movement.
by age?
Chapter summary
In this section, we investigated how hip extension torque is involved in two key functional activities, as
follows:

Question Findings

Is hip extension
torque greater in sit- The sit-to-stand, or chair squat, involves more hip extension torque than the free squat, which requires greater
to-stand than in a knee extension torque.
free squat?

Is hip extension
torque during a sit- The sit-to-stand movement is markedly affected by the height of the chair and by the use of hands. Elderly or
to-stand affected by infirm people who struggle with the sit-to-stand movement can be assisted by higher chairs.
chair height?

Does foot placement

The sit-to-stand exercise is affected by the height of a chair and by foot placement. Placing the feet further back
affect hip extension
under the body leads to greater knee moments and reduced hip moments. Increasing the height of the seat
torque during a sit-
leads to reduced hip moments and greater knee moments.
to-stand?

Is hip extension
torque during a sit- Obese people tend to make less use of hip extension torque and more use of knee extension torque during a sit-
to-stand affected by to-stand movement, possibly in order to spare the lower back.
obesity?

How do hip and knee

There are two basic sit-to-stand patterns – hip-dominant and knee-dominant – but both require the same
moments balance out
amount of total joint torque, just allocated differently over the two joints.
during sit-to-stands?
Practical implications
In this short section, we investigated the role of hip extension torque in two main functional activities. But
what are the practical implications?

 Faster walking speeds require greater hip extension torque. Therefore, in order to maintain functional walking
capability in elderly people, the hip extensors should be developed. The peak hip extension moment is greater than
the peak hip flexion moment during walking. Therefore, it appears that it may be more important to train the hip
extensors than the hip flexors in the elderly. This should be taken into account through priority in programming.

 In general, since hip extension torque appears to be greater during sit-to-stand and stair stepping than during
walking, this may mean that elderly people who have no difficulty in walking around may still have problems in rising
from a chair. Therefore, in training elderly people for improved function, we should not neglect sit-to-stand
movements even if they appear to be comfortable in walking.

 Elderly people do often tend to have difficulty in rising from a chair and this can lead to a loss of independence. This
difficulty appears to be because of a lack of strength. Strength interventions should therefore be used to help elderly
people increase the strength that will help maintain their independence.

 Elderly people tend to make more use of hip extension torque than knee extension torque during the sit-to-stand
exercise than younger people. Therefore, maintaining strong hip extensors in the elderly should also assist in the
ability to get into and out of a chair, which is key for maintaining independence in old age. However, knee extension
torque is still important to develop as it is needed in the sit to stand movement as well as moving up and down steps.

 Glute bridge variations are easy for elderly subjects to perform because the stability requirements are low. They
allow for the retention or increase in hip extensor muscle size to prevent the atrophy and losses of strength
commonly seen in older subjects.

 Hip joint moments in women are correlated with increased bone density and bone mineral content. Exercises that
develop hip joint strength should therefore be made a priority for women and particularly for middle-aged and
elderly women.
Practical implications
In this short section, we investigated the role of hip extension torque in two main functional activities. But
what are the practical implications?

 Strength training for function in elderly people should be task-specific. The chair squat, which closely resembles the sit-to-
stand movement, involves more hip extension torque than the free squat, which involves more knee extension torque.
Chair squats should therefore be used in preference to free squats for helping the elderly retain functional movement.

 Hip extension torque is reduced by the use of hands or the use or a higher chair. Where elderly or infirm people have a
lower extremity disability, providing a higher chair and/or strengthening the upper body could help maintain the ability to
get into and out of a chair.

 During sit-to-stand exercises in the gym, hip extension torque is reduced by a higher chair and by allowing the feet to
move back under the seat. Therefore, when programming for maximum hip extension torque, the seat should be as low
as mobility and strength allow and the feet should be as far forward as stability and strength allow. Step ups from very low
heights while holding onto a stationary object for balance can be used as well, with a gradual progression of step height.

 Progressions in the sit-to-stand can be made first and foremost by starting with a very high box and reducing the box
height. However, moving the feet forwards from a starting position under the seat could also be another means of
progression, although this will involve changing the movement pattern more significantly as the progression is moved
forwards.

 The obese tend to adopt a sit-to-stand strategy that reduces hip extension torque and increases knee extension torque.
Therefore, the obese may have an increased risk of knee pain during sit-to-stand movements and may find hip-dominant
movements counter-intuitive and difficult to learn. This may require extra time in programming, or a slower set of
progressions.

 There are two basic sit-to-stand patterns – hip-dominant and knee-dominant – but both require the same amount of total
joint torque, just allocated differently over the two joints. Therefore, to emphasize hip extension torque instead of knee
extension torque, we should cue clients to sit back more in the sit-to-stand.
What are the hip extension torques during
high velocity activities?
Jumping
Sprinting
Jump squats
Olympic lifts
Kettlebell swings
Why study hip extension torque in high-velocity activities?

 Many strength coaches work with athletes to improve their speed-specific strength in various tried-and-
tested exercises. But how do we assess whether the hip extension torque that these exercises develops
is sufficient or appropriate for their sporting movements?

 By referring to research, we can see which exercises produce the most hip extension torque and also
which movements require the most hip extension torque during high-speed movements.

Let’s take a closer look at hip extension torque in high-velocity activities on the following pages…
Which high velocity activities involve hip extension torque?
There are many high velocity activities that involve hip extension as follows:

Side steps
(cutting) Jump
Sprinting
squats

Olympic
Landing
lifts

High
Kettlebell
Jumping velocity swing
activities

See how each of these key exercises produce differing hip torque on the following pages…
 Does hip extension torque correlate with vertical jumping performance?

Isokinetic hip and knee extension torque are correlated with vertical jumping performance at higher speeds.

Vanezis (2002) found that groups who performed
better on vertical jump tests tended to have greater
ankle plantar-flexion and knee and hip extension
torques.
Tsiokanos (2002) found that there is a moderate to
strong relationship between isokinetic torques around
the knee, ankle and hip and vertical jump
performance, particularly when bodyweight is
controlled for.

Differences in ankle, knee and hip moments Correlations between isokinetic torque measures of the
between high and low jumpers, Vanezis, 2005 hip, knee and ankle and jump performance, Tsiokanos,
2002
Peak moment (Nm/kg)

3.7 Knee extension torque at 180 degrees/s

Knee extension torque at 120 degrees/s

3.5
Hip extension torque at 180 degrees/s

3.3 Knee extension torque at 60 degrees/s

Ankle plantar-flexion torque at 60 degrees/s Hip extension

3.1 torque is
Ankle plantar-flexion torque at 120 degrees/s
higher in
2.9 Hip extension torque at 120 degrees/s better jumpers
Hip extension torque is Ankle plantar-flexion torque at 180 degrees/s
2.7 higher in better jumpers
Hip extension torque at 60 degrees/s

2.5 0.0 0.5 1.0

Ankle Knee Hip Correlation coefficient
High Low
Counter-movement jump Squat jump
 Do jumps in different directions require similar hip extension torques?

Although different direction jumps appear to involve fundamentally different movements, they still involve very similar
ankle, knee and hip moments. However, muscle activity is different.

Jones (2003) studied the ankle, knee and hip moments
involved in four different jumps in varying directions:
backwards, vertical intermediate-forwards and forwards (i.e.
horizontal). They found that the moments at each joint were
very similar, irrespective of the direction in which the jump
was performed.
The researchers also found that although the joint moments
were very similar, the EMG activity of the various muscles was
very different. One trend they noted was that bi-articular
muscles, like the hamstrings, tended to increase in activity
from backwards to forwards directed jumps, while mono-
articular muscles like the gluteals tended to remain constant.

Differences in ankle, knee and hip moments between Differences in EMG activity of the gluteus maximus
different jump directions, Jones, 2003 and hamstrings during four different types of jump,
Jones, 2003

Average EMG activity as % of maximum vertical jump

302.5
Peak moment (Nm)

52.5
Muscle EMG increases
252.5 47.5 with back-front direction
42.5 changes in the
hamstrings but not the
202.5 37.5 gluteals
32.5
152.5 27.5
Ankle, knee and hip 22.5
torques are similar
102.5 17.5
irrespective of which
direction the athlete 12.5
52.5 jumps in
7.5
2.5
2.5 Hamstrings Gluteus maximus
Hip Knee Ankle
Backward Vertical Intermediate-forward Forward Backward Vertical Intermediate Forward
 How much hip extension torque do gymnastic drop landings produce?

Gymnasts landing from high boxes produce the highest levels of hip extension torque. They also increase their hip
extension torque by more than their knee extension torque with increasing box height, while recreational athletes
do not.

McNitt (1993) monitored the ankle, knee and hip
moments during drop landings from low (32cm), medium
(72cm) and high (128cm) boxes in both competitive male
gymnasts and recreational athletes. From the high box,
which is not as high as gymnastic equipment, the gymnasts
produced 1,583Nm of hip extension torque.
Ankle, knee and hip joint torques following landing
from drops of three heights in gymnasts, McNitt,
1993
Joint torque (Nm)
The researchers found that the gymnasts increased their
hip extension torque by more than their knee or ankle
plantar-flexion torque. On the other hand, the recreational
athletes increased knee and hip extension torques similarly.
This appeared to be related to the gymnasts performing
the landings with less hip flexion than the recreational
athletes.
Ankle, knee and hip joint torques following
landing from drops of three heights in
recreational athletes, McNitt, 1993

Joint torque (Nm)

1,660.0
1,660.0
1,460.0 Hip extension torque
Hip extension torque 1,460.0 increases faster than knee
1,260.0 increases faster than knee and ankle torques with
and ankle torques with 1,260.0
increasing drop depth
1,060.0 increasing drop depth 1,060.0
860.0 860.0
660.0 660.0
460.0 460.0

260.0 260.0

60.0 60.0
Gymnast - low Gymnast - medium Gymnast - high Athlete - low Athlete - medium Athlete - high

Ankle Knee Hip Ankle Knee Hip

 Do faster sprinting speeds require greater hip extension torques?

Hip extension torque increases with increasing sprinting speeds but much more sharply than expected.

Schache (2011) found that peak hip extension torque
increased sharply and significantly with faster running
speeds. They also concluded that the hip extensor and
knee flexor muscles displayed the greatest increase in
workload with increased running speed.
Bezodis (2009) also found that the hip extension
torque during the stance phase in sprinting was
significantly greater at faster sprinting speeds.

Peak Hip Extension Torque at increasing Hip Extension Torque at increasing elite sprinting
running speeds, Schache, 2011 speeds, Bezodis, 2009
4.5 0.305

Hip extension torque (Nm/kg/m)

4 Hip extension torque 0.3 Hip extension torque
increases sharply with increases sharply with
3.5 increased sprinting speed 0.295 increased sprinting speed
3
Hip extension torque (Nm/kg)

0.29

2.5 0.285

2 0.28

1.5 0.275

1 0.27

0.5 0.265

0 0.26
3.5 5.02 6.97 8.95 10.14 10.37
Running speed (m/s) Running speed (m/s)
Do faster sprinting speeds require greater hip extension torques?

Hip extension torque increases with increasing sprinting speeds but much more sharply than expected.

Belli (2002) used inverse dynamics to calculate the Increases in ankle, knee and hip moments
forces at the joints during running at various speeds. with increasing running speed, Belli, 2002
They recruited 9 male middle-distance runners who
had been training for 5.7 ± 1.4 years and who were 302.5

Peak moment (Nm)

accustomed to running 74 ± 22km per week in the
year preceding the experiment. 252.5

They asked the subjects to perform two sub-maximal

runs (4m/s for 3 minutes and 6m/s for 1 minute) and a 202.5
30m-sprint. The subjects ran on an indoor 200m
track, paced by an electric car. There was a 10m force 152.5
plate that the subjects passed each lap, which
corresponded with a camera set up to capture 6m of 102.5
running distance. Hip extension torque
The researchers found that the moments at the ankle, increases sharply with
52.5
increased sprinting speed
knee and hip all increased with increasing running
speed. However, they noted that the moment at the 2.5
hip increased by much more than the moments at the Ankle Knee Hip
knee and ankle, suggesting that the hip moment is
responsible for the increase in speed. 4.00m/s 6.00m/s 8.86m/s
How do accelerating sprints and maximum-speed sprints differ?

Mechanical advantage at the hip is greater during accelerating sprints than during maximum speed sprints.

Card (undated) studied the ratios of muscle
mechanical advantage relative to ground reaction
force (GRF) mechanical advantage during the first
five steps of a sprint start and during maximum
speed sprinting, taken as greater than step 13.
Changing hip, knee and ankle muscle mechanical
advantage relative to ground reaction force ratios
from accelerating to steady speed running, Card,
undated
3.5
Mechanical advantage at the hip

Ratio
decreases as acceleration decreases
The researchers found that the ratios 3

demonstrated that the mechanical advantage at

2.5
the hip decreased during the first few steps of
acceleration and was lowest during maximum 2
speed running, while the knee and ankle
1.5
mechanical power did not change significantly.
1
It is likely that the mechanical advantage of the
hips is less in maximum speed running than during 0.5
accelerating running because there is less forward-
lean. During maximum speed running, the hip can’t 0
Step 1 Step 3 Step 5 Steady state
produce as much power due to the upright stance.
Hip Knee Ankle
 Does hip extension torque increase with increasing side step distance?

Hip extension torque increases with increasing side-step distance and work done in hip extension
increases much faster than work done at other joints and in different planes.
Inaba (2012) investigated the size of different joint The researchers also found that the ratio of work done
torques during side steps of increasing size (measured at each joint in each plane increased differently with
as a percentage of body height). They found that as the increasing side step distance. The increase in hip
side step increased in length, the joint torques in the extension work was much greater than the increase in
sagittal plane at the hip, knee and ankle increased but any of the other variables measured. Shimokochi
the hip abduction torque did not. (2012) also found that faster lateral movements were
associated with greater hip extension velocity.

Peak joint torques during side steps of different Rate of increase of work done at each joint from 20%
lengths (as a percentage of height), Inaba, 2012 of height to 100% of height during side steps of
180.0
Peak torque (Nm)

different lengths, Inaba, 2012

160.0 35

Ratio
Hip extension work done
140.0 30 increases much more
120.0 quickly than the work done
25 in any other direction or at
100.0 any other joint
20
80.0

60.0 Hip extension torque 15

increases significantly with
40.0 10
increasing side step distance
20.0
5
0.0
Hip extension Knee extension Ankle plantar- Hip abduction 0
torque torque flexion torque Hip extension Knee extension Ankle plantar- Hip abduction
torque torque flexion torque
Side step of 20% of height Side step of 100% of height
What is different about hex-bar jump squats?
Power outputs during hex-bar deadlift jumps were higher than in equivalent jump squats.

