FINITE ELEMENT SIMULATION OF 3D

DRILLING

1. Introduction

Drilling is an operation of making hole by removing a volume of metal from the job by a
rotating cutting tool called drill. A drill is a rotary end-cutting tool with one or more cutting lips
and usually one or more flutes for the passage of chips and the admission of cutting fluids.

Drilling is probably the most important conventional mechanical process and it's the most
widely used machining operations. A hole drilling process named drilling is basically important
because it accounts for major portion of overall machining process. In the aviation or automobile
industries, for instance, large numbers of holes have to be drilled due to their final assembly
requirement. In addition, drilling problems can account to expensive production waste because
many drilling operations are usually among the final stages in manufacturing a part. In spite of
the advancement in scientific techno logy the demand for economically producing holes, drilling
and drill manufacturing, still remains a complex and difficult task to accomplish. Some of the
widespread problems that are encountered in drilling include: unnecessary forces that lead to
reduced drill life; drill fracture; burr formation in metals and delaminating in fiber-reinforced
composites; drill wander; and vibrations that affect surface finish and dimensional accuracy.
Thus, the hole quality becomes a serious concern. Many of these hole quality problems can be
accredited to the forces generated during drilling. The process of drilling involves complex
contacts and undergoes major changes such as material damage, heat generation, plasticity and
friction.

Emerging from the aerospace industry, lightweight design and engineering has gained an
increasing importance. The main objective in many industries is to improve the ratio of
performance and weight. Composite materials clearly satisfy this objective. Because of their high
cost, it was once justified only for high end applications such as aerospace, defense, etc. But
nowadays there are finding an increasing use in consumer end applications because of their
cheap manufacturing methods. Jain (1993) found that some studies have focused on general
aspects of machining, while several studies have emphasized drilling of composites. Producing

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holes in composites is a more complicated process than in metals. Drilling composites presents
different problems from those encountered in drilling metals. Major problems encountered
during drilling composites are delamination, tool wear and surface roughness. Cutting force is a
phenomenon that is directly related to these problems. Many researches are being conducted to
find the relations between cutting forces and other parameters while drilling a composite. Koenig
and Grass (1985) proposed that thrust force is the major cause for delamination. Hocheng and
Tsao (2003) developed a series of analytical models for various drills (saw drill, core drill,
sandlestick drill and step drill) for correlating the thrust force on the onset of delamination.
Budan and Vijayarangan (2002) proposed a finite element model to predict the effect of fiber
percentage on the thrust force causing delamination. Thangaraj and Langenstein (2002) studied
the static and dynamic characteristics of hole quality measures and drilling forces under various
cutting conditions. Lin and Chen (1995) studied the effect of tool wear on drill geometries when
drilling fiber reinforced composite materials and also discussed the effects of tool wear on
cutting mechanism.
More recent developments in drilling models have utilized either a mechanistic or a finite
element approach. Chandrasekharan (1998) and Gong Ehmann (2001) have developed
mechanistic drilling models. Fuh (1987) explored the finite element method for drilling. The
model that incorporates the makes the drill designs a complex task for a specific application in a
timely and cost effective manner. To solve this problem a finite element model of the drilling
was developed in this thesis. This thesis will integrate commercial CAD/CAE/FEA software
environments in generating a drill, developing finite element model, and analyzing. This will
facilitate the rapid design of drills and also will predict its cutting forces using mechanistic
equation. Finite element method can provide a unified approach for drilling and other metal
cutting processes. But the absence of computer aided models/finite element.

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1.1 Drill Definition

A drill is a multi point cutting tool used to produce or enlarge a hole in the work piece. It usually
consists of two cutting edges set an angle with the axis. Broadly there are three types of drills:
1. Flat drill,
2. Straight-fluted drill and
3. Twist drill.
Flat drill is usually made from a piece of round steel which is forged to shape and ground to size,
then hardened and tempered. The cutting angle is usually 90 deg. and the relief or clearance at
the cutting edge is 3 to 8 deg. The disadvantage of this type of drill is that each time when the
drill is ground then its diameter is reduced. Twist drill is the most common type of drill in use
today. The various types of twist drills (parallel shank type and Morse taper shank type) are
shown in Fig. 1.1

Fig. 1.1 Type of twist drill

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1.2 Number sizes

In metric system, the drill is generally manufactured from 0.2 to 100 mm. In British
system the drills sizes range from No.1 to No. 80. Number 80 is the smallest having diameter
equal to 0.0135 inch and the number 1 is the largest having diameter equal to 0.228 inch.
Number 1 to number 60 is the standard sets of drills. The numbers 61 to 80 sizes drills are not so
commonly used. The diameter of drills increases in steps of approximately by 0.002 inch.

