Remote Sensing of Environment 150 (2014) 218–230

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Remote Sensing of Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rse

Variability of suspended particulate matter concentration in coastal

waters under the Mekong's influence from ocean color (MERIS) remote
sensing over the last decade
Hubert Loisel a,b,c,⁎, Antoine Mangin d, Vincent Vantrepotte c, David Dessailly c, Dat Ngoc Dinh b,
Philippe Garnesson d, Sylvain Ouillon a,e, Jean-Pierre Lefebvre a, Xavier Mériaux c, Thu Minh Phan f
a
Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Université de Toulouse, UPS (OMP), CNRS, UMR 5566 LEGOS, 14 av. Edouard Belin, 31400 Toulouse, France
b
Space Technology Institute (STI), Vietnam Academy of Science & Technology (VAST), 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Viet Nam
c
Laboratoire d'Océanologie et de Géosciences (LOG), Univ. du Littoral Cote d'Opale (ULCO), CNRS UMR 8187, 28 avenue Foch, BP 80, 62930 Wimereux, France
d
ACRI-ST, 260 Route du Pin Montard, 06904 Sophia-Antipolis, France
e
University of Science and Technology of Hanoi (USTH), 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Viet Nam
f
Institute of Oceanography, VAST, 1 Cau Da, Nha Trang, Viet Nam

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Spatio-temporal patterns of suspended particulate matter, SPM, in coastal waters under the Mekong's influence
Received 10 December 2013 are examined through remote sensing data collected from January 2003 to April 2012 by the MEdium Resolution
Received in revised form 25 April 2014 Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS) at full spatial resolution (300 × 300 m2). The first SPM climatology over this
Accepted 13 May 2014
region is provided and the SPM temporal variation schemes (irregular variability, seasonal variability, and long
Available online 14 June 2014
term trend) are described using the Census-X-11 time series decomposition method. The different spatio-
Keywords:
temporal patterns are then analyzed with regard to regional oceanographic and hydrologic conditions. The origin
Suspended sediment of the processes controlling the seasonality of the Mekong Delta plume is characterized. The increase of turbidity
Mekong Delta observed from June to December, starts with the Mekong sediment inputs which are maximum during the sum-
Ocean color remote sensing mer monsoon (the water discharge reaches its maximum in September/October). While the Mekong water dis-
Climatology charge decreases, the concentration of suspended sediment keeps increasing in coastal waters during the
following two/three months (November to January). This increase is explained by resuspension effects occurring
in the shallow coastal areas. Due to higher wave energy and oblique orientation of the waves breaking near the
coast, the winter monsoon triggers a high level of agitation and high value of resuspended material concentration
which are submitted to a longshore current directed towards the South–West. Deposition (in front of the Delta)
and erosion (northern and southern areas of the delta) areas are identified in good agreement with recent results
obtained from a prognostic model. While the temporal variability is strongly dominated by the seasonal compo-
nent, a long term trend of about −5% SPM concentration per year is observed in the pro-delta area and is attrib-
uted to the decrease of the Mekong river sediment output during the high flow season.
© 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The Mekong river, which is the largest river in Southeast Asia, runs
through five different countries (China, Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR,
and Cambodia) before entering in Vietnam through its Delta (Fig. 1).
The Mekong Delta is one of the largest deltas of the world and is bound-
ed by the gulf of Thailand to the West and the Eastern Sea of Vietnam to
the East (Coleman & Roberts, 1989; Nguyen, Ta, & Tateishi, 2000). Its
spatial coverage is generally considered to begin at Phnom Penh in
Cambodia where the river divides into its two main branches, the
Mekong and the Bassac, which respectively divide into six and three
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 3 21996420; fax: +33 3 21996401.
E-mail address: hubert.loisel@univ-littoral.fr (H. Loisel).
main channels. Similarly to the other deltaic systems, the Mekong
Delta is very sensitive to natural forcing and human activities (Saito,
2000; Syvitski et al., 2009; Xue, Liu, & Ge, 2011). One may cite, among
others, the well marked Monsoon regime which strongly conditions
the hydrologic and the oceanographic patterns of the coastal region,
the intrusion of saline oceanic waters in the delta plain, the land use
change, the fast growing population and related environmental distur-
bances, and the recent construction of many dams as well as the river
channel sediment extraction which all directly impact the sediment
supply and redistribution. A recent review of the climate and environ-
mental change of the Mekong Delta is provided by Renaud and
Kuenzer (2012).
The annual sediment flux of the Mekong into the ocean is estimated
to about 160 million tons (Milliman & Ren, 1995), making this river to

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2014.05.006
0034-4257/© 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
 H. Loisel et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 150 (2014) 218–230 219

Fig. 1. Map of the study area. The 10 m isobaths are taken from Becker et al. (2009). The location of the Chau Doc station, where the discharge of the Bassac branch is measured is indicated
by a red star. The blue frame represents the area for which the wind and waves/swell data values are extracted (see Fig. 4). The small red frame corresponds to the region where SPM
extraction will be performed for comparison with the river discharge measured at the Chau Doc station (see Fig. 9). The three pink lines represent the transects along which satellite
data will be extracted (see Fig. 11).

