Dimensional Analysis, Similitude and

Modelling
 Outline
• Dimensional Analysis
• Buckingham Pi Theorem
• Determination of Pi Terms
• Comments about Dimensional Analysis
• Common Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics
• Correlation of Experimental Data
• Modeling and Similitude
• Typical Model Studies

2
 Learning Objectives
• Apply the Buckingham pi theorem.
• Develop a set of dimensionless variables for a given flow
situation.
• Discuss the use of dimensionless variables in data
analysis.
• Apply the concepts of modeling and similitude to
develop prediction equations.

3
 Why Dimensional Analysis?
• Suppose we want to investigate
the steady-state flow of water
down a smooth, circular pipe of
diameter D?
• The property of interest is the
pressure drop over a fixed
length (a friction/viscosity
effect). This could depend on
∆𝑝𝑙 = 𝑓(𝐷, 𝜌, 𝜇, 𝑣)
• So one can do experiments to
try and elucidate
• Also need to try and combine
results!
 Reduction of Variables
• Rather than working with all variables,
the factors can be organized into two
dimensionless products or groups.

𝐷∆𝑝𝑙 𝜌𝑣𝐷
2
=𝜑
𝜌𝑣 𝜇

• There are now 2 variables instead of 5.

Once ϕ is known, (by experiments on a
convenient fluid), the result would be
applicable to any combination of pipe
or liquid.
 Purpose of Dimensional Analysis
• Want to determine which variables to study.
• Want to determine the parameters that significantly affect the system.
• Reduce the cost/effort of experimental analysis by studying the most important
groups of variables.
• The ideas can be used for any physical system.
• This will help in the design of scale test models
 Buckingham Pi Theorem
• If an equation involving 𝑘 variables is dimensionally homogeneous, it can be reduced to a
relationship among 𝑘 – 𝑟 independent dimensionless products, where 𝑟 is the minimum
number of reference dimensions required to describe the variables.
• The basic idea is based on dimensional homogeneity. Suppose, the k variables are related
𝑢1 = 𝑓(𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , 𝑢4 , … … , 𝑢𝑘 )
• Now dimensions of LHS and RHS are the same.
• The problem is then reorganized into a function involving 𝑘 – 𝑟 dimensionless Π products.
Π1 = 𝜙 Π2 , Π3 , Π4 , … … , Π𝑘−𝑟
• Usually the reference dimensions required to describe the variables will be the basic
dimensions M, L, and T or F, L, and T.
• However, in some instances fewer dimensions or some combination of basic dimensions can
be used.
 Method of Repeating Variables
This is a recipe to determine the dimensionless groupings for a problem.
1. List all the k variables involved in the problem
Most important step. Assume you know something about problem! Required understanding of variables that
govern problem and physical laws that apply. Typically have geometry effects (pipe radius, length), fluid
properties (density and viscosity), external effects (gravity and pressure). Variables should be independent; no
point in having pipe radius and area, or 𝜌, 𝛾, 𝑔.
2. Decompose variables in terms of the basic dimensions
These are typically either M, L, T (or F, L, T by treating force, F as basic).
3. Determine number of Π terms
Usually, this is 𝑘 – 𝑟. In some cases, might have variables that only depend on M/T2 and L. The number of
reference dimensions would be 2 (not 3).
 Method of Repeating Variables (cont’d.)
4. Select a number of repeating variables
One designates certain variables as repeating. The number of repeating variables is the same as the
number of reference dimensions. All the reference dimensions must be included in list of repeating
variables. Each repeating variable must be dimensionally independent from the others (it is not possible
to form a dimensionless number from the repeating variables).
Often interested in how one variable depends on others, usual to make this term variable as the (non-
repeating) dependent variable.
5. Form a Π term
Pick a non-repeating variable. Form a dimensionless product by combining with the repeating
variables. e.g. if 𝑢1 is a non-repeating variable and 𝑤1 , 𝑤2 , 𝑤3 are repeating, then form 𝑢1 𝑤1𝑎 𝑤2𝑏 𝑤3𝑐 .
Choose a, b, c to make product dimensionless.
 Method of Repeating Variables (cont’d.)
6. Make a new Π term for each non-repeating variable
Step 5 is repeated for each non-repeating variable. The number of Π terms should be the same as that
identified in step 3.
7. Check that each Π term is dimensionless.
It is easy to make an algebraic mistake in this analysis so a check at the end is worthwhile. Decompose
each variable into M, L, T or F, L, T and verify it is homogeneous. Choose opposite decomposition to
that used during steps 1 to 6.
8. Write the functional relation between Π terms.
Typically, one writes
Π1 = 𝜙(Π2 , … … , Π𝑘−𝑟 )
This is as far as the analysis can go. Further details about 𝜙 requires experimental investigation using Π
terms as independent variables.
 Losses in a pipe
• What is the pressure loss in a pipe per unit length, diameter 𝐷, for a fluid of density 𝜌, viscosity 𝜇 traveling at
velocity 𝑣?
• Now write all variables into basic dimensions are

• There are 5 variables and 3 reference dimensions.