1.3 Letter size

The drill sizes range from A to Z, A being the smallest having diameter equal to 0.234
inch and Z being the largest having diameter equal to 0.413 inch, increasing in steps of
approximately 0.010 inch fractional sizes: The drill sizes range from 1/64" inch to 5 inch in steps
of 1/64 inches up to 1.75 inches, then the steps gradually increase. The drill sizes range from A
to Z, A being the smallest having diameter equal to 0.234 inch and Z being the largest having
diameter equal to 0.413 inch, increasing in steps of approximately 0.010 inch fractional sizes.
The drill sizes range from 1/64" inch to 5 inch in steps of 1/64 inches up to 1.75 inches, and then
the steps gradually increase. The drill is generally removed by tapping a wedge shaped drift into
the slot in the drilling machine spindle as shown in 'Fig. 1.2

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Fig 1.2. Removing a drill from a drill machine

1.4 Twist Drill Geometry

The geometry and nomenclature of a twist drill are shown in Fig. 1.3 a twist drill has three
principal parts:
(i) Drill point or dead center
(ii) Body
(iii) Shank.
Other nomenclature points are discussed as under.

Drill axis is the longitudinal centre line.

Drill point is the sharpened end of the drill body consisting of all that part which is shaped to
produce lips, faces and chisel edge.

Lip or cutting edge is the edge formed by the intersection of the flank and face.

Lip length is the minimum distance between the outer corner and the chisel-edge corner of the
lip.

Face is that portion of the flute surface adjacent to the lip on which the chip impinges as it is cut
from the work.

Chisel edge is the edge formed by the intersection of the flanks.

Flank is that surface on a drill point which extends behind the lip to the following flute.

Flutes are the grooves in the body of the drill, which provide lips, allow the removal of chips,
and permit cutting fluid to reach the lips.

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Flute length is the axial length from the extreme end of the point to the termination of the flutes
at the shank end of the body.

Body is that portion of the drill nomenclature, which extends from the extreme cutting end to the
beginning of the shank.

Shank is that portion of the drill by which it is held and driven.

Heel is the edge formed by the intersection of the flute surface and the body clearance.

Body clearance is that portion of the body surface reduced in diameter to provide diametric
clearance.

Core or web is the central portion of the drill situated between the roots of the flutes and
extending from the point end towards the shank; the point end of the core forms the chisel edge.

Lands are the cylindrically ground surfaces on the leading edges of the drill flutes. The width of
the land is measured at right angles to the flute.
Recess is the portion of the drill body between the flutes and the shank provided so as to
facilitate the grinding of the body. Parallel shank drills of small diameter are not usually
provided with a recess.
Outer corner is the corner formed by the intersection of the lip and the leading edge of the land.

Chisel edge comer is the corner formed by the intersection of a lip and the chisel edge.

Drill diameter is the measurement across the cylindrical lands at the outer corners of

Lead of helix is the distance measured parallel to the drill axis between corresponding points on
the leading edge of a flute in one complete turn of the flute.

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Helix angle is the angle between the leading edge of the land and the drill axis.

Rake angle is the angle between the face and a line parallel to the drill axis. It is bigger at the
face edges and decreases towards the center of the drill to nearly 0°. The result is that the
formation of chips grows more un-favorable towards the centre.

Lip clearance angle is the angle formed by the flank and a plane at right angles to the drill axis;
the angle is normally measured at the periphery of the drill. To make sure that the main cutting
edges can enter into the material, the clearance faces slope backwards in a curve. The clearance
angle is measured at the face edge, must amount to 5° up to 8°.

