SOCIETY, CULTURE, MEDIA AND TECHNOLOGY

PART - A (2 Marks)

1. Define Sociology (Unit - 1)

● Kingsley Davis defines sociology as a "general science of society."
● Park describes sociology as the "science of collective behavior."
● Emile Durkheim defines sociology as a "science of social institutions."
● Ogburn and Nimkoff define sociology as the "study of social life."
● Kimball Young defines sociology as dealing with the "behavior of men in groups."
Origin and Meaning of Sociology
● The word "sociology" was coined by Auguste Comte, a French philosopher, in 1838.
● Sociology is the youngest of all the social sciences.
● The word "sociology" is derived from the Latin word "socius," meaning "society or group," and
the Greek word "logos," meaning "science or study or advanced study."
● Sociology can be understood as the science or study of society.

2. Brief on Kuhnian theory (Unit - 1)

● Kuhnian theory, proposed by Thomas Kuhn, suggests that scientific progress doesn't always
happen gradually. Instead, it occurs through shifts called "paradigm shifts".
● These shifts mark a change in fundamental beliefs and methods within a scientific community,
leading to a new way of understanding and explaining phenomena.
● Kuhn argued that science goes through periods of normal science, where a dominant paradigm
guides research, and revolutionary science, where a new paradigm emerges, challenging the
old one.

3. Who is 'Auguste Comte'? (Unit - 1)

● Isidore Marie Auguste François Xavier Comte (January 1, 1798 – September 30, 1857) was a
French philosopher and mathematician who is often regarded as the first philosopher of science.
● Comte’s ideas were fundamental to the development of sociology. In fact, he invented the term
“sociology” and treated that discipline as the crowning achievement of the sciences1. His work
attempted to remedy the social disorder caused by the French Revolution, which he believed
indicated an imminent transition to a new form of society.

4. What are the relationship between science and society? (Unit - 1)

● Science and society are closely connected. Science, which is how we gain knowledge, has
greatly impacted society through discoveries and progress. The industrial revolution, for
example, brought advancements in energy, physical sciences, and communication, benefiting
society.
● Science is also a social activity, where scientists collaborate and rely on each other. The
relationship is like a two-way street: science shapes society, and society provides the context for
scientific research.

5. Define scientific knowledge / What is Sociology of Scientific Knowledge. (Unit - 1)

Scientific knowledge is the understanding and information gained through the systematic study and
research of the natural world. It involves the use of proper methods and processes to acquire
knowledge and organize it into a body of information. Science is a social activity that explores the
social conditions and effects of scientific activity, as well as the social structures and processes
within which science operates.
6. What is technological determinism? & What do you understand by the term technological
determinism? (Unit - 2)
● Technological determinism is the idea that technology shapes and influences society's
development, often suggesting that technological advancements drive social and cultural
changes.
● It implies that the introduction of new technologies has a significant impact on how societies
function and evolve, shaping the way people live and interact. In essence, technological
determinism posits that technological progress plays a crucial role in determining the course of
societal development.

7. What affects knowledge production? (Unit - 2)

● Knowledge production is influenced by where it's applied, like solving real-world problems. It
involves using ideas from different subjects (transdisciplinarity) and can happen in diverse
organizations. Unlike academic-focused knowledge, this type considers society's needs (social
accountability) and reflects on its own biases (reflexivity).
● These factors, including the context of application, transdisciplinarity, organizational diversity,
social accountability, and reflexivity, can significantly influence the production of knowledge.

8. What is the term techno science? (Unit - 2)

● Techno science is a term coined by Belgian philosopher Gilbert Hottois in the late 1970s. It has
been used by sociologist Bruno Latour to study the relationship between scientists, engineers,
technology, and humanity.
● Techno science helps us understand how science and technology have come to impact almost
every aspect of our daily lives. It recognizes that science, technology, and innovation are
interdependent but distinct categories of activities.

9. Recall social shaping. (Unit - 2)

Social shaping refers to the idea that the development and use of technology are influenced by
social factors. It recognizes that the adoption and impact of technology are not solely determined by
the technology itself, but also by the social context in which it is used. This perspective
acknowledges that society plays a significant role in shaping technology and its effects.

10. Brief about Lewenstein's perspective on technology (Unit - 3)

● Lewenstein's perspective on technology emphasizes the importance of public understanding
and engagement with science and technology. He argues that it's not just about experts and
scientists communicating information to the public, but also about involving the public in
discussions and decision-making about technological advancements.
● In simple terms, Lewenstein highlights the need for a two-way communication process where
the public is not just passive receivers of information but active participants in shaping the
direction of technology.
11. List few ethical challenges in emerging technologies (Unit - 3)
● The ethical challenges in emerging technologies include dealing with uncertainty about future
impacts, the potential for harm to people and the environment, the risk of compliance breaches
leading to harm, and the need for effective governance to avoid problems like redundancy and
increased costs.
● Technology and IT governance are crucial for steering responsible development and use of
emerging technologies.

12. List any two contributions of Lewenstein (Unit - 3)

● Public Communication of Science and Technology: Dr. Bruce V. Lewenstein is a widely-
known authority on public communication of science and technology. He has extensively studied
how science and technology are reported to the public and how the public understands
 controversial scientific issues and “emerging technologies” such as biotechnology and
nanotechnology.
● Research on Emerging Technologies: He has explored social and ethical issues associated
with emerging technologies such as genomics and nanotechnology. His research focuses on
how emerging technologies exist in a state of flux and are surrounded by speculation and
speculators, who make often-contested claims about their promises, perils, and possibilities
● Citizen Science Outreach Projects: Dr. Lewenstein has done extensive work evaluating
“citizen science” outreach projects, in which citizens fully participate in the scientific process by
gathering, entering, and sometimes analyzing scientific data.

13. Write the influence of local contexts. (Unit - 3)

● Local Contexts is an international system that supports Indigenous communities in managing
their intellectual and cultural property, cultural heritage, and environmental data in the digital
environment.
● It provides mechanisms like Traditional Knowledge and Biocultural Labels and Notices for
Indigenous and traditional communities to engage with cultural and research institutions in
managing their traditional rights over their property and knowledge.
● The local context is also important in research as it reflects how local people observe, measure,
and reflect on their surroundings, their solutions or coping strategies, and how they validate new
information.

14. Write short notes on Hypertextuality / Write a few sentences about Hypertextuality. (Unit - 4)
● Hypertextuality is a postmodern theory that emphasizes the interconnectedness of literary works
and their interpretation.The prefix 'hyper' is derived from the Greek 'above, beyond or outside'. It
refers to texts that provide links to other texts, creating a network of connections. Hypertext is
related to paratext, which includes additional information accompanying the text.
● In new media, hypertext allows for the free movement of information within a series of
interconnected nodes in the network.

15. Brief the term interactivity (Unit - 4)

● Interactivity refers to the ability of users to engage with and manipulate content in a digital
environment. It involves the user's ability to choose between different content options, define the
time for access, change the aspect of the content, produce content for a system, and
communicate with other users. Interactivity can occur at different levels, such as choosing the
format of information display and producing input for a system.
● It empowers users by giving them control over the narrative and enabling them to actively
participate in the exchange of ideas. Interactive media, such as social networking websites and
video games, allow users to control, combine, and manipulate different types of media.

16. Justify the need of digitization. (Unit - 4)

● Digitization is crucial for various reasons. It helps convert analog data into digital, making it
easier to store and access. Digital media is easily shared, promoting global knowledge sharing.
It improves preservation compared to analog formats prone to degradation.
● Digital media allows interactive engagement, fostering collaboration and creativity. Additionally,
digitization is cost-effective, eliminating the need for physical production and distribution. In
essence, it ensures efficient data management and benefits in terms of accessibility,
preservation, interactivity, and cost.

17. Mention the functions of virtuality (Unit - 4)

● Virtuality combines real and virtual worlds, allowing digital and physical objects to interact. It's a
mix of augmented reality (adding virtual elements to the real world) and virtual reality (immersing
 users in a fully virtual environment). Virtuality creates immersive experiences, making users feel
present in a virtual place.
● It supports immersive learning and enables technology-driven social change by involving users
in creating content. In short, virtuality merges realities, offers immersive experiences, aids
learning, and fosters technology-driven social change.

18. What do you understand by Virtual Media? Why it is an important? (Unit - 4)

● Virtual Media refers to digital forms of information and entertainment like videos, music,
articles, etc.
● It’s important because it allows global sharing of ideas, promotes user engagement, is
crucial for business marketing, helps in news dissemination, and serves diverse purposes.

19. What is meant by decoding an image? & What do you understand by the term decoding
images? (Unit - 5)
● Decoding an image refers to the process of converting an encoded image back into an
uncompressed bitmap format that can be displayed on a screen. It involves reversing the steps
that were taken to encode the image in the first place.
● This process can be seen as the act of converting the image from its coded form into a normal,
recognizable form or the act of translating from one language into another.

20. What do you mean by visual culture? (Unit - 5)

Visual Culture refers to everything that is seen, produced to be seen, and the way in which it is seen
and understood. It encompasses the aspect of culture expressed through visual images. It is
studied in various academic fields such as cultural studies, art history, critical theory, philosophy,
media studies, Deaf Studies, and anthropology.

21. Emphasis the importance of visual Culture (Unit - 5)

● Visual culture is important because it enhances communication and expression. It allows us
to interpret and understand information quickly through images, symbols, and visual media,
which is often more impactful and engaging than text alone.
● Visual culture transcends language barriers, making it a universal form of communication. It also
plays a crucial role in shaping societal norms and values, influencing our perceptions and
behaviors.

22. List the uses of seeing. (Unit - 5)

● Seeing is important for many reasons. It helps us quickly process visual information, grab
attention, and recognize familiar things. Seeing is crucial for communication through visual
language, conveying complex ideas and emotions. It also aids in understanding and interpreting
the world around us, exploring art, history, and society through images.
● Additionally, seeing can contribute to the creation of myths, as beliefs in images can be
manipulated to control perceptions and power relations. In short, seeing serves purposes like
processing visuals, capturing attention, recognizing, communicating, understanding, and even
influencing beliefs and control.

23. Name two reasons for Cultural diffusion (Unit - 1)

● Cultural diffusion can occur through societal interactions such as trade, migration, and even
simple communication. For example, the Silk Road facilitated the exchange of goods,
philosophies, religious beliefs, and technologies
● Media plays a significant role in cultural diffusion. For example, Hip-Hop music originated in
African American communities in New York City but has since become mainstream across all
races.
24. Differentiate Dominant culture and Counter culture (Unit - 1)
Dominant Culture and Counter Culture are two sociological terms that represent different kinds of
cultures within a society. Here’s a simple differentiation between the two:

Dominant Culture:
● This refers to the cultural values, practices, and norms that are most prevalent and influential
in a given society.
● It’s often linked to the majority and has a close relationship with power, as the ruling class
plays a significant role in shaping it.
● The dominant culture can sometimes oppress other cultures that exist in the society, which
are called subcultures. Most values and practices of the dominant culture become the norm,
the shared standard of acceptable behavior for the entire society.

Counter Culture:
● A counter culture is a group of people or a movement that holds ideas, values, and norms
that are different from those of the prevailing dominant culture.
● Countercultures run counter to dominant cultures and the social mainstream of the day.
They challenge the values of the dominant social, ethnic, or political group.
● Countercultural movements often transition with time and ultimately become a part of the
mainstream cultural beliefs.

In essence, while dominant culture represents the prevailing values and norms of a society, counter
culture challenges and seeks to change these norms.

