Grade 8 – SCIENCE MEIOSIS & MITOSIS Q4: Module 2 – Week 2

MELC
Compare mitosis and meiosis, and their
role in the cell-division cycle.

Explain the significance of meiosis in

maintaining the chromosome number.
HEREDITY
VARIATION
GENETICS
 HEREDITY
traits are passed on
from parents to offspring
VARIATION
demonstrates
differences among
individuals
is the study of heredity and
variation. It aims to
understand how traits can
be passed on to the next
generation and how
variation arises

GENETICS
 Gregor Mendel
(1822-1884) is widely considered as the
father of experimental genetics for his
pioneer work in the field of genetics. He
experimented on pea plants (Pisum
Sativum) and discovered the basic rules
of inheritance of genes.

The Father of Genetics

How did this
happen?
There are two ways
by which cells
increase in number.
Two types of cell division:

Mitosis
Meiosis
All living things contain what we
call the genetic material that
serves as the set of instructions
that direct the activities and
functions of the cells.
What is DNA?
These genetic materials, also
known as the
deoxyribonucleic acid
or DNA, are passed on from
one generation to the next to
ensure the continuity of life.
In eukaryotic cells (cells with
organelles), the DNA are
bound with proteins and are
organized as beads on
strings to form chromosomes
Chromosome
numbers of
selected
organisms
32 chromosomes
8 chromosomes
52 chromosomes
46 chromosomes
10 chromosomes
24 chromosomes
20 chromosomes
Two types of cell division:

Mitosis
Meiosis
 Mitosis
- Is the process in which a cell
nucleus divides into two new
nuclei, each of which contains
the same number of
chromosome as the parent cell.
The parent cell is the cell that
undergoes division. This process
occurs on the body (somatic)
cells.
 Meiosis
- Is a process where a single
cell divides twice to produce
four cells containing half the
original amount of genetic
information. Theses cells are
our sex cells – sperm in
males, eggs in females.
What are the 4
stages of
Mitosis?
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
This type of cell
division produces two
identical cells with the
same number of
chromosomes.

MITOSIS
 CHROMOSOME
- a threadlike structure of nucleic
acids and protein found in
the nucleus of most living cells,
carrying genetic information in the
form of genes.

Figure 3. Parts of the chromosome.

STAGE A: Prophase. The nuclear membrane
and nucleoli may still be present. The
chromosomes are thicker and shorter
because of repeated coiling. At this stage,
each chromosome is made up of two identical
sister chromatids as a consequence of
replication of DNA during the S phase. The
two chromatids produced from one
chromosome are still attached at one point,
called the centromere.
The centromere may divide the
chromosome into the shorter arms, also
called the p arms (‘p’ stands for petite in
French) and the longer q arms. If the
chromosomes are stained using Giemsa,
alternating dark and light regions will
appear. These are the heterochromatin and
euchromatin, respectively. The
heterochromatin are more coiled and
dense than the euchromatin (Figure 3).
STAGE B: Metaphase. The nuclear
membrane has disappeared while the
highly coiled chromosomes align at the
metaphase plate, an imaginary plane
equidistant between the cell’s two poles.
Spindle fibers are also formed. Each fiber
binds to a protein called the kinetochore at
the centromere of each sister chromatid of
the chromosome.
STAGE C: Anaphase. The paired
centromeres of each chromosome separate
towards the opposite poles of the cells as
they are pulled by the spindle fibers
through their kinetochores. This liberates
the sister chromatids. Each chromatid is
now regarded as a full-fledged
chromosome and is only made up of one
sister chromatid.
STAGE D: Telophase. The
chromosomes are now at the opposite
poles of the spindle. They start to
uncoil and become indistinct under the
light microscope. A new nuclear
membrane forms around them while
the spindle fibers disappear. There is
also cytokinesis or the division of the
cytoplasm to form two separate
daughter cells immediately after mitosis
• The number of chromosomes normally
remains the same within the species. It
does not double or triple for every
generation.
• This suggests that a different kind of cell
division must take place in an individual.
• This kind of cell division is called meiosis,
from a Greek word which means “to
make smaller.”
What are the
stages of
Meiosis?
• Meiosis reduces the
chromosome number in half. It
takes place in plants and
animals whenever gametes, or
sex cells, are formed through
the process called
gametogenesis.
• Meiosis is a special type of cell division
where the cell undergoes two rounds
of cell division to produce four
daughter cells, each with half the
chromosome number as the original
parent cell and with a unique set of
genetic material as a result of exchange
of chromosome segments during the
process of crossing over.
The first round of meiotic division,
also known as meiosis I, consists
of four stages:
1.prophase I,
2.metaphase I,
3.anaphase I, and
4.telophase I.
Prophase I of meiosis I,
unlike its counterpart in
mitosis, is more elaborate
and should be understood
well in order to grasp the
mechanisms of heredity.
STAGE A: Prophase I. Meiosis starts with this stage
and includes the following substages:

Leptotene. Each chromosome is made up of two long

threads of sister chromatids as a result of replication
during the S phase of the cell cycle.

Zygotene. The chromosomes begin to pair off. Pairs

of chromosomes are called homologous
chromosomes, and this pairing process is exact.