Point angle is the included angle of the cone formed by the lips.

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1.3 Geometry and nomenclature of twist drill

1.5 Drill Material

Drills are made are made up of high speed steel. High speed steel is used for about 90 per
cent of all twist drills. For metals more difficult to cut, HSS alloys of high cobalt series are used.

1.6 OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON DRIlLLING MACHINE

A drill machine is versatile machine tool. A number of operations can be performed on it.
Some of the operations that can be performed on drilling machines are:

1. Drilling 2. Reaming
3. Boring 4. Counter boring
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5. Countersinking 6. Spot facing

7. Tapping 8. Lapping
9. Grinding 10. Trepanning.

The operations that are commonly performed on drilling machines are drilling, reaming,
lapping, boring, counter-boring, counter-sinking, spot-facing, and tapping. These operations are
discussed as under.

1.6.1 Drilling

This is the operation of making a circular hole by removing a volume of metal from the job by a
rotating cutting tool called drill as shown in Fig. 1.4. Drilling removes solid metal from the job to
produce a circular hole. Before drilling, the hole is located by drawing two lines at right angle
and a center punch is used to make an indentation for the drill point at the center to help the drill
in getting started. A suitable drill is held in the drill machine and the drill machine is adjusted to
operate at the correct cutting speed. The drill machine is started and the drill starts rotating.
Cutting fluid is made to flow liberally and the cut is started. The rotating drill is made to feed
into the job. The hole, depending upon its length, may be drilled in one or more steps. After the
drilling operation is complete, the drill is removed from the hole and the power is turned off.

Fig 1.4 Drilling Operation

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1.6.2 Reaming
This is the operation of sizing and finishing a hole already made by a drill. Reaming is performed
by means of a cutting tool called reamer as shown in fig.1.5. Reaming operation serves to make
the hole smooth, straight and accurate in diameter. Reaming operation is performed by means of
a multitooth tool called reamer. Reamer possesses several cutting edges on outer periphery and
may be classified as solid reamer and adjustable reamer.

Fig 1.5 Reaming Operation

1.6.3 Boring

Fig. 1.6 Shows the boring operation where enlarging a hole by means of adjustable cutting tools
with only one cutting edge is accomplished. A boring tool is employed for this purpose.

Fig 1.6 Boring Operation

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1.6.5 Counter-Boring
Counter boring operation is shown in Fig. 1.7 It is the operation of enlarging the end of a hole
cylindrically, as for the recess for a counter-sunk rivet. The tool used is known as counter-bore.

Fig 1.7 Counters Boring Operation

1.6.6 Counter-Sinking
Counter-sinking operation is shown in Fig. 1.8. This is the operation of making a cone shaped
enlargement of the end of a hole, as for the recess for a flat head screw. This is done for
providing a seat for counter sunk heads of the screws so that the latter may flush with the main
surface of the work.

Fig 1.8 Counter Sinking Operation

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1.6.7 Lapping

This is the operation of sizing and finishing a hole by removing very small amounts of material
by means of an abrasive. The abrasive material is kept in contact with the sides of a hole that is
to be lapped, by the use of a lapping tool.

1.6.8 Spot-Facing

This is the operation of removing enough material to provide a flat surface around a hole to
accommodate the head of a bolt or a nut. A spot-facing tool is very nearly similar to the counter-
bore.

1.6.9 Tapping

Fig. 1.9 shows the operation of cutting internal threads by using a tool called a tap. A tap is
similar to a bolt with accurate threads cut on it. To perform the tapping operation, a tap is
screwed into the hole by hand or by machine. The tap removes metal and cuts internal threads,
which will fit into external threads of the same size. For all materials except cast iron, a little
lubricate oil is applied to improve the action. The tap is not turned continuously, but after every
half turn, it should be reversed slightly to clear the thread.

Fig 1.9 Tapping Operation

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1.7 CUTTING SPEED IN DRILLING OPERATION

The cutting speed in a drilling operation refers to the peripheral speed of a point on a surface of
the drill in contact with the work. It is usually expressed in meters/min. the cutting speed (C s)
may be calculated as:
Cs = [(22/7) ×D×N]/1000

Where, D is diameter of drill in mm and

N is the rpm of the drill spindle.