• Alternatively, we could use force, M, L, and T as basic dimensions.
 Losses in a pipe (cont’d.)
• So, we will have 5 − 3 = 2 Π terms.
• Need to select 3 repeating variables.
• We will choose
– 𝐷 , 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌 as the repeating variables
• We form two dimensionless pi terms.
 Losses in a pipe (cont’d.)
• pi terms should be dimensionless

• Finally (Step 8), we can express the result of the dimensional analysis as

• Dimensional analysis will not provide the form of the function This can only be obtained from a suitable set of
experiments.
• If desired, the pi terms can be rearranged
 Common Dimensionless Numbers
Dimensionless groupings of physical variables provide the natural groupings in which to develop physical
relations. The reoccurrence of these dimensional groupings means they are given their own names. Note,
the functional relations for real-life fluid flow rarely exist as closed form expressions.
Method of Repeating Variables
 Example
A thin rectangular plate having a width w and a height h is located so that it is normal to a moving stream
of fluid. Assume that the drag, D, that the fluid exerts on the plate is a function of w and h, the fluid
viscosity, µ ,and ρ, respectively, and the velocity, V, of the fluid approaching the plate. Determine a
suitable set of pi terms to study this problem experimentally.
Example
Example
Example
 Dimensional Analysis: Selection of Variables
• Clearly define the problem. What is the main variable of interest (the dependent variable)?
• Consider the basic laws that govern the phenomenon. Even a crude theory that describes the essential
aspects of the system may be helpful.
• Start the variable selection process by grouping the variables into three broad classes: geometry,
material properties, and external effects.
• Consider other variables that may not fall into one of the above categories. For example, time will be
an important variable if any of the variables are time dependent.
• Be sure to include all quantities that enter the problem even though some of them may be held
constant (e.g., the acceleration of gravity, g). For a dimensional analysis it is the dimensions of the
quantities that are important—not specific values!
• Make sure that all variables are independent. Look for relationships among subsets of the variables.
 Dimensional Analysis
• Typically, in fluid mechanics, the required number of reference dimensions is three, but in some
problems only one or two are required.
• Uniqueness of Pi Terms: there is not a unique set of pi terms which arises from a dimensional analysis.
However, the required number of pi terms is fixed, and once a correct set is determined, all other
possible sets can be developed from this set by combinations of products of powers of the original set.
• Pi terms can be formed by inspection by simply making use of the fact that each pi term must be
dimensionless.
 Common Dimensionless Groups
Dimensionless groupings of physical variables provide the natural groupings in which to develop physical
relations. The reoccurrence of these dimensional groupings means they are given their own names. Note,
the functional relations for real-life fluid flow rarely exist as closed form expressions.
 Reynolds number, Re

𝜌𝑣𝐷 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

• The Reynolds number is the ratio of the inertial to the viscous forces. The critical
Reynolds number denotes the boundary between laminar and turbulent flow (it is ≈
2000 for flow down a pipe).
• Low Re indicate laminar flow. Large Reynolds numbers indicate turbulent flow.
 Froude number, Fr

𝑣 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐹𝑟 = =
𝑔𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

• Gravity can effect the flow of fluids.

• Discovered by Froude when looking at waves of model ships in tanks.
• The Froude numbers occurs in gravity driven flows and wave behavior on the surface
of a fluid. Flows involving a free surface often involve the Froude number.
 Mach number, Ma

𝑣 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑀𝑎 = =
𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

