Green Composites for buildings:

Global awareness of environmental issues has resulted in the emergence of sustainable and
environmental friendly green materials, which are renewable resources based, recyclable, and
biodegradable.
To develop green composite materials, natural fibers such as hemp, flax, jute, kenaf, and sisal,
have been used to replace conventional synthetic fibers. In addition, matrix materials in the form
of biopolymers or bio resins have been derived from starch, vegetable oils, and protein. Green
composites are the next generation of sustainable composite materials and combine natural fibers
with natural resins to make light and strong composites that are recyclable or biodegradable by
trigger. The use of renewable resources reduces the needs for petrochemicals and minerals,
resulting in less natural resources depletion effect on the planet. Commercial products and
applications have been developed for these green composites in recent years.

Despite the great advantages of green composite materials, issues still exist. For natural fibers,
they are less homogeneous than glass and carbon, tend to absorb moisture, and are less
compatible with conventional resin systems. Preprocessing and treatment are thus required to
enhance the performance of the composite solution. The development of bio resin is lagging
behind the development of natural fibers. Adhesion and interfacial bonding between natural
fibers and bio resin need to be addressed. This special issue will cover the latest progress in
green composites fabrication, characterization, testing, and applications.
Potential composites include,
 Wood based composites
 Bamboo based composites
 Other plant fiber composites
 Bio resins and biopolymers derived from natural resources
 Fiber treatment and resin modification for biocomposites
 Cellulose and nano cellulose composites.
Green composites derived from renewable resources, mostly from plants, have great potential to
provide environmental as well as economic benefits to industries and end-users in the face of
dwindling petroleum resources. Environmental concerns about large amounts of wastes
generated from petroleum based polymers and composites that end up in landfills have
stimulated increased research in the development of new and greener materials for construction,
furniture, packaging, automotive and many other industries Fiber reinforced composite
technology is based on taking advantage of the strength and stiffness of the high-performance
fibers by incorporating them in a resin, which acts as a binder and also trans-fers load from
broken fibers to the intact fibers through the fiber/resin interface. Particularly attractive are the
new composite materials in which majority of the constituents are based on yearly renewable
resources that prevent further stresses on the environment created by depleting already dwindling
wood resources from forests. Examples of such raw material sources include annually grown
native crops and fibers which are abundantly available in all regions of the world. Plant derived
fibers have been used for hundreds of years for diverse applications such as apparel, ropes, beds,
bags, linen and many others. If new uses for fast growing, native plants can be developed locally
for high value materials such as fully sustainable and environment-friendly ‘green’ composites,
even the pollution due to transportation can be reduced. These renewable materials based green
composites could reduce the use of traditional materials such as wood, minerals and plastics in
many applications. In recent years there has been increasing interest to replace fiber glass in fiber
reinforced composites by natural plant fibers such as flax, hemp, sisal and ramie which have
good tensile properties. Natural fiber reinforced composites play an important role as alternate
materials especially to wood and wood based products such as plywood, medium density fiber
boards (MDFs), oriented strand boards (OSBs) and particle boards. While green composites have
several industrial applications, some challenges such as low processability and fiber/resin
adhesion need to be addressed. The use of adhesion promoters such as coupling agents, additives
or chemical modification of the fillers can help in overcoming many of these limitations. These
composites can be even more environment-friendly when the polymeric resin is biodegradable
and derived from renewable sources as well. While such ‘green’ composites have special
relevance, in particular, to developing countries because of their low cost, indigenous availability
of raw materials, savings in energy as well as applications as wood substitute, they are also
preferred in developed countries for their non-toxicity and easy disposability. Challenges related
to natural fibers such as inconsistencies in the product performance due to natural variability in
the fibers’ origin, only seasonal availability, non-availability in the desired forms of
reinforcements (roving, long fiber strands, prepeg, chopped strand mats, etc.,) improper
processing of fiber, poor fiber/resin interface, etc., need to be carefully addressed for industrial
exploitation. As mentioned earlier, in recent years, significant efforts have been directed towards
investigating the use of natural fibers as reinforcement in a broad range of polymeric resins
including thermoplastics. Natural fibers, such as wood fiber, wheat straw, jute, bagasse, etc.,
offer several benefits: low cost, low density, high toughness, acceptable specific strength
properties and biodegradability. The use of natural fibers to reinforce resins has many benefits,
such as low volumetric cost, increased heat deflection temperature, increased stiffness of
thermoplastics and improvements in wood surface appearance. Natural wood fi ber filled non-
degradable plastics such as wood-polymer composites (WPCs) have been commonly used in
decking, furniture components, door and window moldings, packaging pallets, and interior
panels of automobiles. Polymer based composites have been widely used for several decades and
their market share has seen continuous double digit growth as their applications have expanded
in diverse fields. It is widely known that most polymers when incorporated with solid fillers can
undergo significant property enhancement. Many fillers including calcium carbonate, glass
fibers, talc, kaolin, mica, wollastonite, silica, graphite, synthetic fillers (e.g. poly(ethylene
terephthalate) (PET)- or poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)-based fi bers), high-performance fibers
( carbon, aramid, glass, etc.), have been commonly used . However, combining two dissimilar
components in the form of composites with specific shapes makes the reuse and recycling of
composites nearly impossible. This is particularly true for thermo set composites where the cross
linking of the resin cannot be reversed. As a result, over 94% of the composites are discarded in
landfills While landfilling is expensive due to landfill fees and transportation costs, it also has
significant negative environmental impact as the composites do not degrade for several decades
or even centuries in the anaerobic environment of landfi lls. Furthermore, most plastics, fi bers
and composites are produced using petroleum as the raw material, which is a non-renewable
resource. These problems have become particularly acute in the past 10–15 years with increased
use of composites and have led to scientific research for the development of sustainable
alternatives that can replace traditional composites having little or no environmental impact,
often referred to as ‘green’ composites. This task can be made easier by the fact that many of the
typical applications of these composites do not require high mechanical properties of advanced
composites made using high strength fibers such as carbon, aramid and glass. Such applications
include secondary and tertiary structures, panels, packaging, gardening items, housing panels,
etc.
The most widely known and used natural organic fillers are wood fl our and fibers. Wood flour
can be easily and inexpensively obtained from sawmill wastes and is usually used after sieving to
obtain the proper size. Wood fibers are produced by subjecting wood waste to thermo-
mechanical processes. While wood fiber/flour addition does not enhance the properties
significantly, natural plant based fibers have been used to take advantage of their good
mechanical properties and high aspect ratio. Among these, fibers such as cotton, flax, sisal,
kenaf, jute, hemp, ramie, etc., have been very common. Further environment- friendliness can
Be achieved upon using post-consumer recycled plastics in place of virgin polymeric resins.
Wood flour and short fibers are of great interest because of their low cost, dimensional stability
and high elastic modulus. While tensile properties do not improve with wood flour, the main
shortcomings are poor filler particle/polymeric resin adhesion, low impact strength and high
thermal decomposition at temperatures over 200 °C. Flax, sisal, hemp and kenaf fibers are
relatively similar and are available in long lengths extracted from the stem (bast) of the plants;
they can be used as fillers by cutting them into short (staple) fibers. Alternatively, they can be
used as long fibers, in various forms such as nonwovens or woven fabrics, as reinforcing fillers.
Fiber reinforced composite properties depend on the constituent material properties i.e. the fibers
and the resins used. The strength and stiffness of the composites are directly a function of the
reinforcing fiber properties, which carry most of the load, and their volume content. The resin
helps to maintain the relative position of the fibers within the composite and, more importantly,
transfers the load from the broken fibers to the intact fibers. As a result, fi ber/resin inter facial
properties are important and have a significant effect on composite properties including
toughness, fracture stress in both longitudinal and transverse directions. To obtain high strength
composites, all three factors, namely, fiber properties, resin properties and the fi ber/resin
interfacial characteristics are important and need to be considered.
WATER UTILIZATION IN BUILDINGS:
Building construction is a highly resource intensive process, concerning use of materials, land,
energy and water. Since buildings are required to fulfill our primary need for shelter,
consumption of these resources is simply unavoidable. However, with shrinking stock of natural
resources and degrading eco-system services, the consumption process has to be wise, judicious
and non-wasteful. Search for alternative and recycled materials, multiple floor spaces and use of
renewable energy are some of the human responses against the perceived threat of materials,
land and energy constraints respectively. Water resource management in building construction
and operation, however, has still a long way to go, especially because the amount of water used
per unit area of construction largely remains undocumented. There has been some pioneering
research on embodied water measurement of several non-residential buildings in Australia. Since
the use of construction water directly varies with the type of construction, a steel and glass
building will have its embodied water-footprint mainly on account of that of its materials while
on-site water use plays a major role in case of a cast-in-situ reinforced cement concrete and brick
building. Thus, water efficiency at the production stage is required in the first case while the
second category demands concerns and actions at the consumption stage.
Fresh Water is a very precious natural resource and it is widely reported that the world reserve of
fresh water is fast depleting. Life on earth is not possible without water. Climate change
concerns across the globe has predicted severe water scarcity due to degrading eco-system
services and World Business Council for Sustainable development (WBCSD) in its Vision 2050
statement has estimated an additional load of more than 500 million people under water-stress
conditions in the BRIC (Brazil-Russia-India-China) countries by 2030. In India, with the
National Action Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC) and its constituent National Water Mission,
a target of 20% increase in water-use efficiency has been set to counter the challenge. The
National Water Policy of Government of India recognizes the need of planning the economic
activities like agriculture, industries and urban development in conformity with availability of
this life-sustaining resource and has recommended water-zoning. From the point of view of
urban development, building industry is known to be a major consumer of water resource, which
in many cases, is the ground water extracted through bore-wells. There also had been reports of
major subsidence threats due to over-exploitation of this important reserve in a particular
segment of the city of Calcutta (now, Kolkata), India. In a building’s entire life-cycle, water and
energy are considered to be the two major pillars that support human activities in it. While there
are many studies on embodied energy and recurring energy consumption in buildings, such
database appears scanty in the field of water. Similarly, embodied energy of building constituent
materials is also available along-with their embodied CO2 emission factor, which is again not the
case when water resource is concerned. Even industry related documents, in most cases, barely
touches upon water use in their raw materials’ inventory. Thus, there seems to be a big void
when similar baseline research data availability with respect to water is looked for. one of the
studies, United Nations Environment Program has indicated that over an entire life-cycle, the
building industry consumes a global average of 30% of fresh water and generates 30% of
world’s effluents. In India, the manual on water supply and treatment [5] has indicated water
consumed per unit production of steel and it is, thus, one of the few building materials having a
recorded water foot-print. Other major building materials like bricks, cement, aluminium, glass
etc. use considerable quantity of water in their manufacturing process through extraction and
processing, though data on their water-foot print is not readily available.
WATER USE BREAKDOWN IN BUILDINGS:
As would be familiar from our residential settings, water in buildings is commonly used for
cleaning, for personal hygiene, for heat transfer, and for landscaping.
Although water–consuming activities often remain similar, the sophistication of water
infrastructure as well as the quantities and use patterns can vary significantly depending on the
primary purpose of the building. For example, while showers and toilets are particularly
important in residences, schools, hotels, and office buildings, HVAC systems and landscaping
can be major users of water for shopping center and other large commercial and institutional
buildings.
Primary water use purposes in buildings
• Toilets
• Showers
• Wash basins
• Kitchens
• Laundry
• Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems
• Landscaping.
LOW ENERGY APPROACHES TO WATER MANAGEMENT:
In order to improve water efficiency in buildings, a systematic approach should be adopted,
However, as mentioned earlier, buildings can show significant differences in their water use
characteristics and in the utilization of their water-related infrastructure. Buildings also have
different service life spans. A major difference can be observed between residential buildings on
one hand and commercial and institutional buildings on the other hand, in terms of water systems
complexity, the lifetime of fixtures and equipments, and the resources and organizational
capabilities of their owners, users, or operators. Consequently, monitoring strategies and
improvement options have to be adjusted and tailored to these variations. This guide tries to
remain cognizant of these differences.