1.8 FEED IN DRILLING OPERATION

The feed of the drill is the distance the drill moves into the job at each revolution of the spindle.
It is expressed in millimeters. The feed may also be expressed as feed per minute. The feed per
minute may be defined as the axial distance moved by drill into the work per minute, and is
calculated as:
F = Fr × N
Where, F is feed per minute in mm.
Fr is feed per revolution in mm.
N is R.P.M of the drill.

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Polymer-based composite materials, by their very nature, pose a challenge during

secondary machining operations. Even though in most applications involving composite
materials, parts are made to their near net shapes, they require some final machining operations
to bring the components to their required dimensional accuracy for final assembly. Thus, an
important aspect of manufacturing technology in machining is to obtain parts that confer with the
required geometrical and dimensional tolerances. Some of the final machining operations involve
drilling, sawing, trimming and grinding. The most important kind of surface damage observed in
machining polymer based composite materials is delamination. Many methods for drilling
composite materials are suggested. These include conventional and non-conventional processes.
Laser assisted drilling, water jet, EDM and ultrasonic machining are some of the most
extensively investigated non-conventional methods. However, their disadvantages include a
heat-affected zone and lower rate of production. Considering these shortcomings, conventional
machining processes still find a wider acceptance for machining composite materials and, in
particular, polymer-based matrix materials.

2.1 Composite Materials

The traditional materials can be classified into three major categories known as metals,
ceramics and polymers. Composites are structures in which two (or more) materials are
combined to produce a new material whose properties would not be attainable by conventional
means. In composites two or more monolithic materials are combined in order to take advantage
of the favorable properties of the individuals. Composites are composed of two phases, namely,
matrix and reinforcement. These two phases are combined at macro levels, which are insoluble
in each other and provide the advantage and favorable characteristics of each as explained
earlier. The reinforcement in a composite material acts as the main load bearing component and
the matrix acts as a medium to distribute the applied load to the reinforcement. FRPs (fiber
reinforced polymers) are composites composed of fibers as reinforcement and polymer as the
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matrix. In general these FRPs are available in laminate form. FRPs are manufactured in laminate
form by stacking a number of thin layers of fibers and polymer matrix to a desired thickness. By
controlling the stacking sequence and orientation of fiber in each layer different ranges of
physical and mechanical properties can be obtained. Composites have the edge over metals and
alloys, because it can be manufactured with properties according to the need of their
applications. Ramkumar (2002) found that a composite part has two primary elements which are
the reinforcement, and the matrix, or the resin system. It's important that the strength of a
composite part is contributed by the reinforcement, not the matrix, although the matrix does it's
necessary part in holding everything together, it distributes the load among the fibers via shear
mechanisms, and provides nearly all "z" direction (through the thickness) and inter laminar
(shear) integrity to laminates. These properties make FRPs to be highly demanded in industries
like aerospace, automotive and ship building.

2.2 Surface Quality in drilling composites

Surface finish plays a vital role in many areas like meeting the dimensional accuracy and also it
has great importance in evaluation of machining accuracy. Reliability of the machined
component is largely dependent on surface quality, especially for high- strength applications. In
FRP machining the term quality is based on two main aspects; surface topography and
machining damage. Surface topography is characterized by surface roughness and machining
damage is characterized by delamination. Formation of surface geometry is function of tool
geometry, kinematic effects of the tool relative to the work, machine tool rigidity and chip
formation mechanisms. Unlike metals, the micro geometry of machined FRP is less regular and
it is usually rougher as the material is more inhomogeneous. The parameters used to characterize
a machined surface fall into three categories; they are average roughness heights (deterministic
method), statistical parameters such as skewness, kurtosis and frequency height distributions, and
random process methods like auto covariance, autocorrelation functions and power spectrum.
While drilling unidirectional laminates, Abrate (1992) found that surface quality of the hole
varied noticeably around the circumference of the hole. Hole quality mainly depends on the
mechanical properties of the reinforcing fibers. Studies show, that surface roughness was mostly
influenced by feed rate, depth of tool engagement and the work piece thickness. Thangaraj
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(1990) studied the connection between hole quality and drilling forces. He found a strong
correlation between surface roughness parameters and surface speeds. The chip formation
process during drilling composites was studied by Lin (1995). The process depends on three
material removal mechanisms namely cutting, ploughing and abrasion. The increase in thrust
force improved the happening of delamination. Delamination is considered the major concerns of
applying the fiber reinforced composite materials in various industries. Numerous studies have
examined the delamination of drilling. Abrate (1992) and Hocheng (1990) studied about the
delamination during drilling in composites. Both found that delamination occurred both at the
exit as well as the entrance. There existed two distinguishable mechanisms which are major
cause for delamination. They are called push-out at exit and peel-up at entrance. These
mechanisms are shown in figure 2.1.