25. Name the types of Research in sociological studies (Unit - 1)

The types of research in sociology include:
● Surveys (questionnaires and structured interviews)
● Experiments (lab and field)
● Observational studies (participant observation, ethnography, case study, unobtrusive
observations)
● Secondary data analysis (use of existing sources)

26. Explain Ethnocentrism (Unit - 1)

● Ethnocentrism is a term used to describe the practice of judging other cultures based on the
standards and values of one’s own culture, instead of using the standards of the particular
culture involved.
● It can be seen as a form of cultural bias that can lead to negative judgments of other cultures,
practices, behaviors, beliefs, and people. Ethnocentrism can also be used to refer to the belief
that one’s culture is superior to, or more correct or normal than, all others.
27. What is paradigm and paradigm shift mean? (Unit - 1)
● The word paradigm is Greek in origin, meaning “pattern”, and is used to illustrate similar
occurrences
● A paradigm is a term that has several meanings, but in general, it refers to a model or a clear
example of something or a set of theories that explain the way a particular subject is understood
at a particular time.
● In science and philosophy, a paradigm is a distinct set of concepts or thought patterns, including
theories, research methods, postulates, and standards for what constitute legitimate
contributions to a field.
● A paradigm shift, on the other hand, is an important change that happens when the usual way of
thinking about or doing something is replaced by a new and different way. This term is often
 used in the context of scientific research, where a paradigm shift refers to a major change in the
worldview, concepts, and practices of how something works or is accomplished.
● Paradigm shifts can also occur in other contexts, such as industry, when new technology is
introduced that radically alters the production process or manufacturing of a good or service.
These shifts are key drivers in many of the processes that a society undergoes.

28. What is Mode Il knowledge production? (Unit - 1)

● Mode Il is a term from the sociology of science that refers to the way (scientific) of how
knowledge is produced.
● It contrasts with Mode Il production of knowledge.In Mode I, problems are set and solved in a
context governed by the interests of specific academic communities. By contrast, Mode Il
knowledge production is carried out in a context of application.
● In Mode Il multidisciplinary teams are brought together for short periods of time to work on
specific problems in the real world for knowledge production.

PART - B (13 Marks)

1. Discuss the conventional views of philosophers about sociology and social function of science /
Discuss Joseph Bernal’s Social Function of Science (Unit - 1)

Conventional Views of Philosophers about Sociology of Science :

Karl Manheim
● Born: March 27, 1893 Died: January 9, 1947 (aged 53)
● Subjects Of Study: Conflict – Class struggle – Sociology of knowledge
● Karl Manheim was a Hungarian-born sociologist known for his work on the sociology of knowledge
and the problems of leadership and consensus in modern societies.
● He taught at various universities, including the University of Heidelberg and the London School of
Economics,University of London, where he lectured on sociology and was a professor of philosophy
and sociology of education.
● Manheim's sociology of knowledge expanded on Karl Marx's idea that different social classes
develop different belief systems.
● He believed that social conflict arises from the diversity of thoughts and beliefs among different
segments of society.
● Manheim's concepts are elaborated in his book "Ideology and Utopia: An Introduction to the
Sociology of Knowledge'' and "Freedom, Power, and Democratic Planning." However, his theory of
relationism faced criticism for verging on relativism and for not explaining how scientific knowledge
arises.

Robert King Merton

● Born Meyer Robert Schkolnick; July 4, 1910 – February 23, 2003
● Robert King Merton, an American sociologist, is considered a founding father of modern sociology
and a major contributor to the subfield of criminology. He is best known for developing theories of
deviance, including the concept of "self-fulfilling prophecy" and "role model".
● Merton's Strain theory, developed in 1938, states that society puts pressure on individuals to
achieve socially accepted goals, even if they lack the means to do so.
● He argued that the values and norms of modern science can be inferred from scientists' common
practices and attitudes.
● Merton's theory was developed in response to social and economic circumstances in the early
1900s.

Strain Theory
● Robert Merton developed Strain Theory to understand,“why different societies have varying rates of
deviance”.
● He noticed that in the United States, there's a strong emphasis on achieving success, especially in
monetary terms. However, there are contradictions in the acceptable means to achieve success.
For instance, both educated employees and those who engaged in deviant activities like robber
barons were admired.
● This contradiction is problematic, particularly for minority groups facing difficulties in education and
employment. Despite challenges, the societal standard for success remains high for everyone.
● Merton's Strain Theory suggests that individuals either conform to societal expectations or turn to
deviant behaviors due to the strain caused by conflicting values.
● Merton believed that when individuals face a gap between their goals and their current status, strain
occurs.
● He identified five ways individuals respond to strain: Conformity, Innovation, Ritualism,
Retreatism, And Rebellion.
● Conformity is the most common response, where individuals pursue cultural goals through
socially approved means.
● Innovation involves accepting society's goals but using socially unapproved means to
achieve them.
● Ritualism is using socially approved means to achieve less elusive goals.

● Retreatism involves rejecting both the cultural goals and the means to obtain them.
● Rebellion is the rejection of cultural goals and means, with the aim of replacing them.

Conventional Views of Philosophers about Social Function of Science :

Joseph Bernal
● Joseph Bernal, an Irish scientist, is considered the founding father of the science of science. In his
book "The social function of science," published in 1939, Bernal emphasized the impact of social
and economic factors on science.
● He identified specific research subjects in the science of science, including statistical attacks,
detailed study of critical cases, systems research, experimental approaches, and classification.
● Bernal's work also focused on science planning and policy. He believed that science policy analysis
should be a part of social science, while the analysis of science and technology indicators falls into
the realm of mathematical and statistical science.
● Bernal's ideas on science planning and policy have gained importance in qualitative and quantitative
studies of science.Bernal believed that the science of science should be a proper science with
observation, speculation, and experiment. He brought measurement techniques from statistics to
the analysis of science.

● Bernal's thoughts on the science of science can be summarized into four chief characteristics:
➔ The Socio-Historical Perspective,
➔ Theoretical Models,
➔ Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches,
➔ Studies Of Science Planning and Policy.

The Socio-Historical Perspective

● He developed the historical analysis of science further in his multivolume work "Science in history,"
considering science as an institution, a method, a cumulative tradition of knowledge, and a major
factor in the development of production.His ideas have contributed to the development of the
science of science and the understanding of the structure and dynamics of scientific research.

Theoretical Models
● Theoretical models in science help us understand its structure and dynamics, making predictions
that can be validated. Descriptive models are found in philosophy, history, sociology, and science
studies, while predictive models are developed in fields like scientometrics and mathematics.
● Quantitative studies in science rely on clear descriptors expressed as quantities. Without them,
decision-making can be confusing, but it's important to avoid mistaking the model for reality and
solving problems for elegance rather than content.

Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches

● He also favored methodologies that combine qualitative and quantitative approaches, although in
recent decades, quantitative and qualitative studies in science have taken different paths.
 ● To bridge the gap between qualitative and quantitative studies in the science of science, mixed-
methods designs are considered important. These designs can help in studying and solving
complex problems and challenges in the field.

Studies Of Science Planning and Policy

● The study of science planning and policy has a history, with Bernal's book on the social function of
science being a notable work in science policy analysis. Journals like Science and Public Policy and
Research Policy have contributed to this field.
● Scholarly works, such as the Handbook of quantitative studies of science and technology, connect
data collection for S&T indicators with science policy. While qualitative analysis of science policy
falls into social science, analyzing S&T indicators is in the realm of mathematical and statistical
science.

Overall Bernal's contributions, especially his theoretical explorations, remain relevant today, aiding in
both qualitative and quantitative studies of science. Scientometric analysis now highlights changes in
science, emphasizing the need for theoretical explanations, where Bernal's ideas continue to play a
significant role.

2. Explain the inter-relationship between science, technology and society. (Unit - 1)

● The inter-relationship between science, technology, and society is complex and multifaceted.
Science is a system of acquiring knowledge through research and proper methods, while
technology refers to the practical application of scientific knowledge. Society, on the other hand,
encompasses the collective beliefs, values, and behaviors of individuals.
● Science serves as a language created by human minds to organize ideas.
● The Neolithic Revolution marked the start of observing and imagining things systematically.
● In Mathematics, the invention of the "0" was significant, and notable figures like Aaryabhatta,
Galileo, Newton, and Darwin made important contributions to Mathematics, Physics, and Biology.
● Since the 18th-century Industrial Revolution, science has continually progressed. This progress has
significantly boosted various sectors, including energy, physical sciences, information, and
communication. The invention of technology has greatly benefited society as a whole.
● Technology has played a crucial role in shaping society. The invention of various technologies has
revolutionized industries, communication, and daily life.
● It has increased productivity, efficiency, and convenience. Society has greatly gained from the
invention of technology, as it has opened up new possibilities and transformed the way people live,
work, and interact.
 ● Science, technology, and society are interconnected and influence each other in numerous ways.
Scientific discoveries and advancements drive technological innovations, which in turn impact
society. Society, on the other hand, shapes the direction of scientific research and the development
of technology through its needs, values, and priorities.

● The relationship between science, technology, and society is not one-sided. It is a dynamic and
reciprocal process. Science and technology address societal needs and challenges, while society
provides the context and direction for scientific research and technological development.

In summary, the inter-relationship between science, technology, and society is a complex and dynamic
process. Science provides the knowledge base, technology applies that knowledge practically, and society
influences and is influenced by both science and technology. This interplay between science, technology,
and society shapes the progress and development of human civilization.

3. Explain actor network theory by Bruno Latour with their application. (Unit - 1)
● Actor-Network Theory (ANT), proposed by the French sociologist and philosopher Bruno Latour, is a
theoretical framework that aims to understand the social world by emphasizing the interactions
between human and non-human actors.
● Latour challenges traditional social theories that focus solely on human agency and argues that
both human and non-human entities play active roles in shaping social networks.
● In ANT, an "actor" is anything that influences or is influenced by others, including people,
technologies, organizations, and even concepts. These actors form a network through their
relationships and interactions.
● According to Latour, the term "network" in Actor-Network Theory (ANT) avoids a priori order
relations and challenges hierarchical assumptions. ANT rejects the distinction between macro and
micro levels of analysis, focusing instead on the associations and connections that make up social
reality.
● Latour expresses discomfort with the term "theory" and suggests "actant-rhizome ontology" could be
an alternative. ANT seeks to explain how material-semiotic networks, involving both material and
symbolic elements, come together to function as a whole.
● It examines strategies for connecting diverse elements into coherent networks, emphasizing their
transient nature and continuous making and remaking.
● The theory recognizes that relations within networks need to be actively performed, and these
networks may contain conflicts, highlighting the ongoing and dynamic nature of social relations.
● The theory outlines four moments in the construction of an actor-network: Problematization,
Interessement, Enrolment, and Mobilization.
 ➔ Problematization involves defining an issue or problem,
➔ Interessement is the process of enlisting actors to participate,
➔ Enrolment refers to the stabilization of these associations, and
➔ Mobilization involves the actors acting together to achieve a common goal.

Applications of Actor-Network Theory

● Applications of Actor-Network Theory are diverse. In studying technology, ANT can be used to
analyze the intricate network of human and non-human elements that contribute to the
development, adoption, and impact of technological innovations.
● In organizational studies, ANT helps explore how both human and non-human actors contribute to
the functioning and evolution of organizations.
● It has also been applied in science and technology studies to understand how scientific knowledge
is constructed through the interactions of various actors.

4. Explain with example, how science and technology shape the ways in which knowledge is
constructed. /
Outline the traditional boundary between science and technology. (Unit - 2)

Science and technology play a crucial role in shaping the ways in which knowledge is constructed.
Through scientific research and technological advancements, new knowledge is generated and existing
knowledge is expanded.Technoscientific progress has transformed human life by improving shelter,
food, clothing, transportation, communication, education, and more. Without these advancements,
humanity would have struggled to survive and develop. Technoscience has empowered mankind to
thrive and dominate the world, playing a crucial role in societal progress throughout history.

Traditional science & Technoscience

● Traditional science relies on technology to create phenomena and representations, using models,
diagrams, and theories.
● It typically operates in controlled research environments, aiming to test hypotheses with immutable
and timeless objects.
● Traditional science emphasizes a clear distinction between technology and science, viewing the
world as composed of facts rather than things.
● On the other hand, technoscience challenges the separation between science and technology.
● It sees science and technology as interconnected, evolving symbiotically.
● In technoscience, the traditional categorical distinction between science and technology is blurred,
as both are interdependent.
● Technologies depend on scientific advancements, and sciences rely on technological tools, making
the integration of the two standards in this approach.

