—_ ~ eae 4, — —— U7 S>. ey ———— CHAPTER FOUR: DRAINAGE & DESIGN OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS4.1 INTRODUCTION ¢ Drainage means the removal of excess water from a given place. r Two types of drainage can be identified: ri) Land Drainage: This is large scale drainage where the objective is to drain surplus water from a large area by such means as excavating large open drains, erecting dykes and levees and pumping. Such schemes are necessary in low lying areas and are mainly Civil Engineering work.ii) Field Drainage: ¢ This is the drainage that concerns us in agriculture. It is the removal of excess water from the root zone of crops. T6.1 Need for drainage ‘uring rain or iigation, the fielés become wet. The water infitraige inte the soil and is stored in its ores. When all the pores are filed with water, the soit is said to be saturated and no more water can be adsorte, when rain or inigation continues, pocis may form on the soil surface (Fig. 29). Fig. 96. During heavy raintalt tha upper soll layars become saturated and pools may form. Water percolates to deepar layers and infitrates from the pools.BEFORE HEAVY RAINFALL soll not saturatedWater in Soil After Heavy Rainae Pe — ¢> ~The main aims.of Field drainage- — include: ri) To bring soil moisture down from saturation to field capacity. At field capacity, air is available to the soil and most soils are mesophites ie. like to grow at moisture less than saturation. ° il) Drainage helps improve hydraulic conductivity: | Soil structure can collapse under very wet conditions and so also engineering structures. r iii) In some areas with salt disposition, ——especially-in-arid regions, drainage-is-usedto— leach excess salt. S“The main aims of Field drainage- — Contd. riv) In irrigated areas, drainage is needed due ito poor application efficiency which means that a lot of water is applied. Vv) Drainage can shorten the number of occasions when cultivation is held up waiting for soil to dry out.,. a = 5 ee /~ Two types of drainage exist: Surface —— and Sub-surface drainage. ¢ 4.2 DESIGN OF SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS: ¢ Surface drainage involves the removal of excess water from the surface of the soil. r This is done by removing low spots where water accumulates by land forming or by excavating ditches or a combination of the two.Surface Drainage Contd. ¢ Land forming is mechanically changing the land surface to drain surface water. r This is done by smoothing, grading, bedding or leveling. ¢ Land smoothing is the shaping of the land to a smooth surface in order to eliminate minor differences in elevation and _ this’ is accomplished by filling shallow depressions. ry There is no change in land contour. Smoothing is done using land levelers orfo =i — =~ Rls. FG = Surface Drainage Concluded Land grading is shaping the land for drainage done by cutting, filling and smoothening to planned continuous surface grade e.g. using bulldozers or scrapers.a => — ia Ditches ¢ 4.2.1.1 Estimation of Peak Flows: This can be done using the Rational formula, Cook's method, Curve Number method, Soil Conservation Service method etc. r Drainage coefficients (to be treated later) are at times used in the tropics used in the tropics especially in flat areas and where peak storm runoff would require excessively large channels and culverts. ¢ This may not apply locally because of high ———slepes— /* 4.21 Design of Drainage Channels or ~—a) The Rational Formula: r It states that: cr qp = (CIA)/360 r where qp is the peak flow (m? /s); r Cis dimensionless runoff coefficient; r | is the rainfall intensity for a given return