PREPARATION AND PLANNING

As in industrial facilities, water efficiency programs in buildings require preparation and

planning including conducting a facility survey, monitoring use, determining performance
targets, identifying saving options, informing and engaging building users, and allocating
resources. In single-family homes or apartments, the steps can be organized informally and the
process logic remains the same. In addition to the Data Form for Buildings, the following
checklist of questions can be helpful during a site survey for an institutional or commercial
building.
CHECKLIST

Planning questions in an institutional/commercial building site survey

• How much water is consumed in different functions of the building?

• Which functions are the main consumers: HVAC, toilet facilities, technical areas, irrigation,
others?

• What are the direct and indirect costs of water use in the building?

• What type of maintenance routines (such as leak inspections or equipment maintenance) are in
place today?

• What water reuse and recycling systems are in use or have been considered?

UNDERSTANDING WATER USE DYNAMICS

Residential buildings often have a relatively simple distribution structure with limited number of
outlets and relatively lower consumption volumes. In these settings, performing a detailed
monitoring would neither be feasible nor necessary. An awareness of the overall water
consumption of the building together with an average water use breakdown benchmark would be
sufficient to kick start an effort to identify water-saving opportunities.

CHECKLIST

Required sub-metering in a shopping mall in order to develop sufficient understanding of the

water use dynamics

• Cold water supply & hot water supply

• Toilets and urinals

• Cooling towers

• Food courts and restaurants

• Outdoor areas and water features

• Retail shops

• Sewage discharge.

The next step after monitoring is to develop water balances – for the entire building or for key
water using activities – and usage patterns over time. Figure below shows an example of water
use breakdown in a hotel.
IDENTIFYING IMPROVEMENT OPTIONS

Improvement measures need to be investigated with an eye on selecting from a set of areas or
activities those that have the greatest potential for improvement. This will be a function of the
type of building in question. Table provides a summary of key areas for different building types.

PRIORITISATION AND IMPLEMENTATION

Once they are identified, the improvement possibilities need to be assessed based on their
lifetime benefits and costs. For such assessments, knowledge of the true cost of water is needed.
This step requires the quantification of both direct and hidden costs, as described by the
following checklist.