Technoscience
● The term "Technoscience" was coined by philosopher Gilbert Hottois in the late 1970s and later
applied by sociologist Bruno Latour to study scientists, engineers, technology, and humanity. This
concept helps us understand the evolution of science and why technology now impacts almost
every aspect of daily life.
● Science, technology, and innovation are interdependent but distinct categories. Science contributes
to technology in various ways:
➔ New Knowledge: Directly inspires new technological ideas.
➔ Tools and Techniques: Provides tools and techniques for efficient engineering design,serving
as a knowledge base for design feasibility.
➔ Research Instrumentation: Techniques and methods used in research that eventually find
application in design or industrial practices.
 ➔ Skills Development: The practice of research contributes to the development and assimilation
of new human skills useful for technology.
➔ Knowledge Base for Assessment: Creates a knowledge base essential for assessing
technology's wider social and environmental impacts.
➔ Efficient Strategies: Enables more efficient strategies in applied research, development, and
refinement of new technologies.

According to philosophies of Francis Bacon, there are four ways of interpreting technoscience:

Purpose Technoscience:
● This perspective focuses on using technoscience to gain a competitive advantage, leading to wealth
and power.
● Example: Companies developing cutting-edge technology to dominate markets, influencing societal
trends.

Method Technoscience:
● Emphasizes the active creation and manipulation of scientific ideas, favoring the process over strict
definitions.
● Example: Scientists using specialized instruments to explore new realms of science, prioritizing
construction and discovery over traditional justifications.

Truth-Technoscience:
● Explanation: This perspective argues that knowledge isn't just theoretical but is validated by creating
tangible objects. It emphasizes "thing knowledge," where if something can be made, it's considered
true.
● Example: In medicine, understanding a disease is validated through the creation of diagnostic tools
or treatments, turning theoretical knowledge into tangible evidence.

Object-Technoscience:
● Explanation: This approach questions the clear separation between technology and nature,
suggesting that technology is an extension of nature. It blurs the lines between what's considered
natural and technological.
● Example: Smartphones, viewed as extensions of human capabilities, challenge the distinction
between natural and technological. Relying on them for communication and information tasks
reshapes our understanding of what is natural and how technology interacts with it.

In conclusion, science and technology, through perspectives like Purpose,Method,Truth and Object-
technoscience, shapes the ways in which knowledge is constructed.

5. Establish the various manifestations of "Power" in the politics of knowledge production. /

Write the scope of power and politics of knowledge production (Unit - 2)

The Changing Concept of Knowledge

● In the latter half of the 20th century, the concept of 'knowledge' has experienced significant
changes, leading to debates and a perceived crisis in the modern knowledge system, as noted by
Rajni Kothari.
● This transformation involves a mix of uncertainty and liberation, challenging established standards
and embracing new ways of knowing.
● Of the many facets of the close relationship between knowledge and power, four important facets
are:
➔ the critical importance of hierarchies in the existing knowledge order,
➔ the relationship of reciprocal legitimation between knowledge and power,
➔ the transnational division of labor in the contemporary knowledge order, and
➔ the political economy of the commercialization of knowledge.

Challenging the Tradition of a “Unified Science”

● The criticism of the 'unified science' tradition challenges the idea of a uniform and homogeneous
knowledge concept that can be universally applied.
● This concept originated in classical natural sciences and expanded to the social and behavioral
sciences, suggesting that all empirical knowledge is scientific and valid.
● The critique of this position has found its sources and manifestations in such developments as the
growing importance of phenomenological and hermeneutic forms of social inquiry.
● This means that knowledge differs based on the objects and circumstances involved in its
generation, and statements are valid only under certain conditions.
● As a result, traditional aspects of knowledge have come under scrutiny. These include questioning
➔ the notion of objectivity,
➔ the certainty of statements across various circumstances,
➔ the reliability of predictions (if-then statements), and
➔ the belief in the comprehensive representation of reality through numerical
quantification.
● The evolving understanding of knowledge acknowledges its complexity and context-dependent
nature, challenging previously held certainties.

Manifestations of Power in the Politics of Knowledge Production

● Hierarchical Nature of Knowledge Systems and Institutions: Power is manifested in the

hierarchical structure of knowledge systems and institutions, where certain forms of knowledge are
privileged over others. This hierarchy determines what knowledge is considered valid, authoritative,
and worthy of recognition.
● Relationship between Knowledge and Power: Power is inherent in the relationship between
knowledge and power. Knowledge can be used as a tool to exert power and control over individuals
and societies. Those who possess knowledge have the ability to shape and influence the beliefs,
values, and behaviors of others.
● Transnational Knowledge System and Division of Intellectual Labor: Power dynamics are
evident in the transnational knowledge system, where the division of intellectual labor is influenced
by political forces. This division determines who has access to resources, funding, and opportunities
for knowledge production, and who is marginalized or excluded.

● Political Economy of the Commercialization of Knowledge: Power is also present in the political
economy of the commercialization of knowledge. The production and dissemination of knowledge
are influenced by economic interests, market forces, and profit motives. This can lead to the
prioritization of certain types of knowledge that are deemed profitable, while marginalizing
alternative forms of knowledge.
● The Production of knowledge is a broad category including outlays on all forms of education, on
basic research, and on the more applied type of research associated especially with industry. It is
argued that fast-growing industries tend to be those having a high research and development
● The Politics of knowledge lies in producing both a conception of “safe, orderly and regular”, linked
to state frameworks and informed migrants, and its “other” – “unsafe, disorderly and irregular” –
which becomes linked to risky migration and seemingly ill-informed and unruly migrants.
 ● The discourses on development, gender, and democracy provide cases in point. As premier
agencies for producing and disseminating knowledge, institutions of higher education are deeply
affected by the politics of knowledge.

These manifestations of power in the politics of knowledge production highlight the complex and
multifaceted nature of knowledge creation, dissemination, and control. They demonstrate how power
dynamics shape the production, distribution, and reception of knowledge, and how they can perpetuate
inequalities and hierarchies.

6. Explain how the different aspects of society shape and influence the development of science
and technology (Unit - 2)

The Influence of Society on Science and Technology

Society plays a crucial role in shaping and influencing the development of science and technology. Here
are some key aspects of society that have an impact:

Societal Needs and Demands:

● Science and technology are driven by the needs and demands of society. Innovations and
advancements are often a response to societal challenges and problems.
● For example, the invention of energy-efficient technologies was a response to the growing concern
for environmental sustainability.

Cultural and Social Norms:

● Values and Beliefs: Cultural values and beliefs influence the direction of scientific and technological
research. For example, societies that prioritize environmental sustainability may drive research in
renewable energy technologies.
● Attitudes Towards Innovation: Societal openness to new ideas and innovation can either encourage
or hinder scientific and technological advancements.

Economic Factors:
● Economic factors, such as market demand and financial incentives, influence the direction of
scientific research and technological innovation.
● Investment and Funding: The availability of financial resources greatly impacts scientific and
technological development. Government funding, private investments, and research grants drive
innovation in various fields.
● Market Demands: Economic needs and market demands influence the development of
technologies. Industries respond to consumer demands and seek technological solutions to meet
those needs.

Political Factors:
● Government Policies: Political decisions and policies shape the funding and direction of scientific
research. Government priorities can focus on areas such as defense, healthcare, or environmental
protection, influencing the development of relevant technologies.
● Regulations: Government regulations and policies can either facilitate or impede the deployment of
new technologies. Strict regulations may slow down innovation, while supportive policies can
encourage technological advancements.

Educational Factors:
● Education System: The quality and focus of the education system impact the supply of skilled
professionals and researchers. A strong emphasis on STEM (science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics) education can foster innovation.
 ● Research Institutions: The presence of reputable research institutions and universities contributes
significantly to scientific and technological advancements within a society.

Ethical and Social Factors:

● Social movements and public opinion can influence the development of science and technology.
Public pressure and advocacy can shape research priorities and influence the adoption or rejection
of certain technologies.
● Ethical Considerations: Society's ethical norms guide the ethical framework within which science
and technology operate. Considerations related to privacy, genetic engineering, and artificial
intelligence, for example, are deeply rooted in societal values.
● Social Acceptance: The acceptance or rejection of new technologies by society is crucial. Public
perceptions of safety, utility, and ethical implications can shape the fate of emerging technologies.

Historical Factors:
● Legacy of Past Innovations: Previous scientific and technological achievements create a foundation
for future developments. The historical context of scientific breakthroughs influences the trajectory
of future research.

Global Interconnectedness:
● International Collaboration: In today's globalized world, scientific and technological advancements
often result from international collaboration. Shared knowledge and resources contribute to the
progress of science and technology.

In conclusion, society has a profound influence on the development of science and

technology.Understanding these interconnections between society and science and technology is
essential for policymakers, researchers, and the general public to navigate the ethical, social, and
economic implications of technological advancements. Societal needs, cultural norms, economic
factors, government policies, education, and public opinion all play a role in shaping the direction and
impact of science and technological developments.

7. Compare and contrast between Actor Network Theory and the theory of the Social Construction
of Technology (Unit - 3)

Actor-Network Theory (ANT) and the Social Construction of Technology (SCOT) are both sociological
frameworks that aim to understand the relationships between society, technology, and the actors
involved. However, they differ in their conceptualizations and methodologies. Here's a comparison and
contrast between the two:

Actor-Network Theory (ANT):

● Actors: ANT views both human and non-human entities (actors) as having agency and influence in
shaping technological outcomes. This includes individuals, organizations, technologies, and other
elements.
● Networks: ANT focuses on the dynamic networks of relationships and associations that form around
the development, implementation, and use of technology. These networks are seen as fluid and
constantly changing.
● Translation: ANT emphasizes the process of "translation," where actors work to align their interests
and goals, often transforming or adapting elements to achieve mutual compatibility.
● Symmetry: ANT treats human and non-human actors symmetrically, meaning that both can play
similar roles in shaping technological developments.
 Methodology:
● Descriptive Approach: ANT is often more descriptive than prescriptive. It seeks to describe the
complex network of relationships and interactions without necessarily passing judgment on their
nature.
● Deconstruction of Boundaries: ANT challenges traditional boundaries between subjects and objects,
human and non-human, and nature and culture. It encourages the analysis of these elements as
interconnected and co-constitutive.

Social Construction of Technology (SCOT):

● Interpretative Flexibility: SCOT emphasizes that technologies can have multiple interpretations and
meanings. Different social groups may perceive and use technology in various ways based on their
interests, values, and perspectives.
● Social Groups: SCOT focuses on the role of social groups in shaping technological outcomes. It
highlights the importance of negotiation and contestation among different groups with varying
interests.
● Closure: SCOT introduces the concept of closure, which occurs when a particular interpretation of a
technology becomes widely accepted, stabilizing its design and meaning within a society.
● Technological Determinism Critique: SCOT challenges technological determinism, suggesting that
technologies are not predetermined by their inherent characteristics but are socially shaped through
human interactions.
Methodology:
● Empirical Studies: SCOT often involves detailed empirical studies to understand how different social
groups contribute to the construction and interpretation of a technology.
● Contextual Analysis: SCOT pays attention to the historical, cultural, and social context in which
technologies are developed and used. It seeks to uncover the factors that influence the
interpretation and acceptance of technologies.

Similarities:
● Both ANT and SCOT emphasize the importance of understanding the social and material factors
that shape the development and use of technology.
● Both theories reject technological determinism, which suggests that technology is an autonomous
force that shapes society.
● Both theories highlight the role of non-human actors, such as objects and artifacts, in shaping social
interactions and outcomes.

Comparison:
 ANT
Agency and Symmetry Emphasizes the agency of
both human and non-
human actors, treating
them symmetrically.
Approach to Technology Describes the dynamic and
evolving networks of
relationships in the
development and use of
technology.
SCOT
Focuses more on human
agency and the role of
social groups in shaping
technological meanings.
Emphasizes the
multiplicity of
interpretations and
meanings that
technologies can have.

Methodological Focus More focused on Involves empirical studies

describing networks and and contextual analysis to
relationships without understand the social
passing judgment. construction of technology.

Role of Non-Human Considers non-human Focuses more on the

Entities entities as active social groups and human
participants in shaping actors involved in the
technological outcomes. construction of technology.

Temporal Perspective Emphasizes the fluid and Introduces the concept of

evolving nature of networks closure, highlighting the
over time. stabilization of
technological meanings.

While both ANT and SCOT contribute valuable insights into the social dynamics of technology, they differ in
their conceptualizations of agency, the role of non-human entities, and their methodological approaches.
Researchers may choose one framework over the other based on their specific research questions and
theoretical preferences. Both perspectives, however, highlight the importance of understanding the social
context and interactions that shape technological development and use.