period. Return period is the average number of years within which a given rainfall event will be expected to occur at least once. r Ais the area of catchment (ha).Diagram Showing Two Catchments _SiN — ~ — Using the Rational Method _ _ ri) Obtain area of catchment by surveying or from maps or aerial photographs. ¢ ii) Estimate intensity using the curve in Hudson's Field Engineering, page 42. rv iii) The runoff coefficient C is a measure of the rain which becomes runoff. On a corrugated iron roof, almost all the rain would runoff so C = 1, while in a well drained soil, nine-tenths of the rain may soak in and so C = 0.10. The table (see handout) from Hudson's Field Engineering can be used to obtain C value. Where the catchment has several different kinds of characteristics, the different values should be ______.combined in-proportion to the area of each.Runoff Coefficient, C RUNOFF AND STEAMPLOW 43 Table 2.3 Values of run-off coeffielent © Sou tents ron anda Tiahe veneration ene ONE ay Woodlana Tat 0-3 percent slope on0 030 o-40 Rotiing S10 per com slope | O38 635 830 Tity 10°30 por vont spe 030 os0 feo Porcwre Tine o-10 ose ono Batting ois O38 oss ity 023 eae oa conbeated : et oa ose Reiting S45 eo sly 093 293 ws 30 yer coat of $0 pereentot 7U per vent of impervious impervious Fut oss O65 Refine, 06s 0-80 Frou Sclivab, Frovert, Eaminster, and Ber Solt and mater conserswlion enginecring, Wiley, New York.b) Cook's Method: r Three factors are considered: r Vegetation, © Soil permeability and F Slope. ¢ These are the catchment characteristics. r For each catchment, these are assessed and compared with Table 3.4 of Hudson's Field Engineering_ weplet nudsore hed Eng’g (CC) 79& Tie Z. Crcomen characters (CC) coe Sipe caine o~ Mme 10 Doweebdnied ts a Yamane | aon sdseately pervious soit 20 jerate seu ay Oe. 2 Moteate 8 oie a paeiy Contes mods 20 SEIS as Paling fa 35 Stal so wh pt say ore ucereoiea 25 Sten 7 yeep 20 Med heey carton chy wsinout 2 ay Movntlnous 25 epee ace ne arene sl 0 eis acc Sacre oe sppepa factor From eat oo vee Ean 90 Thr ‘gee. Benale ery zs (0) ot hallow wi woth oped nna (20) x —$<—$ bled re ihr Cea ioe 3a Woe 20. — ‘om Depi of Capmarlion ant Erandok, Gowran of Rhoden “funthoat of ben tarictia for um contacts» Example r A catchment may be heavy grass (10) on shallow soils with impeded drainage(30) and moderate slope(10). © Catchment characteristics (CC) is then the sum of the three ie. 50. r The area of the catchment is then measured, and using the Area, A and the CC, the maximum runoff can be read from Table 3.5 (Field Engineering, pp. 45).= -= Toble 3 Ran off from small catchments wns Os DS MO ww v2 vs os of a7 09 MIG as O32 Os Of 09 Lt is bk? to 4 26 32 37 OS Of E114 17 20 24 29 34 40 86 82 Os 10 14 18 22 27 32 Me ssa 6s O8 1S 16 23°29 96 44 53 42 72 Be Os. MLS B28 3S 45 85 66 TE SH tos 1D 12 18 25 35 46 Se ML BS QO 6 133 I M6 2M 34 49 63 b9 99 119 149 168 189 217 18 32 OT 64 83 104 127 154 182 12 WE 2R0 DL #1 63 88 16 147 182 Dek A B88 ISA HOw BS 5S 84 107 183 191-235 HD BH HS BO 829 3S 65 97 132 172 207-170 NY 196 449 550 O97 42 10 10S 167 196 252 MS IES 462 S46 GIT TH. 49 84 126 172 232 M2 Ta 46) OE GIS TS 810 $6 100 14 194 286 UE 22 50 WU 3 DS 900 G3 IDS ISS US 16S WS 455 559 655 760 BGS 975 mao] 70 110 179 235 319 405 510 620 73U Bed 950 WES Prom Dept of Consaaton and Exton Cormament af KRede@, Dep inservice Manual. — Table 3.5: Hudson's Field Eng’g (Runoff Values) _Cook’s Method Contd. © This gives the runoff for a 10 yr return period. For other return periods, other than 10 years, the conversion factor is: © Return Period (yrs): 2 Di 10 25 50 © Conversion factor: 