belong among the 10 largest suppliers of sediment over the world's
ocean (Milliman & Meade, 1983). Note that this estimation is based on
data recorded before the construction of dams on the Mekong river,
which retain about 32 to 41 millions of tons of sediment per year
(Kummu, Lu, Wang, & Varis, 2010). While part of this tremendous con-
centration of sediment is accumulated in the subaqueous delta region,
the other part is dispersed towards offshore waters and along the
coast. The spatial and temporal patterns of the river-sediment dispersal
system within the coastal areas are very complex being modulated by
many factors including river outflows, physical oceanographic condi-
tions, bathymetry of the subaqueous delta, and the nature of the sedi-
ments themselves. The monitoring of suspended particulate matter,
SPM, in coastal areas under the influence of the Mekong river is essential
for both ecological and geomorphologic purposes. Riverine suspended
sediments reaching the oceanic waters bring a significant amount of
new nutrients in coastal waters, and control the availability of light in
the water column for photosynthesis and visual predators. These two
features tightly control phytoplankton primary production and thus
the associated dynamics of higher trophic levels. While these new sed-
iments allow phytoplankton primary production to be maintained, a
loss of sediments and their associated nutrients can reduce this produc-
tivity, but also alter phytoplankton bloom timing. These two phenome-
na are known, from both open ocean and coastal waters studies, to
affect recruitment and fish catches (IOCCG, 2009). The impact of the
Mekong river discharge on the fisheries productivity in coastal waters
has been known for a long time (Lagler, 1976). The coastline stability,
as well as the maintenance of healthy mangrove largely present in this
region (Gebhardt, Dao Nguyen, & Kuenzer, 2012), are also greatly relat-
ed to sediment input. For all these reasons, the assessment of the spatio-
temporal SPM patterns, which reflects and integrates the combined ef-
fects of natural and anthropogenic phenomena, is essential for a better
understanding of coastal marine areas in the Southern part of Vietnam.
Previous works, based on episodic geological and sedimentary field
studies, provided spatial details of the Mekong river sediment dispersal
in the subaqueous deltaic system (Xue, Liu, DeMaster, Nguyen, & Ta,
2010 and references therein). These sedimentary field studies mainly
focused on the evolution of the Mekong Delta over long geological
time periods. A recent study has however documented the modern sed-
iment distribution and accumulation rates on the seafloor in the sub-
aqueous Mekong Delta (Unverricht et al., 2013). Numerical studies
were also performed using various models to assess the Mekong's sed-
iment transport and deposition in coastal areas of the Eastern Sea of
Vietnam (Hordoir, Nguyen, & Polcher, 2006; Xue, He, Liu, & Warner,
2012). While these studies provided fundamental results on the origin
of the spatio-temporal sediment patterns in relation with the hydrolog-
ic and oceanographic conditions, they only allow for a description
restricted to limited time periods. Besides, the realism of these numeri-
cal simulations is tightly linked to the inherent approximations required
for modeling the very complex processes involved. As a matter of fact,
sediment model solutions are sensitive to the parameterization of
sediment properties, as well as to the settling velocity of flocculated
sediments (Xue et al., 2012). Some shallow water processes, such as
energy dissipation related to wave breaking, are also not systematically
taken into account (Hein, Hein, & Pohlmann, 2013). The adopted
parameterizations are therefore not entirely representative of the
situation encountered especially over the long time period.
Ocean color remote sensing data allow the optically significant com-
ponent in surface waters to be assessed (Gordon & Morel, 1983; IOCCG,
2000; Loisel, Vantrepotte, Jamet, & Dinh, 2013). Satellite data are not as
accurate as in situ measurements and are limited to the surface layer.
However, the latter limitations are largely compensated by the spatial
and temporal coverage offered by satellite observations. The present
study aims at describing and analyzing the actual suspended particulate
matter, SPM, spatio-temporal patterns of the surface coastal waters
under the influence of the Mekong river. Specifically, we propose to as-
sess the seasonal and inter-annual variability, as well as the trend of
SPM of the coastal waters under the influence of the Mekong river
over the last decade using ocean color remote sensing data collected
220 H. Loisel et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 150 (2014) 218–230
Fig. 2. Location of the in situ data points used for the development of the new algorithm.
by the MEdium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS) from January
2003 to April 2012. In the present study, the consistency of various SPM
inversion algorithms for describing SPM spatio-temporal variations in
the Mekong Delta has been specifically assessed. In a second step, SPM
climatology of the coastal waters under the Mekong's influence has
been generated and discussed. Finally, these spatio-temporal patterns
have been analyzed with regard to the oceanographic and hydrological
variability measured over the same period of time.
2. Data and method
2.1. Ocean color data and algorithms
Ocean color data collected by the MEdium Resolution Imaging
Spectrometer (MERIS) on board the European Space Agency (ESA)'s
Envisat platform are used for the present study (Rast & Bézy, 1995;
Rast, Bézy, & Bruzzi, 1999). This data set is entirely composed of full
spatial resolution products (300 × 300 m2 at nadir), and covers the
01/01/2003 and 30/04/2012 time period. About 2000 MERIS full resolu-
tion (MERIS-FR) images have been recovered from the ESA archive sys-
tem recovery. Yearly availability of MERIS-FR is fluctuating mainly
because of mission programming. For instance, the year 2003 is charac-
terized by a slightly lower number of full resolution images with respect
to the other years. The standard masks developed for the processing of
the MERIS data over coastal waters have been applied: cloud masking,
water detection, no absorbing aerosols, no high and medium sun glint.
Unfortunately, whitecap correction is not performed by the MERIS stan-
dard algorithm. However, whitecaps generally occur when wind speed
is above 8–10 m·s−1 (Monahan & O'Muircheartaigh, 1980), which only
covers a small fraction of the conditions encountered in our study area
(see Fig. 4b). Additionally, while the impact of whitecaps can be impor-
tant for clear waters, it is greatly reduced for turbid waters such as those
encountered in the present study.
The remote sensing reflectance, Rrs, used as an input parameter in
SPM algorithms, is derived from the top of atmosphere measurements
using the MERIS 3rd reprocessing atmospheric correction algorithm
 H. Loisel et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 150 (2014) 218–230
500.0
Estimated SPM (g.m−3)
50.0
5.0
0.5
0.1
0.1 0.5 5.0 50.0 500.0
Measured SPM (g.m−3)