8. Describe the transition in socio technical systems (Unit - 3)

Transition in Socio-Technical Systems

● Socio-technical transitions encompass a multidimensional shift from one socio-technical

system to another, entailing concurrent changes in technological and social systems
interlinked through a feedback loop.
● This process draws from various disciplines such as the history of science, technology studies, and
evolutionary economics.
● The long wave theory, pioneered by Russian economist Kondratiev, posits that economic growth
operates in cycles lasting approximately 50 years. Modern scholars, including Freeman and Perez,
identify five cycles in the modern age:
➔ The Industrial Revolution (1770–1830),
➔ Victorian Prosperity: Age of steam and Rail (1830–1880),
➔ The Age of Steel (1880–1930),
➔ Oil, Mass Production and the Consumer Society (1930–1980), and
 ➔ The Information Age (1980-?).

● Freeman and Perez contend that each cycle comprises pervasive technologies, their production,
and supporting economic structures, referred to as 'techno-economic paradigms.' They propose that
transitions from one paradigm to another are driven by the emergence of new technologies.
● Socio-technical systems and transitions acknowledge the co-evolution and mutual unfolding of
societal change in tandem with technological innovation.
● This perspective offers a comprehensive understanding of the interdependent links that exist
between technology and the systems that not only generate the demand for new innovations but
also play a pivotal role in their production and maintenance.
● The components within the socio-technical paradigm encompass technology itself, supply networks,
infrastructure, maintenance networks, regulatory frameworks, cultural significance, as well as user
practices and market dynamics.
● This holistic approach recognizes the intricate connections among these elements, emphasizing the
need to consider the broader context in which technological advancements unfold and interact with
societal structures.

Multi-level perspective (MLP) on technological transitions

● The Multi-level Perspective (MLP) framework serves as an analytical tool designed to address the
intricacies and resistance associated with complex socio-technical systems and their transitions.
● Unlike a narrow focus on individual technological innovations, the MLP directs attention towards the
dynamics of broader transitional developments, specifically emphasizing transformations geared
towards sustainability and resilience.
● The MLP operates on three analytical and heuristic levels, delineating the interconnected processes
that contribute to and align in the evolution of socio-technical system transformations.
● These levels are the landscape (macro-level), regimes (meso-level), and niches (micro-level).
➔ The landscape represents broader contextual developments, such as cultural patterns,macro-
economics, and macro-politics.
➔ The regimes represent the current structures and practices characterized by dominant rules,
institutions, and technologies.
➔ The niches represent the spaces for experimentation and the emergence of new innovations
that challenge the assumptions and norms of the regime.
● The nature of transitions varies, resulting in multiple pathways. These pathways include
reproduction, transformation, technological substitution, de-alignment and re-alignment, and re-
configuration.
● Each pathway represents a different process of change occurring at different levels of the system.

Overall, the transition in socio-technical systems is a complex and dynamic process that involves the
interplay of technological innovation, societal change, and the interaction between different levels of the
socio-technical system.
9. Generate critical theory of technology (Unit - 3)

● Informed by Marx's perspective, the critical theory of technology posits that technology is a dual
entity, simultaneously rational and biased.
● This theory views the design, development, and eventual implementation of technology as
normative processes wherein interests and values are imbued into technological devices and
systems.
● A fundamental premise of the critical theory of technology asserts that technology has framed
modern society and culture, thereby constraining the scope of meaningful human experience.
● Herbert Marcuse suggests that addressing these limitations might involve technical
transformations.Central to the critical theory is the idea that technology plays a crucial role in
shaping society and culture, influencing human experiences in significant ways.
● Marcuse's proposition implies that modifying technology can potentially address the societal issues
arising from its current configuration.
● The overarching aim of critical theory is to critique and transform society comprehensively.
● Critical theories strive to unearth the underlying assumptions in social life that hinder people from
fully understanding and engaging with the world, seeking to bring about a more profound and
meaningful societal change.
10. List the characteristics of new media and illustrate its impact on society.(Unit - 4)

Characteristics of New Media:

Digitality:
● New media is characterized by digital technologies, which have brought about a new
communication paradigm. This includes the shift from analogue to digital media, interactivity,
immersive navigation, and interactive communication.

Interactivity:
● New media allows for greater interactivity between users and content. Users can actively engage
with the media, participate in discussions, and contribute their own content.

Hypertextuality:
● New media utilizes hypertext, which allows for non-linear navigation and the ability to link different
pieces of information together. This enables users to explore content in a non-linear and
interconnected manner.

Networked Media:
● New media is characterized by its networked nature. It is connected to the internet and allows for
the sharing and dissemination of information across different platforms and devices.

Virtuality:
● New media has the ability to create virtual environments and experiences. This includes virtual
reality, augmented reality, and other immersive technologies that enhance the user's experience.

Impact on Society:

● The user becomes the axis of the communication process in new media. Users have more control
over the content they consume and can actively participate in shaping the media landscape.
● New media opens up the mass communication system to a wide range of new players. It allows for
the proliferation of online information from various sources, including social web portals, mailing
lists, search engines, and weblogs.
● The shift to new media challenges traditional mainstream media. It requires them to adapt to new
relations with audiences, new languages, and a new grammar. This includes embracing interactivity,
multimedia, and hypertext.
● New media has transformed the concept of time in media consumption. Real-time updates are
essential for online media to survive in the new environment. The time of the user has become a
scarce resource, and managing the overflow of information requires new skills and tools.

● The broadcasting paradigm of one-to-many distribution has been replaced by many-to-one access
and many-to-many communication. Users have more control over the content they access and can
personalize their online experiences.

In conclusion, new media is characterized by digital technologies, interactivity, hypertextuality,

networked media, and virtuality. It has had a significant impact on society, shifting the focus from
traditional mass media models to new media paradigms. Users have become central to the
communication process, and the content is the identity of media. The shift to new media has also
challenged traditional media and transformed the concept of time and distribution.
11. Brief on Registrational interactivity and explain the role of Interactivity in communication.(Unit -
4)

Registrational Interactivity:

● Registrational interactivity refers to the ability of users to provide information or register on a

platform or website, without having control over how that information is used or processed.
● McMillan's illustration of registrational interactivity focuses on the Internet "cookie," exemplified by
its tracking and customization of the content on visited websites. In this scenario, users provide
information without having substantial control over its subsequent use and processing.
● A pertinent example is the registration of a website address through a Google toolbar, where the
stored information may lead to the creation of a cookie flagging the user's browsing history for the
service provider.
● This lack of control is further evident in child restrictions imposed by service providers like AOL,
allowing parents to block explicit websites, yet rendering children powerless over how their
information is processed.
● The storage of information in databases introduces additional challenges. While the process may
seem benign, users often lack control over the destination and utilization of their information.
● An illustrative case is the precarious nature of sending emails, as demonstrated by a government
organization, Child Benefit, which, in November of the previous year, inadvertently sent emails
leading to the compromise of 25 million names, addresses, and bank details.
● This example underscores the potential risks and consequences associated with the lack of user
control in the registrational interactivity paradigm.

Role of Interactivity in communication:

● Interactivity plays a crucial role in communication by enabling a dynamic and two-way flow of
information between participants.
● The role of interactivity in communication has undergone a transformative shift with the advent of
collaborative technologies, often referred to as new media. Traditionally perceived as one-way,
communication channels such as books and television have evolved into interactive platforms due
to the proliferation of computers, the Internet, and digital and mobile devices.
● In the Information Age, interactive communication is a defining characteristic, offering diverse
opportunities for engagement across various mediums, disciplines, cultures, social classes,
locations, and even time.
● Interactive communication, a modern term encapsulating these evolving forms of conversation,
plays a crucial role in shaping contemporary communication practices. It fosters dynamic and
participatory exchanges, breaking away from traditional passive consumption of information.
● This shift is evident in diverse forms, including basic dialogue and nonverbal communication, game-
books, interactive fiction and storytelling, hypertext, interactive television and movies, photo and
video manipulation, video sharing, video games, social media, user-generated content, interactive
marketing and public relations, augmented reality, ambient intelligence, and virtual reality.
● As a result, interactivity in communication not only enhances engagement but also contributes to a
more interconnected and participative global communication landscape. The ongoing development
of new experiments in interaction design underscores the dynamic nature of interactive
communication in the present digital era.
12. Differentiate between digital and analogue media with instance.(Unit - 4)

Digital Media:
● Digital media refers to technologies that convert and transmit information through discrete pulses
called bits, represented in binary format (zero or one).
● Digital media includes digital cameras and storage media, which revolutionized photography and
cinema.
● It allows for precise encoding and decoding of data, enabling high-quality reproduction and
manipulation of audio and video content.

Analogue Media:
● Analogue media, on the other hand, converts and transmits information through electric pulses of
varying amplitude, represented as a continuous wave on a graph.
● Before the advent of digital machines, analogue instruments dominated the fields of science and
technology.
● Analogue media includes traditional film cameras and magnetic tape recorders, which capture and
reproduce information in a continuous analog format.

Difference between Digital and Analogue Media:

In summary, the differentiation between digital and analog media lies in their representation, precision,
storage, flexibility, examples, transmission capabilities, evolution, and cost considerations. The
transition from analog to digital media has marked a significant paradigm shift in various industries,
impacting how information is created, stored, transmitted, and consumed.

13.Evolution and
Compatibility
Definition and
Representation
Precision and Accuracy
Storage and Reproduction
Flexibility and Editing
Transmission and Signal
Quality
Cost and Accessibility
Immersive Navigation (Unit - 4)
● Navigation systems play a pivotal role in guiding users through digital interfaces, and two prominent
paradigms are extractive navigation and immersive navigation. Both approaches serve distinct
purposes, catering to different user experiences and preferences.
Digital Media
Digital media are prevalent
in modern technology, with
compatibility across a wide
range of devices and
platforms
Digital media represent
information using discrete
elements, typically in the
form of binary code (0s and
1s). It involves the
quantization of data,
converting it into numerical
values. Examples include
text, images, audio, and
video files stored in digital
formats.
Digital media offer high
precision and accuracy.
Information can be stored
and transmitted without loss
of quality, as the discrete
values can be reproduced
faithfully.
Digital media are easily
stored, copied, and
manipulated. Reproduction
is precise, and digital files
can be duplicated without
any loss in quality
Digital media offer greater
flexibility for editing and
manipulation. Software tools
enable users to modify
digital content with ease.
Digital Media
Digital signals can be
transmitted over long
distances without significant
loss of quality. Error
correction techniques
ensure accurate data
transmission.
Digital media production
and distribution are often
cost-effective, and digital
content is easily accessible
online.
Analogue media
Analogue media have Compare
largely been superseded by between
digital technologies, leading Extractive
to decreased compatibility and
with contemporary devices.
Analogue media, on the
other hand, use continuous
signals to represent
information. These signals
vary smoothly and can take
an infinite number of values.
Analogue media include
traditional forms like vinyl
records, analog
photographs, and analog
television signals.
Analogue media may
experience signal
degradation over time due
to factors like interference
and noise. The continuous
nature of analog signals
makes them more
susceptible to distortions.
Analogue media involve
physical storage formats
and may degrade over time
with repeated reproductions.
Copies may experience a
decline in quality
Editing analog content is
more challenging and often
involves physical processes,
such as cutting and splicing
film or tape.
Analogue media
Analog signals may degrade
over distances due to
factors like signal
attenuation, resulting in a
decrease in signal quality.
Analogue media production
and distribution may involve
higher costs and are
becoming less accessible
due to the shift towards
digital platforms.
 Extractive Navigation
Definition Extractive navigation
emphasizes simplicity and
efficiency. It typically
involves presenting users
with a clear and concise
menu or hierarchy, allowing
them to extract specific
information or complete
tasks quickly.
Extractive Navigation
User Interaction Extractive navigation relies
on direct user input, often
through menus, buttons, or
search functionalities. Users
have a more
straightforward, goal-
oriented interaction, making
it suitable for tasks that
require efficiency.
Content Presentation In extractive navigation,
content is typically
organized hierarchically,
allowing users to quickly
locate and access specific
information. The focus is on
presenting options and
facilitating rapid decision-
making.
Task-Oriented vs. Extractive navigation suits
Exploration task-oriented activities,
where users have a specific
goal in mind and need to
efficiently reach their
destination. It is prevalent in
applications where
efficiency is prioritized, such
as e-commerce platforms.
Navigation Flow Extractive navigation follows
a more linear or branching
flow, guiding users through
a predefined structure. It
minimizes ambiguity and
optimizes for predictability in
user journeys.
Extractive Navigation
Context Awareness Extractive navigation may
not heavily rely on context
awareness. It often
assumes a more
straightforward user intent,
focusing on fulfilling specific
tasks without intricate
adaptation to the user's
context.
Immersive Navigation
Immersive navigation, on
the other hand, aims to
engage users deeply within
an environment. It focuses
on creating a seamless,
immersive experience
where users can explore
content organically rather
than following a
predetermined path.
Immersive Navigation
Immersive navigation
emphasizes indirect
interactions and gestures,
encouraging users to
explore content through
natural movements. It aims
to provide a more intuitive
and interactive experience,
prioritizing engagement.
Immersive navigation
presents content in a more
fluid and dynamic manner,
often leveraging spatial
design and multimedia
elements. It aims to create
an environment where users
can seamlessly navigate
and discover content
organically.
Immersive navigation is
more aligned with
exploratory activities. It
caters to scenarios where
users want to discover
content, engage with a
narrative, or enjoy a rich
multimedia experience.
Gaming and virtual reality
applications often leverage
immersive navigation.
Immersive navigation offers
a more open and non-linear
navigation flow, allowing
users to explore content
freely. The emphasis is on
providing a more natural
and organic experience,
fostering a sense of
autonomy.
Immersive Navigation
Immersive navigation often
leverages context
awareness to enhance the
user experience. It may
dynamically adjust content
based on user behavior,
preferences, or
environmental factors,
contributing to a more
personalized and adaptive
interface.
 In conclusion, the choice between extractive and immersive navigation depends on the specific goals of
the application or interface, the nature of user interactions, and the desired user experience. Extractive
navigation excels in efficiency and task-oriented scenarios, while immersive navigation offers a more
engaging and exploratory experience. Both approaches contribute valuable solutions to the diverse
landscape of digital interfaces.