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.25 1.50 © Another factor to be considered is the shape of the catchment. © Table 3.5 gives the runoff for a catchment, which is roughly square or round. For other catchment shapes, the following conversion factors should be used: = * Square or round catchment (1) ~ Long & narrow = (0.8) Broad & short (1.25)Surface Drainage Channels ¢ The drainage channels are normally designed using the Manning formula (see Chapter 6). The required capacity of a drainage channel is calculated from the summation of the inflowing streams (See Note)LZ = em, f SSO SS Surface Drainage Channels — Contd. ¢The bed level of an open drain collecting flow from field pipe drains should be such as to allow free fall from the pipe drain outlets under maximum flow conditions, with an allowance for siltation and weed growth. 300 mmis a reasonable general figure.Surface Ditch Arrangements ¢ The ditch arrangement can be random, parallel or cross- slope. ¢ Random ditch system: Used where only scattered wet lands require drainage. r Parallel ditch system: Used in flat topography. Ditches are parallel and perpendicular to the slope. Laterals, which run in the direction of the flow, collect water from ditches.- fo = SS — f 2 — LS en. —_ Surface Ditch Arrangements ——_ oa wan dite + Parslteh be Ades on td lateral Random ditch system Parallel atten system,Aon = ~~ 4.3 DESIGNOF SUB-SURFACE — —. DRAINAGE SYSTEMS ry Sub-surface drainage is the removal of excess groundwater below the soil surface. r lt aims at increasing the rate at which water will drain from the soil, and so lowering the water table, thus increasing the depth of drier soil above the water table. * Sub-surface drainage can be done by open ditches or buried drains.ee Sub- ene Drainage Using Ditches Fig. 98. Control of the groundwater table by means of deep open drains“wT f fA = — 7 “ae 4 “.» F Sub-Surface Drainage Using Ditches ¢ Ditches have lower initial cost than buried drains; ¢ There is ease of inspection and ditches are applicable in some organic soils where drains are unsuitable. r Ditches, however, reduce the land available for cropping and require more maintenance that drains due to weed growth and erosion.Sub-Surface Drains Using - Buried Drains s Drain pipes are made of clay, concrete or plastic. They are usually placed in trenches by machines. In clay and conerate pipas (usually 30 em long and § - 10 om in diameter) drainage water enters the pipes through the joints (sea Fig. 101, top). Fiexible plastic ‘rains are much longer (up to 200 m) and the water eaters through perforations distrbuted ‘over the enti length of the pipe (see Fig. 101, bottom).Aon = — (” Se 2 a a= = Sub-Surface Drainage Using Buried Drains ¢ Buried drains refer to any type of buried conduits having open joints or perforations, which collect and convey drainage water. © They can be fabricated from clay, concrete, corrugated plastic tubes or any other suitable material. r The drains can be arranged in a parallel, herringbone, double main or random fashion.Buried Drains—— = — “Arrangements of Sub-Surface Drains f. Mainiir lateral Parallel System bone System Random Systemfn — =~, 7 Wl. GF == Sub-Surface Drainage Designs ¢ The Major Considerations in Sub- surface Drainage Design Include: ¢ Drainage Coefficient; ¢ Drain Depth and Spacing; ¢ Drain Diameters and Gradient; ¢ Drainage Filters.Drainage Coefficient r This is the rate of water removal used in drainage design to obtain the desired protection of crops from excess surface or sub-surface water and can be expressed in mm/day , m/day etc. ¢ Drainage is different in Rain-Fed Areas