• The ratio is of fluid speed to speed of sound is relevant in two areas

• It is the most important correlating parameter when fluid velocities are near the local
sonic velocity.
• Compressible fluids can be treated like incompressible fluids when Ma < 0.3 .
 Correlation of Experimental Data
• Dimensional analysis only provides the dimensionless groups describing the phenomenon, and not the
specific relationship between the groups.
• To determine this relationship, suitable experimental data must be obtained.
• The degree of difficulty depends on the number of pi terms.
• The functional relationship for one Pi term. 1 = C where C is a constant. The value of the constant
must still be determined by experiment.
• Problems with two pi terms 1 =( 2 ) the functional relationship among the variables can the be
determined by varying Π2 and measuring the corresponding value of Π1. (Making graph)
• The empirical equation relating Π2 and Π1 by using a standard curve-fitting technique.
• For problems involving more than two or three pi terms, it is often necessary to use a model to
predict specific characteristics.
 Example
As shown in Fig. assume that the drag, acting on a spherical particle that falls very slowly through a
viscous fluid, is a function of the particle diameter, D, the particle velocity, V, and the fluid viscosity, 𝜇.
Determine, with the aid of dimensional analysis, how the drag depends on the particle velocity.
Example
Example
 Example
An open, cylindrical tank having a diameter D is supported around its bottom circumference and is filled
to a depth h with a liquid having a specific weight . The vertical deflection,  , of the center of the
bottom is a function of D, h, d, , and E, where d is the thickness of the bottom and E is the modulus of
elasticity of the bottom material. Perform a dimensional analysis of this problem.
 Modeling and Similitude
• Many projects involving structures, aircraft, ships, harbors, rivers, dams involve
models.
• A model is a representation of the physical system that can be used to predict the
behavior of a prototype in some respect. The model is usually smaller than the
prototype.
• For complete similitude, we require
– Geometric Similitude The model should be an exact scale copy of the prototype. It should
include the surface roughness and the object dimensions.
– Kinematic Similitude The velocity at any point in the model flow must be proportional to the
velocity at the corresponding point in the prototype flow (includes directions and magnitudes).
– Dynamic Similitude This is achieved when all forces in the model are proportional to all forces
in the prototype. Kinematic similitude is necessary but not sufficient for dynamic similitude.
 Theory of Models
• Complete similitude requires geometric, kinematic and dynamic similitude.
• Consider a fluid flow system written in terms of Π terms as

Π1 = 𝜙(Π2 , … … , Π𝑘−𝑟 )

Π1𝑚 = 𝜙(Π2𝑚 , … … , Π𝑘𝑚−𝑟𝑚 )

If
Π2,𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙 = Π2,𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒
Π3,𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙 = Π3,𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 modeling laws
…… = ……
Π𝑘−𝑟,𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙 = Π𝑘−𝑟,𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒
Then
Π1,𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙 = Π1,𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 (prediction equation)
 Theory of Models
• Suppose we want to predict the drag force of a fluid on a large rectangular
plate by using tests on a small plate. This can be used to determine the force
of wind on a building.
• The object will have a height of ℎ, a width of 𝑤, the fluid has a density of
𝜌, a viscosity of 𝜇 and is moving with a velocity of 𝑣. Using the
Buckingham Pi method (with w, 𝑣 and 𝜌 as repeating variables) it can be
shown that

• Since the relationship expressed above applies to both prototype and model,
 Theory of Models
• The model design conditions, or similarity requirements, are therefore

• The size of the model is obtained from the first requirement which indicates that

• The second similarity requirement indicates that the model and prototype must be operated at the same
Reynolds number. Thus, the required velocity for the model is obtained from the relationship
 Theory of Models
• So, the force on the prototype will be
 Example
A long structural component of a bridge has the cross section shown in Figure. It is known that when a
steady wind blows past this type of bluff body, vortices may develop on the downwind side that are shed
in a regular fashion at some definite frequency. Since these vortices can create harmful periodic forces
acting on the structure, it is important to determine the shedding frequency. For the specific structure of
interest, D = 0.1m, H = 0.3 m, and a representative wind velocity 50km/hr. Standard air can be assumed.
The shedding frequency is to be determined through the use of a small-scale model that is to be tested in
a water tunnel. For the model Dm = 20 mm and the water temperature is 20℃.
Determine the model dimension, Hm, and the velocity at which the test should be performed. If the
shedding frequency ω for the model is found to be 49.9 Hz, what is the corresponding frequency for the
prototype?
Example
Example
D = 0.1m, H = 0.3 m, and a
representative wind velocity
50km/hr.

For the model Dm = 20 mm

Determine the model dimension, Hm, and the velocity at which

the test should be performed. If the shedding frequency ω for
the model is found to be 49.9 Hz, what is the corresponding
frequency for the prototype?
Example
D = 0.1m, H = 0.3 m, and a
representative wind velocity
50km/hr.

For the model Dm = 20 mm

Determine the model dimension, Hm, and the velocity at which

the test should be performed. If the shedding frequency ω for
the model is found to be 49.9 Hz, what is the corresponding
frequency for the prototype?
Example
D = 0.1m, H = 0.3 m, and a
representative wind velocity
50km/hr.