Fig. 3. Scatter plot of the inverted SPM concentration using Eq. (1) (black dots) and the
model of Siswanto et al. (2011) (gray dots) as a function of in situ SPM values. The 1:1
line is over plotted as a black line. The data collected in the Mekong Delta coastal waters
in March 2012, not used in the development of the new model, are plotted in red.
for coastal waters (Doerffer, 2011; ESA, 2012). Considering the very lim-
ited in situ data available in the Mekong Delta region for algorithm de-
velopment and validation purposes, three inverse methods, based on
different assumptions, were used to derive SPM, and their respective
spatio-temporal patterns were compared. The first algorithm is based
on a semi-analytical relationship between SPM and the reflectance in
the red part of the spectrum (Nechad, Ruddick, & Park, 2010). In this
spectral domain the absorption coefficient is fully dominated by pure
water, the Rrs variability in the latter spectral domain is driven by the
particulate backscattering coefficient, bbp, which is directly proportional
to the SPM concentration at first order (Neukermans, Loisel, Mériaux,
Astoreca, & McKee, 2012). The SPM relative errors using the MERIS
665 and 681 nm bands have been estimated to be lower than 40%
(Nechad et al., 2010). Despite the fact that this algorithm has been
developed from an in situ data set collected in the southern North Sea,
it has already shown some valuable performances in other coastal
regions (Vantrepotte, Loisel, Dessailly and Mériaux, 2012). The second
algorithm is based on a Neural Network algorithm (Doerffer & Schiller,
2007). The SPM values are obtained from the inversed particulate scat-
tering coefficient at 442 nm, bp, assuming a specific particulate scatter-
ing coefficient, bp/SPM, value of 0.578 g− 1 m2. This formalism is the
standard MERIS SPM product distributed by the Kalicôtier web site
(http://kalicotier.gis-cooc.org/), which provides MERIS-FR products
over five different coastal sites from the 3rd reprocessing. A match-up
exercise, based on a limited number of data points (ESA, 2012), has
shown that the SPM retrieval values using this algorithm are in a rela-
tively good agreement with in situ data (determination coefficient, r2,
of 0.7, and slope, in log scale, of 0.76). The ESA (2012) validation data
set is representative of case 2 waters where inherent optical properties
are not only driven by phytoplankton and associated material but also
by other optically significant components such as suspended sediments.
In situ SPM concentration varies between 0.01 and 150 g·m−3 in this
validation data set. Finally, the third algorithm is based on the approach
developed by Tassan (1994), for which the wavelengths and the values
of the coefficients have been adapted for the present study. This algo-
rithm applies the Rrs values at 490, 560, and 665 nm through the follow-
ing function:
SPM ¼ 10 ½a þ b  ðRrs ð560Þ þ Rrs ð665ÞÞ−c  ðRrs ð490Þ=Rrs ð560ÞÞ
where a, b, and c are constant coefficients (a = 0.695, b = 27.29, and
c = − 0.638). For the present study, this function has been fitted on a
221
large in situ data set, gathering measurements performed in various
coastal environments (Fig. 2) and described in previous studies
(Babin et al., 2003; Bélanger et al., 2008; Loisel et al., 2009; Lubac
et al., 2008). Interestingly, the three constant coefficients are very
similar to those calculated by Siswanto et al. (2011) over an indepen-
dent large data set acquired in a Yellow and East China Seas between
1998 and 2007 (Fig. 3). The similarity in these two sets of coefficient
values provides an indication on the robustness of the proposed ap-
proaches for the SPM assessment in coastal waters.
As atmospheric correction is one of the main challenges for the ex-
ploitation of ocean color remote sensing over coastal areas, the impact
of potential atmospheric correction errors on the SPM retrieval should
be assessed. According to the ESA (2012) database, the relative percent-
age differences calculated between the estimated and measured reflec-
tance values in coastal waters at 490, 560, and 665 nm are − 8.7%,
− 6.3%, and − 3.2%, respectively. The impact of these errors on the
SPM retrieval accuracy using Eq. (1) is simply assessed using the in
situ data base presented in Fig. 2, by comparing the SPM values calculat-
ed using the true Rrs values, SPMtrue, with the SPM values calculated
using these Rrs values modified by the relative differences provided
above, SPMmod. These atmospheric correction errors only slightly impact
the SPM retrieval accuracy, as the mean relative absolute difference and
bias values calculated between these two SPM values in linear scale are
4% and 1%, respectively. The median value of the SPMtrue/SPMmod is
1.001 ± 0.059.
2.2. Oceanographic and hydrological data sets over the studied area
Since no in situ wave and swell data are available on the Mekong
Shelf within the time scale considered in this study, satellite data
coupled with large scale dynamical models were considered. The signif-
icant wave heights and direction data were obtained from the National
Centers for Environments Predictions (NCEP, reanalysis). This data set
covers the MERIS time period but with a much lower spatial resolution
(grid of 1°). Wind speed and direction are derived at a 0.25° spatial res-
olution through cross-calibration and assimilation of ocean surface
wind data from different sensors SSM/I, TMI, AMSR-E, SeaWinds on
QuikSCAT, and SeaWinds on ADEOS-2 (http://podaac.jpl.nasa.gov/
node/31). Daily freshwater discharge time series (01/01/2001–31/12/
2007) was gathered from the Chau Doc station operated by the Mekong
River Commission (see Fig. 1 for the station location). Since this station
only gauges the Bassac river, temporal analysis will be performed using
MERIS data extracted in the coastal area in front of the Bassac outlet (see
Fig. 10). The bathymetry data from the recent study performed by
Becker et al. (2009), which provides bathymetry data at 30 arc sec of
resolution over the global ocean, were considered. This bathymetry
has been recently used over the same region by Xue et al. (2012) for
the development of a coupled wave–ocean-sediment transport model
on the Mekong shelf.
2.3. Time series analysis
Monthly time series of SPM and ancillary data (wave, swell, wind
and river discharges) have been temporally decomposed using the
Census X-11 method (Pezzulli, Stephenson, & Hannachi, 2005) which
have been documented in detail in Vantrepotte and Mélin (2011).
Briefly, this iterative analysis based on the successive application of
bandpass filters aims at decomposing time series into three additive
components representing the seasonal, irregular (sub-annual) and
inter-annual modulations in the data. The interest of this approach for
precisely describing the temporal variation schemes in the series has
ð1Þ been illustrated for various ocean color applications (Beaulieu et al.,
2013; Vantrepotte, Gensac et al., 2012; Vantrepotte, Loisel, Mélin,
Dessailly, & Duforêt‐Gaurier, 2011). In addition, the presence of signifi-
cant inter-annual trends in the data has been investigated using non-
222 H. Loisel et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 150 (2014) 218–230