a) Peel-up at entrance b) Push-out at exit

Fig 2.1 Mechanisms in delamination during drilling (Hocheng, 1990).

Most of the research correlates the drill geometry and feed rate to the produced delamination
which leads to severe reduction of load carrying 'capacity of the composite part. Tagiaferri
(1990) studied the effects of machining parameters and tool conditions on the damage, [mish and
mechanical properties of fiber reinforced composite materials. A close relationship was
confirmed between the thrust force and damage amount. It was also found that damage zone's
width is correlated to the ratio between drilling speed and feed rate. Production rate will certainly
increase by increasing the cutting speed. In drilling metals, it has already been found that the

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cutting force may decrease with the increase of the cutting speed. Lin (1996) showed that the
average thrust force increases with the increase in cutting speed. He used both multifaceted and
twist drill bits in his experiments. He concluded that twist drill had a superior performance than
multifaceted drill in the range examined. Many researches had been conducted in predicting the
cutting forces since they are one of the major reasons for delamination and hole quality. Koenig
(1985) found that there is a "critical thrust force" below which no damage occurs. In order to
analyze the delamination in fiber reinforced material Hocheng (1990) used a fracture mechanics
approach. His analysis predicted the critical thrust force above which delamination is initiated
which also actually relates the delamination to drilling parameters and composite material
properties.

FA=π [
( 8G IC E h ) 1/2
3

]
3 ( 1−v )
2

where FA is the applied thrust force, E is the young's modulus, G is energy release rate per unit
area, h is the uncut depth under tool and v is Poisson's ratio. The derivation for the formula 2.1 is
given in the Appendice B. They also developed a series of analytical models for various drills
(candle stick drill, saw drill, core drill and step drill) for correlating the thrust force at the onset
of delamination.A static force model for drills with various geometrical parameters was reported
by Stephenson(1992). Ehmann(1997) reviewed dynamic cutting models in drilling. Zhang (2001)
predicted the critical thrust force using a closed form mechanical model in which delamination is
initiated at different ply location. Budan (2002) proposed a finite element analysis model to
predict the effect of fiber percentage on the thrust force causing delamination.

2.3 TOOL WEAR IN DRILLING COMPOSITES

Tool wear during the machining of composite materials occurs in a number of different ways.
Malhotra (1990) suggested that the high mechanical resistance of fibers and greater abrasiveness
in composite materials are the most influencing factors in excessive tool wear. Furthermore,
composite materials differs in their physical, mechanical, and machining properties, which
largely depend upon factors such as fiber material, fiber orientation, matrix material variability,
and the ratio of matrix-to-fiber reinforcement. It was found that thrust force, chisels edge wear
and flank edge wear increase with the number of holes. This is shown in Figure 2.2.
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Fig 2.2 Tool wear and thrust force versus number of holes (Malhotra, 1990).

Using high speed steel drill bit it was found that both torque and thrust force are higher in
carbon fiber composite than glass fiber composite. According to Wen chou (1997), In machining
of composites there is no particular form of wear that truly indicates the tool condition. In
machining of metals the most depicting form of wear that indicates the tool condition is that of
flank wear and thus is used extensively to depict the tool life in composite machining also the
process parameters like cutting speed, feed rate, cutting distance and depth of cut have a huge
impact on the tool wear. Lin (1995) studied effects of drilling speed as well as other cutting
parameters such as feed rate and drilled length in drilling composites. It was found that the thrust
force was extensively increased as the cutting force increased and also there was a change in drill
geometry because of tool wear. He suggested that the drastic increase in thrust force during
drilling was majorly influenced by the worn out drill. The effect of various drill parameters on
cutting forces are shown in the figure 2.3.