CHECKLIST

Hidden water use costs in buildings can often be linked to:

• Costs for heating and cooling the water

• Pumping costs for transporting water

• Treatment costs

• Cost of chemicals.

In addition to a benefit-cost analysis, the effect of identified options on the service quality,
applicability, suitability, and availability of support need to be assessed. Experience from
European and North American countries shows that residential users are often better positioned
to change water use patterns but may not have the resources for detailed monitoring or for
replacing existing fixtures or equipment with more efficient ones, thereby limiting their options
primarily to retrofits.
COMMON WATER EFFICIENCY MEASURES FOR BUILDINGS
There are numerous measures that can successfully improve water use efficiency in buildings.
The improvements can be achieved through a combination of behavioral changes and
technological fixes. A description of some common measures follows.
USE-BASED CHARGING
A common problem hindering water efficiency improvements in buildings is linked to the tariff
system. In many parts of the world, considerable segments of water users – whether they are
house owners, occupants of flats in apartment buildings, or tenants at a commercial center – are
still not charged for water according to their actual consumption. Instead, their water tariffs are
based on a fixed cost, sometimes incorporated as part of a set monthly rent. This practice is a
major hurdle to water efficiency because it removes incentives for lowering water consumption.
Therefore, a key step in water efficiency in buildings requires installing water meters for
individual users and introducing a fee accounting system based on actual consumption. The
incentive for cost savings can only be realized by making water users aware of their consuming
habits and linking their water bills to actual rates of consumption.
DETECTING LEAKS
Water leakage from toilets, faucets, or plumbing fixtures can be responsible for as much as 10 to
30% of water losses.1 Therefore, detecting and repairing leaking fixtures forms a good starting
point for efficiency improvements. By conducting regular checks and routine maintenance,
considerable amounts of water can potentially be saved.
Detecting leaks in residential buildings, where the number of outlets and water users is limited
and concentrated, can be accomplished relatively easy as demonstrated by the tips box below. In
commercial and institutional buildings, more complex measures such as continuous monitoring,
overnight monitoring, and water balances may need to be used to determine the extent of
leakage.
TIPS
Quick way to detect water leakage
In order to verify whether your house is leak-free, read your water meter before and after a two-
hour period when no water is being used. If the meter does not read exactly the same, this
indicates the presence of leaks.
Detecting Water Leakage in Toilets
Leaks with slow flows can be difficult to detect by ordinary observation. To be sure, add some
food-dye to the cistern. After 30 minutes, check your toilet bowl for any coloring, which will
indicate leakage. Make sure to rinse the bowl to avoid permanent coloring.
Components that can lead to leaks

A dripping tap can waste between 4,000 to 10,000 liters of water every year. This is enough
water for 40 to 100 showers. Worn out plastic seals often cause leakage in taps. Damaged seals
can be easily and inexpensively replaced, thereby saving thousands of liters of water.
Leakage in toilet flushes
A toilet flush system that leaks water in the form of a constant flow can result in the loss of
substantial amounts of water. Leaks from toilets can also be harder to detect. Two of the
problems that are common and that can be fixed relatively easily are:
A misplaced or broken flap causes water to continuously flow into the toilet bowl. A quick
inspection of the flap mechanism to ensure that the flap is well–aligned with the flush-gate and
that there are no obstructions can fix the problem. If the flap, or its seal, is damaged, it will need
to be replaced.
Continuous overflow happens when the shut-off level is not properly adjusted or when the
movement of the float arm is obstructed. By adjusting the shut-off level correctly and making
sure that the float arm moves freely, overflow can be avoided.
Storage tanks
In commercial and institutional buildings, water supplied by the main is often stored in tanks
prior to its use. The structural stability of storage tanks can deteriorate over time due to various
reasons leading to leaks. This can be detected by monitoring the water level in the tank during a
period when no water is being extracted from the tank. A drop in water level will indicate
leakage.
Cooling towers
Overflow from cooling tower basins, can also be seen as a form of leakage in institutional and
commercial buildings and can lead to considerable wastage. Measures discussed earlier will also
be applicable to buildings.
Pipes, joints, and valves
Old pipes, junctions, and valves with worn-out sealing are potential sources of water losses in
buildings. These can be more difficult to detect, particularly if the leaking water is finding its
way to effluent discharge channels. Leakage in the piping system may be indicated if leakage
persists after all the visible leakage points have been repaired. In these cases, assistance from a
professional may be necessary.
TOILETS AND URINALS
In many buildings, toilets account for one-third of water use, making them an attractive target for
water efficiency improvements. These can be achieved through behavioral changes, low cost
retrofits, or replacing older toilets with newer and more water-efficient models. In this section we
present several of those options. It is important to examine closely the payback period when
considering replacement options.
Changing behavior
Behavioral change towards avoiding the use of toilet flush unnecessarily forms a sensible
starting point for reducing water consumption in toilets. Users should be encouraged not to use
the toilet as a garbage bin and not to dispose of, for example, tissues, dead insects, or similar
waste. In private homes such changes can be relatively easy to implement. In institutional and
commercial buildings, on the other hand, more formal training as well as the use of educational
signs may be necessary to stimulate a change in user behavior.

Volume displacement objects

If the toilet is of an older model, a simple and effective measure to conserve water is to place a
displacement object inside the toilet cistern. These are objects that sit inside the cistern
permanently occupying a reasonable volume without interfering with the operational mechanism
of the flush system. Plastic bottles filled with water and carefully placed inside the cistern can
serve this purpose. There are also commercial products that can be used as cistern displacement.
Another possibility is to use the so-called toilet dams. These are barriers placed inside the
cistern, creating dry compartments and thereby reducing the amount of water used in each flush.
These devices can save 1 to 3 liters of water per flush.
Low-volume or dual-mode flush systems
While conventional flush systems use more than 11 liters of water per flush, modern low-
volume, dual-mode flush systems can reduce this amount to 4.5 liters per full flush and 3 liters
per partial flush. Such a conversion may translate into thousands of liters of water being saved
annually. However, these systems usually require the replacement of not only the cistern and the
flushing mechanism, but also the toilet bowl. Therefore, they should be considered when
replacing old models or installing new toilets. It should also be noted that low-flow toilets are
more prone to clogging and may require the elimination of certain grades of toilet paper.