350

300
a

Wind Direction (°)

250

200

150

100

50

0
2002-01 2003-01 2004-01 2005-01 2006-01 2007-01 2008-01 2009-01 2010-01

10 b
Wind Speed (m/s)

0
2002-01 2003-01 2004-01 2005-01 2006-01 2007-01 2008-01 2009-01 2010-01

7000
c
Water Discharge (m3/s)

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
2002-01 2003-01 2004-01 2005-01 2006-01 2007-01 2008-01 2009-01 2010-01

4
Significant Wave Height (m)

3.5 d
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
2002-01 2003-01 2004-01 2005-01 2006-01 2007-01 2008-01 2009-01 2010-01

3
e
2.5
Swell Height (m)

1.5

0.5

0
2002-01 2003-01 2004-01 2005-01 2006-01 2007-01 2008-01 2009-01 2010-01

350

300
f
Swell Direction (°)

250

200

150

100

50

0
2002-01 2003-01 2004-01 2005-01 2006-01 2007-01 2008-01 2009-01 2010-01

Fig. 4. Time series of (a) wind direction, (b) wind speed, (c) water discharge at the Chau Doc station, (d) mean significant wave height, (f) swell height, and (g) swell direction. The wind,
swell and wave data presented here are extracted over the domains delimited in Fig. 1.
 H. Loisel et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 150 (2014) 218–230
a b
Fig. 5. Inter-comparison of the SPM retrievals between the three different algorithms at the example of September 2010. The black line represents the 1:1 line. Scarce extreme values of up
to 1000 g·m−3 observed in the river outlet are not represented by the density plot.
parametric statistics (i.e. seasonal Kendall test and Sen's slope estima-
tor, Gilbert, 1987).
A selection of the time series is performed before performing the
statistical analysis (X-11 and trend detection). Basically, time series
presenting more than 25% of missing data are discarded from the
Fig. 6. Variation coefficient of the suspended particulate matter concentration over the en-
tire study period calculated using (a) new algorithm, (b) Nechad et al. (2010), and
(c) standard MERIS products.
223
c
analysis. Further, the presence of recurrent missing values does not rep-
resent a limitation for the use of the X-11 decomposition procedure
which can be applied on “shortened time series” through a possible
adaptation of the period considered for the various bandpass filters
(see the detailed procedure in Vantrepotte & Mélin, 2011). The Eigen
Vector Filtering approach (Ibanez & Conversi, 2002) is used to fill the
potential gaps in the series. In the present study, based on monthly
data, missing values represented less than 6% of the time series length.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. The oceanographic and hydrodynamic context of the studied area
The lower Mekong area is under the strong influence of Monsoon re-
gime. A wet season, associated with the summer monsoon character-
ized by South Western winds, generally occurs from May to October
(Fig. 4a). The wind speed presents its minimum values during that peri-
od (about 1–2 m s−1), with however a marked peak (up to 7 m s−1)
generally occurring in August (Fig. 4b). During this period water dis-
charge reaches its maximum value (generally in September or October)
with an average maximum flow of about 7000 m3 s−1 measured at the
Chau Doc station (Fig. 4c). The same seasonal pattern is measured at
Pakse station, located far inland in Cambodia, before the Mekong river
separates into its two main branches, with liquid discharges of
about 40,000 m3 s−1 (Xue et al., 2012). The remaining part of the year
is generally dry and associated with the winter monsoon (November–
March) characterized by North Eastern wind of higher intensity
(about 8–11 m s−1) compared to those observed during the summer
monsoon. During this time period water discharge is greatly reduced,
reaching its minimum value in March–May (200–300 m3 s− 1 at the
Chau Doc station). This decreasing rate is in agreement with the one
observed at the Pakse station.
The tidal signal, responsible of sea water intrusion during the dry
season, differs between the two sides of the Delta. A diurnal tide is dom-
inant in the Gulf of Thailand, while a semi-diurnal tide is dominant in
the Vietnam East Sea. Average daily tidal range varies between 3.5 m
and 4.5 m in the East Sea and between 0.5 m and 0.8 m in the Gulf of
Thailand (Nguyen, 2012; Wolanski & Nguyen, 2005). The relative
shallow waters (b 10 m, Fig. 1) favor deposition processes during
water discharge events, as well as resuspension of sediments under
the influence of waves and swell forcing following wind seasonal pat-
terns (Fig. 4b, d–e). The significant wave height is maximum in winter
(2–2.5 m) and minimum in summer (about 0.5 m) (Fig. 4e) in agree-
ment with Xue et al. (2012).
3.2. Comparison between three SPM algorithms
The selection of the most relevant algorithm is based on an inter-
comparison exercise (Fig. 5), and analysis of the variation coefficient
spatial patterns (Fig. 6). The variation coefficient is calculated as the
224 H. Loisel et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 150 (2014) 218–230
Fig. 7. The contribution of the (a) seasonal, (b) irregular, and (c) trend components to the
total variance of SPM (new algorithm) as calculated with the Census X-11 method.
ratio of the standard deviation to the climatological mean SPM value
for each algorithm. While the new and Nechad et al. (2010) algorithms
provide relatively similar SPM retrieval (Fig. 5a), the latter algorithm is
not able to retrieve SPM values lower than about 2 g m−3. This is due
to the use of the red band which is not sensitive enough at relatively
low SPM concentration (Ouillon et al., 2008), and to the formalism of
their model. As a matter of fact, this algorithm tends to converge to-
wards offset value appearing in their equation (B = 1.74) for very low
Rrs(665) values (see their Eq. 14 with the coefficients provided in
Table 1). This result is not surprising since this algorithm was not dedi-
cated for waters with relatively low SPM loads, as it was calibrated using
SPM concentrations higher than 1.2 g·m−3 (Nechad et al., 2010). While
SPM variation coefficients for these two algorithms present some large
discrepancies offshore, due to their different sensitivities at low SPM
values, they are quite consistent in coastal areas (Fig. 6a–b). The season-
al impact of the water discharge is for instance noticeable for the two in-
verse methods. This is not the case for the standard MERIS product
which presents very low variation coefficient in coastal areas, and for
which the water discharge impact is not noticeable (Fig. 6c). This is
explained by a saturation of this algorithm for SPM concentrations
greater than 60 g·m−3 (Fig. 5b–c). The adoption of a constant bp/SPM
value in this inversion model may also bias the results, as this ratio
presents some natural variability depending on the size and biogeo-
chemical composition of the bulk particulate matter (Neukermans
et al., 2012). Strong SPM concentrations above 500 g m−3 are consistent
with our present knowledge on SPM concentrations encountered in the
different Mekong estuaries. Therefore, based on these different observa-
tions, the new, Tassan-like, algorithm (Eq. 1) has been selected for
assessing SPM temporal variations in the coastal water masses influ-
enced by the Mekong river.
3.3. Main SPM spatio-temporal variability patterns
SPM variation coefficient calculated over the entire MERIS archive
using the new algorithm exhibits a very specific spatial pattern
(Fig. 6a). The main temporal variability, with a variation coefficient
higher than 80%, is observed offshore and decreases towards the coast.
The main reason of the relatively lower temporal variability in coastal
areas compared to offshore waters is the presence of the river plume
and of shallow waters promoting a nearly permanent sediment resus-
pension process under tide and wave forcing. The impact of the strong
seasonality in the river water discharge is however clearly noticeable
in front of the different rivers outlets and is characterized by a strong
variation coefficient of about 100%. In contrast to the Eastern area, a
thin turbidity belt with high coefficient of variation (100%) is observed
along the coast in the Western part of the study area (Gulf of Thailand).
The Census-X11 method is used to assess the relative contribution of
the seasonal, trend, and irregular components to SPM temporal variabil-
ity patterns over the whole studied area (Fig. 7). Between 50% and 90%
of the total variance is dominated by the seasonal component (Fig. 7a).
The coastal area where the seasonality in the data is maximal is located
in front of the rivers outlets and in the Rach Gia Bay. The irregular com-
ponent can explain up to 40% of the temporal variability (Fig. 7b). The
irregular component extracted from the X-11 procedure represents
the variability of the signal remaining when the long term (interannual)
and seasonal oscillations have been subtracted. It therefore corresponds
to the variation at sub annual scale. In the case of monthly data this can
be related to temporal variations in terms of resuspension, and advec-
tion processes, for instance. The coastal area in front of the Delta is char-
acterized by relatively low irregular changes (between 10 and 20%),
except in a narrow band at the limit of the prodelta, along the 10 m
depth isobath. The trend-cycle component explains about 10% of the
temporal variability, but maximum values can reach 20–25% especially
along the west coast (Fig. 7c).
The seasonality in the SPM distribution over the whole studied area
is analyzed in further detail through the climatological maps established
from the entire MERIS data set (Fig. 8). The high turbidity belt, charac-
terized by SPM concentrations greater than about 5 g m− 3, presents
its maximum extension to the shore in winter (November to February),
the maximum being reached in January. This extension goes far offshore
in the South Western direction at the Camau peninsula (up to about
120 km from the coast). This period of time is characterized by the
Northern Monsoon with relatively high winds blowing from the
North-Eastern direction (Fig. 4a–b). This South-Western SPM extension
pattern is related to surface currents mainly following the wind trend
over the studied area at this time scale (Xue et al., 2012): northeastern
direction during summer season and southwestern direction in winter.
 H. Loisel et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 150 (2014) 218–230
Fig. 8. Monthly SPM climatology based on the entire MERIS archive.
The mean significant wave heights are maximum during this period, so
does the wave-driven bottom stress. The latter forcing induces strong
resuspension of sediments which were deposited in the shallow near-
shore area during the previous summer monsoon. During summer,
the river discharge is maximum, and new continental sediments are
brought to the coastal area. This is clearly seen in the August–October
period when high SPM concentrations appear just in front of the
different river outlets. The relatively low significant wave height occur-
ring during this period (see Fig. 4d) induces a rapid settlement of
suspended sediments down to the sea bottom. The tight relationship
between river outflow measured at the Chau Doc station and SPM con-
centration extracted in front of the Bassac estuary is exhibited in Fig. 9.
The main SPM peak in October and minimum SPM loads in April/May
correspond to the maximum and minimum water discharge values, re-
spectively (Fig. 9a–b). In contrast, the second SPM peak observed for
some years in December does not correspond to an increase in water
discharge. This supports the hypothesis that resuspension processes
generated by waves are responsible for this second peak in winter. Fur-
ther, the water discharge–SPM relationship is in good agreement with
Kummu and Varis (2007) for the lower Mekong (Fig. 9c). The second
South-Western wind speed maximum occurring around July/August
(Fig. 4b), of lower intensity compared to the main one in winter, could ex-
plain the slight off-shore extension of the turbidity zone during that peri-
od. The minimum offshore extension is observed in April/May, when both
river outflow and oceanographic forcing are low. During this inter-
225
monsoon period, sediment transport is dominated by tidal currents in
the subaqueous delta and adjacent shelf regions (Unverricht et al.,
2014). These patterns, established from ocean color remote sensing
data, are in good agreement with the Xue et al. (2012) results established
from sediment transport simulations.
The impact of oceanographic conditions (waves, swell, and wind) on
SPM variability over the entire study area is summarized through corre-
lation maps between physical parameters and remotely sensed SPM
values (Fig. 10). Note that waves, swell, and wind data fields present
heterogeneous spatial resolution. The validity of this exercise is there-
fore tightly linked to the assumption that the variations of wind, swell,
and wave fields follow shorter length scales compared to SPM. Strong
positive correlations, meaning that low/high wave heights induce low/
high SPM values, are observed between SPM and significant wave
heights along the turbidity belt, as well as in the northern and southern
parts of the Delta (Fig. 10a). The same observation stands for the swell
alone, with however lower regression coefficient values (Fig. 10b).
This confirms that SPM variability in this region is mainly driven by
waves and swell actions over a seasonal scale. Very low, positive, re-
gression coefficients are generally found in the outlet of the different
river mouths, reflecting the regulation of SPM loads by river discharges
in these peculiar areas. These different patterns are in very good agree-
ment with the identification of deposition (low r values in front of the
rivers outlets) and erosion (high r values northern and southern areas
of the delta) areas identified from a prognostic model recently used to
226 H. Loisel et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 150 (2014) 218–230