and Irrigated Areas— Drainage Coefficient in ~ Rain-Fed Areas This is chosen from experience depending on rainfall. The following are guidelines. _— ¢ A. Table 4.1: Drainage Coeffi ient for Rain-Fed Areas* © Mean annual rainfall Drainage coefficient (mm/day) (mm/yr) Ministry of Agric. Hudson r 2000 25 20 r 1950 25 AGS 1500 19 5: cr 1000 13 10 cr 875 10 10 c < 875 v5) 10 , U.K (1967) & Hudson (1975)— — Senior ——— Other Methods For Obtaining Drainage Coefficient in Rain-Fed Areas f Note: Hudson suggests that for MAR > 1000 mm, drainage coefficient is MAR/1000 mm/day and where MAR < 1000 mm, drainage coefficient is 10 mm/day. ¢ B. From rainfall records, determine peak rainfall with a certain probability depending on the value of crops or grounds to be protected e.g. 5 day rainfall for 1: 2 return period. r C. Divide the rainfall of the heaviest rainfall month by the days of the month e.g. in St. Augustine, Trinidad, the heaviest rainfall month is August with 249 mm. i.e. Drainage discharge = 249/31 = 8.03 mm/day. _ & Use this method as a last resort. 2tye = —_ If a an ae —_ Drainage Coefficient in Irrigated Areas rin irrigated areas, water enters the groundwater from: r Deep percolation, ¢ Leaching requirement, ¢ Seepage or ¢ Conveyance losses from watercourses and canals and ¢ Rainfall for some parts of the world.Example f In the design of an irrigation system, the following properties exist: Soil field capacity is 28% by weight, permanent wilting point is 17% by weight; Bulk density = 1.36 g/cm? ; root zone depth is 1 m; peak ET is 5 mm/day; irrigation efficiency is 60%, water conveyance efficiency is 80%, 50 % of water lost in canals contribute to seepage; rainfall for January is 69 mm and evapotranspiration is 100 mm; salinity of irrigation water is 0.80 mm hos/cm while that acceptable is 4 mmhos/cm. Compute the drainage coefficient.If * With irrigation efficiency of 60 %, Gross irrigation requirement ae = Solution: Readily available moisture (RAM) = ¥% (FC - PWP) = 1/2(28 - 17) =5.5%. Indepth, RAM = 0.055 x 1.36 x 1000 mm= 74.8mm = Netirrigation Shortest irrigation interval = RAM/peak ET = 74.8/5 = 15 days 74.8/0.6 = 124.7 mm. This is per irrigation. (a) Water losses = Gross - Netirrigation = 124.7 - 74.8 49.9 mm Assuming 70% is deep percolation while 30% is wasted on the soil surface (Standard assumption), deep percolation = 0.7 x 49.9 = 34.91 mm-~ SX — WL GF = Solution Contd. r (b)Seepage © Conveyance efficiency, Ec = Water delivered to farm c Water released at dam rc =—0;8) r Water delivered to farm = Gross irrigation =124.7 mm r i.e. Water released = 124.7/0.8 = 155.9mm ¢ Excess water or water lost in canal = 155.9 - 124.7 rc = 31.2mm r Since half of the water is seepage (given), the rest will be evaporation during conveyance © Seepage = 1/2 x 31.2mm = 15.6mmAaa = — fy — U7 SS = —— Solution Contd. r (c) Leaching Reqd. = Ecirrig (ET- Rain) =0.8(100 -69) f Caccep 4 r = 7.75 mm r This is for one month; for 15 days, we have 3.88 mm (d) Rainfall = 69 mm; for 15 days, this is 34.5 mm ss © Note: In surface irrigation systems, deep percolation is much higher than leaching requirement so only the former is used in computation. © It is assumed that excess water going down the soil as a result of deep percolation can be used for leaching. In sprinkler system, leaching requirement may be greater than deep i nd-ean be used-instead:——____Solution Concluded r Neglecting Leaching Requirement, Total water input into drains is equal to: fF 34.91 + 15.6 + 34.5 = 85.01 mm r This is per 15 days, since irrigation interval is 15 days r Drainage coefficient = 85.01/15 = 5.67 - f = 6 mmday. — ae aSoil