Topic # 6 – SKELETAL SYSTEM

Skeleton is the hardened framework of an animal body. It may be external or internal and either solid or jointed.
Skeleton gives an identifiable form to an animal and provides protection for the cranial, thoracic, abdominal and
pelvic viscera and often provides surfaces for the attachment of muscles that enables the body to move. Other
functions include: it houses the bone marrow (blood forming tissues); it provides a store-house for the elements
sodium, calcium and potassium and releases it to the blood; it holds the reserves, protein, that the body uses during
fasting.

Medullary cavity of the bones is the principal location of blood formation. Calcified regions of bone act as a “sink”
and a “source” for many of the required minerals (cations and anions) of the body. Because of attachment of
muscles to bone many body parts can be moved.

Some aquatic invertebrates and a few land animals have no skeleton but the majority is supported by a shell or
other external covering (exoskeleton), as on corals, mollusks, and arthropods, or internal (endoskeleton), as with
vertebrates. Exoskeletons are hard body covering with all muscles and organs located inside it. These are
composed of non-cellular material secreted by the epidermis. It functions as a protective armor for the softer body
parts and as a waxy barrier preventing excessive water loss. Arthropods have this type of skeleton.

Some protozoans are enclosed in a shell made of grains of sand held together by a secretion. Others have
exoskeletons formed of calcium carbonate or silica. Sponges rely on spicules. Some of the hydroid cnidarians
have a chitinous perisarc. Mollusks, corals, and brachiopods have exoskeletons of calcium carbonate which are
not shed during their lives. Arthropods have exoskeletons made chiefly of chitin secreted by the epidermis and are
flexible at the joints of the appendages and between the body somites. Some arthropods have a chitinous covering
reinforced with limy salts (crayfish). These nonliving exoskeletons cannot increase in size; therefore, the animal
must molt them periodically. After molting, the body increases in size before the new exoskeleton is formed and
hardened.

Endoskeleton is an internal framework consisting of hard supporting elements such as bone and cartilage; bones
are buried within the soft tissues of an animal. The earliest form of endoskeleton to appear is the notochord which
gives partial support to the body and serves as an axis for the working of the muscles. It persists in Amphioxus and
cyclostomes, but in other classes it is surrounded and replaced by the backbone of separate vertebrae.

Hydrostatic skeleton consists of fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment. This is the main type of
skeleton in most cnidarians, planarians, nematodes, and annelids. This type of skeleton is well suited for life in
aquatic environments. It cushions internal organs from shocks and it provides support for crawling and burrowing.
The intercellular substance that forms the vertebrate skeleton may be a chondromucoid material and collagenous
fibrils (cartilage), or calcium, collagenous fibrils, and phosphorus salts (bone). Most bones develop from cartilage
(cartilage replacement bones), but a few bones, such as certain ones in the face and cranium, are formed directly
from sheets of mesenchyme tissue (membrane bones).

The internal skeleton of vertebrates has a common basic pattern, with the fundamental features seen in a frog.
From the cyclostomes to mammals a progressive sequence may be traced, although there are many differences in
the size and form of component parts and in the presence or absence of certain elements.

Bones of the body are basically similar among animals. Bones of the skeleton are classified as belonging to either
the axial skeleton or appendicular skeleton.

1. Axial skeleton – lies on the long axis (midline) of the body

a. skull (cranium-brainbox, sense capsules-nose, eye, ear, visceral arches-jaws, hyoid, larynx)
b. vertebrae (cervical-neck, thoracic-chest, lumbar-lower back, sacral-hip, caudal-tail)
c. ribs (paired: bony or cartilaginous)
d. sternum (breast bone)
2. Appendicular skeleton is made up of the bones of the front (pectoral) and hind (pelvic) limbs as well as their
respective pectoral girdle (shoulder) and pelvic girdle (pelvis).
a. pectoral girdle (scapula, clavicle, coracoid)
b. forelimb (humerus -upper arm, radius and ulna-forearm, carpals-wrist, metacarpals-palm, phalanges
fingers)
c. pelvic girdle (ilium, ischium, pubis)
d. hindlimb (femur-thigh, tibia and fibula-shank, tarsals-ankle, metatarsals-sole, phalanges-toes)

Bones are considered organs because they contain various types of tissue, such as blood, connective tissue,
nerves, and bone tissue. Osteocytes, the living cells of bone tissue, form the mineral matrix of bones.

Bone or osseous tissue, is a connective tissue that constitutes the endoskeleton. It contains specialized cells and
a matrix of mineral salts and collagen fibers.

The mineral salts primarily include hydroxyapatite, a mineral formed from calcium phosphate. Calcification is the
process of deposition of mineral salts on the collagen fiber matrix that crystallizes and hardens the tissue. The
process of calcification only occurs in the presence of collagen fibers.