80
a
70

60

50

SPM (g/m3)
40

30

20

10

0
2002-01 2003-01 2004-01 2005-01 2006-01 2007-01 2008-01 2009-01 2010-01 2011-01 2012-01
Date

7000
b
6000
Water Discharge (m3/s)

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
2002-01 2003-01 2004-01 2005-01 2006-01 2007-01 2008-01 2009-01 2010-01 2011-01 2012-01
Date

80
c
70

60
SPM (g/m3)

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Water Discharge (m3/s)

Fig. 9. Temporal evolution of (a) monthly SPM concentrations extracted from the MERIS data at the outlet of the Bassac river (see Fig. 1) and (b) river discharge measured at the Chau Doc
station. (c) Scatter plot of SPM at the Bassac outlet versus river discharge at Chau Doc. The relationship (y = 0.00085 x1.3) established by Kummu and Varis (2007) is over-plotted.

assess the fine sediment dynamics in the region under Mekong's water
influence (Hein et al., 2013). Logically, offshore waters present the low-
est regression coefficient due to the presence of deeper waters. Wind
intensity presents much lower co-variation with SPM than waves and
swell (Fig. 10c).
3.4. Spatial extension of the turbidity belt in relation with environmental
parameters
The spatial extension of the turbidity belt is examined through near-
shore to off-shore SPM evolution along transects computed for three
contrasted months: January, May, and October (Fig. 11). Three transects,
perpendicular to the coastline, have been selected according to their
ability to catch the main spatial patterns previously described from
SPM climatology (see Fig. 1). The offshore delimitation has arbitrarily
been fixed by visually determining the distance from which the SPM
value does not present strong spatial variability. Two transects are posi-
tioned in front of the main river outlets in the North part of the area, and
one is located in the South. The bathymetry of two northern transects is
characterized by a plateau of about 3 meter depth from the coast to
about 13 km offshore (corresponding to the limit of the prodelta,
which is the part of the delta lying beyond the delta front, and sloping
gradually down to the basin floor of the delta), followed by a sharp
decreasing to reach a bottom depth of about − 20 m 24 km offshore.
Conversely, the bottom depth progressively decreases towards off-
shore waters for the southern transect.
 H. Loisel et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 150 (2014) 218–230
Fig. 10. Correlation maps between SPM and (a) waves intensity, (b) swell, and (c) wind
speed. Due to the unavailability of wind speed data in near shore areas, the correlation
coefficient between wind speed and SPM concentration cannot be calculated (gray areas
in panel c).
In January, the turbidity belt is wider only for the Southern transect
considering a SPM threshold value of 5 g m−3. This relatively constant
value of SPM of about 5 g m−3, used to arbitrarily characterize the off-
shore limit of the turbidity belt, is found at about 25 km from the
227
coast in the North (transects 1 and 2), and 40 km offshore in the
South (transect 3). While SPM progressively and consistently decreases
from near-shore to off-shore waters in the South (transect 3), two dif-
ferent spatial patterns can be noticed in the North. SPM values are in-
deed relatively constant up to 12–15 km offshore, and then sharply
decrease due to the settling of particles (see below). Winter period is
characterized by low water discharge and strong waves. The maximum
value of the significant wave height is about 2.5–3 m which roughly im-
plies a closure depth value of 5–6 m (Hanson, 1989). The formulation
provided by Hanson (1989) was for sandy sea floor, which corresponds
to the dominant sediment type (with silty sand) in front of the Mekong
Delta area (Unverricht et al., 2014). Particles previously deposited on
the sea floor can thus be resuspended in the water column for a water
depth less than five meters (definition of the closure depth), which cor-
responds to the coastal region spreading up to 15 km offshore. This po-
tential resuspension area is in good agreement with the near-shore SPM
plateau observed in the northern region. SPM progressively decreases
all along the southern transect, following the bathymetry.
During the inter-monsoon season (April–May), when the water
discharge is still low and the significant wave heights present their
minimum values, the turbidity belt reaches its minimum offshore ex-
tension (about 12, 16, and 6 km for transects 1, 2, and 3, respectively).
The combination of these hydrological and oceanographic conditions
explains the sharp SPM decrease noticed along the transects during
this period of time. In October, when the significant wave height values
are still low, the strong water discharge is responsible for the offshore
extension of the turbidity belt, especially, in the Northern part (about
25, 25, and 12 km for transects 1, 2, and 3, respectively).
3.5. Long term trends
The analysis of MERIS time series (01/2003–04/2012) reveals
the presence of significant inter-annual modulations in SPM loads
(Fig. 12a). Strong decreasing trends (up to 6%/year) are observed in
front of the Mekong Delta along the 10 m isobath. The average X-11
trend-cycle signal extracted for the corresponding region reveals that
the observed changes correspond to a rather continuous decrease
along the time series considered (not shown). Interestingly, no signifi-
cant concomitant trend in wind, waves, and swell data can be identified.
This result suggests that SPM trend pattern in front of the Mekong Delta
is most likely related to modification in the Mekong river SPM discharge.
The detailed description of the inter-annual changes in SPM loads
considering the two different water outflow regimes confirms the latter
assumption (Fig. 12b). As a matter of fact, the SPM decreasing pattern is
much more pronounced during high flow time period (July–November)
than during low flow period (January–May) (Fig. 12b). Different natural
factors (climate and hydrological cycle variations) but also anthropo-
genic ones, such as dams and sand extractions, can be at the origin of
the observed decreasing trends (Xue et al., 2011). For instance, Xue
et al. (2011) have shown an abrupt drop of the maximum and minimum
water levels on the delta plain between the pre-dam (1950–1993) and
post-dam (1993–2005) periods, which inevitably should reduce the
load of sediment discharge to the coast (which is observed in Fig. 12).
Meteorological regional factors may also play an more important role,
as they also showed a much better correlation between runoff and re-
gional precipitation and ENSO during the post-dam period than during
the pre-dam period.
4. Summary and concluding remarks
Different approaches have been tested to assess SPM from remote
sensing reflectance data delivered by the MERIS sensor between
January 2003 and April 2012 at a relatively high spatial resolution
(300 × 300 m2). This study stressed the importance of the analysis on
the distribution of variation coefficient patterns in the selection of the
appropriate inverse bio-optical algorithm. The temporal variability of
228 H. Loisel et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 150 (2014) 218–230