14. Explain the meaning of the phrase "Medium is the message" in the words of Marshall
McLuhan. /
"Medium is the message"? Explain with examples. (Unit - 5)

● The phrase "the medium is the message" encapsulates one of the central concepts put forth by
Marshall McLuhan, a renowned media theorist, in his seminal work "Understanding Media: The
Extensions of Man" (1964).
● This idea represents a fundamental shift in the way we perceive and analyze media and
communication.
● McLuhan's perspective emphasizes that the characteristics and attributes of the medium through
which information is conveyed have a profound and intrinsic impact on the message itself.

Definition of the Phrase:

● McLuhan's assertion implies that the medium, or the means of communication, is not merely a
neutral conduit for transmitting messages but, in fact, shapes and influences the message in
substantial ways.
● The inherent qualities and features of the medium become an integral part of the communicated
content.

Understanding the Medium:

● According to McLuhan, different media possess unique characteristics that shape the way
information is perceived and received.
● Each medium imposes its own biases, limitations, and ways of presenting information, thereby
influencing how the audience interprets the content.

Influence on Perception:
● McLuhan argues that individuals tend to focus on the content of the message while overlooking the
transformative influence of the medium itself.
● The medium, by its nature, alters the sensory ratios of individuals, affecting their perception and
comprehension of the communicated message.

Examples and Illustrations:

● To illustrate this concept, McLuhan offers examples such as the transition from the oral tradition to
written language and the subsequent shift to the printing press.
● He contends that each medium alters not only the form of communication but also the cognitive
patterns and social structures of the society that engages with it.
● For instance, television, with its visual and auditory characteristics, conveys information differently
than the printed word. McLuhan argues that the immersive and simultaneous nature of television
alters the way people process information, fostering a more interconnected and participatory mode
of understanding.
 The Global Village:
● McLuhan introduced the notion of the "global village" to describe the interconnectedness of the
world through electronic media.
● He believed that the advent of electronic communication, such as television and later the internet,
would create a global community where information is instantly accessible, leading to a shift in
societal dynamics and awareness.

Implications for Society:

● The idea that the medium is the message has profound implications for understanding societal and
cultural shifts.
● It challenges conventional analyses that primarily focus on the content of communication and urges
scholars and observers to consider the transformative influence of the medium itself.

Critique and Reception:

● While McLuhan's ideas were groundbreaking, they were also met with criticism. Some argued that
the content of a message still holds significance, and the medium does not entirely overshadow its
meaning.
● However, McLuhan's intent was not to diminish the importance of content but to emphasize the
need to recognize the shaping influence of the medium alongside it.

In conclusion, "the medium is the message" signifies Marshall McLuhan's paradigm-shifting perspective
on media and communication. It prompts a reconsideration of how we interpret and analyze messages,
urging us to recognize that the medium through which information is conveyed is an integral and
transformative aspect that shapes our understanding and experience of the message. McLuhan's
insights continue to influence media studies and communication theory, underscoring the complex
interplay between technology, culture, and information dissemination.

15. How do images create myths? Explain with examples and sketches.(Unit - 5)

● The creation of photographs has led to a significant development in myth creation. Images, being a
representation of the real world, have gained credibility and influence over people's beliefs.
● This shift in mentality is due to the assumption that the language and signified within an image are
natural.

Controlled Narrative:
● One way images create myths is through the control exercised by the artist. The artist has the
power to depict certain individuals, exclude others, determine their attire, and dictate their actions.
● By manipulating these elements, the artist can shape the narrative and mask any contradictions
between what viewers see and what they know.
● Example: For instance, consider a political campaign poster. The artist can carefully select the
individuals to be depicted, showcasing only those who align with the desired message. By doing so,
the artist creates a myth that the depicted individuals represent the entire population's views,
ignoring any opposing perspectives.

Influence and Perception:

● Images have a profound impact on our cognition and attention. Our brains are wired to process
visual information quickly, allowing us to recognize familiar objects and faces within milliseconds.
● Advertisers leverage this quick processing to capture our attention and influence our perception of
products or ideas.
 ● Example:Think about a vibrant and eye-catching advertisement for a luxury car. The bright colors
and sleek design immediately grab our attention, triggering positive associations and desires. This
image creates a myth that owning the car will elevate one's status and lifestyle.

Social Media and Image Narratives:

● In the digital age, social media platforms contribute to the creation of myths through image-centric
narratives.
● Memes, viral images, and visual storytelling on social Media platforms construct narratives that
influence societal perceptions and attitudes.
● Example: Representation of a viral meme as a contemporary form of image-driven mythmaking.

In conclusion, images create myths by exerting control over the narrative and influencing our
perception. The artist's choices in depicting individuals, their actions, and the overall composition shape
the myth that viewers perceive as reality. Additionally, the quick processing of visual information by our
brains makes us susceptible to the persuasive power of images. It is crucial to critically analyze images
and refrain from assuming them as absolute truth.

16. Explain the categories of visual culture (Unit - 5)

● Visual culture, as a multidisciplinary field, encompasses a vast array of visual artifacts, practices,
and expressions that shape and reflect societal values, beliefs, and identities.
● Understanding the categories within visual culture provides a nuanced perspective on the diverse
ways in which visuals contribute to our shared cultural landscape.
● This essay delves into the key categories of visual culture, offering insights into their significance
and impact.

Fine Arts:
● Fine arts constitute a foundational category within visual culture, encompassing traditional
disciplines such as painting, sculpture, drawing, and printmaking.
● The aesthetics and techniques employed in fine arts serve as a reflection of cultural values and
artistic expression.
● Example: Classical paintings like Leonardo da Vinci's "Mona Lisa" or sculptures like Michelangelo's
"David" are iconic representations of fine arts shaping cultural perceptions.

Popular Culture:
● Popular culture refers to cultural elements that gain widespread popularity and accessibility.
● This category encompasses a diverse range of visuals, including mass media, advertising, fashion,
and consumer products. These visuals play a pivotal role in shaping collective identities and
influencing societal norms.
● Example: Iconic logos like the Coca-Cola emblem or imagery associated with film franchises like
Star Wars exemplify the impact of popular culture on visual symbolism.

Photography:
● Photography, as both an art form and a documentary medium, holds a unique place in visual
culture.
● It captures moments in time, serving as a powerful tool for storytelling, memory preservation, and
social commentary.
● Example: Dorothea Lange's photographs during the Great Depression, such as "Migrant Mother,"
are iconic representations of the socio-cultural impact of photography.

Digital and New Media:

 ● In the contemporary landscape, digital and new media have emerged as influential categories within
visual culture.
● This includes visuals produced for online platforms, video games, virtual reality, and interactive
installations, contributing to the evolving nature of visual communication.
● Example: Digital art installations, such as those utilizing augmented reality or virtual reality,
showcase the transformative potential of new media within visual culture.

Performance and Ritual:

● Visual culture extends beyond static images to include performance and ritualistic expressions.
● This category encompasses theatrical performances, religious ceremonies, parades, and other
events where visuals are integral to the communicative and cultural experience.
● Example: The visual richness of traditional dance performances in cultural ceremonies or religious
rituals reflects the significance of performance within visual culture.

Architecture and Urban Visuals:

● Architecture plays a fundamental role in shaping visual landscapes.
● Urban visuals, including cityscapes, street art, and architectural designs, contribute to the visual
identity of a place and reflect societal values and aspirations.
● Example: Iconic structures like the Eiffel Tower in Paris or modern architectural marvels like the Burj
Khalifa in Dubai exemplify how architecture becomes a visual symbol embedded in cultural identity.

Material Culture and Objects:

● Material culture involves the study of physical artifacts and objects within a cultural context.
● This category includes everyday items, tools, clothing, and other tangible objects that convey
cultural meanings and practices.
● Example: Cultural artifacts like traditional clothing or tools used in specific rituals provide insights
into the material culture of a society.

Visual Literacy and Education:

● Visual literacy and education form a crucial category within visual culture, emphasizing the
importance of understanding and interpreting visuals.
● This includes the development of skills to critically analyze and create visual content.
● Example: Educational materials focused on visual literacy, such as textbooks or interactive learning
resources, contribute to fostering a deeper understanding of visual culture.

In conclusion, the categories within visual culture represent the rich tapestry of visual expressions that
shape our understanding of the world. From traditional fine arts to the dynamic realm of digital media,
each category contributes uniquely to the visual discourse, reflecting and influencing cultural narratives
across time and space. A comprehensive exploration of these categories enhances our appreciation for
the multifaceted nature of visual culture and its profound impact on society.

17. Illustrate picture theory with instance. (Unit - 5)

● Picture theory, as expounded by W.J.T. Mitchell, delves into the complex interplay between images,
language, and representation.
● It is a theoretical framework that seeks to understand how images operate as a form of language,
conveying meaning and participating in the construction of cultural and social discourses.
● This essay will explore the key tenets of picture theory and provide an illustrative example to
elucidate its application.
 Semiotic Nature of Images:
● At the core of picture theory is the recognition of images as signs or symbols, constituting a semiotic
system akin to language. Images, according to Mitchell, are not mere reflections of reality but are
active participants in the process of signification.

Iconic, Indexical, and Symbolic Signs:

● Mitchell categorizes images into three semiotic modes: iconic, indexical, and symbolic. Iconic signs
bear a resemblance to what they signify, indexical signs have a direct connection or cause-and-
effect relationship with their referents, and symbolic signs rely on conventional meanings
established within a cultural context.
Interplay with Language and Text:
● Mitchell emphasizes that images and texts are not mutually exclusive but are intertwined in
the process of representation. The relationship between word and image, often referred to as the
"pictorial turn," highlights how visual and linguistic modes collaborate in the creation of meaning.
● Example: War Photography and Captions:
● Consider the juxtaposition of a war photograph with a caption. The photograph may capture a
poignant moment, but the addition of a caption shapes the interpretation. The interplay between the
visual and the textual contributes to a more nuanced understanding, where the image and language
complement each other.