The bones of the human skeleton are classified by their shape: long bones, short bones, flat bones, sutural bones,
sesamoid bones, and irregular bones.

Short bones, or cuboidal bones, are bones that are the same width and length, giving them a cube-like shape.
For example, the bones of the wrist (carpals) and ankle (tarsals) are short bones.

Flat bones are thin and relatively broad bones that are found where extensive protection of organs is required or
where broad surfaces of muscle attachment are required. Examples of flat bones are the sternum (breast bone),
ribs, scapulae (shoulder blades), and the roof of the skull.

Irregular bones are bones with complex shapes. These bones may have short, flat, notched, or ridged surfaces.
Examples of irregular bones are the vertebrae, hip bones, and several skull bones.
Sesamoid bones are small, flat bones and are shaped similarly to a sesame seed. The patellae are sesamoid
bones. Sesamoid bones develop inside tendons and may be found near joints at the knees, hands, and feet.

Sutural bones are small, flat, irregularly shaped bones. They may be found between the flat bones of the skull.
They vary in number, shape, size, and position.

Long bones are composed of compact bone and spongy bone. Compact bone appears to be solid while spongy
bone has the appearance of a sponge. In spongy/cancellous bone, there are trabeculae (spicules) of mineralized
tissue, and the empty spaces between the trabeculae are filled with bone marrow in living animals. Rigidity and
strength of long bones is not only due to the hardness of the compact bone, but also by the scaffolding arrangement
of the trabeculae which are generally parallel to lines of stress and ace as pillars for stress points.

Long Bone
Epiphysis of a long bone is at either end of a long bone. It consists chiefly of spongy bone with a thin outer layer of
compact bone. Epiphyseal plate (physis) is composed of hyaline cartilage and represents the point of growth in a
longitudinal direction. Hyaline cartilage is normal type. Matrix is glassy-bluish white and somewhat translucent. In
mature animals, the cartilage has been replaced by bone and epiphyseal lines remain where the plate last existed.

Diaphysis is the cylindrical shaft of a long bone between either epiphysis. It contains marrow (medullary) cavity
surrounded by a thick wall of compact bone. This is the site of red blood cell production.

Metaphysis is the expanded or flared part of the bone at the ends of the diaphysis.

The contact area of the bone that articulates with its neighboring bone at a moveable joint is covered with articular
cartilage. With exception of the joint surfaces, all other outer surfaces of the bone are covered with periosteum.

Periosteum is composed of an outer fibrous layer and an inner cell-rich layer containing osteoblasts which
synthesize and secrete the organic substance of bone. Osteoblasts participate in the mineralization of the organic
matrix. Periosteum is responsible for the increase in diameter of bones and
also functions in the healing of fractures.

Endosteum is the lining tissue of all surfaces of the bone that face the medullary cavity and also the trabeculae of
the bone. It is only 1 cell layer thick and the cells can become osteoblasts when stimulated.

Channels that run parallel to the long axis of the bone are the Haversian canals, which contain blood vessels that
communicate with blood vessels serving the external surfaces and marrow cavity.

Haversian System is the unit of structure of compact bone. It is composed of central haversian canal surrounded
by concentric layers of bone, the lamellae. Bone cells (osteocytes) are contained within small cavities known as
lacunae (little lakes). Osteocytes communicate with each other and with the haversian canal through a branching
network of canals known as canaliculi. Interstitial fluid for the osteocytes is contained within the lacunae and

canaliculi. It diffuses through the canalicular network from the blood vessels in the canals for maintenance of the
osteocytes. Haversian systems are absent in spongy bone, but concentric lamellae with enclosed lacunae and
osteocytes with intercommunicating canaliculi are present.

BONE CELLS

Four different types of cells are associated with bone, however, they should all be considered as different
functional states of the same cell type.
a. Osteoprogenitor cells - Comprise the population of cells in the innermost layer of the periosteum, the
endosteal lining cells of the marrow cavities, and the lining cells of the Haversian canals and Volkman’s
canals.
b. Osteoblasts – are differentiated bone forming cells responsible for the production of bone matrix. Its
secretion of collagen and ground substance makes up the initial unmineralized bone or osteoid. It is also
associated with calcification of the matrix.
c. Osteocytes - are mature bone cells and represents a transformed osteoblast. It is enclosed by the bone
matrix that it had previously laid down. Osteocytes maintain the bone matrix and are able to synthesize
and resorb matrix to a limited extent. They extend their cytoplasmic processes through the canaliculi to
contact by means of gap junctions similar to processes of neighboring cells.
d. Osteoclasts – are large, motile, often multinucleated bone resorbing cells. Their precursors are stem
cells in blood producing tissue of bone, marrow and spleen.
.- stem cells differentiate into bone-resorbing monocytes and then fuse with others to form large
multinucleated osteoclasts.
Osteoclasts are considered to be members of the diffuse mononuclear phagocyte system.
Development of Bone