Swinton (2012) recently performed a very exciting
study using hex-bar jump squats. They compared the
kinematics and kinetics of barbell jump squats and
hex-bar deadlift jumps.
Swinton et al. recruited 29 male rugby union athletes,
tested their 1RM on both the back squat and hex-bar
deadlift. Then they took measurements while the
athletes performed jumps of both exercises, with
20%, 40% and 60% of their 1RM. They used a force
plate to record ground reaction forces and two
cameras to record the movements of the athletes.
Swinton et al. proposed that the position of the hex-bar
during the jump could have caused the athletes to
maintain a more effective jumping position, which
negated the effect of the additional load. This is likely
because of the increased external moment arm length.
Power outputs at different percentages of 1RM in the
straight-bar and hex-bar jump squats, Swinton, 2012
2500
2000

Swinton et al. observed that the peak rate of force

development during the jump exercises was
1500
significantly greater during unloaded jumps and
Power (W)
during hex-bar deadlift jumps compared with the
jump squats. The researchers also noted that the
1000 Power outputs during
greatest peak power output was recorded during the
hex-bar deadlift jump with 20% of 1RM added load. hex-bar deadlifts were
higher than during jump
This was a startling result, as normally the highest squats
500
power outputs are observed in un-weighted jumps.
Moreover, there was a tendency for the hex-bar
deadlift jumps to produce higher values than the
0
jump squat.
0% 20% 40% 60%

Straight-bar Hex-bar
 How much hip extension torque do the Olympic lifts require?
The Olympic lifts require considerable hip extension torque to execute, although not as much as the
powerlifts.

Baumann (1988) recorded the performances of the The researchers managed to take video footage of
athletes at the 1985 World Weightlifting the athletes and record simultaneous ground
Championships in Sweden. reaction forces, which enabled them to make
calculations of the joint moments.
Hip extension moments in individual snatch
lifts of various barbell weights by multiple Since the athletes were not randomly selected, the
lifters, Baumann, 1988 researchers did not present averages but simply
700 recorded the actual lifts and actual moments for
each lifter.
Joint moments (Nm)

600
The researchers found that the maximum hip
500 extension moment was recorded by the
heavyweight lifter, Krastev, during a successful
400 snatch lift with 202.5kg. At a bodyweight of 150kg,
the hip extension torque generated was 660Nm.
300
The researchers suggest that these large hip
200 extension moments reported in this study into elite
competitors indicate the dominant role of the hip
100 extensors in weightlifting.

0
143

175
135
140
140

145
147.5
150
160
165
175

177.5
195
202.5
205
 How does hip extension torque change with load in the Olympic lifts?

Hip extension torque is not highest at maximum loads during the Olympic clean but at sub-maximal loads, reflecting
perhaps the importance of velocity in achieving maximum power output.

Kipp (2011) compared the effect of increasing percentages of
1RM on the hip extension torque produced in the Olympic
clean exercise. They collected kinematic and kinetic data
while subjects performed cleans at 3 percentages of 1RM:
65%, 75% and 85%. The researchers found that hip torque,
rate of torque development and power were maximal at 75%
of 1RM.
Saxby (undated) investigated the joint torques at the ankle, hip
and knee during the performance of Olympic snatch lifts with
95% of 1RM loads and found that the hip torque during the lift
exceeded 300Nm. The researchers commented that the hip
torque was an extensor moment throughout the lift and
produced two peaks of positive work, during liftoff and during
the explosion, which is a similar pattern to vertical jumping.

Hip extension torque at different percentages of Peak joint moments in a successful snatch lift,
1RM in the clean exercise, Kipp, 2011 Saxby, undated
275 350

Moment (Nm)
Hip extension torque (Nm)

270 300
265
250
260
200
255
150
250
Hip extension torque is
245 highest at 75% of 1RM 100 Hip joint moments are considerably
during an Olympic clean higher than knee and ankle moments
240 50 during the snatch lift
235
0
65% 75% 85%
Ankle Knee Hip
Percentage of 1RM
How can we maximize power outputs using the Olympic lifts?
We can maximize power outputs when using the Olympic lifts by using the mid-thigh clean or the mid-thigh
clean pull.

Cormie (2007) found that the optimal load for peak Comfort et al. found that power output was maximized
power during the power clean was 80% of 1RM. This using the mid-thigh clean and clean pull. However, the
was significantly different from the power produced by loads used in each case were all identical – 60% of 1RM
loads of 30 – 40% of 1RM power clean. power clean.

Kawamori (2005) investigated the optimal load for Power outputs during different clean
peak and mean power in the hang power clean and variations, Comfort, 2011
found that it was produced at 70% of 1RM power 4000

Power (W)
clean, although the differences between power at this
3500
intensity and other intensities between 50 – 90% was
not significant. Similarly, Kilduff (2007) did not find 3000
any significant differences in peak power between
loads of 50 – 90%. 2500

2000
Kawamori (2006) reported that the peak power in the
mid-thigh clean pull is achieved at 60% of 1-repetition 1500 Power output during
maximum (1RM) (power clean), although the shortest Olympic lifts is maximal
time to peak rate of force development was achieved 1000 during mid-thigh pulls
at 30% of power clean 1RM.
500
Comfort (2011) studied all of these variations of the 0
power clean, as well as the mid-thigh clean pull Power clean Hang power Mid-thigh clean Mid-thigh clean
(without the catch phase of the clean). clean pull
 How can we maximize rate of force development using the Olympic lifts?

We can maximize rate of force development when using the Olympic lifts by using the mid-thigh clean or the
mid-thigh clean pull.

Comfort (2011) and Comfort (2009) compared the rate In both studies, the researchers found that rate of force
of force development produced by the power clean, development was maximized by the mid-thigh clean and
the hang clean, the mid-thigh power clean and the the mid-thigh clean pull.
mid-thigh clean pull (without the catch phase of the
clean).

Rate of force development during different clean Rate of force development during different clean
variations, Comfort, 2009 variations, Comfort, 2011
18000 18000
Rate of force development (N/s)

Rate of force development (N/s)

16000 16000

14000 14000

12000 12000

10000 10000

8000 8000
Rate of force Rate of force
6000 6000 development during
development during
Olympic lifts is maximal Olympic lifts is maximal
4000 4000
during mid-thigh pulls during mid-thigh pulls
2000 2000

0 0
Power clean Hang power Mid-thigh clean Mid-thigh clean Power clean Hang power Mid-thigh clean Mid-thigh clean
clean pull clean pull
 Do the Olympic lifts improve athletic performance?
There are correlations between Olympic lifts and sprinting performance but the correspondence between the kinetic
and kinematic variables during the power clean and during sprinting is poor.

Hori (2008) reported that the hang power clean showed good
correlations with other athletic performance variables,
including the 20m sprint. However, the researchers only used
one variation of the clean so it is not possible to establish
whether this exercise would be better or worse than other
Olympic lift variations at improving sprint speed.
Correlations between hang power clean 1RM
performance and other athletic performance variables,
Hori, 2008
Correlations
Irwin (2007) wanted to establish the similarity between the
power clean and sprinting during acceleration and at speed
in respect of the kinetics and kinematics of the hip joint. So
they recruited 4 elite track and field athletes and recorded
their movements and ground reaction forces while they
performed 4 sets of the 3 power cleans, 10m accelerating
sprints from a standing start, and 5m constant-speed sprints
with a 15m run-up.
The researchers observed that the power output of the
clean was similar to that of the max speed sprint but the

0.7 ROM was different. Similarly, the ROM of the power clean
Power clean ability was similar to that of the accelerating sprint but the power
0.6 output was different. The hip extension torque curves were
correlates with sprint
performance markedly different between the power clean and sprints as
0.5
well. They concluded that the power clean is therefore
kinetically and kinematically different from both sprints.
0.4

0.3 Exercise Power output (W) Degrees hip ROM

0.2 Power clean 47.3 46 degrees

0.1 Max speed sprint 42.3 30 degrees

0
Front squat CMJ height CMJ peak CMJ peak 20m sprint Change of
Accelerating sprint 22.0 45 degrees
1RM power with power with direction
no weight 40kg
 How similar are the joint moments in jumping and jerking?
There are correlations between Olympic lifts and jumping performance but the correspondence between the kinetic
and kinematic variables during the jerk and during jumping is poor.

Many strength coaches advocate the use of Olympic lifts
for improving athletic performance on the basis that the
movements are mechanically similar to jumping and
sprinting movements.
Comparison of the joint moments during jumping,
landing and jerking, Cleather, 2012
200
Jerking is not similar
Joint moments (Nm)
However, few studies have studied the
correspondence between the Olympic lifts and
jumping and sprinting. We saw on the previous page
that Irwin (2007) concluded that the correspondence
between the power clean and sprinting was poor.
Cleather (2012) investigated the correspondence in
joint moments between jumping, landing and
jerking. They recorded the joint moments and angles
during jumping, landing and jerking with a 40kg

180
to jumping or landing barbell when performed by 12 males who regularly
160
participated in competitive sports and who used the
140 jerk regularly in their training.
120
They found that the ratio of joint moments in jerking
100 was very different to the ratios in both jumping and
landing. They found that jerking had a much higher
80
ratio of knee-to-hip moments than either jumping or
60 landing. As a result, they suggest that the jerk is
40
classified as predominantly a knee-dominant
movement, which may help develop power in the
20 knee extensors as a result.
0
Jumping Landing Jerking
Ankle Knee Hip
What are the shear and compressive forces in the kettlebell swing?

The ratio of shear to compressive forces in the kettlebell swing is very high compared to other strength
and conditioning movements.

McGill et al. (2012) recorded the EMG activity of a Shear and compressive forces during a kettlebell swing,
number of back, trunk and leg muscles during kettlebell McGill, 2012
swings. They recruited seven subjects and monitored
3500

Forces (N)
the shear and compressive forces on their vertebrae as Kettlebell swings produce
well as the joint ranges-of-motion (ROMs) that they high shear to compressive
achieved during the lift. 3000 loading ratios

The researchers noted that because the swing

2500
incorporates an inertial component to the kettlebell, the
forces needed to accelerate the kettlebell through its arc
cause high posterior shear forces in relation to the 2000
compressive forces, when compared to barbell lifts.
They therefore proposed that the kettlebell swing needs 1500
sufficient spinal stability in a shear mode to ensure that
the exercise can be performed safely.
1000

ROM Top of movement Bottom of movement 500

Lumbar 26 degrees(flexion) 6 degrees (flexion)

0
Beginning Middle Top
Hip joint 75 degrees (flexion) 1 degree (extension) Position during the kettlebell swing

Knee 69 degrees (flexion) 2 degrees (extension) Shear Compressive

 How do the kettlebell swing and jump squats compare?
Kettlebell swings with 16 – 32kg loads are capable of producing greater impulses than jump squats
performed with standard training loads. However, jump squats still produce greater power outputs.

Lake (2011) measured the ground reaction forces, power The researchers found that kettlebell swings produced
outputs and impulses during kettlebell swings and jump greater impulses than jump squats. On the other hand,
squats. However, they only tested kettlebells up to 32kg they noted that the jump squats produced greater
and larger weights may have produced different results. power outputs.

Mean and peak power during kettlebell swings and Impulse measured during kettlebell swings and jump
jump squats, Lake, 2011 squats, Lake, 2011

4000 Jump squats produce higher power outputs 300 Kettlebell swings produce
Power (W)

Impulse (Ns)
greater impulses than
3500 jump squats
250
3000
200
2500

2000 150

1500
100
1000

500 50

0
0
16kg - 24kg - 32kg - Jump Jump Jump Jump
16kg - 24kg - 32kg - Jump Jump Jump Jump
kettlebell kettlebell kettlebell squat - 0% squat - squat - squat -
kettlebell kettlebell kettlebell squat - 0% squat - squat - squat -
20% 40% 60%
20% 40% 60%
Peak power Mean power
Impulse
 What are the ground reaction forces during the kettlebell swing?

The ground reaction forces of the kettlebell swing change dramatically according to whether the hip-hinge
method or the squat-style method is used.

Bret found that the vertical ground reactions force were lower However, the horizontal ground reaction forces were higher
with the hip-hinge method at lower loads but not at higher in the hip-hinge method even at lower loads. At higher loads,
loads. Keep in mind, this is n=1 and more subjects are needed they were much higher. It is also worth noting that Bret’s
to draw reasonable conclusions. data were similar to those recorded by Lake (2011).

Vertical ground reaction forces using different Horizontal ground reaction forces using different
kettlebell weights and styles, N=1, Bret Contreras kettlebell weights and styles, N=1, Bret Contreras
2600 600

2500
500
At lighter loads, the
vertical forces in the
2400
hip-hinge style are 400
much lower than with
2300 the squat style
Force (N)
Force (N)

300
2200

200 Even at lighter loads,

2100 the horizontal forces
in the hip-hinge style
100 are much greater than
2000
with the squat style

1900 0
Squat - 32kg Squat - 64kg Hip hinge - 32kg Hip hinge - 64kg Squat - 32kg Squat - 64kg Hip hinge - 32kg Hip hinge - 64kg
Chapter summary
In this section, we investigated how hip extension torque is involved in various high velocity activities, as
follows:

Question Findings

Does hip extension

torque correlate with Isokinetic hip and knee extension torque are correlated with vertical jumping performance at
vertical jumping higher speeds.
performance?

Do jumps in different
Although jumps in different directions appear to involve fundamentally different movements, they
directions require similar
still involve very similar ankle, knee and hip moments. However, muscle activity is different.
hip extension torques?

Which group of athletes

produce the highest hip Gymnasts landing from high boxes produce the highest levels of hip extension torque. They also
extension torque increase their hip extension torque by more than their knee extension torque with increasing box
reported to date, based height, while recreational athletes do not.
on the literature?

Do faster sprinting
Hip extension torque increases with increasing sprinting speeds to a greater degree than any other
speeds require greater
joint torque.
hip extension torques?