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Fig 2.3 Effects of various drill parameters on cutting forces (Lin, 1995).

In another experimental study conducted by Ramkumar (2002) it was found that the
performance of coated high speed steel bits are less than that of uncoated drill bits. This was due
to the peeling nature of base material. Chen (1996) examined the tool wear and drilling
parameters on cutting force variations in CFRP composites. He introduced the concept of
delamination factor. It was found that the delamination factor increased with increasing flank
wear of the drill because of the thrust force induced in drilling. Also based on the observed
results in his studies, it can be inferred that in the machining of CFRP composite materials, tool
wear was less influenced by the high temperature generation at higher cutting speed.

2.4 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD IN DRILLING COMPOSITES

The finite element method (FEM) has been extensively used to study the drilling process. The
finite element method can provide unified approach for drilling and other metal cutting
processes. Fuh (1987) explored the use of [mite element method for drilling. A [mite element
model for delamination propagation in composites was developed by Hitchings (1994). Their
method was based on fracture mechanics assumptions for delamination cracks and uses a strain
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energy release rate criterion. A drill CAD module was developed and integrated with FEA model
of drilling burr formation process through CAD interface. A [mite element approach was used by
Shatla and Altan (2000) to determine drilling torque and thrust force, and by Bono and NI (2001,
2002) to predict the drill heat flux, temperatures and the thermal distortions of drill holes.
Strenkowski (2004) developed an analytical finite element technique for predicting the thrust
force and torque in drilling with twist drills. The approach was based on representing the cutting
forces along the cutting lips as a series of oblique sections. Only recently the Arbitrary Eulerian
Lagrangian (ALE) capability in LS-DYNA Hallquist (1998) has become feasible for analyzing
machining processes. Madhavan (1999) used ALE analysis of 3D machining. Strenkowski
(1996, 2002) developed a model of three-dimensional cutting for predicting three-dimensional
tool forces and the chip flow angle. The approach consists of coupling an orthogonal finite
element cutting model with an analytical model of three-dimensional cutting. Honnann (2004)
introduced the ALE concept in composites. Rajesh (2005) discussed the challenges and
methodology of using the LS-DYNA's ALE capability for the simulation of 3D drilling. They
recorded the thrust forces generated from the drilling simulation of metals and compared with
experimental results. When compared to 3D machining simulation, there has not been much
research done on the finite element simulation of 3D drilling of composites.

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2.4 Chapter Summary

Research in predicting thrust and torque in drilling has been present for several years. It was
found that surface quality and tool wear during drilling composites were mainly influenced by
the generated cutting forces. The relation between the cutting forces and surface quality, tool
wear were discussed. Finite element analysis has been very widely used in the modeling of the
drilling process and the in the prediction of thrust forces. Most of them relied on the Lagrangian
formulation of FEA in simulating and predicting the forces. But these formulations have a main
drawback of mesh distortions.
Eulerian analyses were used to overcome this issue in which mesh is fixed in space and allows
flowing the material through the mesh, thereby avoiding problems of mesh distortion.
Combining these two formulations together to get the ALE formulation method, this overcomes
the boundary condition problem during the course of deformation. 3D simulation of drilling
metals was successfully done. With this new technique in LS-DYNA the process of drilling
composites and the thrust force prediction can be done successfully.

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3 MODELING TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

In this chapter various modeling tools used for the simulation of drilling process will be
explained. A CAD model of a complete High Speed Steel drill bit was modeled using
Pro/Engineer software. The work piece, a unidirectional composite material, was modeled using
MSC.PATRAN: a widely used pre-processor. Both the work piece and drill bit were then
converted into a finite element mesh using MSC.PATRAN. LS-DYNA was used to simulate the
drilling process. The process was simulated using the ALE capability of LS-DYNA. The
simulation results and thrust forces were viewed using LSPOST: Post-Processor for LS-DYNA.
The important features and the capability of the software’s are discussed in this chapter.