Vacuum-toilets
Toilets can be connected to a vacuum source to employ for flushing. These systems operate with
the help of a pump that creates a vacuum to help flush the contents of a toilet with minimal water
use. With such systems water consumption can be reduced to as low as 0.5 liters per flush.
Composting toilets
More suited to rural areas, these toilets eliminate the use of water and do not create black
effluents. If properly managed, they can also produce sterile humus that is free from unwanted
smells. These units have, however, larger space requirements and demand appropriate handling
from users.
URINALS
Urinals are often used in public amenities and are conventionally fitted with cyclic flushing
systems. Because they waste considerable amount of water, their use should be eliminated. The
following are examples of more efficient alternatives.
Urinals with on-demand sensors
Infrared sensor operated urinals work by detecting the presence of a user within the detection
zone for more than a certain time threshold. The user’s departure from the detection zone
activates flushing. These units use no more than 1 to 1.5 litres of water per flush. Such sensor
can be prone to malfunctioning leading to water wastage. It is therefore important to fit them
with manual shut off valves. The continual monitoring and maintenance of the sensors is also
essential for sustained efficiency.
Waterless urinals
Waterless urinals have a drain trap insert siphon that collects the urine and discharges it into the
sewage system, without using water. These urinals have hydrophobic inner surface and are also
equipped with a hydrostatic float, which seals the discharge opening of the urinal and does not
allow smells to be released.
Use of Grey water in flushing
Alternative sources of water can be used to flush toilets and urinals. In particular, water
consumed in showers, wash basins, and laundry operations – so-called greywater – can be
reused. Grey water reuse in toilets, however, requires the installation of extra pipes, pumps, a
storage unit, and a simple treatment unit. It can be costly to retrofit existing toilets and urinals
with a grey water collection system. It is much more feasible to introduce a system for collecting
and treating grey water for reuse during the design phase.

BATHS AND SHOWERS

Baths and showers can account for up to 30% of total domestic water use. Through a
combination of behavioral and technical approaches, up to 50% reduction in water use can be
achieved in baths and showers without compromising hygiene or comfort requirements.
Giving a preference to showers over baths
Making changes in usage patterns is again one of the most effective ways of improving water
efficiency in baths and showers. Naturally, when baths can be used for therapeutic and relaxation
purposes, they can be difficult to substitute. However, when the purpose is solely personal
hygiene, showers should be preferred over baths. Showers not only use less water – provided that
they are reasonably short – but also offer better hygienic results.
Controlling water flow and time in showers
Staying under running water can be tempting but results in wasteful use of water. By reducing
the average length of a shower by two minutes, a family of four can save up to 60 m3 of water in
a year. Simple and inexpensive timers are available to alert users of the time spent in a shower.
In an ordinary shower cycle, as much as 50% savings can be achieved by turning the water off
while shampooing your hair or washing your body.
Water efficient shower heads
Efficient shower heads operate by mixing water flow with an air jet. These units provide
satisfactory contact with water and achieve effective rinsing with much less water. Whereas a
fiveminute shower with a normal shower head can use around 100 liters of water, a water
efficient shower head consumes a modest 35 liters.

Showers with automatic shut-off systems

Showers with shut-off systems automatically cut the water flow once a predetermined amount of
water has been used and require user input to re-activate the water flow. Such systems are
particularly well-suited for schools, offices, and sports facilities but their use is also becoming
common in motels and guest houses.
Use of easily adjustable mixers
More than 10% of the total amount of water used in a shower cycle can be wasted while trying to
adjust for a comfortable temperature. With the use of easily adjustable water mixers with
temperature indicators, desired water temperatures can be more easily achieved, thereby wasting
less water.
Water used in showers and baths can be suitable for alternative uses. Therefore, instead of letting
it drain, it can be captured, treated, and reused (see section on grey water use).
FAUCETS, TAPS, AND WASH BASINS
Water efficiency in these areas can also start with some behavioral changes, such as not letting
the water run straight to the drain while teeth brushing, hand-washing, or shaving. Washing razor
blades in a container with hot water instead of under running water can also improve water
efficiency. With regards to technical installations, the following options should be considered.
Water efficient faucets and tap adaptors
Simple devices that mix water and air can reduce both water flow rates and splashing while
increasing areas of coverage and wetting efficiency. For example, faucet aerators can save water
use by up to 50% during hand-washing. Modern faucets come with integrated aerators and
should be preferred for new installations. Effective aerating adaptors are also available
inexpensively and can be easily installed.
Faucets with on-demand sensors
On-demand faucet units rely on infrared sensors to trigger water flow. With the use of such
systems, water use in wash basins can be reduced considerably. It is essential that such units
have a quick response time in order to avoid user dissatisfaction. In addition, such units provide
improved results if used in combination with aerators (see above).

Faucets with automatic shut-off systems

Faucets with automatic shut-off systems will cut the flow of water once a predetermined amount
of water has been discharged. These units can use mechanical triggers or infrared sensors to
control water flow. These units need to be used in combination with water saving aerators. In
cases where the shut-off limit is not properly matched to the needs of the users, these units may
result in wasteful use of water. The Following Figure depicts how water consumption varies with
different types of faucets.
Water consumption and savings using different types of faucets

LAUNDRIES
Laundry operations are another high water-use area, especially for homes, hospitals, hotels, and
commercial linen services.
For residential homes, clothes machine washing is much more water efficient than doing laundry
by hand. Consequently, use of washing machines should be prioritized. In addition, frontloading
washing machines with high efficiency ratings should be selected when outfitting new buildings
or replacing old equipment.
Behavioral approaches can have a significant impact on water use in laundry operations. For
example, laundry cycles should be adjusted so that washing machines are run at full loads rather
than partial loads.
Overall water consumption in laundry for a given setting can also be reduced significantly by
performing the washing when it is necessary rather than according to a pre-set schedule. This is
particularly relevant in hotels where traditionally all towels and bed sheets are replaced and
laundered on a daily basis. An increasing number of hotels today allow their customers to decide
if they want their towels and sheets replaced, thereby eliminating unnecessary laundry.
Grey water from laundry operations can be subjected to basic treatment and made suitable for
reuse. It can be reused to flush toilets. It can also be used for outdoor irrigation. Therefore, plans
to capture and reuse grey water from laundry operations should be considered during the design
phase of new buildings.
KITCHENS
Kitchens in different settings are another high-water use area, particularly in commercial and
institutional buildings, such as hotels, schools, restaurants, and shopping centres. Once again,
with a combination of behavioral and technical changes, water use in the kitchens can be reduced
considerably.
Eliminate using running water for food preparation
Both in domestic and commercial kitchens vegetables and fruits need to be washed prior to being
used in food preparation. Instead of washing under running water, using a water container can be
equally effective. Additionally, avoid using running water for defrosting. This practice wastes
large quantities of water. Instead, defrosting can be achieved by placing frozen food items in a
refrigerator or in a room environment for a reasonable amount of time (beware of time to avoid
food spoilage). Microwave ovens can also be used for defrosting.
Using a dishwasher
Whenever possible, dishes and utensils should be washed using dishwashing machines because
they are far more water efficient than manual washing. For commercial applications, and also for
households, preference should be given to machines that have higher water efficiency. Such
dishwashers should be run once fully loaded, rather than at partial loads. It should be noted that
modern domestic dishwashers that utilize high-pressure steam can easily handle a great majority
of the dirt found on dishes and DO NOT require pre-rinsing.
Mechanical pre-rinse for manual washing
Where manual washing is the only option, priority should be given to removing food residues
from dishes by mechanical means, such as with the help of a used napkin or a brush, over using
running water. If necessary, dishes could be soaked in a container to allow the residues to soften.
Actual washing and rinsing should also be performed using batches of water placed in containers
instead of running water.
Triggered spray nozzles
In commercial kitchens, pre-rinsing of the dishes is common in order to reduce water and
chemical consumption in quick-cycle dishwashers. In such activities, use of high-pressure
nozzles with a hand-held trigger can result in substantial water savings.
Use of hot water
Hot water is much more effective in removing food remains from dishes and therefore provides
equal or better cleaning with much lower volumes than cold water. However, the energy costs of
water heating need to be taken into consideration.
Ice makers
Commonly found in restaurants and hotels, ice makers can use considerable amounts of water.
Air cooled machines, which require only about 1.9 liters of water per kilogram of ice, should be
preferred over water cooled machines, which may use as high as seven times more water.
Space cleaning
Commercial kitchens need to be frequently cleaned for hygienic purposes. A number of
measures can be adopted to reduce water use. Sectioning the areas according to cleaning needs,
utilizing mechanical cleaning to the extent possible, and using high-pressure, low-volume
systems can collectively help reduce water consumption for space cleaning.
LANDSCAPING
Water use for landscaping can consume considerable amounts of water and usually holds a good
potential for efficiency gains. Three main approaches are effective in reducing the amount of
water used in landscaping:
Selecting the right plant species
Plant species hold the most important promise for reducing water consumption. Unfortunately,
exotic plant species that are not native to the local environment are commonly used in gardens,
which demand excessive quantities of water and additional maintenance. In semi-arid areas,
characteristic of most MENA countries, drought-tolerant varieties should be the preferred option.
Drought-tolerant plants are an essential part of water efficient landscapes. They are adapted to
waterscarce environments and therefore require minimal supplemental irrigation. They also
require less maintenance than their water-needy counterparts.
Optimization of irrigation systems
Irrigation can be performed by hand or through a dedicated installation. When choosing an
irrigation set-up, below ground irrigation systems should be prioritized over above ground
systems, thus minimizing evaporation losses. In addition, synchronizing irrigation to changes in
soil moisture content is more efficient than relying on pre-set frequencies. When managed
properly, an automatic irrigation controller can pay for itself in reduced water usage, cost, and
labour. By using a simple device to monitor the soil moisture content continuously, significant
efficiencies can be gained.