How do accelerating
Mechanical power at the hip is greater during accelerating sprints than during maximum speed
sprints and maximum-
sprints, due to the increased leverage of the hip on account of the forward body lean.
speed sprints differ?
Chapter summary
In this section, we investigated how hip extension torque is involved in various high velocity activities, as
follows:

Question Findings

Does hip extension torque

Hip extension torque increases with increasing side-step distance and work done in hip extension
increase with increasing
increases much faster than work done at other joints and in different planes.
side step distance?
What is different about
Power outputs during hex-bar deadlift jumps were higher than in equivalent jump squats.
hex-bar jump squats?

How much hip extension

The Olympic lifts require considerable hip extension torque to execute, although not as much as
torque do the Olympic lifts
the powerlifts or gymnastic drop landings.
require?

How does hip extension Hip extension torque is not highest at maximum loads during the Olympic clean but at sub-
torque change with load in maximal loads, reflecting perhaps the importance of velocity in achieving maximum power
the Olympic lifts? output.

How can we maximize

We can maximize power outputs when using the Olympic lifts by using the mid-thigh clean or the
power outputs using the
mid-thigh clean pull.
Olympic lifts?

How can we maximize rate

We can maximize rate of force development when using the Olympic lifts by using the mid-thigh
of force development
clean or the mid-thigh clean pull.
using the Olympic lifts?
Chapter summary
In this section, we investigated how hip extension torque is involved in various high velocity activities, as
follows:

Question Findings

Do the Olympic lifts

There are correlations between Olympic lifts and sprinting performance but the correspondence
improve athletic
between the kinetic and kinematic variables during the power clean and sprinting is poor.
performance?

How similar are the

There are correlations between Olympic lifts and jumping performance but the correspondence
joint moments in
between the kinetic and kinematic variables during the jerk and jumping is poor.
jumping and jerking?

What are the shear

The ratio of shear to compressive forces in the kettlebell swing is very high compared to other
and compressive forces
strength and conditioning movements.
in the kettlebell swing?

How do the kettlebell

Kettlebell swings with 16 – 32kg loads are capable of producing greater impulses than jump squats
swing and jump squats
performed with standard training loads. However, jump squats still produce greater power outputs.
compare?

What are the ground

The ground reaction forces of the kettlebell swing change dramatically according to whether the hip-
reaction forces during
hinge method or the squat-style method is used.
the kettlebell swing?
Practical implications
In this section, we investigated the role of hip extension torque in various high velocity activities. But what
are the practical implications?

 Since both knee and hip extension torques correlate with improved jumping performance, both knee and hip
strength should be developed for improving vertical jump ability.

 Also, there appears to be a correlation between strength expressed at higher velocities and jumping
performance. Jump squats or squats with lighter weights but using accommodating resistance may therefore be
useful training aids for developing jumping ability. Similarly, exercises that involve high rates of force
development, such as box squats or mid-thigh clean pulls, could also be useful.

 While the direction of the jump does not appear to affect the joint moments, the muscle activity suggests that
the gluteals are similarly involved in jumps in all directions, while the hamstrings are more involved in jumps
where there is a greater forward component. Therefore, for athletes looking to improve broad jump
performance, the hamstrings should be preferentially trained.

 Gymnastic drop landings display the highest levels of hip extension torque found in any athletic activity.
Plyometrics involving depth jumps may therefore be a powerful tool for increasing hip extension torque for
athletic performance.

 Since hip extension torque increases more sharply than knee and ankle moments with increasing sprinting
speed, hip extension strength should be preferentially trained by athletes looking to increase sprinting speed.
Full range strength and power in the hip extensors is likely achieved through combined training involving sprints,
plyometrics, Olympic lifts, squats, hip thrusts, deadlifts, single leg movements, posterior chain movements, and
kettlebell swings.

 For athletes who need the ability to side-step quickly, such as team sports players, hip extension torque is the
key athletic variable that should be developed. Increasing hip extension torque will allow athletes to cut
sideways more powerfully.
Practical implications
In this section, we investigated the role of hip extension torque in various high velocity activities. But what
are the practical implications?

 As hex-bar jump squats produce greater power output than regular straight-bar jump squats, they should be
preferred for power development.

 Similarly, hip extension torque is greatest during cleans with 75% loads rather than maximal loads and therefore
lower loads in the Olympic lifts may be more effective for developing hip extension torque for athletes.

 Power outputs in the Olympic lifts appear to be maximized by using the mid-thigh clean or the mid-thigh clean
pull. Such variants may therefore be useful where power is the most important characteristic to be developed.

 Rate of force development in the Olympic lifts appears to be highest during the mid-thigh clean or the mid-thigh
clean pull. Such variants should therefore be considered when the training focus is on increasing speed and
acceleration.

 Since there are significant kinetic and kinematic differences between the power clean and sprinting, additional
methods are necessary for well-rounded speed training methodology.

 Similarly, the dynamic correspondence between jumping and landing movements and jerking is also low. More
hip-dominant exercises should therefore be added for optimal speed development

 The kettlebell swing using the hip-hinge form produces significant horizontal ground reaction forces even at low
loads. It may therefore be useful for horizontal sports-specific actions, like sprinting or broad jumping.
What is the hip extension torque
during high force activities?
Good mornings, horizontal- and 45-degree back extensions
Split squats
Front squats
Lunges
Back squats
Deadlifts
Sled dragging
Hip thrusts
Why study hip extension torque in high-force activities?

 Many strength coaches work with athletes to improve their high-force strength in various tried-and-
tested exercises. But how do we assess whether the hip extension torque that these exercises develops
is sufficient or appropriate for their sporting movements?

 By referring to research, we can see which exercises produce the most hip extension torque and also
which movements require the most hip extension torque during high-force movements.

Let’s take a closer look at hip extension torque in high-force activities on the following pages…
 Which high force activities involve hip extension torque?
There are many high force activities that involve hip extension as follows:

Step-up
Lunge Squat

Front
Deadlift
squat

Split Sled
squat dragging

Good morning, High

45-degree back Hip
extension and force
back extension thrust
activities

See how each of these key exercises produce differing hip torque on the following pages…
 How are the good morning, back extension and 45O back extension different?

The good morning, back extension and 45-degree back extension have identical ROM and joint movement profiles and
can be loaded identically. However, they have different directions of force.

Hip extension torque at different points during the good Contreras (awaiting publishing) calculated that for
morning, back extension and 45-degree back extension, identical loading patterns, the good morning produces
Contreras, awaiting publishing maximum hip torque at 0 degrees of hip flexion and
600 no hip torque at 90 degrees of hip flexion. On the
Hip extension torque (Nm)

other extreme, the horizontal back extension produces

no hip torque at 0 degrees of hip flexion and
500 maximum hip torque at 90 degrees. The 45-degree
back extension produces maximum hip torque in the
middle of the movement, at 45 degrees.
400
The maximum and minimum hip torque measured for
each exercise was the same. However, the maxima
300 and minima were measured at completely different
degrees of hip flexion.
200 Three hip extension This is because of the position of the trunk with
exercises produce different respect to gravity throughout the movement.
torques at different hip
Importantly, the three different exercises produce
100 flexion angles
maximum torque at different lengths of the prime
mover muscles, which are in this case the hamstrings
0 and gluteus maximus. This has the effect of changing
Good morning Back extension 45 degree back the point of peak contraction. The peak contraction
extension occurs in the stretched position in the good morning,
90 degrees hip flexion 45 degrees hip flexion 0 degrees hip flexion in the contracted position in the horizontal back
extension and in the midrange of the 45-degree back
extension.
 Which requires greater hip extension torque: split squats or back squats?

Hip extension torque is greater in split squats than in conventional back squats for a similar intensity.

Meyer (2005, unpublished) investigated the relationship in
split squats at 20-30% of 1RM squat and conventional squats
at 60-80% of 1RM between the weight lifted and the hip
extension torque. They found that split squats required
greater hip extension torque for less weight lifted.
Meyer also reported that the split squat produced greater
mean hip extension torque but less knee extension torque
than conventional squats. This suggests that the split squat is
a less effective exercise for developing the quadriceps but a
superior exercise for developing the gluteals and hamstrings.

Relationship between weight lifted and hip extension Mean joint torques during conventional squats
torque during split squats and conventional squats, and split squats, Meyer, 2005
Meyer, 2005
350

Joint torque (Nm)

Weight lifted (kg)

300
Hip extension torque is Hip extension torque is
greater in split squats than 300 greater in split squats than
250 in conventional squats in conventional squats
250
200

200
150

150
100

100
50

50
0
100 200 300 400 500 600
0
Hip extension torque (Nm)
Hip extension torque Knee extension torque
Split squats Conventional squats
Conventional squat with 145kg Split squat with 54kg
 How does load position affect hip and knee moments in dumbbell squats?

Hip extension torque is greater in dumbbell squats with the load held in outstretched hands than in squats
with the dumbbells held in the rack position.

Lynn (2012) studied dumbbell squats with the load
positioned either on the shoulders in the front squat (rack
position) or held outstretched in front (counterbalanced
position). The researchers found that hip and knee moments
were significantly different between the two squat types.
They found that the squats with dumbbells outstretched
displayed greater hip moments and reduced knee moments
in comparison with the squats with the dumbbells in the rack
position.
The researchers also found that there were significant
differences between the joint angles in each type of squat.
The squats with the dumbbells in the rack position displayed
greater hip angles but reduced knee angles compared to the
squats with the dumbbells outstretched. Reduced hip angles
with the dumbbells in the outstretched position
corresponded with greater hip moments.

Hip extension and knee extension moments during Hip and knee angles during two types of squat, Lynn,
two types of squat, Lynn, 2012 2012
90 120

Joint angle (degrees)

Joint torques (Nm)

Hip extension torque is Hip angles are greater in

greater in dumbbell squats in 110 dumbbell squats in the rack
85 the outstretched position position
100
80
90
75
80

70
70

65 60
Hip Knee Hip Knee
Rack position Outstretched Rack position Outstretched
 Which produces more power at the hip joint: front squats or back squats?

With the same load, front squats produce less power at the hip joint but more at the knee joint.

Braidot (2007) investigated the power output at the hip, knee
and ankle joints during front and back squats with the same
loading: 50% of the 1RM back squat. Obviously, a limitation of
the study was that the same load was used for both front and
back squats, instead of the same percentage of 1RM in each
case. However, notwithstanding this limitation, the researchers
found that, with the same loading, the power absorbed and
generated at the hip joint was greater in the back squat than in
the front squat.
On the other hand, the power generated at the knee was
similar or slightly greater in the front squat than in the back
squat. The researchers suggest that the back squat therefore
appears to be a more hip-dominant exercise and the front squat
is a more quadriceps-dominant exercise. Additionally, they
noted that the larger power absorbed in the back squat at the
hip was likely because of the greater stability in this exercise,
which allows for a faster descent.

Power absorbed and generated at the hip during Power absorbed and generated at the knee during front
front and back squats with the same load (50% of and back squats with the same load (50% of back squat
back squat 1RM), Braidot, 2007 1RM), Braidot, 2007
1.60 1.20

Power (Nm/kg s)
Power (Nm/kg s)

1.40
1.00
1.20
0.80
1.00

0.80 0.60

0.60 Hip extension power is Knee extension power is

greater during back squats 0.40 greater during back squats
0.40 than front squats than front squats
0.20 0.20

0.00 0.00
Absorbed power Generated power Absorbed power Generated power
Back squat Front squat Back squat Front squat
 How does hip extension torque during the forward lunge change with loading?

Hip extension torque increases significantly with increasing load in the forward lunge, while knee extension torque
increases only slightly.

Riemann (2012) investigated the differences in the work
done and the impulse at the hip, knee and ankle joints during
forward lunges with no loads and with loads equal to 12.5%,
25% and 50% of bodyweight. The researchers found that as
load increased, the work done and the impulse at each joint
did not increase to the same extent.
The researchers found that as the external load increased,
the greatest increase in net joint impulse and work done
occurred at the hip, followed by the ankle and then the knee.
This suggests that as weight is added to the forward lunge, it
becomes an increasingly hip-extension-dominant movement.

Net hip, knee and ankle impulses under four Net hip, knee and ankle work under four different
different loads in a forward lunge exercise, loads in a forward lunge exercise, Riemann, 2012
Riemann, 2012 1.4
Net joint impulse (Nm/kg)

Work (J/kg)
3.5
1.2
3
Hip joint impulses increase Hip work done increases
significantly with increasing 1 significantly with increasing
2.5
load while knee joint load while knee work done doe
impulses do not. 0.8 not increase significantly
2

0.6
1.5

1 0.4

0.5 0.2

0 0
Ankle Knee Hip Ankle Knee Hip
0.0% 12.5% 25.0% 50.0% 0.0% 12.5% 25.0% 50.0%
 Why might forward lunges make the quadriceps sorer than other exercises?

The quadriceps contract in a stretched position during forward lunges and also perform more eccentric work than
concentric work.

Many experienced lifters and coaches find it counter-intuitive
that forward lunges emphasize the hip extensors with
increased loading. They often note that the main feeling that
they experience during heavy forward lunges is one of
muscle soreness in the quadriceps. However, a high degree
of muscle soreness is not necessarily the same as a high
degree of muscular involvement in the exercise.
Hip, knee and ankle eccentric and concentric work in
a forward lunge exercise, Riemann, 2012
Work (J/kg)
Riemann (2012) found that the eccentric work done by the
knee extensors (quadriceps) was much higher than the
concentric work. On the other hand, the hip extensors
(gluteals and hamstrings) performed more concentric work
than eccentric work. This may suggest that the main role of
the quadriceps in a forward lunge is to decelerate the flexion
of the knee joint. Moreover, their strongest contractions are
also in the stretched position.
Performing a strong contraction while lengthening (i.e.
eccentric contractions) or in the stretched position has been

1.4
found to produce significant muscle soreness as well as
Eccentric work by the knee
1.2 extensors is higher than
muscle damage, which leads to hypertrophy. This could
concentric work explain why forward lunges are often seen as a good exercise
1 for improving quadriceps size, despite the fact that the hip
extensors are more challenged with heavier loads.
0.8
It is possible that the opposite may occur during reverse
0.6 lunges. Since the eccentric work required to decelerate the
leg during reverse lunges would likely need to come from the
0.4 hip extensors, this may explain why many experienced lifters
observe that they feel extreme muscular soreness in the
0.2 gluteals following this exercise. However, no research has yet
been performed in order to establish whether this is the
0
case.
Ankle Knee Hip
Eccentric Concentric
 Which type of lunge maximizes hip extension torque?
Hip extension moments are greatest during lunges with forward lean compared to those with either no lean or
with backward lean.