Ossification, or osteogenesis, is the process of bone formation by osteoblasts. Ossification is distinct from the
process of calcification; whereas calcification takes place during the ossification of bones, it can also occur in
other tissues. Ossification begins approximately six weeks after fertilization in an embryo. Before this time, the
embryonic skeleton consists entirely of fibrous membranes and hyaline cartilage. The development of bone from
fibrous membranes is called intramembranous ossification; development from hyaline cartilage is called
endochondral ossification. Bone growth continues until approximately age 25. Bones can grow in thickness
throughout life, but after age 25, ossification functions primarily in bone remodeling and repair.

Intramembranous ossification is the process of bone development from fibrous membranes. It is involved in the
formation of the flat bones of the skull, the mandible, and the clavicles. Ossification begins as mesenchymal cells
form a template of the future bone. They then differentiate into osteoblasts at the ossification center. Osteoblasts
secrete the extracellular matrix and deposit calcium, which hardens the matrix. The non-mineralized portion of the
bone or osteoid continues to form around blood vessels, forming spongy bone. Connective tissue in the matrix
differentiates into red bone marrow in the fetus. The spongy bone is remodeled into a thin layer of compact bone on
the surface of the spongy bone.

Endochondral ossification is the process of bone development from hyaline cartilage. All of the bones of the
body, except for the flat bones of the skull, mandible, and clavicles, are formed through endochondral ossification.

In long bones, chondrocytes form a template of the hyaline cartilage diaphysis. Responding to complex
developmental signals, the matrix begins to calcify. This calcification prevents diffusion of nutrients into the matrix,
resulting in chondrocytes dying and the opening up of cavities in the diaphysis cartilage. Blood vessels invade the
cavities, and osteoblasts and osteoclasts modify the calcified cartilage matrix into spongy bone. Osteoclasts then
break down some of the spongy bone to create a marrow, or medullary, cavity in the center of the diaphysis. Dense,
irregular connective tissue forms a sheath (periosteum) around the bones. The periosteum assists in attaching the
bone to surrounding tissues, tendons, and ligaments. The bone continues to grow and elongate as the cartilage
cells at the epiphyses divide.

In the last stage of prenatal bone development, the centers of the epiphyses begin to calcify. Secondary ossification
centers form in the epiphyses as blood vessels and osteoblasts enter these areas and convert hyaline cartilage into
spongy bone. Until adolescence, hyaline cartilage persists at the epiphyseal plate (growth plate), which is the
region between the diaphysis and epiphysis that is responsible for the lengthwise growth of long bones.

Growth of Bone
Long bones continue to lengthen, potentially until adolescence, through the addition of bone tissue at the
epiphyseal plate. They also increase in width through appositional growth.

Lengthening of Long Bones

Chondrocytes on the epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate divide; one cell remains undifferentiated near the
epiphysis, and one cell moves toward the diaphysis. The cells, which are pushed from the epiphysis, mature and
are destroyed by calcification. This process replaces cartilage with bone on the diaphyseal side of the plate,
resulting in a lengthening of the bone.

Thickening of Long Bones

Appositional growth is the increase in the diameter of bones by the addition of bony tissue at the surface of
bones. Osteoblasts at the bone surface secrete bone matrix, and osteoclasts on the inner surface break down
bone. The osteoblasts differentiate into osteocytes. A balance between these two processes allows the bone to
thicken without becoming too heavy.

Bone Remodeling and Repair

Bone renewal continues after birth into adulthood. Bone remodeling is the replacement of old bone tissue by new
bone tissue. It involves the processes of bone deposition by osteoblasts and bone resorption by osteoclasts.
Normal bone growth requires vitamins D, C, and A, plus minerals such as calcium, phosphorous, and magnesium.
Hormones such as parathyroid hormone, growth hormone, and calcitonin are also required for proper bone growth
and maintenance.

TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS

Tendons and ligaments consist chiefly of closely packed bundles of collagen. Tendons connect muscles with
bones, have a shiny appearance, and the collagen bundles are so arranged as to offer maximal resistance to the
tension created when a muscle contracts. Ligaments connect bone to bone. The arrangement of the collagen
bundles is less regular, but they are directly continuous with those of the periosteum. In some species certain
tendons and ligaments become mineralized as a normal phenomenon. Turkeys, for example, have ossified
tendons in their legs. Sesamoid cartilages or bones are mineralized nodules in tendons and ligaments.
Best known is the patella or kneecap

Joint is the connection between any of the skeletons rigid component parts; also described as an articulation. The
study of joints is termed Arthrology and inflammation of joints is termed arthritis. Arthritis is a common malady
among domestic animals.