For the model Dm = 20 mm

Determine the model dimension, Hm, and the velocity at which

the test should be performed. If the shedding frequency ω for
the model is found to be 49.9 Hz, what is the corresponding
frequency for the prototype?
 Modeling and Similitude
• The ratio of a model variable to the corresponding prototype variable is called the scale for
that variable. E.g. length, velocity, viscosity scales.

• Validation of Models Design: The purpose of model design is to predict the effects of certain
proposed changes in a given prototype, and in this instance some actual prototype data may
be available. The model can be designed, constructed, and tested, and the model prediction
can be compared with these data. If the agreement is satisfactory, then the model can be
changed in the desired manner, and the corresponding effect on the prototype can be
predicted with increased confidence.

• Distorted models: Models for which one or more of the similarity requirements are not
satisfied are called distorted models.
 Modeling and Similitude
• Models are used to investigate many different types of fluid mechanics problems e.g. (1)
flow through closed conduits, (2) flow around immersed bodies, and (3) flow with a free
surface (4) turbomachinery flow models.

• Geometric and Reynolds number similarity is usually required for models involving flow
through closed conduits.

• Geometric and Reynolds number similarity is usually required for models involving flow
around bodies. Drag if often the dependent variable of interest.

• Froude number similarity is usually required for models involving free surface flows.

• Similarity laws can be directly developed from the equations governing the phenomenon of
interest. Each variable is made dimensionless by dividing by an appropriate reference
quantity. Governing equations expressed in terms of dimensionless variables lead to the
appropriate dimensionless groups.
 Example
Model test are to be performed to study the flow through a large valve having a 2-ft-diameter inlet and
carrying water at a flowrate of 30cfs. The working fluid in the model is water at the same temperature as
that in the prototype. Complete geometric similarity exits between model and prototype, and the model
inlet diameter is 30 in. Determine the required flowrate in the model.
Example
 Example
A spillway with a width of 20.0m is design to carry 125.0 m3s-1 at a flood stage. A 1:15
model is constructed to study the flow characteristics through the spill way. Determine the
model width and flow rate. What operating times for the model is equivalent to a 24 hr
period of the prototype. Viscosity and surface tension are to be neglected.
Example
A spillway with a width of 20.0m is design to carry 125.0 m3s-1
at a flood stage. A 1:15 model is constructed to study the flow
characteristics through the spill way. Determine the model width
and flow rate. What operating times for the model is equivalent
to a 24 hr period of the prototype. Viscosity and surface tension
are to be neglected.
Example
 Example Problem
1. The time, t, it takes to pour a certain volume of liquid from a cylindrical
container, depends on several factors, including the viscosity of the liquid.
Assume that for very viscous liquids the time it takes to pour out 2/3 of the
initial volume depends on the initial liquid depth 𝑙, the cylinder diameter, 𝐷, the
liquid viscosity, 𝜇, and the liquid specific weight, 𝛾. The data shown in the
following table were obtained in the laboratory. For these tests 𝑙 = 45𝑚𝑚, 𝐷 =
67𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 = 9.60𝑘𝑁/𝑚3
a. Perform a dimensional analysis, and based on the data given, determine if variables used
for this problem appear to be correct. Explain how you arrived at your answer.
b. If possible, determine an equation relating the pouring time and viscosity for the cylinder
and liquids used in these tests. If it is not possible, indicate what additional information is
needed.
 Example Problem
2. You are to conduct wind tunnel testing of a new football design that has a smaller
lace height than previous designs. It is known that you will need to maintain Re
(Reynolds Number) and St (Strouhal Number) similarity for the testing. Based on
standard college quarterbacks, the prototype parameters are set at 𝑉 =
40𝑚𝑝ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔 = 300𝑟𝑝𝑚. The prototype football has a 7-in. diameter. Due to
instrumentation required to measure pressure and shear stress on the surface of the
football, the model will require a length scale of 2:1 (the model will be larger than
the prototype). Determine the required model free stream velocity and model
angular velocity.
 Example Problem
3. The lift and drag developed on a hydrofoil are to be determined through wind
tunnel tests using standard air. If full-scale tests are to be run, what is the required
wind tunnel velocity corresponding to a hydrofoil velocity in seawater at 15 mph?
Assume Reynolds number similarity is required.
 Example Problem
4. A thin layer of particles rests on the bottom of a horizontal tube as shown in Fig.
When an incompressible fluid flows through the tube, it is observed that at some
critical velocity the particles will rise and be transported along the tube. A model
is to be used to determine this critical velocity. Assume the critical velocity, 𝑉𝑐,
to be a function of the pipe diameter, 𝐷, particle diameter, 𝑑, the fluid density, 𝜌,
and viscosity, 𝜇, the density of the particles, 𝜌𝑝, and the acceleration of gravity,
𝑔.
a. Determine the similarity requirements for the model, and the relationship between the
critical velocity for model and prototype (the prediction equation).
b. For a length scale of ½ and a fluid density scale of 1.0, what will be the critical velocity
scale (assuming all similarity requirements are satisfied)?
 Example Problem
5. At a large fish hatchery the fish are reared in open, water-filled tanks. Each tank is
approximately square in shape with curved corners, and the walls are smooth. To
create motion in the tanks, water is supplied through a pipe at the edge of the tank. The
water is drained from the tank through an opening at the center. A model with a length
scale of 1: 13 is to be used to determine the velocity, 𝑉, at various locations within the
tank. Assume that 𝑉 = 𝑓 (𝑙, 𝑙𝑖, 𝜌, 𝜇, 𝑔, 𝑄) where 𝑙 is some characteristic length such as
the tank width, 𝑙𝑖 represents a series of other pertinent lengths, such as inlet pipe
diameter, fluid depth, etc., 𝜌 is the fluid density, 𝜇 is the fluid viscosity, 𝑔 is the
acceleration of gravity, and 𝑄 is the discharge through the tank. (a) Determine a
suitable set of dimensionless parameters for this problem and the prediction equation
for the velocity. If water is to be used for the model, can all of the similarity
requirements be satisfied? Explain and support your answer with the necessary
calculations. (b) If the flow rate into the full-sized tank is 250 gpm, determine the
required value for the model discharge assuming Froude number similarity. What
model depth will correspond to a depth of 32 in. in the full-sized tank?
 Practice problems
• 7.29, 7.30, 7.32-7.35
• 7.38-7.43, 7.50-7.54, 7.58-7.62, 7.65
 Losses in a pipe: first Π term
• Considering 𝛿𝑝 to be subject of equation.