Pachytene. The chromosomes contract due to

repeated coiling. Crossing over takes place during
this stage where a segment of a sister chromatid of
one chromosome is exchanged with the same
segment of the sister chromatid of the homologous
chromosome through the formation of a cross-
linkage of the segments called a chiasma
Diplotene. The chromosomes
begin to uncoil.

Diakinesis. The paired

chromosomes disperse in the
nucleus.
STAGE B: Metaphase I.
The paired
chromosomes arrange
themselves along the
equatorial plate.
STAGE C: Anaphase I. Spindle
fibers form and attach to the
centromeres of the chromosomes.
The homologous chromosomes
separate from each other
completely and start their
movement toward the poles of the
cells as they are pulled by the
spindle fibers. As the centromere
of each chromosome does not
divide, the sister chromatids
remain together.
STAGE D: Telophase I. This is the stage
when the chromosomes reach their
respective poles. Cytokinesis follows
and two daughter cells are formed.
Each cell now has only half the
chromosome number because only one
chromosome from each pair goes to the
daughter cell. This is called the haploid
condition, in contrast to the diploid
condition at the beginning of meiosis I
where each chromosome pair is intact.
Telophase I is followed by interphase II.
Note that each chromosome
still has two sister
chromatids; it is therefore
necessary for the cells to
undergo another round of
division.
The second meiotic division, also
known as meiosis II, is mitotic in
nature and consists of the following
stages:
1. prophase II,
2. metaphase II,
3. anaphase II and
4. telophase II;
MEIOSIS
- these stages are identical with the
mitotic stages
- The results are four cells, two from
each daughter cell from meiosis I,
with one half the diploid
chromosome number and with only
one sister chromatid for each
chromosome.
PROPHASE II
- The nuclear envelope
breaks down and the spindle
begins to form in each
haploid daughter cells from
meiosis I. The centrioles also
start to separate.
METAPHASE II.
Spindle fibers line up
the sister chromatids of
each chromosome along
the equator of the cell.
ANAPHASE II
Sister chromatids
separate and move to
opposite poles.
TELOPHASE II and
Cytokinesis
The spindle breaks down and new
nuclear membranes form. The
cytoplasm of each cell divides,
and four haploid cells result.
Each cell has a unique
combination of chromosomes.
For growth and repair For reproduction

1 1
1 2

2 4

46 23
Somatic cells Reproductive cell
Role of Meiosis in
Gametogenesis

During the process of gametogenesis, a

germ cell undergoes meiosis to produce
haploid cells that directly develop into
gametes.
Gametes such as eggs and sperms unite during
fertilization, forming a diploid zygote. The zygote has
one set of chromosomes from the male parent and
another set from the female parent.

In humans, both father and mother contribute 23

chromosomes each through their gametes. Thus,
the zygote has 46 chromosomes. The zygote
divides many times. This produces a new diploid
multicellular organism
Sperm cells are produced in the testes of male
animals. Meiosis produces four cells which are very
small but of similar size. These cells become
spermatozoa (singular form is
spermatozoon) or sperms. The
nucleus is found in the head of the sperm;
mitochondria are found at the midpiece that
connects the head to the tail. These mitochondria
provide the energy for the movement of the sperm’s
tail.
When Something
Goes Wrong
During Meiosis
Meiosis may not always proceed normally.
Accidents sometimes happen. These
accidents may affect the functioning of the
spindle fibers or the movement of one or
more chromosomes. In humans, some
accidents have been known to cause
abnormal conditions.
If this involves chromosome pair
21, for example, and one of the
gametes contains two copies of
the chromosome, then the
individual produced will have 47
chromosomes in his or her cells
(with three copies of chromosome
21). This condition is known as
Down’s syndrome, named
after Dr. Langdon Down who first
studied the condition. The extra
chromosome 21 will lead to an
imbalance of genetic material in
the cell.
Children with Edwards
syndrome have 3 copies of part or
all of chromosome 18, instead of
the usual 2 copies. It is also called
Trisomy 18. This can be caused by a
mistake in the formation of the egg
or sperm, or the problem can arise
while the baby is developing in the
womb.

Edwards
syndrome
Or Trisomy 18
Turner syndrome, a condition that
affects only females, results when
one of the X chromosomes (sex
chromosomes) is missing or
partially missing. Turner syndrome
can cause a variety of medical and
developmental problems, including
short height, failure of the ovaries
to develop and heart defects.

Turner
syndrome
Patau's syndrome is a serious
rare genetic disorder caused by
having an additional copy of
chromosome 13 in some or all of
the body's cells. It's also called
trisomy 13. Each cell
normally contains 23 pairs of
chromosomes, which carry the
genes you inherit from your
parents.

Patau's
syndrome
Sometimes, a piece of chromosome breaks
off and gets lost. The effects of this
accident depend on the particular genetic
material lost. For example, when a part of
chromosome 5 is lost, the afflicted
individual will have a face that is round,
moonlike, cries feebly and is mentally and
physically retarded. This condition is called

Cri du chat syndrome;

cri du chat is French for cat’s cry, which is
the sound a baby with this condition makes
when he/she cries.
Several drugs may cause breaks or
other abnormalities in the
chromosomes. Chlorpromazine
(a popular tranquilizer),
diphenhydramine (an
antihistamine), and lysergic acid
diethylamide or LSD (a
hallucinogen) are some drugs known
to cause breaks in the chromosomes.