Critique of Pictorial Representation:

● Picture theory involves a critique of the assumption that images transparently represent reality.
Mitchell challenges the notion of a direct one-to-one relationship between images and their
referents, arguing that images are inherently ambiguous and subject to interpretation.
● Example: Political Cartoons:
● Political cartoons often serve as an excellent example of the ambiguity inherent in images. A single
cartoon may be interpreted differently by various viewers, highlighting the subjective nature of visual
representation. Symbols within the cartoon may carry different meanings based on cultural, political,
or individual perspectives.

The Multiplicity of Images:

● Mitchell underscores the multiplicity of images, suggesting that images are polysemous, capable of
conveying multiple meanings. The viewer's interpretation is influenced by cultural context, personal
experiences, and the broader discourses surrounding the image.
● Example: Advertising Imagery:
● Advertising imagery exemplifies the polysemous nature of images. A simple product image may
convey not only the features of the product but also aspirational values, lifestyle associations, and
cultural cues. The multiplicity of meanings arises from the interplay of visual elements and the
viewer's interpretative frameworks.

In conclusion, picture theory offers a rich framework for understanding the semiotic complexity of
images. Through the analysis of examples such as political cartoons and advertising imagery, we can
appreciate the nuanced ways in which images contribute to meaning-making. The interplay between
visual and linguistic modes, coupled with the acknowledgment of ambiguity and multiplicity, deepens
our comprehension of the role images play in shaping cultural, social, and individual narratives.

18. Explain the contributions of Trench and Jasonoff and Viswanathan in the context of Emerging
Technologies.(Unit - 3)

Brian Trench:
Brian Trench (born 13 July 1945) is a writer and academic living in Dublin, who has been centrally
involved in developing science communication and science-in-society studies in Ireland.He has always
been involved in left-wing activism and in 1969 joined the International Socialist in London. He was a
leading member of the Socialist Workers' Movement in Dublin in the 1970s and joined the Socialist
Labour Party in 1977 when Socialist Workers' Movement became a subgroup within the newly formed
political party.

Contribution:
● Developed an analytical framework for science communication models.

Focus:
● Explored the intersection of science and the public, emphasizing the opening of the scientific
process for public scrutiny.

Context of Emerging Technologies:

● Addressed issues related to embryonic stem-cell research, energy, climate change, and pandemic
risks.

Key Points:
● Advocated for "upstream engagement" of the public in shaping the scientific research agenda.
● Highlighted the influence of civil society groups and NGOs on public attitudes towards science.
● Emphasized the role of the internet in facilitating interactive communication and making science
communication more transparent.

Sheila Jasanoff:

Sheila Sen Jasanoff, a distinguished Indian American academic, has significantly shaped the field of
Science and Technology Studies (STS). In 1998, Jasanoff joined the John F. Kennedy School of
Government at Harvard University, where she currently holds the esteemed position of Pforzheimer
Professor of Science and Technology Studies. Her impactful contributions led to her election to the
American Philosophical Society in 2021 and the receipt of the prestigious 2022 Holberg Prize for
groundbreaking research in STS.

Contribution:
● Significant figure in Science and Technology Studies (STS) with a focus on the political culture of
democratic societies.

Focus:
● Explored how different democratic societies employ distinct modes of public reasoning in
policymaking related to science and technology.

Context of Emerging Technologies:

● Examined global aspects, including the Bhopal disaster, global scientific advisory bodies, and
environmental movements.

Key Points:
● Investigated the influence of distinct "civic epistemologies" on evidence assessment and policy
framing.
● Provided comprehensive empirical insights covering various countries and global regimes.
● Contributed to understanding the intricate interplay between science, democracy, and policymaking.

Shiv Visvanathan:
 Dr. Shiv Visvanathan is an Indian academic, highly acclaimed author and academic with a Ph.D from
the University of Delhi.He is currently Professor at O P Jindal Global University, Sonepat.As a public
intellectual, he is a regular columnist to newspapers like The Hindu, The New Indian Express,
IndianExpress, The Deccan Chronicle etc., His popular writings touch topics as wide as science,
cricket, anthropology,development, intellectual history, and walking.

Contribution:
● Renowned social anthropologist best known for his contributions to developing the field of science
and technology studies (STS), and for coining the term "Cognitive Justice".

Focus:
● Explored diverse topics such as cultures of knowledge, urban studies, sociology of corruption, and
philosophy of science.

Context of Emerging Technologies:

● Addressed the societal implications of emerging technologies through a multidisciplinary approach.

Key Points:
● Actively engaged in public discourse through regular columns and critiques of right-wing politics.
● Extensive experiences, including involvement in the Truth Commission in South Africa and
investigations into events like the Bhopal gas disaster and Gujarat riots.
● Emphasized the need for a cosmopolitan view of justice and alternative perspectives in
understanding the governance of emerging technologies.

Overall Perspective:

● Contributions collectively offer insights into governance and ethical issues related to emerging
technologies.
● Span a range of themes, including science communication, democratic governance, civic
epistemologies, cognitive justice, and societal implications of technological advancements.
● Provide a nuanced understanding of the complex interplay between science, society, and
governance in the face of rapidly evolving technologies.

19. Explain the new paradigm about digital technologies. (Unit - 4)

The advent of the digital age has ushered in significant changes in communication, challenging
traditional mainstream media in several ways. These transformations not only impact established
players but also open the mass communication system to new entrants. The key shifts can be
summarized as follows:

From Audience to User:

● Traditional mass media models are evolving into new paradigms where the user takes center stage
in the communication process.
● Content now defines media identity, and multimedia has become the preferred language.
● Real-time communication and hypertext grammar characterize this shift.

From Media to Content:

● The focus has shifted from industrial production constraints to content authority as the defining
factor for media.
● Media entities like National Geographic and CNN are viewed as brands representing expertise in
specific content areas rather than specific types of media.
 From Monomedia to Multimedia:
● Digitalization allows the integration of text, audio, video, graphics, photos, and animation in a single
interactive medium.
● This multimedia convergence has erased distinctions between different types of media, leading to a
unified online media experience.

From Periodicity to Real-Time:

● The old paradigm of periodicity, such as daily, weekly, or monthly updates, has shifted to real-time
updates for survival in the digital environment.
● Online media, including digital versions of newspapers and magazines, emphasize the need for
continuous real-time updates.

From Scarcity to Abundance:

● The limitations of space for print media and time for broadcast media have given way to the scarcity
of user attention.
● The rise of user-generated content has led to an abundance of information, requiring new skills and
tools for effective data management.

From Editor-Mediated to Non-Mediated:

● The gatekeeper role of media editors has transformed into a social web publishing model with open
peer review processes.
● Relevant current affairs are now shared across diverse sources beyond established media,
including social web portals, forums, and blogs.

From Distribution to Access:

● The traditional one-to-many unilateral distribution model is replaced by many-to-one access and
many-to-many communication.
● Users now actively seek content through personal preferences and customized approaches,
challenging traditional advertising dynamics.

From One Way to Interactivity:

● Interactivity involves users choosing content options, defining access times, and actively engaging
with the content.
● Users contribute to the system through co-authoring, comments, polls, and other interactive
features.

From Linear to Hypertext:

● Digital platforms enable hypertextual narratives, departing from linear narrative constructions.
● Users gain control over the narrative by navigating through fragmented content with multiple paths,
empowering them in storytelling.

From Data to Knowledge:

● The abundance of data in the digital age emphasizes the strategic role of media as social managers
of knowledge.
● Media's mission shifts to information intelligence, interpretation, filtering, and searching, delivered
through interactive multimedia narratives across various channels.

20. Bring out the following: Decoding images and Visual Cultural perspectives.(Unit - 5)
Decoding images:

Decoding images is like deciphering a hidden language within visuals, a skill crucial in today's image-
rich world. This process involves understanding symbols, cultural contexts, and the psychological
aspects that shape how we perceive visual information.

● Semiotics and Visual Language: Semiotics, studying signs and symbols, helps us understand
visual elements like colors and shapes, going beyond their literal meanings.
● Cultural Context and Symbolism: Images are culturally charged, and grasping their meaning
requires considering cultural nuances and the diverse interpretations of symbols.
● Visual Rhetoric and Composition: Visual rhetoric, the persuasive use of visuals, is about
analyzing how images are put together the arrangement, framing, and combination of elements to
convey a specific message.
● Psychological Perspectives: Our cognitive processes, emotions, and past experiences influence
how we interpret images, making the psychological aspect vital in decoding visuals.
● Advertising and Visual Persuasion: In advertising, images are crafted to influence consumers.
Decoding ads involves looking beyond the surface to understand the intended messages about
products or lifestyles.
● Digital Era and Visual Literacy: In today's digital age, being visually literate is essential. Decoding
online images means recognizing manipulated visuals and critically evaluating digital
representations.
● Artistic Expression and Interpretation: Artistic images often have layered meanings. Decoding
art involves understanding the artist's intention, historical context, and our personal responses.
● Media Influence and Visual Storytelling: Media uses visuals to tell stories effectively. Decoding
news images requires understanding how visual elements contribute to framing narratives and
evoking emotions.
● Decoding Visual Activism: Activist images convey powerful messages. Decoding them involves
understanding the symbolic language used to address societal issues and advocate for change.
● Education and Visual Literacy Programs: Formal education on visual literacy equips individuals
with the skills to critically analyze and interpret visual information, fostering a more nuanced
understanding.

Visual Cultural perspectives:

Visual cultural perspectives delve into the profound interaction between visuals and cultural dynamics,
unraveling the ways in which images and symbols contribute to shaping societal meanings. This
examination seeks to uncover the intricate connections between visual expressions and cultural
narratives, identities, and interpretations.

● Symbolic Cultural Significance: Visual culture is intricately intertwined with symbols, each
carrying cultural significance.
● Representation and Cultural Identity: Visuals play a pivotal role in representing cultural identities,
from individual portrayals to broader depictions of communities.
● Power Dynamics in Visual Culture: Visuals can be wielded as tools of power, influencing
perceptions and reinforcing existing power structures.
● Cultural Narratives in Art and Media: Visual works in various forms shape and reflect societal
stories about history, aspirations, and the collective identity.
● Globalization and Visual Culture: Global media and digital platforms facilitate the dissemination of
visual elements, fostering a shared visual language while prompting discussions on cultural
appropriation.
● Everyday Life and Cultural Meanings: Visual culture extends beyond grand narratives to
encompass the everyday aspects of life.Exploration involves scrutinizing how ordinary objects,
 routines, and spaces acquire cultural meanings, contributing to a shared visual understanding within
a community.
● Social Movements and Visual Activism: Visuals play a crucial role in social movements,
becoming powerful tools for activism.Examining visual cultural perspectives in this context involves
understanding how symbols and visuals mobilize public opinion and challenge societal norms.
● Cultural Hybridity and Visual Expression: Cultures often experience hybridity, where diverse
elements merge.Visual expressions of cultural hybridity showcase the dynamic nature of cultures,
capturing the blending of traditions, influences, and identities.
● Visual Literacy and Cultural Understanding: Visual literacy is essential for cultural
understanding, aiding in deciphering cultural nuances in visuals.Analyzing visual cultural
perspectives enriches appreciation for the diversity, richness, and complexity of cultural
expressions.

21. Explain the images and meaning & Images and Power.(Unit - 5)

Images and Meaning:

Understanding images involves a nuanced exploration of visual elements, symbolism, context, and
cultural influences. This intricate process seeks to uncover the layers of meaning within visual
representations, recognizing their capacity to convey messages beyond surface appearances.

● Visual Elements and Composition: Initial analysis involves scrutinizing colors, shapes, lines, and
their arrangement.Composition, emphasizing the interaction of these elements, contributes
significantly to the image's impact.
● Symbolism and Semiotics: Symbols carry meanings beyond literal representation.Semiotics,
studying signs and symbols, aids in understanding the symbolic language considering cultural
contexts.
● Cultural and Contextual Considerations: Cultural influences shape how images are
perceived.Understanding the image's context is crucial, given the impact of cultural nuances and
historical background.
● Narrative and Storytelling: Many images convey narratives.Analyzing the visual narrative involves
identifying key elements that unfold events or ideas within the image.
● Intention of the Creator: Consideration of the creator's intent is crucial.Examining the purpose
behind the image creation provides insights into intended meaning.