Surtace seater tava in diten “NL citon —m| lmpermeabie layer 1 tmpermeanié inyer | }}-—_—__+ }<_+—_4I Ditch Situation Tube Situation Lis drain spacing; h is mid drain water table height (m) above drain level; Do is depth of aquifer from drain level to impermeable layer(m); q is the water input rate(m/day) = specific discharge or drainage coefficient; K is hydraulic conductivity(m/day); H is the depth to water table.Design Water table depth (H): ¢ This is the minimum depth below the surface at which the water table should be controlled and is determined by farming needs especially crop tolerance to water. rv Typically, it varies from 0.5 to 1.5 m.rc aa95 Design Depth of Drain The deeper a drain is put, the larger the spacing and the more economical the design becomes. Drain depth, however, is constrained by soil and machinery limitations. Table : Typical Drain Depths(D) - Soil Type Drain Depth (m) Sand 0.6 Sandy loam 0.8-1.0 Silt loam 08-18 Clay loam 0.6 - 0.8 Peat leeesIeODrain Spacing (L) r This is normally determined using the Hooghoudt equation. It states that Hooghoudt equation states that for ditches reaching the impermeable layer: f r Ll? = 8KDoh + 4Kh c q q r (See definitions of terms above) © For tube drains which do not reach the impermeable layer, the equation can be modified as: rc L=8Kdh + 4Kh? r q q £_Where d is called the Houghoudt equivalent d. The equation for tube drains can be solved using trial and error method or the graphical method.Example rf For the drainage design of an irrigated area, drain pipes with a radius of 0.1 m are used. They are placed at a depth of 1.8 m below the soil surface. A relatively impermeable soil layer was found at a depth of 6.8 m below the surface. From auger hole tests, the hydraulic conductivity above this layer was estimated as 0.8 m/day. The average irrigation losses, which recharge the groundwater, are 40 mm per 20 days so the average discharge of the drain system amounts to 2 mm/day. r Estimate the drain spacing, if the depth of the water table is 1.2 m.impermeable layer Analytical Solution: (= @Kdh + 4Kh? = sxoex0sxd a q 0.002 =U = 19204 +576 - + 4x08x06" 0.002WL GF = Solution Contd. ¢ Trial One © Assume L = 75 m, from Houghout d table provided, with L = 75 m, and Do =5 m, d =3.49 m. ¢ From equation (1), L? = (1920 x 3.49) +576 = 7276.8; L=85.3m ¢ Comment: The L chosen is small since 75 < 85.3m i r Try L= 100m, from table, d = 3.78 fFroni(t) ke? =-(9920:x:3.78) +5767 808.6" fF L=88.51m * Comment: Since 88.51 < 100, try a smaller L; L should be between 75 and 100 m.Seutvalent denth 3. Heosboedt. 2VALURS HOOGHO! Psa 1s 8 3 Mog 6S le ee em ae A De b Be OS2047 048 245 07 G57 O29 a20-—-———. > esmuse G's 080 045 G49 O71 073 O74 075 039,075 075 096 1. 096 UST O88 amy as9 GoD 0 Ont O25 O40 OS OPO O81 096 O95 095.058 2 172 180 285 19019 134 70 O52 G39 100 1.05 109 LIE 13 Age Te Ls 3 2 29,2607 29-285 YGSb OST LF 129 135 128 131 E3815 136 ¢ 27) DF se 36 538 568 3 4 NOB 1.28 24) Lb 137 82 186 170226 323 BBS ASE aso ast ss 8 . 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For a value of Do = 5 m; produce downwards to meet the line. Read off the spacing on the diagram L_= 87mBlah 100 50 80 1500fl. f ~ — Denmark. 5 D15 Soil. r These criteria are difficult to achieve and a should serve as guidelines.fo =i — = — T= sf = Laying Plastic Pipes: r A Trench is excavated, the pipe is laid in the trench, permeable fill is added, and then the trench is filled. This is for smooth-walled rigid plastic pipes or tile drains. r A Flexible Corrugated Pipe can be laid by machines, which lay the pipes without excavating an open trench (trench less machines).