Π1 = 𝛿𝑝 𝐷𝑎 𝑣 𝑏 𝜌𝑐

dim Π1 = 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2 𝐿𝑎 𝐿𝑇 −1 𝑏 𝑀𝐿−3 𝑐

= 𝑀1+𝑐 𝐿−1+𝑎+𝑏−3𝑐 𝑇 −2−𝑏

𝑀 ⟹ 1 + 𝑐 = 0 ⟹ 𝑐 = −1
𝑇 ⟹ −2 − 𝑏 = 0 ⟹ 𝑏 = −2
𝐿 ⟹ −1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐 = 0 ⟹ 𝑎 = 0

so dimensionless group is
𝛿𝑝
Π1 =
𝜌𝑣 2
 Losses in a pipe: second Π term
• Considering 𝑙 to be subject of equation.

Π2 = 𝑙 𝐷 𝑎 𝑣 𝑏 𝜌 𝑐

dim Π2 = 𝐿 𝐿𝑎 𝐿𝑇 −1 𝑏 𝑀𝐿−3 𝑐
= 𝑀𝑐 𝐿1+𝑎+𝑏−3𝑐 𝑇 −𝑏
𝑀⟹𝑐=0
𝑇 ⟹ −𝑏 = 0 ⟹ 𝑏 = 0
𝐿 ⟹ 1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐 = 0 ⟹ 𝑎 = −1

so dimensionless group is
𝑙
Π2 =
𝐷
 Losses in a pipe: third Π term
• Similarly, now considering 𝜇 to be subject of equation.

Π3 = 𝜇 𝐷𝑎 𝑣 𝑏 𝜌𝑐

dim Π3 = 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 𝐿𝑎 𝐿𝑇 −1 𝑏 𝑀𝐿−3 𝑐

= 𝑀1+𝑐 𝐿−1+𝑎+𝑏−3𝑐 𝑇 −1−𝑏

𝑀 ⟹ 1 + 𝑐 = 0 ⟹ 𝑐 = −1
𝑇 ⟹ −2 − 𝑏 = 0 ⟹ 𝑏 = −1
𝐿 ⟹ −1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐 = 0 ⟹ 𝑎 = −1

so dimensionless group is
𝜇
Π3 =
𝐷𝜌𝑣
 Losses in a pipe
• For flow in a circular pipe, the pressure drop is then given by the general equation:
Π1 = Ф(Π2 , Π3 )
𝛿𝑝 𝑙 𝜇
2
=Ф ,
𝜌𝑣 𝐷 𝐷𝜌𝑣
Or
𝛿𝑝 𝑙
2
=Ф , 𝑅𝑒
𝜌𝑣 𝐷
Where
Re = Reynolds Number
 Chapter # 7 _ Problem Set
• 7.8 – 7.27