● Emotional Impact: Images evoke emotions, and understanding emotional resonance is

crucial.Elements like colors and facial expressions contribute to emotional impact.
● Interplay of Light and Shadow: Lighting influences the image's perception.Analyzing light and
shadow uncovers nuances and creates a particular mood.
● Cognitive Processes and Perception: Recognition of how cognitive processes shape
perception.Individual factors, including past experiences and cultural background, influence
interpretation.
● Visual Metaphors and Allegories: Images often use metaphors and allegories.Identifying symbolic
representations enhances understanding of deeper meaning.
● Reception and Audience Response: Audience response adds another dimension to
meaning.Analyzing audience reactions provides insights into the image's effectiveness.

Images and Power:

 The interplay between images and power is complex, involving the strategic use of visuals to assert
influence, shape perceptions, and consolidate authority. This examination delves into the diverse ways
images function as instruments of power and how this dynamic shapes societal structures.

● Symbolism and Visual Rhetoric: Images use symbolic representation and visual rhetoric to
convey messages and ideologies.Symbols within images can be politically charged, serving as tools
to communicate authority or dissent.
● Political Propaganda and Manipulation: Power is exerted through political propaganda,
strategically crafting images to manipulate public opinion.Leaders use visuals to create narratives
aligning with their agendas.
● Cultural Hegemony: Images contribute to the establishment of cultural hegemony.
● Power-holders shape visual narratives to reinforce their worldview and marginalize alternative
perspectives.
● Iconography of Authority: Visuals construct the iconography of authority, portraying leaders or
ideologies in a specific light.Iconic images enhance legitimacy and leave a lasting imprint on
collective memory.
● Media Influence and Framing: Media frames public discourse through the selection and
presentation of images.The media's role in framing images influences public perception of existing
power structures.
● Resistance and Subversion: Images serve as tools for resistance, challenging established power
dynamics.Visual expressions of dissent disrupt the status quo and offer alternative perspectives.
● Monuments and Architecture: Monuments and architectural symbols convey power by dominating
public spaces.Constructing monumental structures asserts authority and permanence.
● Corporate Branding and Consumerism: Corporations use images for branding, influencing
consumer behavior.Visual identity creates associations with societal values, shaping purchasing
decisions.
● Social Media and Activism: Social media empowers movements through visual activism.Viral
images and narratives on social media mobilize public opinion and highlight social issues.

22. Why Society and Culture Matters to Sociologists? Explain (Unit - 1)

Society and culture are foundational concepts in sociology, forming the bedrock upon which sociologists
build their understanding of human behavior, interactions, and the structure of social institutions. The
significance of society and culture to sociologists is multifaceted, encompassing the following key
aspects:

Understanding Human Behavior:

● Social Interaction: Society provides the context in which individuals engage in social interactions.
Studying society allows sociologists to examine how people behave in groups, communities, and
various social settings.
● Cultural Influences: Culture shapes human behavior by influencing norms, values, and beliefs.
Sociologists investigate how cultural elements impact individual actions and societal norms.

Structural Analysis:

● Institutions and Organizations: Societal structures, such as family, education, government, and
the economy, are integral to understanding social life. Sociologists analyze these institutions to
comprehend their roles, functions, and impacts on individuals and groups.
● Social Stratification: Society is often stratified based on factors like class, race, gender, and
ethnicity. Sociologists explore how these social hierarchies influence opportunities, access to
resources, and overall life experiences.
 Cultural Diversity and Change:

● Cultural Dynamics: Culture is dynamic and ever-evolving. Sociologists study cultural changes over
time, investigating the factors that contribute to cultural shifts and the consequences of these
changes on societies.
● Multiculturalism: With global interactions on the rise, understanding diverse cultures becomes
crucial. Sociologists explore multiculturalism to assess its impact on social integration, tolerance,
and identity.

Socialization and Identity Formation:

● Role of Society in Socialization: Society plays a pivotal role in shaping individuals through
socialization processes. Sociologists study how social institutions contribute to the development of
identities, values, and norms.
● Cultural Identity: Culture provides individuals with a sense of belonging and identity. Sociologists
examine how cultural backgrounds influence personal identities and social roles.

Social Order and Control:

● Norms and Values: Societies establish norms and values that guide behavior. Sociologists
investigate how these cultural standards contribute to social order, cohesion, and the maintenance
of societal stability.
● Deviance and Social Control: The study of deviance helps sociologists understand societal
reactions to behavior that deviates from established norms, shedding light on mechanisms of social
control.

Global Perspectives:

● Comparative Sociology: Sociologists employ a comparative approach to understand variations in

societal structures, cultural practices, and social issues across different regions of the world.
● Globalization: The interconnectedness of societies in a globalized world is a focal point for
sociologists. They analyze the impact of globalization on culture, economies, and social relations.

Social Change:

● Cultural Adaptation: Cultures adapt to changing circumstances. Sociologists explore how societies
navigate and adapt to social, technological, and environmental changes.
● Social Movements: The role of culture in driving or responding to social movements is of particular
interest. Sociologists examine how cultural elements fuel or resist social change.

In essence, society and culture matter to sociologists because they provide the framework for
understanding the intricate web of human interactions, societal structures, cultural dynamics, and the
forces that shape the social world. Through the study of society and culture, sociologists gain insights
into the complexities of human existence, societal patterns, and the mechanisms that govern social life.

23. Who is considered as the father of Sociology and Why? What are his contributions to
sociology? (Unit - 1)

“Father of Sociology: Auguste Comte”

Reasons for Considering Auguste Comte as the Father of Sociology:

 Auguste Comte (1798–1857) is widely regarded as the father of sociology for several reasons:

● Coining the Term Sociology:

➔ Comte introduced the term "sociology" to describe the scientific study of society.
➔ He aimed to apply scientific methods to understand and improve societal structures.
● Systematic Approach:
➔ Comte emphasized a systematic and scientific approach to studying society.
➔ He envisioned sociology as a discipline that could be based on empirical observation,
experimentation, and data collection.
● Positivism:
➔ Comte developed the philosophy of positivism, advocating the application of the scientific
method to social phenomena.
➔ Positivism asserts that knowledge is derived from observable facts and their analysis,
promoting empirical investigation in sociology.
● Hierarchy of Sciences:
➔ Comte proposed a hierarchy of sciences, placing sociology at the top as the most complex
and encompassing science.
➔ This hierarchy included mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and sociology.

Contributions to Sociology:

● Classification of Sciences:
➔ Comte classified sciences into the theological stage, metaphysical stage, and scientific or
positive stage.
➔ This classification provided a historical framework for understanding the evolution of human
thought.
● Methodological Innovation:
➔ Comte advocated the application of scientific methods, such as observation,
experimentation, and comparison, to the study of society.
➔ He believed that sociology should follow the same rigor as the natural sciences.
● Social Statics and Dynamics:
➔ Comte introduced the concepts of social statics (the study of social order and stability) and
social dynamics (the study of social change).
➔ These concepts laid the foundation for analyzing the structure and functioning of societies.
● Law of Three Stages:
➔ Comte proposed the Law of Three Stages, suggesting that societies evolve through the
theological, metaphysical, and scientific stages.
➔ This evolutionary perspective contributed to the understanding of societal development.
● Emphasis on Social Order:
➔ Comte was concerned with the maintenance of social order and stability.
➔ His work contributed to understanding the role of institutions and social structures in
ensuring order within society.
● Influence on Subsequent Thinkers:
➔ Comte's ideas influenced many later sociologists, including Emile Durkheim, who is
considered one of the founding figures of sociology.
➔ Durkheim, in particular, built on Comte's ideas about social order and the scientific study of
society.

24. Explain sociological Paradigm and Theory? How are they analyzed at Macro and Micro level?
(Unit - 1)
 Sociological Paradigm:
● A sociological paradigm serves as a lens through which sociologists examine and make sense of
the social world. It offers a broad framework that guides their approach to understanding social
phenomena.
● For instance, the structural-functional paradigm views society as a system with interrelated parts
working together to maintain stability, while the conflict paradigm emphasizes social inequality and
power struggles.
● These paradigms provide overarching perspectives that shape the questions sociologists ask and
the theories they develop.

Sociological Theory:
● Sociological theories are systematic explanations that aim to illuminate the workings of society.
These theories delve into different aspects of social life, offering insights into patterns, relationships,
and behaviors.
● For example, symbolic interactionism focuses on how individuals construct meaning through
symbols and interactions, while feminist theory highlights gender-based inequalities.
● Sociologists use these theories to generate hypotheses, conduct research, and contribute to the
broader understanding of society.

Macro-Level Analysis:
● Macro-level analysis involves examining large-scale social structures and institutions.
● Sociologists employing this perspective investigate how societal-level factors influence individuals
and groups.
● They might study phenomena like the impact of education policies on national literacy rates or the
economic structures that contribute to income inequality.
● Macro-level analysis provides a comprehensive view of how broader social forces shape the
functioning and organization of society.

Micro-Level Analysis:
● Micro-level analysis, on the other hand, focuses on the minutiae of individual interactions and small-
group dynamics.
● Sociologists using this perspective explore the intricacies of face-to-face encounters, studying how
individuals interpret symbols, negotiate meanings, and navigate social situations.
● Examples of micro-level analysis include researching how people define friendship or examining
communication patterns within a family.
● This approach illuminates the complexities of individual behavior and interaction within specific
social contexts.

In Conclusion, sociological paradigms and theories offer frameworks for understanding the social world,
while macro and micro-level analyses provide different vantage points—one focusing on large-scale
structures and the other on small-scale interactions—to comprehensively explore the multifaceted
nature of society.

PART - C (15 Marks)

1. Explain the various perspectives on STS studies (Unit - 3)

● Science, Technology, and Society (STS) is an interdisciplinary field that examines the production,
development, distribution, utilization, and consequences of scientific knowledge and technological
systems in their historical, cultural, and social contexts.
● It emerged in the mid-1960s as a response to the neglect of relevant topics in the traditional
curriculum. Scholars from various disciplines, including anthropology, history, political science, and
sociology, contributed to the formulation of the STS program.
● The STS perspective has gained critical importance in understanding public issues such as privacy,
democracy, environment, medicine, education, and national and global security.
● It aims to enhance human understanding of the human-built world. STS studies address two
fundamental questions: how science and technology evolved as human activities and how they
relate to the larger civilization.

● Key themes in STS studies include the history of technology, the history and philosophy of science,
science, technology, and society, and science, engineering, and public policy studies.

● Social construction(s) - Social construction of technology

● Material semiotics - Feminist science and technology studies
● Sociotechnical imaginaries (STIs) - what certain communities, societies and nations envision as
achievable through the combination of scientific innovation and social changes
● Socio-technical systems theory - an interplay between technologies and humans
● Technoscience - focuses on the inseparable connection between science and technology
● Technosocial - includes the aspect that social, political, and economic factors are inherent in
technology and that social structure influences what technologies are pursued
● Deliberative democracy – is a tool for making decisions & reform of representative or direct
democracies which mandates discussion and debate of popular topics which affect society. Ensures
public participation in making decisions about science and technology.
 ● Tragedy of the commons - an economic theory where rational people act against the best interest
of the group by consuming a common resource.
● Alternative Modernity - serves as a tool to characterize the current political and social structures in
society.
● Pace Of Innovation - denotes the speed of technological advancement, influencing individuals
based on the rapidity or slowness of such progress.
● No innovation without representation - underscores the democratic ideal of ensuring fair
representation for all in technological developments.
● Privileged positions of business and science - highlight the unique authority held by individuals
in these fields, allowing them to pursue innovations with significant impact, often without widespread
public scrutiny.
● Legacy thinking - refers to an inherited mindset imposed without objection, hindering progress by
favoring accepted societal norms. This tendency can disadvantage those without influence and
perpetuate ideas of the wealthy.

These perspectives provide valuable insights into the complex interactions between science,
technology, and society, and help us navigate the challenges and opportunities presented by
technological advancements in our modern world.

2. Is technology a threat to culture? Examine the relationship between Culture and Technology.
(Unit - 1)

● The relationship between technology and culture is intricate and multifaceted, encompassing both
positive and negative aspects.
● Examining whether technology poses a threat to culture involves considering various dimensions of
this relationship.