January May October

0 0 0
100 (1) 100 (1) 100 (1)
-5 -5 -5

Bathymetry (m)
10 10 10
)
-3

-10 -10 -10

SPM (g.m

1 1 1
-15 -15 -15

-20 -20 -20

0.1 0.1 0.1

-25 -25 -25

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

10

20

30

40

50

60

10

20

30

40

50

60
0 0 0
100 (2) 100 (2) 100 (2)
-5 -5 -5

Bathymetry (m)
10 -10 10 -10 10
)

-10
-3
SPM (g.m

-15 -15 -15

1 1 1
-20 -20 -20

0.1 -25 0.1 -25 0.1 -25

-30 -30 -30

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

10

20

30

40

50

60

70
0 0 0
100 (3) 100 (3) 100 (3)
-5 -5 -5

Bathymetry (m)
10 -10 10 -10 10
)

-10
-3
SPM (g.m

-15 -15 -15

1 1 1
-20 -20 -20

0.1 -25 0.1 -25 0.1 -25

-30 -30 -30

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

10

20

30

40

50

60

70
Distance from coast (km) Distance from coast (km) Distance from coast (km)

Fig. 11. Spatial evolution of the surface suspended particulate matter concentration along the three near-shore off-shore transects depicted in Fig. 1. Dotted blue: bathymetry, solid red:
SPM concentration.