Irrigation equipment needs to be properly maintained on a regular basis, including making

adjustments to the sprinkler heads or drip nozzles as needed.
Use of harvested rainwater
Landscape irrigation is often well-suited to using alternative sources of water, such as greywater,
harvested rainwater, or even treated wastewater that can be sourced from municipal water works
in some contexts. Following Figure depicts a water harvesting system.
HEATING AND COOLING
In commercial and institutional buildings with large floor areas, centralised heating, ventilation,
and air conditioning (HVAC) systems are frequently used. These systems are highly similar to
heating and cooling systems described in chapter 3 (Water efficiency in industrial facilities), and
can benefit from the same efficiency measures.
Checklist
Water efficiency measures for HVAC systems
• Adjusting the heating and cooling loads to actual demand
• Replacing once-through systems with re-circulating systems
• Reducing bleeding through close monitoring of impurities and use of appropriate chemicals
• Properly maintaining the system components
• Reducing drift and splash losses from cooling towers
• Reducing excessive overflow by properly adjusting the level of float valves in cooling tower
storage tanks
• Consider use of alternative water sources.
EARLY DESIGN MEASURES
Water efficiency should be integrated early on in the design and construction phase of buildings.
The feasibility of certain efficiency measures can be enhanced by re-considering certain design
features related to the water distribution network, water storage tanks, and other water supporting
systems. In the following are examples of three systems.
Water storage tanks
Commercial and institutional buildings are usually equipped with water storage tanks, which
serve two functions. It is an available, if temporary, source of water when regular supply from
the water distribution network is interrupted. Stored water can also be used for fire-fighting
purposes. For maintenance reasons, these tanks need to be emptied at certain intervals and their
contents are usually drained.
To save water, the water storage tank should be designed with two independent cells, each
occupying a 50% capacity of the total tank volume. With a two-compartment tank, water from
one cell can be circulated to the other cell during maintenance, precluding the need to drain the
entire water content of the tank. Therefore, the two water cells should be connected to each
other, allowing water circulation and ensuring water quality maintenance. Water cells should
also be designed to allow them to be emptied independently (for washing or maintenance
purposes).
Water distribution networks
Another approach that can result in water efficiency gains in commercial and institutional
buildings is to design the internal water distribution network with clearly independent sectors,
defined by both the area of the building and the type of water consumption. In the following box
are examples of independent water sectors that can be considered for commercial buildings. Each
sector should be equipped with a water flow meter measuring the specific water consumption in
that sector independent of others.
Checklist
Independent water sectors in a commercial building
• One sector per floor
• One sector for the common areas (corridors, technical areas, others)
• One sector for the HVAC system
• One sector for the irrigation system
• One sector for ornamental fountains, when available.
Independent monitoring of the sectors helps gain an understanding of water use patterns in
different sectors as well as identify and isolate possible water leaks in the building.
Infrastructures for water re-use
As mentioned earlier, grey water produced by certain uses in buildings – such as showers, wash
basins, and laundry rooms – can be of suited for use in toilet systems or in landscaping. To
facilitate the use of grey water, it is key to include in the early design phase a system for
collecting, treating, and storing treated grey water. This system may include a separate drainage
network, an on-site simple treatment unit – e.g. using sand filters or ultra-filtration –, a storage
tank, and a dedicated distribution network.
Similarly with rainwater harvesting, a collection, treatment and storage and distribution
infrastructure is needed.

RAINWATER HARVESTING:

Rainwater collected primarily from roofs or other suitable paved areas – such as parking lots –
can reach considerable amounts and can be used for a variety of purposes, such as:
Landscape irrigation; Toilet flushing; Laundry; General cleaning; Cooling and heating;
Hygienic use and drinking.
A rainwater harvesting and re-use system includes the following components.
CATCHMENT AREA: An impermeable surface, like roof or parking lot, is needed to capture
the rainfall.
CONVEYANCE SYSTEM: Appropriate piping and drainage needs to in place in order to
transfer the captured rainwater first to the treatment units and then to the storage tank.
FILTRATION/TREATMENT: Captured rainwater often needs to be treated. The extent of
treatment needed depends both on the characteristics of the catchment area and the intended use
of the collected water. Usually water collected from roofs has lower amounts of pollutants than
those collected from pavements or parking lots and therefore require less treatment. Generally,
the first part of the collected runoff is flushed away, as it tends to be rich in impurities. The
water is then passed through a filtration unit to retain organic and other impurities. While a
coarse filtration – such as one that can be achieved with a simple grate filter or sand filter – may
be sufficient for relatively clean harvests, finer filtration –such as microfiltration– may be needed
for others – particularly if the intended use for the water requires higher quality.
STORAGE: The filtered water is then placed into a storage tank. The dimensioning of the tank
is an important consideration, and requires an estimation of the amount that can be harvested.
The amount of rainwater that can be harvested on a specific site can be calculated using the
following formula:

Where: V Rain = Volume of rainwater (in m3/year)

A = Collection area (m2)
P = Average annual precipitation (in mm)
0.8 = Collection factor to account for filtering losses and small rainfall that does not
generate runoff.
Storage tanks need to be fitted with an overflow system. Moreover, if the tank will need to be
topped up with water from the main, a backflow prevention device will need to be fitted.
DELIVERY SYSTEM: Pumps, valves and pipes may be needed to transfer the collected
rainwater to the point of use. Depending on the design of the system, if a pump is needed to
transfer the collected water to the point of use, this can be placed inside the tank. If the rainwater
needs to meet higher hygienic requirements or will be used for drinking, additional treatment
units, such as granulated activated carbon filtration and UV disinfection may need be integrated
to the distribution system.
An alternative design for a simple rainwater harvesting system is shown in Figure
CARE NEEDED: The storage tanks of rainwater harvesting systems need to be cleaned in
frequent intervals – the frequency is dependent on the tank design and level of filtration.
Particularly in warmer climates, the storage tanks can easily turn into breeding grounds for
mosquitoes and other nuisance insects. In order to prevent this from happening, all no frequently
used orifices need to be properly closed and sealed. Orifices that are commonly used – like input
and overflow pipes, on the other hand need to be covered with a mesh.