Cultural Transformation:
● Technology has the power to transform cultures by influencing communication, social norms, and
values. For instance, the advent of the internet and social media has reshaped how people interact,
disseminate information, and express their identities.
● This transformation, while offering new opportunities, can also challenge traditional cultural
practices.

Homogenization vs. Diversity:

● On one hand, technology facilitates the global exchange of ideas and information, leading to cultural
diversity and cross-cultural understanding.
● On the other hand, there is a concern about cultural homogenization, where dominant technologies
may erode unique cultural identities as they spread globally.

Preservation and Access:

● Technology can play a crucial role in preserving and disseminating cultural heritage. Digital
archives, virtual museums, and online platforms enable the documentation and sharing of cultural
artifacts, literature, and traditions.
● However, the accessibility of these technologies can also create disparities, as some communities
may lack the resources to participate fully.

Cultural Appropriation:
● The ease of information sharing in the digital age can lead to cultural appropriation, where elements
of one culture are adopted or misused by another.
● This phenomenon raises ethical concerns about the commodification and distortion of cultural
practices through technology.
 Impact on Language:
● Technology can influence language use and evolution. The rise of digital communication has led to
the development of new linguistic forms and expressions.
● This evolution can either enrich linguistic diversity or contribute to the erosion of traditional
languages.

Social Inequality:
● The impact of technology on culture is not uniform. Access to and control over technology can
exacerbate existing social inequalities.
● Socioeconomic disparities in access to digital resources may lead to the exclusion of certain cultural
groups from the benefits of technological advancements.

Loss of Face-to-Face Interaction:

● The prevalence of digital communication may lead to a decline in face-to-face interactions,
impacting the way cultural traditions are passed down through personal experiences.
● This shift may affect the oral transmission of cultural knowledge and interpersonal connections.

Environmental Impact:
● Some technological advancements, such as industrialization and mass production, can have
detrimental effects on the environment.
● The degradation of natural surroundings can impact cultures deeply rooted in their ecosystems,
affecting traditional practices and relationships with nature.

In Conclusion,the relationship between technology and culture is complex and nuanced. While
technology offers opportunities for cultural enrichment, preservation, and global understanding, it also
poses threats through cultural homogenization, appropriation, and social inequalities. A critical
examination of the interplay between technology and culture is essential to navigate the challenges and
harness the benefits for the collective well-being of diverse societies.

3. "Scientific progress has changed the Nature of Society, and its Sense of Values in a positive
way" - Substantiate your views. (Unit - 1)

“Scientific progress has changed the Nature of Society, and it's Sense of Values in a positive way”

● Scientific progress has indeed had a profound impact on society, transforming its nature and
shaping its sense of values in a positive manner. This can be substantiated through several key
points:

Technological Advancements:
● Scientific progress has led to groundbreaking technological developments that revolutionize societal
functions.
● Innovations in fields such as medicine, transportation, communication, and infrastructure
significantly enhance the quality of life, fostering a sense of progress and well-being.

Improved Standards of Living:

● Scientific breakthroughs, particularly in agriculture and healthcare, play a pivotal role in increasing
life expectancy, reducing mortality rates, and overall improving health.
● This enhancement of living conditions positively shifts societal values, emphasizing health,
longevity, and overall well-being.
 Economic Development:
● Scientific advancements drive economic growth by fostering innovation, productivity, and efficiency.
● This economic progress creates opportunities for employment, entrepreneurship, and poverty
reduction, influencing societal values related to prosperity, progress, and self-sufficiency.

Global Connectivity and Understanding:

● Advancements in communication technologies facilitate global connectivity, breaking down
geographical barriers and fostering interconnectedness.
● This increased global understanding contributes to a more inclusive worldview, promoting values
such as tolerance, cultural appreciation, and international cooperation.

Education and Knowledge Dissemination:

● Scientific progress democratizes access to education and knowledge, empowering individuals with
information and skills.
● The democratization of knowledge fosters values such as intellectual curiosity, critical thinking, and
a commitment to lifelong learning, contributing to a more enlightened and informed society.

Environmental Awareness:
● Scientific research draws attention to environmental challenges, leading to increased awareness
and a growing sense of environmental responsibility.
● This shift in values toward sustainability and ecological consciousness reflects the positive impact of
scientific progress on societal attitudes toward nature.

Ethical Considerations and Social Justice:

● Scientific advancements prompt ethical discussions, encouraging societies to critically evaluate the
implications of technological developments.
● This heightened awareness of ethical considerations contributes to the development of values
centered around social justice, fairness, and responsible innovation.

Empowerment and Inclusivity:

● Scientific progress empowers marginalized groups by providing tools, knowledge, and opportunities.
● This empowerment fosters a sense of inclusivity, equality, and diversity within societies, positively
influencing values related to social justice and human rights.

In conclusion, the positive impact of scientific progress on the nature of society and its sense of values
is evident across various domains. Technological advancements, improved standards of living,
economic development, global connectivity, education, environmental awareness, ethical
considerations, and empowerment collectively contribute to a transformative influence. While
acknowledging challenges and ethical dilemmas, the overall trajectory of scientific progress aligns with
positive societal values, shaping a more interconnected, informed, and ethically conscious global
community.

4. With the development of Digital Technologies, what is your views on future mass media?
Discuss (Unit - 4)

The evolution of digital technologies has profoundly transformed the landscape of mass media,
ushering in an era of unprecedented change and redefining how information is produced, disseminated,
and consumed. Several key aspects shape the future trajectory of mass media in the digital age,
presenting both challenges and opportunities.

Digital Convergence:
● The integration of various media forms into digital platforms marks a significant trend.
● Print, broadcast, and online media converge in the digital space, blurring traditional boundaries.
● This convergence allows for multimedia storytelling, creating a dynamic and immersive experience
for audiences.

Rise of Social Media:

● Social media platforms have emerged as powerful players in the realm of mass media.
● These platforms enable user-generated content, fostering a participatory culture where individuals
contribute to news dissemination.
● The instantaneous nature of social media also accelerates the spread of information.

Personalized Content Delivery:

● Digital technologies facilitate personalized content delivery through algorithms and data analytics.
● Media organizations can tailor content based on user preferences, behavior, and demographics.
● This personalization enhances user engagement but also raises concerns about filter bubbles and
echo chambers.

Challenges to Traditional Revenue Models:

● The digital shift challenges traditional revenue models of mass media.
● Advertisers increasingly target online platforms, affecting the sustainability of print and broadcast
outlets.
● Media organizations grapple with monetizing digital content while adapting to changing consumer
behaviors.

Multimedia Storytelling:
● The digital age encourages multimedia storytelling, combining text, images, videos, and interactive
elements.
● This evolution in storytelling techniques enhances audience engagement and comprehension.
● Journalists and content creators explore innovative ways to convey information in a visually
appealing and accessible manner.

Global Reach and Instantaneous News:

● Digital technologies facilitate the rapid dissemination of news globally.
● Information reaches audiences in real-time, allowing for immediate awareness of events. This
interconnectedness, however, raises challenges related to information accuracy, verification, and
the potential for misinformation.

Interactive and Participatory Journalism:

● Audiences now expect interactive and participatory experiences with the media.
● Digital platforms enable comments, discussions, and user-generated content.
● Journalism becomes a more collaborative process, with feedback shaping narratives and stories.

Data Privacy and Ethical Concerns:

● The digitalization of mass media raises critical concerns about data privacy and ethics.
● Media organizations must navigate the ethical implications of data collection, surveillance, and the
responsible use of user information to maintain public trust.

Mobile-First Consumption:
● With the prevalence of smartphones, media consumption is increasingly mobile-first.
● Audiences access news and entertainment on the go, influencing content formatting and delivery.
● Mobile platforms also contribute to the virality of content through easy sharing.

Emergence of New Storytelling Formats:

 ● Immersive technologies, such as virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR), open new
possibilities for storytelling.
● These technologies offer immersive and interactive narratives, providing audiences with a more
engaging and participatory media experience.

In conclusion, the future of mass media in the digital age is dynamic and multifaceted. While
technological advancements present exciting opportunities for innovation, media organizations must
navigate challenges related to revenue models, ethical considerations, and the changing dynamics of
audience engagement. Adapting to these shifts is crucial for the continued relevance and sustainability
of mass media in the evolving digital landscape.

5. Elaborate the following: (a) The Radical Science Movement (b) Strong Program.
(Unit - 1)

The Radical Science Movement: (Late 1960s And Early 1970s)

The Radical Science Movement, arising in the late 20th century, challenged traditional scientific power
structures. It aimed for a more inclusive and socially accountable approach to research, aligning
science with the needs of marginalized communities. It has its origins primarily in academic and activist
circles in the United States and the United Kingdom.

Origins of the Radical Science Movement:

● Academic scientists opposed science misuse, exposed weapon flaws, and advocated change
through lobbying and public education.
● The Vietnam War and civil rights movement catalyzed the formation of the radical science
movement, including Science for the People.
● In 1969, a one-day research strike and the formation of SESPA catalysed the radical science movement.
● The rise of a new generation challenging established scientists drove the movement's
emergence.
● Science for the People and related groups aided marginalized communities and opposed
scientific justifications for social inequality, including health and safety initiatives.
● Committees on Occupational Safety and Health (COSH groups) collaborated with unions to
improve working conditions and raise awareness of workplace hazards.
● Advocating for a "People's Science," the movement critiqued genetic solutions, emphasizing the
importance of addressing social conditions for lasting change.

Covers of magazines and posters and icons for Social Responsibility for science

Impact of the Radical Science Movement:

● The movement criticized biological determinism regarding race, intelligence, and human
behavior.
● Controversial involvement in bias recombinant DNA issue, yet facilitated public engagement.
● Members critical of industry in agricultural research filed lawsuit for redirected university
 research in California.
● Movement's influence transformed scientific society meetings, fostering social orientation
and radical leadership.

● Despite reduced politicization, the movement's legacy endures, aiding marginalized groups in
scientific debates.
● Recombinant DNA's commercialization lured some from social to profit, with ex-movement
members now heading biotech firms.

Strong Program:

● The Strong Program or strong sociology is a variety of the sociology of scientific knowledge
(SSK) particularly associated with
➔ David Bloor,
➔ Barry Barnes,
➔ Harry Collins,
➔ Donald A. MacKenzie, and
➔ John Henry.
● The strong programme's influence on Science and Technology Studies is credited as being
unparalleled (Latour 1999).
● The largely Edinburgh-based school of thought has illustrated how the existence of a scientific
community, bound together by allegiance to a shared paradigm, is a prerequisite for normal
scientific activity.
● The strong programme is a reaction against "weak" sociologies of science, which restricted the
application of sociology to "failed" or "false" theories, such as phrenology.
● Failed theories would be explained by citing the researchers' biases, such as covert political or
economic interests.
● Sociology would be only marginally relevant to successful theories, which succeeded because they
had revealed
● a fact of nature.
● The strong programme proposed that both "true" and "false" scientific theories should be treated the
same
● way.
● Both are caused by social factors or conditions, such as cultural context and self-interest. All human
knowledge,
● as something that exists in the human cognition, must contain some social components in its
formation process.

Characteristics
● As formulated by David Bloor,the strong programme has four indispensable components:
➔ Causality: It examines the conditions (psychological, social, and cultural) that bring about
claims to a certain kind of knowledge.
➔ Impartiality: It examines successful as well as unsuccessful knowledge claims.
➔ Symmetry: The same types of explanations are used for successful and unsuccessful
knowledge claims alike.
➔ Reflexivity: It must be applicable to sociology itself.

Criticism
● In order to study scientific knowledge from a sociological point of view, the strong programme has
adhered to a form of radical relativism.
● In other words, it argues that – in the social study of institutionalised beliefs about "truth" – it would
be unwise to use "truth" as an explanatory resource. To do so would (according to the relativist
view) include the answer as part of the question (Barnes 1992), and propound a "whiggish"
 approach towards the study of history – a narrative of human history as an inevitable march towards
truth and enlightenment.
● Alan Sokal has criticised radical relativism as part of the science wars, on the basis that such an
understanding will lead inevitably towards solipsism and postmodernism.
● Markus Seidel attacks the main arguments – underdetermination and norm-circularity – provided
by Strong Programme proponents for their relativism.
● Strong programme scholars insist that their approach has been misunderstood by such a criticism
and that its adherence to radical relativism is strictly methodological.