Flanagan (2004) investigated the differences in joint Farrokhi (2008) found that the hip extensor impulse was
moments between forward and lateral lunges and found that significantly increased during a lunge with a forward trunk
the forward lunges produced significantly greater hip lean compared to a backward lean or no lean, while knee
extension moments. extensor impulse was similar, although slightly decreased.

Peak hip and knee extension moments during Hip and knee extensor impulses during lunge
forward and lateral lunges, Flanagan, 2004 variations, Farrokhi, 2008

100
Joint moments (Nm)

Impulse (Nms/kg)
6
Hip moments are greater
90 during lunges with forward
80 5 lean than during lunges with
backward lean or no lean
70
4
60
50
3
40
30
Hip moments are greater during forward 2
20 lunges than during lateral lunges
10 1
0
Hip extension Hip extension Knee extension Knee extension 0
moment moment moment moment No lean Forward lean Backward lean
(eccentric) (concentric) (eccentric) (concentric)
Hip extensor impulse Knee extensor impulse
Forward lunge Lateral lunge
 Which type of step-up maximizes hip extension torque?
Forward step-ups produce much greater hip extension moments than lateral step-ups. This is similar to the results
found in lunges.

Wang (2002) investigated the differences in joint moments
between forward and lateral step-ups and found that the
forward step-ups produced significantly greater hip extension
moments than the lateral step-ups. This is similar to the
result found for lunges by Flanagan (2004).
Kirkwood (1999) found that the hip extension moments were
significantly greater than the hip flexion moments during
both stair climbing from 21.5 cm height and during a basic
step-up movement from a 16 cm height.

Hip and knee extension moments in forward and Peak hip flexion and extension moments during level
lateral step-ups, Wang, 2002 walking, ascending stairs and descending stairs,
90
Kirkwood, 1999
Hip and knee moments (Nm)

80 90

Hip moments (Nm)

70 80
Peak hip extension moments
70 are greater than peak hip
60 flexion moments during stair
60 climbing and basic step-ups
50
50
40
Hip extension moments are greater 40
30
during forward step-ups than during 30
20 lateral step-ups
20
10
10
0
0
Hip extensor Hip extensor Knee extensor Knee extensor
Ascending stairs Basic step-up
moment - moment - moment - moment -
concentric eccentric concentric eccentric Hip flexion Hip extension
Forward step-up Lateral step-up
 How do depth and loading affect hip extension torque during the squat?

Hip extension torque increases with both increasing squat depth and loading. Knee extension torque depends
mainly on depth and ankle moments depend mainly on loading.

Bryanton (2011) investigated the hip torque of powerlifters at
varying degrees of hip flexion and percentages of 1RM and
found that hip and knee moments increased with increasing
squat depth. However, ankle moments remained broadly
constant irrespective of squat depth.
The researchers also found that the hip and ankle moments
increased with increasing loading, although knee moments
remained broadly constant.

Net joint moments about the ankle, knee and hip Net joint moments about the hip, knee and ankle
during isometric movements with increasing joint during squats to 90 degrees with increasing
angle, Bryanton, 2012 percentage of 1RM, Bryanton, 2012

Joint torque (Nm)

300
Joint torque (Nm)

300 Hip and knee moments increase markedly Hip and ankle moments increase with
with increasing hip flexion, while ankle increasing load while knee moments
moments increase only slightly 250 remain broadly constant
250

200
200

150
150

100 100

50 50

0 0
Ankle Knee - Hip - Ankle Knee - Hip - Ankle Knee - Hip - 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%
-5 30 30 - 15 60 60 - 25 90 90
Ankle Knee Hip
 How does technique affect hip extension torque in the squat?
Hip extension torque increases with increasing squat loading but increases by more during squats where the subjects
“sit back” more or are forced to sit back by way of a physical restriction.

Lorenzetti (2012) confirmed that the hip extension moment
increases faster than the knee extension moment with
increasing load in squats. They also found that squats where
the subjects “sat back” to prevent the knee coming forwards
produced greater hip extension moments and greater
increases in hip extension moments with increasing squat
load. However, the action of sitting back was encouraged
through visual feedback and not by physical restriction.
Fry (2003) used a physical barrier to force subjects to sit back
during a squat with bodyweight barbell loads. This had a very
significant effect on the ratio of hip and knee moments.
During the restricted squats, the subjects displayed
significantly reduced knee moments and greatly increased hip
moments.

Comparison of the percentage increases in knee and hip Hip and knee extension moments during unrestricted and
moments of unrestricted and restricted squats, restricted squats , Fry, 2003
Lorenzetti, Publish Ahead of Print
350

Joint moments (Nm)

Moment (Nm/kg)

2.50 Hip extension moments

Hip extension moments 300 are very much larger
increase faster during when a physical
2.00 squats where the subjects restriction makes
“sit back” 250 subjects sit back
1.50
200

1.00 150

0.50 100

50
0.00
Unrestricted - Restricted - Unrestricted - Restricted - hip
0
knee knee hip
Unrestricted Restricted
No load Quarter bodyweight Half bodyweight Hip Knee
 So should we prefer a hip-dominant squat?
Hip-dominant squats are useful for reducing knee moments after a knee injury and knee-dominant squats are useful
for reducing moments at the hip and lower back.

As we saw on the previous page, Lorenzetti (2012) found that
squats where the subjects “sat back” to prevent the knee
coming forwards produced greater hip extension moments
and greater increases in hip extension moments with
increasing squat load.
Comparison of the hip and knee extension torques
during squats performed by weightlifters and
powerlifters, both deep and parallel, Wretenberg, 1996
Joint torque (Nm)
Wretenberg (1996) performed an experiment in which they
recruited 8 Swedish national class weightlifters and 6 national
class powerlifters. They then took measurements as the
weightlifters performed high-bar squats to a full depth and to
a parallel depth and while the powerlifters performed low-bar
squats to a full depth and to a parallel depth. In all cases, the
subjects used a barbell weight of 65% of their 1RM.
The researchers concluded that the low-bar squat leads to a
greater hip moment of force than the high-bar squat. They
noted that the hip moment is almost twice the size as the

340
Hip extension moments
knee moment in low-bar squats. However, they found that
are higher in low-bar
290 squats the more upright high-bar squat had a more even distribution
of moments across the knee and hip.
240 The researchers noted that even though the powerlifters were
larger and lifted heavier loads than the weightlifters, the
190 mean knee moments were higher in the high-bar squats
performed by the weightlifters.
140
Consequently, the researchers suggest that after a hip or
lower back injury, high-bar squat should be used at the
90 beginning to minimize the risk of hip overload. On the other
hand, they suggest that following a knee injury a squatting
40 technique more similar to the low-bar technique should be
High-bar - hip High-bar - Low-bar - hip Low-bar - knee preferred.
knee
Deep Parallel
 Does hip extension torque differ between legs in the squat?
Hip extension, knee extension and ankle plantar-flexion moments are different between legs. Therefore, single-leg
training is recommended for maximizing the strength of the lower body.

Kobayashi (2010) studied the joint moments of each leg of
long jumpers during bilateral squats and found that there
were significant differences between the hip moments at
each leg during three different loads. However, the size of
the difference did not increase with increasing load and there
were no significant differences between the knee moments
at any load.
In contrast, Flanagan (2007) found that the moments of the
ankle, hip and knee all differed significantly between legs.
However, they also did not find any change in this difference
with loading. These researchers therefore suggested that
single-leg exercises are a necessary part of a training program
in order to achieve maximum strengthening of the lower
body.

Hip and knee extension torques during squats Hip and knee joint moments of each leg during
performed by long jumpers, measuring each leg squats at different intensities, Flanagan, 2007
separately, Kobayashi, 2010 3

Joint moments (Nm/kg)

Joint moments (Nm)

250 Hip extension moments differ

Hip extension moments differ 2.5 between legs
between legs
200
2
150
1.5

100
1

50
0.5

0
0
50% 70% 90%
25% 50% 75% 100%
Take-off leg - hip Non-take-off leg - hip
Hip (right) Hip (left) Knee (right) Knee (left)
Take-off leg - knee Non-take-off leg - knee
 Does lifting speed affect hip extension torque in the squat?
Faster squats produce greater hip extension, knee extension and ankle plantar-flexion moments than slower
squats.

Manabe (2007) investigated the joint torques during squats
of different speeds. As expected, they found that when
subjects performed faster squats, this produced greater
moments. In all cases, the faster squats produced larger joint
moments than the slower squats. The subjects in the study
had been weight-training for at least 3 years.
Morrissey (1998) also found that faster squats produced
greater joint moments than slower squats, although the
differences were not as significant. However, the subjects in
the study were completely untrained and had not engaged
previously in resistance training.

Joint moments during slow, normal and fast squats, Joint moments during slow and fast squats, Morrissey,
Manabe, 2007 1998
100 180
Joint moments (Nm)

Joint moments (Nm)

90 Joint moments increase with 160 Joint moments increase with
increasing squat speed increasing squat speed
80
140
70
120
60
100
50
40 80

30 60

20 40
10 20
0
0
Ankle Knee Hip
Ankle Knee Hip
Slow Normal Quick Slow Quick
 How can partial squats be used effectively in strength programs?

Hip extension torque during squats increases with increasing depth and loading. Heavy partials combined
with full squats, along with the use of accommodating resistance, is likely required for maximal full range
squat strength.

Drinkwater (2012) found that when comparing partial and
parallel squats with 67% and 83% of 1RM loads, force was
greatest in partial squats with 83%, while speed was greatest
with parallel squats at 67%. Additionally, they found that
power was greatest with partial squats at 83% and work done
was greatest with parallel squats at 83%.
Drinkwater et al. suggest that a combination of partial squats
with high loads (for power) and parallel squats with low loads
but a focus on speed could be a potent combination for
developing both speed and strength qualities for athletes.
Work output can be maximized using deeper squats for heavy
weights.

Peak power during partial and parallel squats at Mean concentric work during partial and parallel
different percentages of 1RM, Drinkwater, 2012 squats at different percentages of 1RM, Drinkwater,
2012
1200
700
1000
600

800 500
Power (W)

Work (J)
400
600
300
400 Work done is
Power is greater maximized with
200
during partial squats deep squats using
200 with greater loads heavy loads
100

0 0
Partial 83% Partial 67% Parallel 83% Parallel 67% Partial 83% Partial 67% Parallel 83% Parallel 67%
 Why might squats make the gluteals sorer than other exercises?

The gluteus maximus contracts most strongly in the bottom position of a squat, while it is in a lengthened
position. Contractions in lengthened positions likely lead to the greatest muscle damage and soreness.

Many experienced lifters and coaches find it counter-intuitive
that full squats are limited by the quadriceps rather than the
gluteals, because they often experience a high degree of
muscular soreness during deep squats. This feeling in the
gluteals during deep squats has caused many coaches to
suggest that deeper squats lead to significantly greater gluteal
involvement.
Eccentric and concentric work at the hip and knee
during two types of squat, Lynn, 2012
150.0
Joint torques (Nm)
We noted earlier that the increased eccentric work of the knee
extensors during lunges might be responsible for the muscle
soreness felt in the quadriceps, despite the hip extensors being
the limiting factor with increased load. However, there does
not appear to be a difference between eccentric and
concentric work in any muscle group during squats.
Lynn (2012) investigated two types of dumbbell squat, a
regular dumbbell squat with the dumbbells in the front squat
rack position, and a counter-balanced dumbbell squat with the
dumbbells in outstretched hands. They found that in both
cases the eccentric and concentric work done by the hip and
the knee extensors were similar.

140.0 However, the point of peak contraction during the squat is at

90 degrees of hip flexion or greater during a deep squat. This
130.0
means that the gluteus maximus is contracting in a stretched
position. Contractions in a lengthened position likely lead to
120.0
greater muscle soreness in the same way that eccentric
110.0 Eccentric work by the hip contractions lead to increased muscle soreness.
and knee extensors is similar
100.0 to concentric work It is interesting that most lifters do not experience muscle
soreness in the hamstrings during squats. This may be
90.0 because, as Escamilla (2001) noted, the hamstrings do not
change length significantly during squats, as they are
80.0 biarticular, and therefore do not contract in a stretched
Hip - DB squat Knee - DB squat Hip - counter- Knee - counter- position. Moreover, the hamstrings do not reach high levels of
balanced squat balanced squat activation during the squat, as has been shown in several
Eccentric work Concentric work studies.
 How does stance width affect hip extension torque in squats?

Hip extension torque is similar in squats of all stance widths, although there is a trend for slightly greater moments
with wider stances. A wider stance squat also produces significant greater hip extension torque at 45 degrees.

Escamilla (2001) measured hip extension torque of
powerlifters during the eccentric and concentric phases
of a squat at varying stance widths. The hip moment was
similar for all stance widths except at 45-degrees.
The hip extension torque was greatest at minimum bar
speed at all stance widths. This suggests that the hip
extensors may be most active at the sticking point,
possibly as a result of the knee extensor moment being
lower at this point than at maximum knee flexion.

Hip moments during the concentric phase of squats of Hip moment arm lengths during the concentric phase
various stance widths, Escamilla, 2001 of squats of various stance widths, Escamilla, 2001
700 25
Moment (Nm)

Moment arm lengths (cm)

600
20
500

15
400

300
10
Hip moments are highest at minimum bar
200
speed and do not differ significantly between Hip moments arm lengths track the hip
stance widths except at 45 degrees 5 moments at all stance and depths
100

0 0
Moment at Moment at 90 Moment at Moment at 45 Moment arm at Moment arm at Moment arm at Moment arm at
maximum degrees minimum bar degrees maximum 90 degrees minimum bar 45 degrees
speed speed
Narrow Medium Wide Narrow Medium Wide
 So is a wider squat stance width better?

Wider stance squats lead to greater work done and more time spent in the acceleration phase of the lift.

Escamilla (2001) measured the mechanical work
performed in varying squat stances and found that
wider stances led to more work being performed.
The researchers also found that wider stance squats
led to more time being spent in the acceleration
phase. These two features may mean that wider
stance squats lead to greater increases in training
adaptations from the exercise.