MANAGEMENT OF SOLID WASTES:

Solid waste is the unwanted or useless solid materials generated from combined Residential,
industrial and commercial activities in a given area. It may be categorized According to its origin
(domestic, industrial, commercial, construction or institutional); According to its contents
(organic material, glass, metal, plastic paper etc); or according to Hazard potential (toxic, non-
toxin, flammable, radioactive, infectious etc).Management of solid waste reduces or eliminates
adverse impacts on the environment and human health and supports economic development and
improved quality of life. A Number of processes are involved in effectively managing waste for
a municipality. These include monitoring, collection, transport, processing, recycling and
disposal.
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
Methods of waste reduction, waste reuse and recycling are the preferred options when managing
waste. There are many environmental benefits that can be derived from the use of these methods.
They reduce or prevent green house gas emissions, reduce the Release of pollutants, conserve
resources, save energy and reduce the demand for waste Treatment technology and landfill
space. Therefore it is advisable that these methods be Adopted and incorporated as part of the
waste management plan.
Waste reduction and reuse
Waste reduction and reuse of products are both methods of waste prevention. They eliminate the
production of waste at the source of usual generation and reduce the Demands for large scale
treatment and disposal facilities. Methods of waste reduction Include manufacturing products
with less packaging, encouraging customers to bring Their own reusable bags for packaging,
encouraging the public to choose reusable Products such as cloth napkins and reusable plastic
and glass containers, backyard composting and sharing and donating any unwanted items rather
than discarding them. All of the methods of waste prevention mentioned require public
participation. In order to get the public onboard, training and educational programmes need to be
undertaken to educate the public about their role in the process. Also the government may need
to regulate the types and amount of packaging used by manufacturers and make the reuse of
shopping bags mandatory.

Recycling
Recycling refers to the removal of items from the waste stream to be used as raw materials in the
manufacture of new products. Thus from this definition recycling occurs in three phases: first the
waste is sorted and recyclables collected, the recyclables are used to create raw materials. These
raw materials are then used in the production of new products.
The sorting of recyclables may be done at the source (i.e. within the household or office) for
selective collection by the municipality or to be dropped off by the waste producer at a recycling
centers. The pre-sorting at the source requires public participation which may not be forthcoming
if there are no benefits to be derived. Also a system of selective collection by the government can
be costly. It would require more frequent circulation of trucks within a neighborhood or the
importation of more vehicles to facilitate the collection.

Figure 1. Colour coded recycling bins for waste separation at the source of production
Another option is to mix the recyclables with the general waste stream for collection and then
sorting and recovery of the recyclable materials can be performed by the municipality at a
suitable site. The sorting by the municipality has the advantage of eliminating the dependence on
the public and ensuring that the recycling does occur. The disadvantage however, is that the
value of the recyclable materials is reduced since being mixed in and compacted with other
garbage can have adverse effects on the quality of the recyclable material.

Waste Collection

Waste from our homes is generally collected by our local authorities through regular waste
collection, or by special collections for recycling. Within hot climates such as that of the
Caribbean the waste should be collected at least twice a week to control fly breeding, and the
harbouring of other pests in the community. Other factors to consider when deciding on
frequency of collection are the odors caused by decomposition and the accumulated quantities.
Descriptions of the main types of collection systems are given in the table below.
Treatment & Disposal

Waste treatment techniques seek to transform the waste into a form that is more manageable,
reduce the volume or reduce the toxicity of the waste thus making the waste easier to dispose of.
Treatment methods are selected based on the composition, quantity, and form of the waste
material. Some waste treatment methods being used today include subjecting the waste to
extremely high temperatures, dumping on land or land filling and use of biological processes to
treat the waste. It should be noted that treatment and disposal options are chosen as a last resort
to the previously mentioned management strategies reducing, reusing and recycling of waste
(figure 1).
Figure 2 Solid waste management hierarchy

Thermal treatment
This refers to processes that involve the use of heat to treat waste. Listed below are descriptions
of some commonly utilized thermal treatment processes.
Incineration
Incineration is the most common thermal treatment process. This is the combustion of waste in
the presence of oxygen. After incineration, the wastes are converted to carbon dioxide, water
vapour and ash. This method may be used as a means of recovering energy to be used in heating
or the supply of electricity. In addition to supplying energy incineration technologies have the
advantage of reducing the volume of the waste, rendering it harmless, reducing transportation
costs and reducing the production of the green house gas methane.
Pyrolysis and Gasification
Pyrolysis and gasification are similar processes they both decompose organic waste by exposing
it to high temperatures and low amounts of oxygen. Gasification uses a low oxygen environment
while pyrolysis allows no oxygen. These techniques use heat and an oxygen starved environment
to convert biomass into other forms. A mixture of combustible and non-combustible gases as
well as pyroligenous liquid is produced by these processes. All of these products have a high
heat value and can be utilized. Gasification is advantageous since it allows for the incineration of
waste with energy recovery and without the air pollution that is characteristic of other
incineration methods.
Open burning
Open burning is the burning of unwanted materials in a manner that causes smoke and other
emissions to be released directly into the air without passing through a chimney or stack. This
includes the burning of outdoor piles, burning in a burn barrel and the use of incinerators which
have no pollution control devices and as such release the gaseous by products directly into the
atmosphere (Department of environmental quality 2006). Open burning has been practiced by a
number of urban centers because it reduces the volume of refuse received at the dump and
therefore extends the life of their dumpsite. Garbage may be burnt because of the ease and
convenience of the method or because of the cheapness of the method. In countries where house
holders are required to pay for garbage disposal, burning of waste in the backyard allows the
householder to avoid paying the costs associated with collecting, hauling and dumping the waste.
Open burning has many negative effects on both human health and the environment. This
uncontrolled burning of garbage releases many pollutants into the atmosphere. These include
dioxins, particulate matter, polycyclic aromatic compounds, volatile organic compounds, carbon
monoxide, hexachlorobenzene and ash. All of these chemicals pose serious risks to human
health. The Dioxins are capable of producing a multitude of health problems; they can have
adverse effects on reproduction, development, disrupt the hormonal systems or even cause
cancer. The polycyclic aromatic compounds and the hexachlorobenzene are considered to be
carcinogenic. The particulate matter can be harmful to persons with respiratory problems such as
asthma or bronchitis and carbon monoxide can cause neurological symptoms.The harmful effects
of open burning are also felt by the environment. This process releases acidic gases such as the
halo-hydrides; it also may release the oxides of nitrogen and carbon. Nitrogen oxides contribute
to acid rain, ozone depletion, smog and global warming. In addition to being a green house gas
carbon monoxide reacts with sunlight to produce ozone which can be harmful. The particulate
matter creates smoke and hazewhich contribute to air pollution.
Dumps and Landfills
Sanitary landfills
Sanitary Landfills are designed to greatly reduce or eliminate the risks that waste disposal may
pose to the public health and environmental quality. They are usually placed in areas where land
features act as natural buffers between the landfill and the environment. For example the area
may be comprised of clay soil which is fairly impermeable due to its tightly packed particles, or
the area may be characterised by a low water table and an absence of surface water bodies thus
preventing the threat of water contamination.In addition to the strategic placement of the landfill
other protective measures are incorporated into its design. The bottom and sides of landfills are
lined with layers of clay or plastic to keep the liquid waste, known as leachate, from escaping
into the soil. The leachate is collected and pumped to the surface for treatment. Boreholes or
monitoringwells are dug in the vicinity of the landfill to monitor groundwater quality.
A landfill is divided into a series of individual cells and only a few cells of the site are filled with
trash at any one time. This minimizes exposure to wind and rain. The daily waste is spread and
compacted to reduce the volume, a cover is then applied to reduce odours and keep out pests.
When the landfill has reached its capacity it is capped with an impermeable seal which is
typically composed of clay soil.Some sanitary landfills are used to recover energy. The natural
anaerobic decomposition of the waste in the landfill produces landfill gases which include
Carbon Dioxide,methane and traces of other gases. Methane can be used as an energy source to
produce heat or electricity. Thus some landfills are fitted with landfill gas collection (LFG)
systems to capitalise on the methane being produced. The process of generating gas is very slow,
for the energy recovery system to be successful there needs to be largevolumes of wastes.These
landfills present the least environmental and health risk and the records kept can be a good
source of information for future use in waste management, however, the cost of establishing
these sanitary landfills are high when compared to the other land disposal methods.
Figure 3 Main features of a modern landfill