suspended particulate matter, SPM, at the seasonal and inter-annual
scales, has been estimated for the very first time over the Mekong coast-
al areas using the Census X-11 time series decomposition procedure.
SPM variability is tightly related to the river discharge especially in sum-
mer, and to the marked resuspension processes triggered by high waves
appearing in winter. The spatial extension of the turbidity zone is max-
imum in winter and minimum in April/May. This extension is visible far
offshore, up to 120 km of the Camau peninsula in January. The strong
impact of waves, and to a lesser extent of swell, is particularly apparent
in the northern and southern parts of the delta. The impact of the river
sediment outflow in the coastal area is particularly well noticed from
August to November when high SPM values are confined to a restricted
area in front of the different river outlets.
The present patterns are in agreement with the observations
of Walsh and Nittrouer (2009) who classified the Mekong Delta as a
Subaqueous-delta-Clinoform system, based on tidal range (greater
than 2 m), mean significant wave height (lower than 2 m), and annual
sediment flux (greater than 100 million tons). This family of river-
sediment dispersal system on continental margin, is characterized by
two different patterns. First, the coastline is characterized by a “tide-
dominated delta” presenting a triangular shape where tidal flows repre-
sent the major forcing parameter acting on fine-sediment load transport
towards offshore waters. Second, the sediment accumulation zone is
generally aligned with bathymetric isobaths, and varies in depth and
distance depending on the impact of waves and tides. According to
Walsh and Nittrouer, “This pattern reflects the impact of waves and tides
on the depth and distance of sediment accumulation”.
While the main temporal variability is dominated by seasonal oscil-
lation, a significant SPM decreasing trend has been noticed over the
examined period of time. This decreasing is mainly observed during
the high flow season. The reported spatio-temporal patterns of
suspended particulate matter, SPM, of the coastal waters under the
Mekong's influence reflect and integrate the combined effects of natural
and anthropogenic forcings affecting the Mekong Delta. While further
examinations, based on longer data records including specifically
extended in situ data, are needed for understanding the observed
decreasing trends in suspended fine sediment, the impact of different
natural and anthropogenic forcings such as hydropower dam impact,
river bed aggregate extraction, and meteorological extreme events
should be specifically examined.
The remote sensing approach applied in this study confirms the
main results obtained from numerical simulation of the sediment trans-
port and deposition in the Mekong Delta coastal area. Differences are
however noticeable. This for instance includes the spatial extension of
the plume in front of the Delta which is less pronounced than predicted
by numerical models (Hein et al., 2013). The remotely sensed SPM data
represents therefore a valuable source of information for improving
hydro-sedimentary models for which the availability of SPM data over
long period of time and at relatively high spatial resolution is crucial
(see, e.g., Ouillon, Douillet, & Andréfouet, 2004; Sipelgas, Raudsepp, &
 H. Loisel et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 150 (2014) 218–230
Fig. 12. (a) Significant monotonic trend in % per year (seasonal Kendal test, p b 0.05) of
SPM. Non-significant areas are represented in white. (b) Time series of averaged SPM
values as a function of year during low (red dots) and high (black dots) river flow condi-
tions. These values are extracted over the region in front of the delta (the prodelta region)
where significant trends are observed to examine the origin of the trend observed in panel
a (in blue in panel a). The linear regression equation are indicated for each sub-data set.
Dashed lines represent the 95% confidence interval.
Kouts, 2006; Chen et al., 2010). For that purpose, the present SPM
climatology is made available at the following link: http://mren3.univ-
littoral.fr/~david/SPM/climato_SPM_LOG_2013.tar.gz. The methodolo-
gy applied here can be transferred to other areas where deep under-
standing of suspended particulate matter dynamics is crucial.
Acknowledgments
This research has been funded by the WWF (Project Number:
9S084001 - FFEM Task 18) through the project “Decision support for
generating sustainable hydropower in the Mekong Basin: Analysis
and variability of transfer of nutrients in the Mekong Delta”, and by
the GlobCoast project (www.foresea.fr/globcoast) which is funded
by the French Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR 2011 BS56
018 01). The GlobCoast project is affiliated to the LOICZ and
AQUIMER. Products were processed by ACRI-ST and distributed on
the GIS COOC data portal in the frame of the Kalicôtier project,
229
funded by the CNES (MSAC/116516/127951), using ESA ENVISAT
MERIS FR data.
References
Babin, M., Stramski, D., Ferrari, G. M., Claustre, H., Bricaud, A., Obolensky, G., et al. (2003).
Variations in the light absorption coefficients of phytoplankton, non-algal particles, and
dissolved organic matter in coastal waters around Europe. Journal of Geophysical
Research. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2001JC000882.
Beaulieu, C., Henson, S. A., Sarmiento, J. L., Dunne, J. P., Doney, S.C., Rykaczewski, R. R., et al.
(2013). Factors challenging our ability to detect long-term trends in ocean
chlorophyll. Biogeosciences, 10(4), 2711–2724. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-10-
2711-2013.
Becker, J. J., Sandwell, D. T., Smith, W. H. F., Braud, J., Binder, B., Depner, J., et al. (2009).
Global bathymetry and elevation data at 30 arc seconds resolution: SRTM30_PLUS.
Marine Geodesy, 32(4), 355–371.
Bélanger, S., Babin, M., & Larouche, P. (2008). An empirical ocean color algorithm for
estimating the contribution of chromophoric dissolved organic matter to total light
absorption in optically complex waters. Journal of Geophysical Research, 113,
C04027. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2007JC004436.
Chen, X. L., Lu, J. Z., Cui, T. W., Jiang, W. S., Tian, L. Q., Chen, L. Q., et al. (2010). Coupling
remote sensing retrieval with numerical simulation for SPM study — Taking Bohai
Sea in China as a case. Int. J. of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation,
12(Suppl. 2), S203–S211. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2009.10.002.
Coleman, J. M., & Roberts, H. H. (1989). Deltaic coastal wetlands. Geologie en Mijn-bouw,
68, 1–24.
Doerffer, R., & Schiller, H. (2007). The MERIS Case 2 Water Algorithm. International Journal
of Remote Sensing, 28(3–4), 517–535.
Doerffer, R. (2011). ATBD MERIS 2.25. Alternative atmospheric correction procedure for
case 2 water remote sensing using MERIS. https://earth.esa.int/instruments/meris/
atbd/abtd_2.25_v1.0.pdf
ESA-report (2012). PO-TN-MEL-GS-0026. (ESA). http://earth.eo.esa.int/pcs/envisat/meris/
documentation/meris_3rd_reproc/A879-NT-017ACR_v1.0.pdf.
Gebhardt, S., Dao Nguyen, Lam, & Kuenzer, C. (2012). Mangrove ecosystems in the
Mekong Delta — Overcoming uncertainties in inventory mapping using satellite
remote sensing data. In F. G. Renaud, & C. Kuenzer (Eds.), Chapter in the Mekong
Delta system book (pp. 315–330). Springer.
Gilbert, R. O. (1987). Statistical methods for environmental pollution monitoring. New York:
John Wiley.
Gordon, H. R., & Morel, A. (1983). Remote assessment of ocean color for interpretation of
satellite visible imagery. A review. New York, USA: Springer-Verlag.
Hanson, H. (1989). GENESIS — A generalized shore line change numerical model. Journal
of Coastal Research, vol 5(No. 1), l27.
Hein, H., Hein, B., & Pohlmann, T. (2013). Recent sediment dynamics in the region of
Mekong water influence. Global and Planetary Change. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
gloplacha.2013.09.008.
Hordoir, R., Nguyen, K. D., & Polcher, J. (2006). Simulating tropical river plumes, a set of
parametrizations based on macroscale data: A test case in the Mekong Delta region.
J. Geophysical Research: Oceans, 111(C9). http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005JC003392.
Ibanez, F., & Conversi, A. (2002). Prediction of missing values and detection of ‘exceptional
events’ in a chronological planktonic series: A single algorithm. Ecological Modelling,