Mechancial work performed in various squat Percentage of time spent in acceleration phase in
stances, Escamilla, 2001 various squat stances, Escamilla, 2001
1180 25
Mechanical work (J)

Percentage of time %
1160

1140 20

1120
15
1100

1080
10
1060 Mechanical work
performed during a Time spent in the
1040 wide stance squat is acceleration phase for a
significantly greater 5
wide stance squat is greater
1020

1000 0
Narrow Medium Wide Narrow Medium Wide
 How does hip extension torque differ between normal, powerlifting and box squats?

Hip extension torque depends on the type of squat style used. The powerlifting squat requires the greatest degree
of hip extension torque. However, the box squat involves much greater rate of force development.

Swinton (2012) investigated the hip torque of powerlifters
during the traditional (narrow stance), powerlifting (wide
stance) and box squat variants at varying percentages of 1RM.
Swinton et al. found that the hip torque in the powerlifting
squat is higher than in the other two variants.
The researchers were surprised to discover that the box squat
required less hip extension torque than the powerlifting
squat. They noted that this was because the box squat
produced much greater knee torques than the other two
squat variants. However, the box squat also involved much
greater rate of force development.

Hip and knee extension torque in the Rate of force development in three squat variations
at different percentages of 1RM, Swinton, 2012
traditional, powerlifting and box squat variants,
Swinton, 2012 18,000

Rate of force development (N/s)

16,000
300
Torque (Nm)

14,000
250
12,000
The box squat involves
200 10,000 much greater rate of
force development than
150 8,000 other squat variants
Hip extension torque in
6,000
100 the squat depends on the
degree of hip flexion and 4,000
percentage of 1RM
50
2,000

0 0
Traditional Powerlifting Box 30% 50% 70%

Hip torque Knee torque Traditional Powerlifting Box

 How does hip extension torque differ between taller and shorter lifters?

For the same weight lifted, taller lifters must generate approximately 25% more torque, which explains why taller
lifters tend to be relatively poorer squatters.

Ross (undated) created a computer model of a subject of
height 180cm and weight 100kg performing a squat with
100kg throughout a full range of motion. This showed that
there was a tendency for the hip extension torque to be
maximal at parallel and minimal in the anatomical position.
Ross also manipulated his model to show that if the height of
the lifter were changed but everything else was kept the
same, the torque requirements to lift the same weight were
much greater, particularly in the parallel position where the
lift is hardest.

Hip moments according to a computer model over a Hip moments for lifters of three different heights
range of hip angles, Ross according to a computer model over a range of hip
angles, Ross
350
Hip extension 600 Hip extension
Hip moment (Nm)

Hip moment (Nm)

300 torque is greatest at torque is 25%
parallel in the squat greater for
500
taller lifters
250
400
200

300
150

200
100

50 100

0 0
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
Hip angle (degrees) 200cm 180cm 160cm Hip angle (degrees)
 How does hip extension torque differ with foot position in Smith Machine squats?

Hip extension torque increases as foot position is placed further away from the center of mass during
Smith Machine squats.

Abelbeck (2002) performed a computer modeling exercise in
order to assess how different foot placements would affect
the hip extension torque during Smith Machine squats.
The effect of foot placement on hip moments, as
measured by distance from bar, during a Smith
Machine squat, according to computer modeling,
Abelbeck, 2002
Hip moment (Nm)
The researcher used six different foot positions. In the
most posterior position, the ankle was placed directly
under the hip of the lifter while in the most anterior
position, the feet were placed in front of the body such
that when the lifter’s knee joint angle was 90 degrees,
the upper leg was parallel to the floor. The foot positions
were measured as distances between the bar path and
the feet.

The model used a load of 110kg and a subject

1200 bodyweight of 110kg and height of 1.753m. This
Hip extension torque in the
Smith Machine is increased generated significant hip extension torques when the
1000 foot placement was positioned further away from the
by moving the feet outwards
bar path. For example, at around 90 degrees of hip
800 flexion, the hip extension torque with a foot position
54cm from the bar path was c. 1000Nm.
600
It is important to note that this model was entirely
computer generated based on theoretical angles and
400
there was no subject-generated data included. We
should therefore be cautious in drawing conclusions
200 based on this study. However, it appears that by
manipulating foot placement in the Smith Machine, we
0 can alter the degree of hip extension torque required for
90 110 130 150 170 the lift.
11cm 19cm 28cm 37cm 46cm 54cm
 How similar are the joint angles during the squat and deadlift?

The squat and deadlift display very different joint angles at the lift-off, sticking point and peak bar speed points.

Hales (2009) investigated the correspondence of joint
angles at three different points during the squat and
deadlift at a powerlifting competition. They concluded
that the movement patterns in each lift are distinct and
therefore that significant cross-over is unlikely. The
researchers noted that the squat was characterized by an
even increase in the angle at all three joints, while the
deadlift comprised three separate stages.
The chart below shows the percentage of total joint
angle through which each joint moved through in each
phase. For the squat, moving through phases 1-2 and
through phases 2-3 involved similar percentage
increases in the hip, knee and ankle joints. However, the
deadlift involved dissimilar increases in the percentage
of each total joint angle when moving through phases 1-
2 and 2-3.

Joint angles during squats and deadlifts in a Joint angles during squats and deadlifts in a
powerlifting competition, Hales, 2009 powerlifting competition, Hales, 2009
Joint angles (degrees)

Percentage of joint angle (%)

160 80.0%
Joint angles in squats and
140 deadlifts are different 70.0%
120 60.0%
100 50.0%
80 40.0%
60 30.0%
40 Joint angles in squats and
20.0%
20 deadlifts are different
10.0%
0
0.0%
Squat - Squat - Squat - Deadlift - Deadlift - Deadlift -
Squat - Squat - Deadlift - Deadlift -
lift-off peak bar sticking lift-off peak bar sticking
phases 1-2 phases 2-3 phases 1-2 phases 2-3
speed point speed point
Hip Knee Ankle Hip Knee Ankle
 Can squat performance predict deadlift performance?
Squat performance may be able to predict deadlift performance in lightly-trained individuals.

As we saw previously, Hales (2009) investigated the
correspondence of joint angles at three different points
during the squat and deadlift at a powerlifting competition
and concluded that the movement patterns in each lift are
distinct and therefore that significant cross-over is unlikely.
However, Ebben (2008) tested 21 students with a little
lower body resistance training experience and concluded
that the squat was a significant predictor of deadlift
performance in lightly-trained individuals.
The researchers deduced that the following equations
could be used to derive the loads for the various exercises
from squat performance:
• Deadlift = 0.83 x SQUAT + 15kg
• Lunge = 0.52 x SQUAT + 15kg
• Step-up = 0.50 x SQUAT + 3kg
• Leg extension = 0.50 x SQUAT + 10kg

Correlations between various lower body lifts and Mean 6RM loads of various lower body lifts
the conventional back squat, Ebben, 2008 including the conventional back squat, Ebben,
2008

Weoight (kg)
Correlation coefficient

0.9
0.8 120 Squat ability predicts
other lower body
0.7 100 exercise ability
0.6
80
0.5
0.4 60

0.3 In untrained subjects, squat performance

can be used to predict other lower body 40
0.2 exercise performance
20
0.1
0 0
Deadlift Lunge Step-up Knee extension Bodyweight Squat Deadlift Lunge Step-up
 How does stance width affect hip extension torque during deadlifts?

Hip extension torque decreases with decreasing hip flexion during both conventional and sumo deadlifts
and is higher in conventional deadlifts.

Escamilla (2000) investigated the hip, knee and ankle
moments and moment arm lengths of powerlifters at
various points during sumo and conventional deadlifts.
They found that the hip extension torque was similar in
both stance variants, although it was slightly larger in the
conventional deadlift at lockout.
The researchers found that the hip moment arm length
was is largely responsible for the slightly larger hip
moment in the conventional deadlift. This means that
the conventional deadlift may favor the taller lifter
while the sumo deadlift will favor the shorter lifter.

Hip moments during deadlifts of two stance Hip moment arm lengths during deadlifts of two
widths, Escamilla, 2000 stance widths, Escamilla, 2000
500 25
Moment (Nm)

Moment arm length (cm)

Hip moment arms
450 Hip extension are responsible for
400
torque in the slightly larger
20
both deadlift hip moments in
350 variants is conventional
300 similar deadlifts.
15
250
200
10
150
100
5
50
0
Lift off Knee Lockout 0
Lift off Knee Lockout
Sumo Conventional
Sumo Conventional
 How does stance width affect hip extension torque during deadlifts?

Hip extension torque decreases with decreasing hip flexion during both conventional and sumo deadlifts
and is higher in conventional deadlifts.

Escamilla (2001) performed a similar investigation of the
the hip, knee and ankle moments and moment arm
lengths of powerlifters at various points during sumo
and conventional deadlifts during the 1999 Special
Olympics. They again found that the hip extension
torque was similar in both stance variants.
The researchers did not find any significant differences
at lift-off between the moment arm lengths among
these lifters. So while there are subtle differences
between the conventional and sumo deadlift, the
differences may not be as substantial as they might at
first appear.

Hip moments during deadlifts of two stance widths, Hip moment arm lengths during deadlifts of two
Escamilla, 2001 stance widths, Escamilla, 2001
400 30
Moment (Nm)

Moment arm legnth (cm)

Hip extension Hip moment
350
torque in 25 arm lengths
300 both deadlift are similar in
variants is sumo and
20
250 similar conventional
deadlifts
200 15

150
10
100
5
50

0 0
Lift-off Knee-passing Lockout Lift-off Knee-passing Lockout
Sumo Conventional Sumo Conventional
 So is the conventional or sumo stance better?

Wider stance deadlifts lead to greater time spent in the acceleration phase of the lift but reduced
mechanical work being done.

Escamilla (2000) investigated the hip, knee and ankle The researchers found that the sumo deadlift
moments and moment arm lengths of powerlifters at allowed a greater amount of time spent in the
various points during sumo and conventional acceleration phase, which may increase the
deadlifts. adaptations to the lift.

Mechancial work performed in deadlifts of two Percentage of time spent in acceleration phase in
stance widths, Escamilla, 2001 deadlifts of two stance widths, Escamilla, 2001
1200 30
Mechanical work (J))

Percentage of time %
1000 25

800 20

600 15
Conventional deadlifts Sumo deadlifts involve a
involve greater work longer period of time in
400 10
done, as they move the acceleration phase,
through a larger range of which may increase
200 motion 5 adaptations

0 0
Sumo Conventional Sumo Conventional
 How does skill level affect hip extension torque during deadlifts?

Powerlifters with greater skill lift heavier weight but moment arm lengths at the hip are similar,
particularly at lift-off.

Brown (1985) investigated how skill levels altered hip
moments and hip moment arm lengths in adolescent
powerlifters. The researchers found that while the skilled
lifters were able to lift more weight, the moment arm
lengths at the hip at lift-off were not changed, although
there was a small difference at knee-passing.
This means that the more-skilled lifters produce greater
hip extension torques through increased hip extensor
muscle force, not through dramatically altering the hip
leverage.

Hip extension torque during deadlifts by skilled and Hip moment arm lengths during deadlifts by skilled and
unskilled adolescent powerlifters, Brown, 1985 unskilled adolescent powerlifters, Brown, 1985
500.0 40.0
Joint torque (Nm)

Joint torque (Nm)

Hip extension torque is Hip moment arm lengths
450.0
greater in skilled lifters, as 35.0 are similar in skilled and
400.0 they move more weight unskilled powerlifters
30.0
350.0
25.0
300.0

250.0 20.0

200.0
15.0
150.0
10.0
100.0
5.0
50.0

0.0 0.0
Lift-off Knee-passing Lift-off Knee-passing

Skilled Unskilled Skilled Unskilled

How is hip extension torque different during straight and bent-leg deadlifts?

Hip extension torque is higher during straight-leg deadlifts than during bent-leg deadlifts.

Nemeth (1984) tested the hip torque of untrained Hip extension torque during a deadlift using
subjects during the performance of a basic deadlift task, different techniques, Nemeth, 1984
using either straight legs, bent legs with the load far from 140
the body and bent legs with the load close to the body. In
this study, Nemeth used a box weighing 12.8kg. Subjects
120
bent down to deadlift the box and placed it onto a bench
at waist height. The subjects lifted the box with straight
legs and with bent legs. With bent legs, the box was lifted 100

Hip extension torque (Nm)

either close to the body or away from the body.

Nemeth found that the deadlift technique involving bent 80

legs with the load close to the body led to the lowest
moments and forces at the hip joint. It was therefore the 60
easiest method of lifting weight from the ground.
However, the straight-leg version of the deadlift led to
40 Hip extension torque is higher during
more torque at the hip joint.
straight-leg deadlifts than during
bent-leg deadlifts
From the EMG testing that Nemeth also performed during 20
this study, he found that the hamstrings were more active
during the straight leg box lifts than during bent-leg lifts.
0
However, the gluteus maximus and adductor magnus
Straight-leg Bent-leg (far from Bent-leg (close to
were more active during the bent-leg lifts. Lower back body) body)
loads closely mirror hip loads, so this data can be applied
to spinal safety. Bend the legs and lift with the load close
to the body to minimize risk on the spine.
How is hip extension torque different during hex-bar and conventional deadlifts?

Hip extension torque is higher during straight bar deadlifts than during hex-bar deadlifts.

Swinton (2011) measured the hip extension torque of Hip extension torque during straight bar and hex-bar
19 powerlifters during the performance of either hex- deadlifts, Swinton, 2011
bar or straight-bar deadlifts. Swinton et al. measured 400

Hip extension torque (Nm)

the weight that 19 powerlifters were able to lift, using
both a straight bar deadlift style and using a hex-bar. 350
They also measured the hip torque that was produced
in each case. 300

The researchers found that while the powerlifters

250
were able to lift a heavier 1RM load in the hex bar
deadlift than in the straight bar deadlift. On average,
200
the powerlifters pulled 265 ± 41kg in the hex-bar as
opposed to 245 ± 39kg in the straight bar deadlift.
150
However, despite the heavier load that was pulled in Hip extension torque is
the hex-bar deadlift, the straight-bar deadlift still 100 higher during conventional
produced more hip torque. This is because the overall deadlifts than during hex-
force produced in the hex-bar deadlift is created as a 50 bar deadlifts
more equal combination of hip and knee torques,
while the straight-bar deadlift is more reliant on purely 0
the hip torque for total force production. Straight bar Hex-bar
Hip moment Knee moment
 How does hip extension torque change with load during
deadlifts?
Hip extension torque increases faster than knee or ankle torque during both conventional and hex-bar
deadlifts.