3.1 MSC PATRAN

MSC.Patran is one of the leading pre- and post processor for CAE simulation. The
program's advanced modeling and surfacing tools allow us to create a finite element model from
scratch. MSC. Patran's advanced CAD access tools lets anyone to work directly on their existing
CAD model. With direct access, MSC.Patran imports model geometry from other softwares
without modifications. Since no translation takes place, CAD geometry remains intact. After
geometry is imported, Patran can be used to define loads, boundary conditions, and material
properties. MSC.Patran provides an open, integrated, CAE environment for multi-disciplinary
design analysis. MSC.Patran includes a world-class pre- and postprocessor with analysis
modeling, analysis data integration, analysis simulation, and results evaluation capabilities.
MSC.Patran allows users to conceptualize, develop and test a product, using computer-based
simulation prior to making manufacturing and material commitments. It is an open software
system, used primarily in mechanical engineering analysis. It is comprised of the following
components: Engineering modeling functionalities which includes full set of geometric tools for
creating, modifying, and parameterizing model, extensive finite element modeling tools for
creating and modifying analysis models. Automatic meshing techniques for one- two-, and three-
dimensional (solid) geometries. Loads, boundary conditions (LBCs), and material properties
associated directly with geometry models as well as FEM models. Other interesting features in
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MSC.Patran are direct geometry access, analysis modules, and analysis preferences and results
visualization. Major manufacturers around the world use MSC.Patran as the basis for their
product improvement process, reducing or eliminating costly physical prototyping and testing.
By using MSC.Patran, engineers can create finite element models from their computer-aided
design (CAD) parts, submit these models for simulation, and visualize the simulated model
behavior. The results are then used to improve their product designs to better resist operating
loads, reduce weight or material, or have higher performance. No other CAE product has the
breadth and depth of functionality as MSC.Patran. It supports all leading CAD software and
analysis software programs. The software is fast, easy-to-use and highly customizable, enabling
engineers to create their models quickly and directly incorporate with other software programs
into their specific engineering processes. MSC.Patran provides an open, extensible computer-
aided engineering environment for multi-disciplinary design analysis, which is used to simulate
the product performance and manufacturing process. It provides direct access to geometry ITom
other CAD systems and standards, and customized interfaces to other analysis solvers. It
provides a range of meshing capabilities ITom fully automatic solid meshing to detailed node
and element editing. Loads and boundary conditions can be fully variational and may be
associated with the design geometry or the analysis idealization. The results visualization tools of
PATRAN enable the identification of critical information including minimums, maximums,
trends and correlations. Color, grouping and animation are also supported. All of these functions
can be customized to meet specific requirements using the programming capabilities of the
PATRAN Command language.
Using sophisticated geometry access tools, MSC PATRAN addresses many of the
traditional barriers to shared geometry including: topological incompatibilities, solid body
healing, mixed tolerances, and others. Once accessed, PATRAN provides a wealth of tools to
manipulate geometry, plus tools for building new geometry. Iso-surface and other advanced
visualization tools help speed and improve results evaluation. The use of color, grouping and
animation with high-speed database access allows you to interpret analysis data with new
understanding.

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3.2 LS-DYNA

Recently, because of increasing demands for improvement of safety and quality, simulation for
more complicated phenomenon on a larger-scale has been mandatory. LSDYNA is an explicit
three-dimensional, finite-element code for evaluating the large deformation dynamic response of
inelastic solids and structures. LS-DYNA is one of the codes developed at Livermore Software
Technology Corporation (LSTC). Its fully automated contact analysis and complicated features
have enabled users worldwide to solve successfully many complex problems. LS-DYNA has
many capabilities and has been used in many areas of analysis. LS-DYNA has many solution
procedures to simulate the physical behaviors of 3D structures: nonlinear dynamics, thermal,
failure crack propagation, contact, quasi-static, Eulerian, Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE),
fluid structure interaction, real-time acoustics, multi-physics coupling, etc. LS-DYNA has nearly
100 constitutive models to simulate a whole range of engineering materials from steels to
composites and soft foams to concrete. The new version 970 features updated models for shell
and solid elements including the new aluminum honeycomb materials. The code has an extensive
element library including membrane, thin-shell, thick-shell and solid formulations. The lower
order finite elements in LS-DYNA are accurate, efficient, simple and fast. For the under-
integrated shell and solid elements, zero-energy modes are controlled by either and hourglassing
viscosity or stiffness. Some important features of LS-DYNA are

1. Calculation of non-linear physical phenomenon in short time duration such as large

deformations, elastic-plastic and dynamic contact that other non-linear dynamics
programs are not able to manage.