154, 9–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3800(02)00033-9.
IOCCG Report (2000). Remote sensing of ocean colour in coastal, and other optically-
complex, watersIn Shubha Sathyendranath (Ed.), .
IOCCG Report (2009). Remote sensing in fisheries and aquacultureIn Marie-Hélène
Forget, Venetia Stuart, & Trevor Platt (Eds.), .
Kummu, M., Lu, X. X., Wang, J. J., & Varis, O. (2010). Basin-wide sediment trapping
efficiency of emerging reservoirs along the Mekong. Geomorphology, 119, 181–197.
Kummu, M., & Varis, O. (2007). Sediment-related impacts due to upstream reservoir
trapping, the Lower Mekong River. Geomorphology, 85(3–4), 275–293.
Lagler, K. F. (1976). Fisheries and integrated Mekong river basin development. The
University of Michigan, School of Natural Resources — executive volume (363 pp.).
Loisel, H., Mériaux, X., Poteau, A., Artigas, L. F., Lubac, B., Gardel, A., et al. (2009). Analyze of
the inherent optical properties of French Guiana coastal waters for remote sensing
applications. Journal of Coastal Research, SI 56, 1532–1536.
Loisel, H., Vantrepotte, V., Jamet, C., & Dinh, D. N. (2013). Challenges and new advances in
ocean color remote sensing of coastal waters. In E. Zambianchi (Ed.), Chapter in
oceanography research. InTech.980-953-307-949-8.
Lubac, B., Loisel, H., Guiselin, N., Astoreca, R., Artigas, L. F., & Mériaux, X. (2008).
Hyperspectral versus multispectral remote sensing approach to detect phytoplank-
ton blooms in coastal waters: Application to a Phaeocystis globosa bloom. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 113, C06026. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2007JC004451.
Milliman, J.D., & Meade, R. H. (1983). World-wide delivery of river sediment to the
oceans. Journal of Geology, 91, 1–21.
Milliman, J.D., & Ren, M. E. (1995). River flux to the sea, impact of human intervention on
river systems and adjacent coastal areas. Impact on coastal habitation. CRC Press, 57–83.
Monahan, E. C., & O'Muircheartaigh, I. G. (1980). Optimal power-law description of
oceanic whitecap coverage dependence on wind speed. Journal of Physical
Oceanography, 10, 2094–2099.
Nechad, B., Ruddick, K. G., & Park, Y. (2010). Calibration and validation of a generic
multisensor algorithm for mapping of total suspended matter in turbid waters.
Remote Sensing of Environment, 114, 854–866.
Neukermans, G., Loisel, H., Mériaux, X., Astoreca, R., & McKee, D. (2012). In situ variability
of mass-specific beam attenuation and backscattering of marine particles with
230 H. Loisel et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 150 (2014) 218–230
respect to particle size, density, and composition. Limnology and Oceanography, 57(1),
24–144.
Nguyen, C. T. (2012). Processes and factors controlling and affecting the retreat of mangrove
shorelines in South Vietnam. (PhD thesis). Kiel, Germany: Kiel University, 130
(http://eldiss.uni-kiel.de/macau/receive/dissertation_diss_00011050).
Nguyen, L. V., Ta, T. K. O., & Tateishi, M. (2000). Late Holocene depositional environments
and coastal evolution of the Mekong River Delta, Southern Vietnam. Journal of Asian
Earth Sciences, 18(4), 427–439.
Ouillon, S., Douillet, P., & Andréfouet, S. (2004). Coupling satellite data with in situ mea-
surements and numerical modeling to study fine suspended sediment transport: A
study for the lagoon of New Caledonia. Coral Reefs, 23(1), 109–122.
Ouillon, S., Douillet, P., Petrenko, A., Neveux, J., Dupouy, C., Froidefond, J. M., et al. (2008).
Optical algorithms at satellite wavelengths for total suspended matter in tropical
coastal waters. Sensors, 8, 4165–4185. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s8074165.
Pezzulli, S., Stephenson, D. B., & Hannachi, A. (2005). The variability of seasonality. Journal
of Climate, 18, 71–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-3256.1.
Rast, M., & Bézy, J. -L. (1995). The ESA medium resolution imaging spectrometer (MERIS):
Requirements to its mission and performance of its system. In P. J. Curran, & Y. C.
Robertson (Eds.), Proc. 21st Annual Conf. Remote Sensing Soc., 11–14 September,
1995, University of Southampton. RSS95. Remote Sensing in Action. (pp. 125–132).
Taylor and Francis Pub.
Rast, M., Bézy, J. L., & Bruzzi, S. (1999). The ESA medium resolution imaging spectrometer
MERIS—A review of the instrument and its mission. International Journal of Remote
Sensing, 20, 1681–1702 (apprendre).
Renaud, F. G., & Kuenzer, C. (2012). The Mekong Delta system. Interdisciplinary analyses of a
river delta. Springer978-94-007-3961-1, 463.
Saito, Y. (2000). Deltas in Southeast and East Asia: Their evolution and current problems.
In N. Mimura, & H. Yokoki (Eds.), APN/SURVAS/LOICZ Joint Conference on Coastal
Impact of Climate Change and Adaption in the Asia-Pacific Region, Kobe, Japan
(pp. 185–191).
Sipelgas, L., Raudsepp, U., & Kouts, T. (2006). Operational monitoring of suspended matter
distribution using MODIS images and numerical modelling. Advances in Space
Research, 38(10), 2182–2188.
Siswanto, E., Tang, J. W., Yamaguchi, H., Ahn, Y. H., Ishizaka, J., Yoo, S., et al. (2011).
Empirical ocean-color algorithms to retrieve chlorophyll-a, total suspended matter,
and colored dissolved organic matter absorption coefficient in the Yellow and East
China Seas. Journal of Oceanography. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10872-011-0062-z.
Syvitski, J. P.M., Kettner, A. J., Overeem, I., Hutton, E. W. H., Hannon, M. T., Brakenridge, G.
R., et al. (2009). Sinking deltas due to human activities. Nature Geoscience, 2, 681–686.
Tassan, S. (1994). Local algorithms using SeaWiFS data for the retrieval of phytoplankton,
pigments, suspended sediment, and yellow substance in coastal waters. Applied
Optics, 33, 2369–2378. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/AO.33.002369.
Unverricht, D., Nguyen, T. C., Heinrich, C., Szczucinski, W., Lahajnar, N., & Stattegger, K.
(2014). Suspended sediment dynamics during the inter-monsoon season in the sub-
aqueous Mekong Delta and adjacent shelf, southern Vietnam. Journal of Asian Earth
Sciences, 79 A, 509–519. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.10.008.
Unverricht, D., Szczucinski, W., Stattegger, K., Jagodzinski, R., Xuan, T. L., & Laval, L. W. K.
(2013). Modern sedimentation and morphology of the subaqueous Mekong Delta,
Southern Vietnam. Global and Planetary Change. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
gloplacha.2012.12.009.
Vantrepotte, V., Gensac, E., Loisel, H., Gardel, A., Dessailly, D., & Meriaux, X. (2012a). Sat-
ellite assessment of the coupling between in water suspended particulate matter and
mud banks dynamics over the French Guiana coastal domain. Journal of South
American Earth Sciences. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2012.11.008.
Vantrepotte, V., Loisel, H., Dessailly, D., & Mériaux, X. (2012b). Optical classification of
contrasted coastal waters. Remote Sensing of Environment, 123, 306–323. http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2012.03.004.
Vantrepotte, V., Loisel, H., Mélin, F., Dessailly, D., & Duforêt‐Gaurier, L. (2011). Global par-
ticulate matter pool temporal variability over the SeaWiFS period (1997–2007).
Geophysical Research Letter, 38, L02605. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010GL046167.
Vantrepotte, V., & Mélin, F. (2011). Inter-annual variations in the SeaWiFS global chloro-
phyll a concentration (1997–2007). Deep Sea Research I. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
dsr.2011.02.003.
Walsh, J. P., & Nittrouer, C. A. (2009). Understanding fine-grained river-sediment dispers-
al on continental margins. Marine Geology, 263, 34–45.
Wolanski, E., & Nguyen, H. N. (2005). Oceanography of the Mekong River Estuary,
pp. 113e115. In Z. Chen, Y. Saito, & S. L. Goodbred (Eds.), Mega-deltas of Asia—
Geological evolution and human impact. Beijing: China Ocean Press (268 pp.).
Xue, Z., He, R., Liu, J. P., & Warner, J. C. (2012). Modeling transport and deposition of the
Mekong River sediment. Continental Shelf Research, 37, 66–78.
Xue, Z., Liu, J. P., DeMaster, D., Nguyen, V. L., & Ta, T. K. O. (2010). Late Holocene Evolution
of the Mekong Subaqueous Delta, Southern Vietnam. Marine Geology, 269, 46–60.
Xue, Z., Liu, J. P., & Ge, Q. (2011). Changes in hydrology and sediment delivery of the
Mekong River in the last 50 years: Connection to damming, monsoon, and ENSO.
Earth Surf. Process. Landforms, 36, 296–308.