Swinton (2011) measured the hip, knee and ankle
moments during various percentages of 1RM lifts in the
conventional straight bar deadlift and the hex-bar
deadlift. They found that the straight-bar deadlift
displayed greater hip moments than the hex-bar deadlift.
The researchers also found that the hip moments
increased faster with increasing load than the knee or
ankle moments in straight-bar deadlifts, just as Bryanton
(2011) found for squats and Riemann (2012) found for
lunges.

Joint moments during straight-bar deadlifts with Joint moments during hex-bar deadlifts with
increasing percentages of 1RM, Swinton, 2012 increasing percentages of 1RM, Swinton, 2012
Joint moments (Nm)

Joint moments (Nm)

400 350
Hip moments increase faster Hip moments increase faster
350 with load than knee or ankle 300 with load than knee or ankle
moments in the deadlift moments in hex-bar deadlifts
300
250
250
200
200
150
150
100
100

50 50

0 0
10% of 20% of 30% of 40% of 50% of 60% of 70% of 80% of 10% of 20% of 30% of 40% of 50% of 60% of 70% of 80% of
1RM 1RM 1RM 1RM 1RM 1RM 1RM 1RM 1RM 1RM 1RM 1RM 1RM 1RM 1RM 1RM

Hip Knee Ankle Hip Knee Ankle

 How much hip extension torque can powerlifters generate during deadlifts?

Hip extension torque can reach as high as 1,045Nm in deadlifts performed by heavyweight male
powerlifters.

Cholewicki (1991) investigated the joint moments during
deadlifts performed by powerlifters at the 1989 Canadian
Powerlifting Championships.
Average and maximum hip extension, knee
extension and L4/L5 moments displayed by a
group of of female and male powerlifters,
Cholewicki, 1991
1200
Joint moment (Nm)
The researchers found that the hip extension torque
displayed by the powerlifters in the competition deadlifts
averaged 257Kg for the men and 146kg for the women,
while the maximum lifts were 289kg for the men and
155kg for the women. These weights corresponded to
mean hip extension torques of 773Nm for the men and
483Nm for the women. The maximum hip extension
torques were 1,047Nm for the men and 534Nm for the
women.
The researchers also noted that the knee extension

torques were very low in comparison to the hip

1000 Hip and L4/L5
extension torques, while the L4/L5 moments were similar
moments are very
high in powerlifting to the hip moments.
800
deadlifts but knee
moments are minimal Schoenfeld (2010) notes that researchers have concluded
600 that the maximum tolerable compressive loading on the
spine in young and healthy individuals is 7,800N. The
400 L4/L5 loads measured in this study ranged as high as
17,192N in the case of the 289kg deadlift, which
200 produced a hip extension torque of 1,047Nm. As
Schoenfeld notes, there must be adaptations occurring
0
as a result of training that lead to an increased ability to
Female - Male - hip Female - Male - Female - Male -
hip knee knee L4/L5 L4/L5 withstand such forces.
Average Maximum
 How does load placement affect hip extension torque during sled dragging?

The attachment point of the load during sled dragging affects the hip extension torque. A shoulder-height
attachment leads to greater knee moments and a wait-height attachment leads to greater hip moments.

Lawrence (2012) investigated the hip, knee and ankle moment
impulses during sled dragging and normal walking. They
found that the attachment point on the body of the sled was
critical for determining whether the hips or the knees worked
hardest.
Attaching the sled load to the waist leads to greater hip
extension moments while attaching them to the shoulder
leads to greater knee extension moments. Therefore, using a
sled to develop the hamstrings and gluteals should involve a
waist-height attachment and using the sled to develop the
quadriceps should involve a shoulder-height attachment.

Dominant leg hip, knee and ankle moment impulses Non-dominant leg hip, knee and ankle moment
during three different walking conditions, including impulses during three different walking conditions,
two sled-dragging trials, Lawrence, 2012 including two sled-dragging trials, Lawrence, 2012

Hip extension moments

Moment impulse (Nms)

1,400

Moment impulse (Nms)

are greatest during waist 1,800 Knee moments are
attached sled dragging greatest during shoulder
1,200 1,600
attached sled dragging
1,400
1,000
1,200
800
1,000
600 800

400 600
400
200
200
0
0
Normal walking Shoulder Waist attachment
attachment Normal walking Shoulder Waist attachment
attachment
Hip Knee Ankle
Hip Knee Ankle
 What is the hip extension torque during a hip thrust?
Researchers have only just started looking at the hip thrust. A recent computer model produced by Nates
(unpublished) has shown that the hip extension torque is considerable and follows a torque curve that is
the opposite of those found in squats and deadlifts.

Hip extension torque during a hip thrust, Nates, Nates modeled the hip thrust using Bret as a test
unpublished subject when he weighed 97.5kg with a 220kg barbell
and a bench height of 38cm. Using the computer
900
model, Nates found that the torque curve of the hip
Hip extension torque (Nm)

800 thrust was highest at the initial point of lift-off but then
700
quickly reached a plateau and then rose slightly at the
top. This represents a significant diversion from most
600 other barbell hip extension exercises, in which the hip
500 extension torque declines greatly following lift-off.
400 As noted earlier, torque curves are important for
300
Hip extension torque in the clarifying the hypertrophic effects of an exercise. This
hip thrust is high throughout torque curve shows that the hip thrust is a very
200 the movement effective exercise for maintaining mechanical tension
100 and metabolic stress on the gluteal muscles and yet
also involves a considerable contraction in the
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
stretched position. These factors, along with the fact
Degrees of hip flexion that the hamstrings are actively insufficient, and along
with Bret’s unpublished EMG data, make a strong case
for the hip thrust being the best exercise for gluteal
hypertrophy. However, more research is needed to
confirm this as right now it’s just a hypothesis.
 How do the torque curves of the key exercises compare?
By combining the data from several models and studies, we can see how the torque curves of the deadlift,
squat, good morning, 45-degree back extension, back extension and hip thrust compare.

Comparison of hip extension torque curves for key
exercises (Escamilla, Ross, Contreras, Nates)
900
Hip extension torque (Nm)
Drawing data from Ross (unpublished), Escamilla (2001),
Contreras (awaiting publishing) and Nates (unpublished), we
can see how the torque curves of the squat, deadlift, 45-

degree back extension, good morning, back extension and hip

thrust compare.
800
It is important to note that the hip extension torque in the
700 squat, deadlift and good morning is very high at the bottom of
the movement (i.e. maximum hip flexion) but almost nil at the
600 top of the movement (i.e. anatomical position). On the other
hand, the hip extension torque in the 45-degree back
500 extension, back extension and hip thrust is still high at the top
of the movement. Additionally, the hip extension torque
400
remains high during the entirety of a 45-degree back extension
and the hip thrust. Incidentally, the torque curve of the
300
deadlift most closely matches that seen in dynamometry
200
studies.
This suggests that the 45-degree back extension and hip thrust
100 are the best exercises for maintaining constant mechanical
tension and metabolic stress on the hip extensors, along with
0 the back extension, and that squat, deadlift and good morning
Bottom midpoint top are the most effective for creating muscular damage in the
stretched position. These data don’t exactly correspond with
Deadlift Squat joint angles, so peak hip flexion during the squat exercises is
likely greatest; thereby likely creating the greatest muscular
Good morning 45-degree back extension
damage for the gluteus maximus. More research is needed to
Back extension Hip thrust confirm these torque curves, and equal relative loading should
be used.
How does the total body effect of the key exercises compare?
The following chart shows which muscles get targeted best by three of the best lower body exercises:

Body part Squat Deadlift Hip thrust

Traps X

Lats/Mid-Back X

Forearms X

Abs/Obliques X

Thoracic Erectors X

Lumbar Erectors X

Glutes X

Quads X

Hamstrings X

Calves X

As you can see, the deadlift appears to be the best total body exercise, the squat appears to be the best leg
exercise, and the hip thrust appears to be the best glute exercise.
How does the total body effect of the key exercises compare?
The chart on the previous page showed how three key lower body exercises compared. The chart showed
that the deadlift appears to be the best total body exercise, the squat appears to be the best leg exercise,
and the hip thrust appears to be the best glute exercise.

As you can see from the chart on the previous page, Although the various hip extension torque studies
although the deadlift is one of the best gluteal are interesting and we can learn tremendously from
movements in existence, it does not outperform the them, we cannot make comparisons between the
squat or the hip thrust. studies due to different calculation methods.

Based on the results of the chart, however, a good
case for the squat being the best glute exercise could
be made, but an even better case could be made for
the hip thrust.
Following the glute chart on the next page you will
see a couple of pages listing the hip extension
torques reported in different studies.
What we need to do is subject each of the various
exercises (functional, rehabilitative, high-force, and
high-velocity) to the same testing parameters so we
can then draw reasonable conclusions and compare
the different movements.
Until then, we must be patient and skeptical of
much of the data. And furthermore, EMG data
should agree with hip extension torque data to a
reasonable degree. If the data does not agree, then
something is amiss. Multiple biomechanical testing
methods are required to paint the full picture of an
exercise’s profile.
How does the effect of the key exercises on the glutes compare?

The following chart shows how each of the key lower body exercises affects the gluteal muscles:

Body part Squat Deadlift Hip thrust

Most Hip Flexion at Bottom X
Most Knee Flexion at Bottom X
Most Stretch on Glutes X
Most Hip Extension Torque at Bottom X
Most Peak Activation at Bottom X
Most Damage/DOMS X
Most Knee Flexion at Top X
Most Hip Extension Torque at Top X
Most Peak Activation at Top X
Highest Peak Hip Extension Torque throughout ROM X
Most Mean Hip Extension Torque X
Most Mean Glute Activation X
Most Metabolic Stress X
Most Pump/Burn X
Most Abduction/External Rotation Requirements X
Most Posterior Pelvic Tilt Requirements X
Most Active Insufficiency of Hamstrings X
Most Constant Tension on Glutes X
Most Stability X
Least Spinal Stability Requirements X
Least Skill/Technical Demands X
 Comparison of the hip extension torque of high force activities

Smith Machine squat model

Hip thrust model

National-level powerlifting deadlift

National-level powerlifting squat

Maximal sumo deadlifts by powerlifters

Snatch, heavyweight lifter

45-degree back extension - hip extended

Back extension - hip flexed

Conventional deadlift - hip extended

Conventional deadlift - halfway position

Conventional deadlift - hip flexed

Sumo deadlift - hip extended

Sumo deadlift - halfway position

Sumo deadlift - hip flexed

Wide stance squat - 45 degrees

Wide stance squat - hip flexed

Narrow stance squat = 45 degrees

Narrow stance squat - hip flexed

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Hip extension torque (Nm)

Data drawn from: Escamilla, 2000, Escamilla, 2001, Contreras (awaiting publishing), Baumann, 1988,
Cholewicki, 1991 and McLaughlin, 1978, Nates (unpublished) and Abelbeck, 2002.
 Comparison of the hip extension torque of all activities
Gymnastic drop landings
Smith Machine squat model
Hip thrust model
National-level powerlifting deadlift
National-level powerlifting squat
Maximal sumo deadlifts by…
Snatch, heavyweight lifter
45-degree back extension - hip…
Good morning - hip flexed
Back extension - hip flexed
Conventional deadlift - hip extended
Conventional deadlift - halfway…
Conventional deadlift - hip flexed
Sumo deadlift - hip extended
Sumo deadlift - halfway position
Sumo deadlift - hip flexed
Wide stance squat - 45 degrees
Wide stance squat - hip flexed
Narrow stance squat = 45 degrees
Narrow stance squat - hip flexed
Vertical jumping
Maximal sprint acceleration phase
Running at maximal speed
Running at 4m/s
Bodyweight sit-to-stand
Slow walking (0.87m/s)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

Hip extension torque (Nm)

Data drawn from: Riley, 2001, Savelberg, 2007, Belli, 2002, Hunter, 2004, Vanrenterghem, 2008, Escamilla, 2000, Escamilla, 2001,
Contreras (awaiting publishing), Baumann, 1988, Cholewicki, 1991 and McLaughlin, 1978 , Nates (unpublished), Abelbeck, 2002 and
McNitt, 1993
Chapter summary
In this chapter, we investigated the role of hip extension torque in high force movements and found the following:

Question Answer

How are the good The good morning, back extension and 45-degree back extension have similar ROM and hip joint
morning, back movement profiles and can be loaded identically. However, they have different directions of force.
extension and 45- This has the effect of changing the point of peak contraction. The peak contraction occurs in the
degree back stretched position in the good morning, in the contracted position in the back extension and in the
extension different? middle in the 45-degree back extension.

The split squat requires more hip extension torque for a similar percentage of 1RM than a
Which requires conventional back squat, making it more effective for developing the posterior chain. However, this
greater hip extension also means that the split squat is not the same movement as the conventional squat and should not
torque: split squats be considered a one-leg equivalent of the same movement. EMG data does not confirm these results
or back squats? so we must be skeptical of these data until more research emerges. Moreover, this research did not
withstand the peer-reviewed process, so we should not be overly-confident about its validity.

How does load

position affect hip Hip extension torque is greater in dumbbell squats with the load held in outstretched hands than in
and knee moments in squats with the dumbbells held in the rack position.
dumbbell squats?

Which produces
more power at the
With the same load, front squats produce less power at the hip joint but more at the knee joint.
hip joint: front squats
or back squats?
Chapter summary
In this chapter, we investigated the role of hip extension torque in high force movements and found the following:

Question Answer

How does hip extension

As the external load is increased, the greatest increase in net joint impulse occurs at the hip,
torque during the
followed by the ankle and then the knee. This suggests that as weight is added to the forward
forward lunge change
lunge, it becomes an increasingly hip-extension-dominant movement.
with loading?

Why might forward

lunges make the The quadriceps contract in a stretched position during forward lunges and also perform more
quadriceps sorer than eccentric work than concentric work.
other exercises?

Which type of lunge

maximizes hip extension Forward lunges and forward step-ups involve greater hip extension torque than lateral lunges.
torque?