Controlled dumps
Controlled dumps are disposal sites which comply with most of the requirements for a sanitary
landfill but usually have one deficiency. They may have a planned capacity but no cell planning,
there may be partial leachate management, partial or no gas management, regular cover,
compaction in some cases, basic record keeping and they are fenced or enclosed. These dumps
have a reduced risk of environmental contamination, the initial costs are low and the operational
costs are moderate. While there is controlled access and use, they are still accessible by
scavengers and so there is some recovery of materials through this practice.
Bioreactor Landfills
Recent technological advances have lead to the introduction of the Bioreactor Landfill. The
Bioreactor landfills use enhanced microbiological processes to accelerate the decomposition of
waste. The main controlling factor is the constant addition of liquid to maintain optimum
moisture for microbial digestion. This liquid is usually added by re- circulating the landfill
leachate. In cases where leachate in not enough, water or other liquid waste such as sewage
sludge can be used. The landfill may use either anaerobic or aerobic microbial digestion or it
may be designed to combine the two. These enhanced microbial processes have the advantage of
rapidly reducing the volume of the waste creating more space for additional waste, they also
maximize the production and capture of methane for energy recovery systems and they reduce
the costs associated with leachate management. For Bioreactor landfills to be successful the
waste should be comprised predominantly of organic matter and should be produced in large
volumes.
Biological waste treatment
Composting
Composting is the controlled aerobic decomposition of organic matter by the action of micro
organisms and small invertebrates. There are a number of composting techniques being used
today. These include: in vessel composting, windrow composting, vermicomposting and static
pile composting. The process is controlled by making the environmental conditions optimum for
the waste decomposers to thrive. The rate of compost formation is controlled by the composition
and constituents of the materials i.e.their Carbon/Nitrogen (C/N) ratio, the temperature, the
moisture content and the amountof air.The C/N ratio is very important for the process to be
efficient. The micro organisms require carbon as an energy source and nitrogen for the synthesis
of some proteins. If the correct C/N ration is not achieved, then application of the compost with
either a high or low C/N ratio can have adverse effects on both the soil and the plants. A high
C/N ratio can be corrected by dehydrated mud and a low ratio corrected by adding cellulose.
Moisture content greatly influences the composting process. The microbes need the moisture to
perform their metabolic functions. If the waste becomes too dry the composting is not favored. If
however there is too much moisture then it is possible that it may displace the air in the compost
heap depriving the organisms of oxygen and drowning them. A high temperature is desirable for
the elimination of pathogenic organisms. However, if temperatures are too high, above 75 oC then
the organisms necessary to complete the composting process are destroyed. Optimum
temperatures for the process are in the range of 50-60 oC with the ideal being 60oC.Aeration is a
very important and the quantity of air needs to be properly controlled when composting. If there
is insufficient oxygen the aerobes will begin to die and will be replaced by anaerobes. The
anaerobes are undesirable since they will slow the process,produce odours and also produce the
highly flammable methane gas. Air can be incorporated by churning the compost.
Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion like composting uses biological processes to decompose organic waste.
However, where composting can use a variety of microbes and must have air,anaerobic digestion
uses bacteria and an oxygen free environment to decompose the waste. Aerobic respiration,
typical of composting, results in the formation of Carbon dioxide and water. While the anaerobic
respiration results in the formation of Carbon Dioxide and methane. In addition to generating the
humus which is used as a soil enhancer, Anaerobic Digestion is also used as a method of
producing biogas which can be used to generate electricity.Optimal conditions for the process
require nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, it requires that the pH be
maintained around 7 and the alkalinity be appropriate to buffer pH changes, temperature should
also be controlled.
Integrated Solid Waste Management
Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) takes an overall approach to creating sustainable
systems that are economically affordable, socially acceptable and environmentally effective. An
integrated solid waste management system involves the use of a range of different treatment
methods, and key to the functioning of such a system is the collection and sorting of the waste. It
is important to note that no one single treatment method can manage all the waste materials in an
environmentally effective way. Thus all of the available treatment and disposal options must be
evaluated equally and the best combination of the available options suited to the particular
community chosen. Effective management schemes therefore need to operate in ways which best
meet current social, economic, and environmental conditions of the municipality.
Figure 4 Elements of Integrated Solid Waste Management

MANAGEMENT OF SULLAGE WATER AND SEWAGE:

Sullage: This refers to the wastewater generated from bathrooms, kitchens, washing place and
wash basins, etc. Composition of this waste does not involve higher concentration of organic
matter and it is less polluted water as compared to sewage.
Sewage: It indicates the liquid waste originating from the domestic uses of water. It includes
sullage, discharge from toilets, urinals, wastewater generated from commercial establishments,
institutions, industrial establishments and also the groundwater and stormwater that may enter
into the sewers. Its decomposition produces large quantities of malodorous gases, and it contains
numerous pathogenic or disease producing bacteria, along with high concentration of organic
matter and suspended solids.
SOURCES OF SEWAGE
The wastewater generated from the household activities contributes to the major part of the
sewage. The wastewater generated from recreational activities, public utilities, commercial
complexes, and institutions is also discharged in to sewers. The wastewater discharged from
small and medium scale industries situated within the municipal limits and discharging partially
treated or untreated wastewater in to the sewers also contributes for municipal wastewater.
SEWAGE DISCHARGE
The quality of sewage and its characteristics show a marked range of hourly variation and hence
peak, average and minimum discharge are important considerations. The process loadings in the
sewage treatment are based on the daily average characteristics as determined from a 24 hours
weighted composite samples. In the absence of any data an average quantity of 150 LPCD may
be adopted for design. The hydraulic design load varies from component to component of the
treatment plant with all appurtenances, conduits, channels etc., being designed for the maximum
discharge, which may vary from 2.0 to 3.5 times the average discharge. Sedimentation tanks are
designed on the basis of average discharge, while consideration of both maximum and minimum
discharge is important in the design of screens and grit chambers. Secondary treatment is
generally designed for average discharge, with sufficient safety margin to accommodate the peak
discharge.
EFFECT OF UNTREATED WASTEWATER DISPOSAL
The daily activities of human beings produce both liquid and solid wastes. The liquid portion of
the wastewater is necessarily the water supplied by the authority or through private water
sources, after it has fouled by variety of uses. The sources of wastewater generation can be
defined as a combination of the liquid or water-carried wastes removed from residences,
institutions, and commercial and industrial establishments, together with groundwater, surface
water, and storm water as may be present.If the untreated wastewater is allowed to accumulate, it
will lead to highly unhygienic conditions. The organic matter present in the wastewater will
undergo decomposition with production of large quantities of malodorous gases. If the
wastewater is discharged without treatment in the water body, this will result in the depletion of
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) from the water bodies. Due to depletion of DO, the survival of aquatic
life will become difficult, finally leading to anaerobic conditions in the receiving waters. The
nutrients present in the wastewater can stimulate the growth of aquatic plants, leading to
problems like eutrophication.In addition, the untreated domestic wastewater usually contains
numerous pathogenic or disease causing microorganisms, that dwell in the human intestinal tract
or it may be present in certain industrial wastewaters. Apart from this, the wastewater contains
inorganic gritty materials. The continuous deposition of this inorganic material may reduce the
capacity of water body considerably over a period.
OBJECTIVES OF SEWAGE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL
The objective of sewage collection and disposal is to ensure that sewage discharged from
communities is properly collected, transported, treated to the required degree so as not to cause
danger to human health or unacceptable damage to the natural environment and finally disposed
off without causing any health or environmental problems. Thus, efficient sewerage scheme can
achieve the following:
• To provide a good sanitary environmental condition of city protecting public health.
• To dispose the human excreta to a safe place by a safe and protective means.
• To dispose of all liquid waste generated from community to a proper place to prevent a
favorable condition for mosquito breeding, fly developing or bacteria growing.
• To treat the sewage, as per needs, so as not to endanger the body of water or groundwater or
land to get polluted where it is finally disposed off. Thus, it protects the receiving environment
from degradation or contamination.
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
The treatment and safe disposal of wastewater is necessary. This will facilitate protection of
environment and environmental conservation, because the wastewater collected from cities and
towns must ultimately be returned to receiving water body or to the land or reused to fulfill
certain needs. The sewage treatment plants constructed near the end of nineteenth century were
designed to remove suspended matter alone by the principal of simple gravity settling. It soon
became apparent that primary treatment alone was insufficient to protect the water quality of the
receiving water body. This was mainly due to the presence of organic material, in colloidal and
dissolved form, in the sewage after settling. Thus, in the beginning of twentieth century several
treatment systems, called secondary treatment, were developed with the objective of organic
matter removal. For this secondary treatment, biological methods are generally used. The aerobic
biological treatment processes were popularly used as a secondary treatment, and these processes
are still at the first choice. In the second half of twentieth century, it became clear that the
discharge of effluents from even the most efficient secondary treatment plant could lead to the
deterioration of the quality of receiving water body. This could be attributed partly to the
discharge of ammonia in the effluent. In the receiving water body this discharge exerts an
oxygen demand for the biological oxidation of ammonia to nitrate, a process called nitrification.
However, even when nitrification is carried out at the treatment plant itself, the discharge of
effluent can still be detrimental to the water quality due to introduction of nitrogen in the form of
nitrate and phosphorus as phosphate. The tolerance limits of nitrates for the water when used as
raw water for public water supplies and bathing ghats is 50 mg/L as NO3. The availability of
nitrogen and phosphorous tends to cause an excessive growth of aquatic life notably, autotrophic
organisms such as algae, that can use carbon dioxide rather than organic material as a sources for
cell synthesis. Thus, explosive development of biomass may occur when nitrogen and
phosphorus are abundantly available. Although, this biomass may produce photosynthetic
oxygen in the water during daytime, after sunset it will consume oxygen, so that the dissolved
oxygen concentration will decrease and may reach to the levels that are too low to sustain the life
of other (macro) organisms. This phenomenon of eutrophication has led to the development of
tertiary treatment systems. In these, nitrogen and/or phosphorus are removed, along with solids
and organic materials. Once the minimum effluent quality has been specified, for maximum
allowable concentrations of solids (both suspended and dissolved), organic matter, nutrients, and
pathogens, the objective of the treatment is to attain reliably the set standards. The role of design
engineer is to develop a treatment scheme that will guarantee the technical feasibility of the
scheme, taking into consideration other factors such as construction and maintenance costs, the
availability of construction materials and equipment, as well as specialized skilled personals for
operation and maintenance of the treatment plant. Primary treatment consists of screens (for
removal of floating matter), grit chamber (for removal of inorganic suspended solids) and
primary sedimentation tank (for removal residual settlable solids which are mostly organic).
Skimming tanks may be used for removal of oils; however, in conventional treatment plant no
separate skimming tank is used and oil removal is achieved by collecting the scum in primary
sedimentation tank. This primary treatment alone will not produce an effluent with an acceptable
residual organic material concentration. Almost invariably biological methods are used in the
treatment systems to effect secondary treatment for removal of organic material. In biological
treatment systems, the organic material is metabolized by bacteria. Depending upon the
requirement for the final effluent quality, tertiary treatment methods and/or pathogen removal
may be included.Today majority of wastewater treatment plants uses aerobic metabolism for the
removal of organic matter. The popularly used aerobic processes are the activated sludge
process, oxidation ditch, trickling filter, and aerated lagoons. Stabilization ponds use both the
aerobic and anaerobic mechanisms. In the recent years, due to increase in power cost and
subsequent increase in operation cost of aerobic processes, more attention is being paid for the
use of anaerobic treatment systems for the treatment of wastewater including sewage. Recently
the high anaerobic process such as Up flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) reactor is used
for sewage treatment at many places. Depending on the mode of disposal the tertiary treatment
may be given for killing pathogens, nutrient removal, suspended solids removal, etc. Generally
secondary treatment followed by disinfection will meet the effluent standards for disposal into
water bodies. When the treated sewage is disposed off on land for irrigation, the level of
disinfection needs will depend on the type of secondary treatment and type of crops with
restricted or unrestricted public access.