If the joint is movable in one or more planes, it is a diarthrosis. If no movement is possible, it is a synarthrosis. If
movement is restricted if not impossible, it is an amphiarthrosis.

Classification of Joints on the Basis of Structure

There are two ways to classify joints: on the basis of their structure or on the basis of their function. The structural
classification divides joints into bony, fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints depending on the material
composing the joint and the presence or absence of a cavity in the joint.

Fibrous Joints
The bones of fibrous joints are held together by fibrous connective tissue. There is no cavity, or space, present
between the bones and so most fibrous joints do not move at all, or are only capable of minor movements. There
are three types of fibrous joints: sutures, syndesmoses, and gomphoses. Sutures are found only in the skull and
possess short fibers of connective tissue that hold the skull bones tightly in place. Syndesmoses are joints in which
the bones are connected by a band of connective tissue, allowing for more movement than in a suture. An example
of a syndesmosis is the joint of the tibia and fibula in the ankle. The amount of movement in these types of joints is
determined by the length of the connective tissue fibers. Gomphoses occur between teeth and their sockets; the
term refers to the way the tooth fits into the socket like a peg. The tooth is connected to the socket by a connective
tissue referred to as the periodontal ligament.

Cartilaginous Joints
Cartilaginous Joints are joints in which the bones are connected by cartilage. There are two types of cartilaginous
joints: synchondroses and symphyses. In a synchondrosis, the bones are joined by hyaline cartilage.
Synchondroses are found in the epiphyseal plates of growing bones in children. In symphyses, hyaline cartilage
covers the end of the bone but the connection between bones occurs through fibrocartilage. Symphyses are found
at the joints between vertebrae. Either type of cartilaginous joint allows for very little movement.

Synovial Joints
Synovial joints are the only joints that have a space between the adjoining bones. This space is referred to as the
synovial (or joint) cavity and is filled with synovial fluid. Synovial fluid lubricates the joint, reducing friction between
the bones and allowing for greater movement. The ends of the bones are covered with articular cartilage, a hyaline
cartilage, and the entire joint is surrounded by an articular capsule composed of connective tissue that allows
movement of the joint while resisting dislocation. Articular capsules may also possess ligaments that hold the bones
together. Synovial joints are capable of the greatest movement of the three structural joint types; however, the more
mobile a joint, the weaker the joint. Knees, elbows, and shoulders are examples of synovial joints.

Types of Synovial Joints

Synovial joints are further classified into six different categories on the basis of the shape and structure of the joint.
The shape of the joint affects the type of movement permitted by the joint. These joints can be described as planar,
hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, or ball-and-socket joints.

Planar/gliding joints have bones with articulating surfaces that are flat or slightly curved faces. These joints allow
for gliding movements, and so the joints are sometimes referred to as gliding joints. The range of motion is limited
in these joints and does not involve rotation. Planar joints are found in the carpal bones in the hand and the tarsal
bones of the foot, as well as between vertebrae.

In hinge joints, the slightly rounded end of one bone fits into the slightly hollow end of the other bone. In this way,
one bone moves while the other remains stationary, like the hinge of a door. The elbow is an example of a hinge
joint. The knee is sometimes classified as a modified hinge joint.

Pivot joints consist of the rounded end of one bone fitting into a ring formed by the other bone. This structure
allows rotational movement, as the rounded bone moves around its own axis. An example of a pivot joint is the
joint of the first and second vertebrae of the neck that allows the head to move back and forth. The joint of the wrist
that allows the palm of the hand to be turned up and down is also a pivot joint.

Condyloid joints consist of an oval-shaped end of one bone fitting into a similarly oval-shaped hollow of another
bone. This is also sometimes called an ellipsoidal joint. This type of joint allows angular movement along two axes,
as seen in the joints of the wrist and fingers, which can move both side to side and up and down.
Saddle joints are so named because the ends of each bone resemble a saddle, with concave and convex
portions that fit together. Saddle joints allow angular movements similar to condyloid joints but with a
greater range of motion. An example of a saddle joint is the thumb joint, which can move back and forth
and up and down, but more freely than the wrist or fingers.

Ball-and-socket joints possess a rounded, ball-like end of one bone fitting into a cuplike socket of another
bone. This organization allows the greatest range of motion, as all movement types are possible in all
directions. Examples of ball-and-socket joints are the shoulder and hip joints.