Which type of step-up

Forward step-ups produce much greater hip extension moments than lateral step-ups. This is
maximizes hip extension
similar to the results found in lunges.
torque?

How do depth and

loading affect hip Hip extension torque increases with both increasing squat depth and loading. Knee extension
extension torque during torque depends mainly on depth and ankle moments depend mainly on loading.
the squat?
Chapter summary
In this chapter, we investigated the role of hip extension torque in high force movements and found the following:

Question Answer

How does technique

Hip extension torque increases with increasing squat loading but increases by more during squats
affect hip extension
where the subjects “sit back” more or are forced to sit back by way of a physical restriction.
torque in the squat?

So should we prefer a Hip-dominant squats are useful for reducing knee moments after a knee injury and knee-dominant
hip-dominant squat? squats are useful for reducing moments at the hip and lower back.

Does hip extension

Hip extension, knee extension and ankle plantar-flexion moments are different between legs.
torque differ between
Therefore, single-leg training is recommended for maximizing the stability of the lower body.
legs in the squat?

Does lifting speed affect

Faster squats produce greater hip extension, knee extension and ankle plantar-flexion moments
hip extension torque in
than slower squats.
the squat?

How can partial squats Hip extension torque during squats increases with increasing depth and loading. Heavy partials
be used effectively in a combined with full squats, along with the use of accommodating resistance, is likely required for
strength program? maximal full range squat strength.
Chapter summary
In this chapter, we investigated the role of hip extension torque in high force movements and found the following:

Movement Findings

Why might squats make the The gluteus maximus contracts most strongly in the bottom position of a squat, while it is in
gluteals sorer than other a lengthened position. Contractions in lengthened positions may lead to the greatest muscle
exercises? damage and soreness.

How does stance width affect Hip extension torque is similar in squats of all stance widths, although there is a trend for
hip extension torque in slightly greater moments with wider stances. A wider stance squat also produces
squats? significantly greater hip extension torque at 45 degrees.

So is a wider squat stance Wider stance squats lead to greater work done and more time spent in the acceleration
width better? phase of the lift.

How does hip extension Hip extension torque depends on the type of squat style used. The powerlifting squat
torque differ between normal, requires the greatest degree of hip extension torque. However, the box squat involves much
powerlifting and box squats? greater rate of force development.

How does hip extension

For the same weight lifted, taller lifters must generate approximately 25% more torque,
torque differ between taller
which explains why taller lifters tend to be relatively poorer squatters.
and shorter lifters?

How does hip extension

Hip extension torque increases as foot position is placed further away from the center of
torque differ with foot position
mass (in front of the body) during Smith Machine squats.
in Smith Machine squats?
Chapter summary
In this chapter, we investigated the role of hip extension torque in high force movements and found the following:

Movement Findings

How similar are the joint

The squat and deadlift display very different joint angles at the lift-off, sticking point and
angles during the squat and
peak bar speed points.
deadlift?

Can squat performance predict Squat performance may be able to predict deadlift performance in lightly-trained
deadlift performance? individuals.

How does stance width affect

Hip extension torque decreases with decreasing hip flexion during both conventional and
hip extension torque during
sumo deadlifts and is higher in conventional deadlifts.
deadlifts?

So is the conventional or sumo Wider stance deadlifts lead to greater time spent in the acceleration phase of the lift but
stance better? reduced mechanical work being done.

How does skill level affect hip

Powerlifters with greater skill lift heavier weight but moment arm lengths at the hip are
extension torque during
similar, particularly at lift-off.
deadlifts?

How is hip extension torque

Hip extension torque is higher during straight-leg deadlifts than during bent-leg deadlifts if
different during straight and
the loading is identical.
bent-leg deadlifts?
Chapter summary
In this chapter, we investigated the role of hip extension torque in high force movements and found the following:

Movement Findings

How is hip extension torque

different during hex-bar and Hip extension torque is higher during straight bar deadlifts than during hex-bar deadlifts.
conventional deadlifts?

How does hip extension torque

Hip extension torque increases faster than knee or ankle torque during both conventional
change with load during
and hex-bar deadlifts.
deadlifts?

How much hip extension

Hip extension torque can reach as high as 1,045Nm in deadlifts performed by heavyweight
torque can powerlifters
male powerlifters.
generate during deadlifts?

How does load placement The attachment point of the load during sled dragging affects the hip extension torque. A
affect hip extension torque shoulder-height attachment leads to greater knee moments and a wait-height attachment
during sled dragging? leads to greater hip moments.

Using the computer model, Nates found that the torque curve of the hip thrust was highest
at the initial point of lift-off, where it reached 842Nm, but then dipped slightly, quickly
What is the hip extension
reached a plateau and then rose slightly at the top. This represents a significant diversion
torque during a hip thrust?
from most other barbell hip extension exercises, in which the hip extension torque declines
greatly following lift-off.
Practical implications
In this chapter, we investigated the role of hip extension torque in high force movements. But what are the
practical implications?

 The good morning, back extension and 45-degree back extension have similar ROM and hip joint movement profiles and can be
loaded identically. However, peak contraction occurs in the stretched position in the good morning, in the contracted position
in the back extension and in the midrange in the 45-degree back extension. The point of peak contraction likely affects the
adaptations within the muscle. Therefore, to develop maximum strength and size at all points along the hamstrings muscle, all
three straight-legged hip extension exercises, or similar variations, should be used.

 We should remain skeptical of the following research as EMG research doesn’t agree with the findings and it never passed the
peer-reviewed process, but nevertheless, the split squat was shown to require more hip extension torque for a similar
percentage of 1RM than a conventional back squat, making it more effective for developing the posterior chain. It should
therefore not be seen as simply a “one-leg version of the conventional squat” because it is biomechanically different and will
produce a different set of strengthening adaptations on the lifter, including greater hip extensor strength and less knee
extensor strength. Where coaches remove conventional squats and replace them with split squats, they should consider
whether their athletes require additional work to strengthen the knee extensors.

 To maximize hip extension torque during step-ups and lunges, use forward lunges and step-ups rather than lateral lunges or
step-ups. To increase hip extension torque further during lunges, use heavier weights for fewer repetitions or use lunges with
forward lean rather than lunges with either no lean or with backward lean.

 For physique competitors wanting to develop their quadriceps, forward lunges might be effective for causing considerable
muscle damage because of the high degree of eccentric work that is done and the fact that the peak contraction of the
quadriceps occurs in the stretched position in this exercise. Moreover, since the hip extensors increase their relative
contribution to lunges with increasing weight, a lighter weight might be best. High-rep lunges might therefore be a very
effective bodybuilding exercise for the quadriceps.

 Similarly, reverse lunges may involve similar biomechanics but in reverse. It is possible that, during reverse lunges, the gluteals
may perform considerable eccentric work to decelerate the movement in a stretched position. Moreover, it is likely that the
hamstrings are in active insufficiency at this point because of the hip extension and knee flexion position, which would focus
more work on the gluteals.
Practical implications
In this chapter, we investigated the role of hip extension torque in high force movements. But what are the
practical implications?

 Hip extension torque during squats increases with increasing depth and loading. Heavy partials combined with full squats,
along with the use of accommodating resistance, is likely required for maximal full range squat strength.

 Hip extension torque increases by more during squats where the subjects “sit back” more. This suggests that where
coaches wish to use squats, such as heavy partial squats described below, to improve hip extension torque, this should be
done by coaching the athletes to “sit back.”

 Hip extension, knee extension and ankle plantar-flexion moments are different between legs. This suggests that single-leg
work may be important as a supplement to reach full athletic potential.

 Partial squats with heavy loads are more effective for training power than partial squats with lighter loads or deeper
squats with any load. However, deeper squats with heavy loads are more effective for improving work capacity or
physique improvement, as they involve the most work done.

 While hip extension torque is similar in squats of all stance widths, a wider stance may be better, as there is a slight
tendency for wider squats to produce greater hip extension torque. Additionally, during wider stance squats, greater time
is spent in the acceleration phase, suggesting that they lead to increased adaptations.

 Wider squat stances also produce greater work done, which suggests they lead to greater metabolic effects compared to
narrower stance squats.

 The box squat could be a very useful tool for coaches and athletes, as it involves a very high rate of force development.
Rate of force development is a key attribute for athletes, as most athletic movements are performed before maximum
force can be expressed by muscles. Athletes who require explosive lower body power should therefore consider including
the box squat in their programs.
Practical implications
In this chapter, we investigated the role of hip extension torque in high force movements. But what are the
practical implications?

 Using the Smith Machine, the load can be increased on the hip extensors by positioning the feet further forwards, away
from the bar path.

 The squat and deadlift display very different joint angles at the lift-off, sticking point and peak bar speed points.
Therefore, it is questionable whether in trained individuals, training the squat will significantly improve the deadlift.
However, in untrained individuals, squat performance may be able to predict deadlift performance in lightly-trained
individuals.

 Hip extension torque is similar in conventional and sumo deadlifts, although it is slightly higher in conventional deadlifts.
This is because of the greater hip moment arm length. Those with stronger hips may therefore find themselves better
suited for conventional pulling, while those with stronger knees may find themselves better suited for sumo pulling.

 Sumo deadlifts involve greater time spent in the acceleration phase, which suggests that they could provide a greater
training effect than conventional deadlifts.

 For improving hip extension torque, straight-leg deadlifts are more effective than standard deadlifts if identical loads are
used. Similarly, both straight-leg and standard deadlifts are more effective than hex-bar deadlifts. This is because the
external moment arm is shorter in hex-bar deadlifts.

 When using the dragging sled, take care to adjust the attachment point of the load on the lifter according to their goals.
The position of the load during sled dragging affects the hip extension torque. A shoulder-height attachment leads to
greater knee moments and a wait-height attachment leads to greater hip moments. Therefore, for deadlift assistance
work, the attachment point should be positioned at the waist and for squat assistance work at the shoulder.

 The hip thrust has a much flatter torque curve than the squat, deadlift and good morning and therefore likely produces
much more metabolic stress in the hip extensors, which is a significant mechanism for hypertrophy. Therefore, for gluteal
hypertrophy in particular, the hip thrust is an extremely useful (and different) tool.
How does the proportion of hip extension
torque change with increasing load/speed?
The increasing importance of the hips when squatting with bigger loads
The increasing importance of the hips during lunges with bigger loads
The increasing importance of the hips when pulling deadlifts with bigger loads
The increasing importance of the hips during sprinting at faster speeds
The increasing importance of the hips when jumping higher
Why study how the involvement of the hips changes with increasing load or speed?

 Many strength coaches and personal trainers quite reasonably assume that a squat is a squat and a
deadlift is a deadlift. They assume that the lift always requires the same relative contribution of the hip
and knee muscles, irrespective of loading.

 However, as we have seen throughout this book, the joint torques of various movements in fact change
their relative contributions to a lift or an activity, depending on the load or speed of the movement. A
squat or deadlift with a heavier load will not require the same proportional involvement of the hip and
knee muscles. They are, in essence, different lifts.

 The theme running through this book is that as an exercise or activity becomes faster, more forceful or
more powerful, the involvement of the hips increases. For example, a squat with 50% of 1RM involves a
hip-to-knee moment ratio of 1.1 to 1.0, while a squat with 90% of 1RM involves a hip-to-knee moment
ratio of 1.5 to 1.0.

 What does this mean? This means that as an athlete becomes more elite and lifts heavier, sprints faster
and jumps higher, hip extension torque becomes progressively more important. In fact, the more elite
the athlete, the more that hip extension torque should be central to their progression.

Let’s take a closer look at how the involvement of the hips changes with intensity on the following pages…
How does hip extension torque change with increasing load/speed?

Hip extension torque increases with increasing load/speed in the following movements:

Deadlifting

Lunging Sprinting

Squatting Hips Jumping

See how each of these key exercises require increasing hip extension torque on the following pages…
How does hip extension torque change with increasing squat load?

The ratio of hip extension torque to knee extension torque increases significantly with increasing squat
load.

Bryanton (2011) investigated the hip extension Increasing hip-to-knee moments ratio with
torque of powerlifters at varying degrees of hip increasing percentage of 1RM, Bryanton, 2011
flexion as well as different percentages of 1RM (i.e.
1.6
loading).

Ratio (hip to knee moments)

1.4
The researchers found that hip extension torque
increased significantly with increasing load.
1.2
However, knee extension torque measured at the
same time did not increase in the same way but in 1.0
fact remained broadly constant.
0.8
This means that the ratio of hip-to-knee moments
increases with increasing load, making the hips 0.6
progressively more important to the lift. The The ratio of hip to knee moments
researchers found that the ratio changed from 1.1 to increases with increasing loading
0.4
1.0 at 50% of 1RM to 1.5 to 1.0 at 90% of 1RM.
0.2
So the proportional contribution of hip extension
torque at 90% of 1RM is 33.3% greater than at 50% 0.0
of 1RM. Essentially, as the weights get heavier in 50% of 1RM 60% of 1RM 70% of 1RM 80% of 1RM 90% of 1RM
squats, the hips pick up the slack and do more work
compared to the knees.
How does hip extension torque change with increasing lunge load?

The ratio of hip extension torque to knee extension torque increases significantly with increasing lunge
load.

Riemann (2012) investigated the differences in the Hip-to-knee moment ratios with increasing
work done and the impulse at the hip, knee and ankle loads in a lunge exercise, Riemann, 2012
joints during lunges with loads equal to 12.5%, 25%

Hip-to-knee moment ratio

4.50
and 50% of bodyweight.

The researchers found that as the external load

increased, the greatest increase in net joint impulse 4.00
and work done occurred at the hip, followed by the
ankle and then the knee. This suggests that as weight
is added to the lunge, it becomes an increasingly hip- 3.50
extension-dominant movement.

So the ratio of hip-to-knee moments increases with

increasing load, making the hips progressively more 3.00
important to the lift. The researchers found that the
The ratio of hip to knee moments
ratio changed from 3.7 to 1.0 at 12.5% of 1RM to 4.1 increases with increasing loading
to 1.0 at 50% of 1RM. 2.50

So the proportional contribution of hip extension

torque at 50% of 1RM is 12.4% greater than at 12.5%
2.00
of 1RM. 12.5% of 1RM 25% of 1RM 50% of 1RM
How does hip extension torque change with increasing deadlift load?

The ratio of hip extension torque to knee extension torque increases significantly with increasing deadlift
load.

Swinton (2012) investigated the hip, knee and ankle Hip-to-knee moment ratios during straight bar and
moments during straight bar conventional deadlifts and hex-bar deadlifts with increasing percentages of
hex-bar deadlifts. They found that the hip, knee and ankle 1RM, Swinton, 2012
moments increased differently with increasing percentages

Hip to knee moment ratios

4.00
of 1RM.

The researchers found that as the loading increased, the hip 3.50
moments increased faster than the knee or ankle moments.
Hence, the hip-to-knee moment ratio increased with 3.00
increasing load.
2.50
The researchers found that the hip-to-knee moment ratio
for the straight bar conventional deadlift increased from
2.8:1.0 at 10% of 1RM to 3.7:1.0 at 80% of 1RM. This 2.00
represented an increase in hip-dominance of 33.3%.
1.50
However, they found that the hip-to-knee moment ratio for
the hex-bar deadlift increased from 1.70:1.0 at 10% of 1RM The ratio of hip to knee moments
1.00
to 1.78:1.0 at 80% of 1RM. This represented an increase of increases with increasing loading
just 5.1% in hip-dominance.
0.50
So the conventional deadlift displays a faster increase in
hip-to-knee moment ratio than the hex-bar deadlift. 0.00
10% of 20% of 30% of 40% of 50% of 60% of 70% of 80% of
1RM 1RM 1RM 1RM 1RM 1RM 1RM 1RM
Straight-bar deadlift Hex-bar deadlift
How does hip extension torque change with increasing running speed?

The ratio of hip extension torque to knee extension torque increases significantly with increasing running
speed.

Schache (2011) investigated the joint moments during Hip and knee joint moment ratios at the points of
running at various different speeds. They recorded greatest hip and knee extension torque, with increasing
moments at different points in the gait cycle. running speeds, Schache, 2011
However, the greatest hip extension moments were 1.40

Hip to knee moment ratio

recorded during terminal swing.
1.20 The ratio of hip to knee
The researchers found that the ratio of hip to knee moments increases with
increasing speed
joint moments increased with increasing running 1.00
speed, suggesting that running becomes a
progressively more hip-dominant activity with 0.80
increasing speed.
0.60
At 3.5m/s, the researchers found that the ratio of peak
hip to knee moments was 0.29:1.0, while at 8.95m/s, 0.40
which is sprinting, the ratio of peak hip to knee
moments was 1.18:1.0. This means that running 0.20
becomes 304% more hip-dominant as running speeds
progress from 3.5m/s to 8.95m/s and also shifts from 0.00
knee-dominance to hip-dominance as a result. 3.5m/s 5.02m/s 6.97m/s 8.95m/s
How does hip extension torque change with increasing jump height?

The ratio of hip extension torque to knee extension torque increases significantly with increasing jump
height.
Ratio of hip to knee moments during jumps of
Lees (2004) studied jumps of three different different heights, Lees, 2004
intensities, which they labeled “low”, “high” and
1.8
“maximum”. The low jump averaged 35cm, the

Ratio of hip to knee moments

medium jump 44cm and the maximum jump height 1.6
53cm.
1.4
The researchers recorded the joint moments during
the various jumps. They found that the hip moments 1.2
increased markedly with increasing jump height but
1.0
the ankle and knee moments did not increase as
much. 0.8

Consequently, they found that the ratio of hip-to-knee 0.6

moments increased from 0.64:1.0 in the low jump (i.e.
the jump was actually knee-dominant) to 1.67:1.0 in 0.4 The ratio of hip to knee moments
the maximal jump. This represented an increase in increases with increasing speed
0.2
hip-dominance of 163% and a shift from knee-
dominance to hip-dominance as a result. 0.0
0.35 ± 0.03m 0.44 ± 0.03m 0.53 ± 0.04m
How does hip extension torque change with increasing intensity?

The ratio of hip extension torque to knee extension torque increases significantly with increasing exercise
load, sprint speed and jump height.

As we have seen on the previous pages, the ratio of Maximum and minimum ratios of hip to knee moments
hip-to-knee moments increases with increasing load during various resistance exercises and athletic
during squats, lunges, deadlifts and hex-bar deadlifts. movements

Ratio of hip to knee moments

In these exercises, this represents an increase in hip- 4.5
dominance, although they are all hip-dominant 4.0 The ratio of hip to knee
irrespective of the loads tested, assuming our moments increases with
3.5
classification for hip or knee dominance is based on increasing intensity
the absolute torque loading at the two joints. 3.0

2.5
Additionally, the ratio of hip-to-knee moments
increases with increasing speed in sprinting and with 2.0
increasing jump height in jumping. In these
1.5
movements, this represents a shift from knee-
dominance at lower intensities to hip-dominance at 1.0
higher intensities. 0.5

As force and power output increase, therefore, the 0.0

Squats Lunges Deadlifts Hex-bar Sprinting Jumping
role of the hip extensors becomes much more
deadlifts
important and their contribution to the movement
increases. This has important ramifications for Minimum Maximum
training and performance.
 How does hip extension torque change with forward lean?
Hip extension torque also increases with increasing forward lean. This can be seen in the forward lunge,
the counterbalanced squat and accelerating vs. maximum speed sprinting.
Lynn (2012) studied dumbbell squats with the load positioned Farrokhi (2008) found that the hip extensor impulse was
either on the shoulders in the front squat (rack position) or significantly increased during a forward lunge with a forward trunk
held outstretched in front (counterbalanced position). The lean compared to a backward lean or no lean. Similar results were
researchers found that the squats with dumbbells found by Flanagan (2004). Also, Card (undated) found that the
outstretched displayed greater hip moments and reduced mechanical advantage at the hip decreased during the first steps of
knee moments in comparison with the squats with the accelerating running and was lowest during maximum speed
dumbbells in the rack position. running, likely because the mechanical advantage of the hips is less
in maximum speed running than during accelerating running
because there is less forward-lean.

Hip and knee extensor impulses during lunge variations,

Hip extension and knee extension moments during two
Farrokhi, 2008
types of squat, Lynn, 2012
6

Impulse (Nms/kg)
90
Joint torques (Nm)

Hip moments are greater

Hip extension torque is during lunges with forward
greater in dumbbell squats in 5
85 lean than during lunges with
the outstretched position backward lean or no lean
4
80
3

75
2

70 1

0
65
No lean Forward lean Backward lean
Hip Knee
Rack position Outstretched Hip extensor impulse Knee extensor impulse
Chapter summary
In this chapter, we investigated the changing contribution of hip extension torque to various key athletic
movements:

Question Findings

How does hip extension

The ratio of hip extension torque to knee extension torque increases significantly with increasing squat load.
torque change with
The ratio changes from 1.1:1.0 at 50% of 1RM to 1.5:1.0 at 90% of 1RM.
increasing squat load?

How does hip extension

The ratio of hip extension torque to knee extension torque increases significantly with increasing lunge load.
torque change with
The researchers found that the ratio changed from 3.7 to 1.0 at 12.5% of 1RM to 4.1 to 1.0 at 50% of 1RM.
increasing lunge load?

The ratio of hip extension torque to knee extension torque increases significantly with increasing deadlift
How does hip extension load. The hip-to-knee moment ratio for the straight bar conventional deadlift increased from 2.8:1.0 at 10%
torque change with of 1RM to 3.7:1.0 at 80% of 1RM. This represented an increase in hip-dominance of 33.3%. Similarly, the
increasing deadlift load? hip-to-knee moment ratio for the hex-bar deadlift increased from 1.70:1.0 at 10% of 1RM to 1.78:1.0 at 80%
of 1RM. This represented an increase of 5.1% in hip-dominance.

The ratio of hip extension torque to knee extension torque increases significantly with increasing running
How does hip extension speed. At 3.5m/s, the ratio of peak hip to knee moments was 0.29:1.0, while at 8.95m/s, which is sprinting,
torque change with the ratio of peak hip to knee moments was 1.18:1.0. This means that running becomes 304% more hip-
increasing running speed? dominant as running speeds progress from 3.5m/s to 8.95m/s and also shifts from knee-dominance to hip-
dominance as a result.

The ratio of hip extension torque to knee extension torque increases significantly with increasing jump
How does hip extension
height. The ratio of hip-to-knee moments increased from 0.64:1.0 in the low jump (i.e. the jump was
torque change with
actually knee-dominant) to 1.67:1.0 in the maximal jump. This represented an increase in hip-dominance of
increasing jump height?
163% and a shift from knee-dominance to hip-dominance as a result.
Practical implications
In this chapter, we investigated how hip extension torque increases with increasing load and intensity. But
what are the practical implications?

 The five examples shown in this chapter demonstrate that as loads get heavier (squat, conventional deadlift,
hex-bar deadlift and lunge), running gets quicker and jumps get higher, hip extension torque becomes
proportionally more important to the movement and knee moments become less important. This means that
for athletes training to produce maximal power and speed, developing the muscular power of the hip extensors
must be a primary concern.

 Additionally, for athletes training with exercises that closely resemble their competitive activities (e.g. sprinters
sprinting or powerlifters squatting), it is likely that submaximal performances will involve significantly lower hip-
to-knee moments. Therefore, strength coaches will want to address this deficit. The deficit could be addressed
in two ways.

 Firstly, additional work could be performed for the hip extensors. This could take the form of assistance work in
the gym, comprising hip-dominant compound movements, such as Romanian deadlifts and good mornings, or
more targeted exercises such as back raises, reverse hypers, glute-ham raises, hip thrusts, glute bridges and
kettlebell swings. Additional concentric-only work could fit into an already fatiguing program in the form of
waist-attached sled dragging.

 Secondly, maximal work could be emphasized and submaximal work de-emphasized, to the degree that this is
possible within the periodized program that the coach considers necessary for the long-term development of
the athlete.
What are the directions for future research?
What do we know that we don’t know?
Thanks for reading! Tell us what you think!
What do we know that we don’t know?

As Donald Rumsfeld said, “there are known knowns; there are things we know that we know. There are known
unknowns; that is to say there are things that, we now know we don't know. But there are also unknown
unknowns – there are things we do not know, we don't know.” (Wikipedia)

In research, this statement is very true. There are always things that we know we know. There are also things that
we know we don’t know. Here are a few of the things we think are critical for future research and which we still
don’t know.
1. The hip extension torque for a number of key exercises that have not yet been tested (e.g. hip thrust
variations and kettlebell swings). This is important as currently the only information we have for a number of
key hip extension exercises that are used extensively in the strength and conditioning industry has been
produced by Bret’s N=1 experiments. Future studies need ample subjects and should use identical relative
loading for each exercise tested (for example, 6RM).
2. How the gluteal activity changes during key exercises depending on hip angle. From previous research, we
know that during maximum voluntary contractions during a range of hip angles, increasing hip flexion causes
decreasing gluteal activity. In other words, the gluteals appear to be most active in the anatomical position.
However, this type of study needs to be repeated in a range of key exercises and not just in a dynamometer.
3. The transfer of training to sports performance of heavy gluteal exercises such as barbell hip thrusts. Studies
investigating the effects of squats on sprinting and jumping performance are very common. However,
researchers have yet to investigate the effects of other hip extension exercises, particularly anteroposterior
exercises such as hip thrusts, on sprinting or jumping.
4. The reason why we achieve higher glute activation in the anatomical position rather than in full hip flexion.
Researchers have found that during maximum voluntary contractions in a range of hip angles, increasing hip
flexion causes decreasing gluteal activity. In other words, the gluteals appear to be most active in the
anatomical position. However, the reason for this is unclear.
What do we know that we don’t know?

Here are some additional things that we still don’t know…

5. It is not known how long muscle moment arms are in living humans and, more specifically, in athletes. Ward’s
study showed a markedly different pennation angle for the gluteus maximus compared to other studies. We
spoke to Ward and he mentioned that he took into account the angle of action onto the femur. If this is the
case, its physiological cross-sectional area was likely underestimated considerably. Moreover, most studies
examining muscle architecture use cadavers of older subjects, and these muscles are dehydrated and not
active. A contracted (flexed-muscle), well-developed gluteus maximus in an athletic sprinter or bodybuilder will
have a significantly greater moment arm then what’s been seen in the research. For these reasons, the gluteus
maximus might be much more important than we realize and its force potential could be much greater when it
is well-developed.
6. What the fiber type proportion of the gluteus maximus is in sprinters is unknown. Fiber types of the gluteus
maximus or hamstrings have not been measured in sprinters to our knowledge. They may have greater fast
twitch fibers and this may play a significant role in their potential.
7. How hypertrophy of the gluteals affects force production and performance is still unclear. We need more
accurate and complex models to help us understand the potential effects of gluteal hypertrophy.
8. How gluteal activation affects performance is not known. We need better research on the effects of gluteal
activation on performance with varying protocols. This area has definite potential and might prove itself
valuable over time.
9. We can’t compare torque or EMG studies easily at present. Many studies use different parameters for
calculating hip extension torque and for measuring or normalizing hip extensor EMG measurements. In future,
studies for a large variety of movements should be performed and hip extension torque and hip extensor EMG
should be calculated and measured using the same testing parameters so we can make valid comparisons
between various exercises.
What do we know that we don’t know?

Here are some additional things that we still don’t know…

10. We don’t know why the hip extension torque measured in a dynamometer is so different from that
calculated in resistance exercises. There is a gap between hip extension torque capabilities shown in
dynamometry and those seen in resistance training exercises. Why this occurs needs to be elucidated.
11. We don’t know whether pelvic tilt has any significant effect on performance and spinal safety. Whether it is
correct to recommend neutral, anterior or posterior pelvic tilt under different circumstances is as yet unknown.
12. We don’t know if the pennation angle differs markedly when the gluteus maximus is contracted versus
relaxed. This is important, as it (along with hypertrophy) may well impact on performance.
Thanks for reading!

We hope you enjoyed this book. If you liked it, please click on the link below and comment on what you
liked about it. If there were things that weren’t clear, please tell us that too. We’ll fix it for future editions!

Click here!

And don’t forget, you can cite this work as: Beardsley, C., & Contreras, B. (2012). Hip extension torque: The
scientific guide to the posterior chain. Retrieved from
http://www.strengthandconditioningresearch.com/downloads/hip-extension-torque/

For more detail on exercise physiology, check out: Beardsley, C., & Contreras, B. (2012). Background.
Retrieved from http://www.strengthandconditioningresearch.com/downloads/background/