2. Adoption of explicit solver for time stamp history allows to support complicated
phenomenon's such as crush, drop, plastic working, penetration/crack/fracture for which
the implicit solver does not offer sufficient capabilities.

3. A wide range of simulations and analysis, providing 2D/3D explicit scheme and 3D
implicit scheme. LS-DYNA has been extended to model fluid structure interaction
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problems and fluid problems by the introduction of arbitrary Lagrange-Eulerian and

Euler solution techniques. It also incorporates various new iteration schemes and a
penalty method for all rigid wall options to support an implicit solver. LS-DYNA can
read and use super elements in implicit applications. LS-DYNA is a general purpose
metaphysics simulation software package and is not limited to any particular type of
simulation. Many features in LS-DYNA can be combined in any given simulation to
model a extensive range of physical events. Complex geometries may be simulated with
many elements that undergo large deformations. For a given time step, an explicit codes
requires fewer computations per time step than an implicit one. This advantage is
especially dramatic in solid and shell elements.

3.3 ALE CAPABILITY IN LS-DYNA

In recent years numerical simulations have gathered on their significance and the recent
trends are changing from solving the individual problems to solving multi-physical problems by
considering all the interacting systems. Detailed modeling of coupled problems is of vital
importance to assure the dependability of dynamic simulations. Nonlinear finite element analysis
is an important component of today's computational Mechanics. Whereas no difference between
the material and the spatial configuration of a solid must be considered in a small deformation
analysis the selection of an appropriate configuration for the finite element mesh is important for
many of the large deformation problems. The modeling can essentially be done in four different
ways which are Pure Lagrangian, Pure Eulerian, Arbitrary Eulerian Lagrangian, and Smooth
Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH).
According to Alexander (2004), a solid mechanics problem is usually described by a
Lagrangian formulation. The problem is described with a high number of mass particles, where
the motion of every single particle is being observed in space and time. When the motion of all
the particles is known, the problem can be exactly defined. The Lagrangian formulation is very
simple and this can be used for one or only a few mass particles. However, the method becomes
very difficult and complex for description of high number of mass particles. In the Eulerian
formulation the problem is being observed at one point in space which does not follow the
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motion of the single particle. In one time step of several mass particles may pass the observed
point. The motion is accurately predicted in the moment of passing through the point. In the
observed point the field variables are time dependent. The fundamental difference between the
Lagrangian and the Eulerian formulation is that at the Lagrangian formulation the magnitudes x,
y and z are variable coordinates of a moving particle. At the Eulerian formulation those
coordinates represent steady coordinates of the defined field point.

(a) Lagrangian formulation (b) Eulerian formulation

Fig 3.1 Representation of different formulations (Alexander, 2004).

A keyword input provides a flexible and logically organized database that is simple to
understand. Similar functions are grouped together under the same keyword. For example, under
the keyword *ELEMENT are included solid, shell elements, spring elements, discrete dampers,
seat belts and lumped masses. A data block begins with a keyword followed by the data
pertaining to the keyword. The next keyword is encountered during the reading of the block data
defines the end of the block and beginning of a new block. A keyword must be left justified with
the "*,, contained in column one. A dollar sign "$" in column one precedes a comment and
causes the input line to be ignored. Data blocks are not a requirement for LS-DYNA but they can
be used to group nodes and elements for user convenience. The entire LS-DYNA input is order
independent with the exception of the optional keyword, * END, which defines the end of the
input stream. Then constitutive constants are defined in the * MAT section where constitutive
data is defined for all element types including solids, beams, shells, thick shells, and etc. A part
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defined with the * PART keyword has a unique part identifier, EOSID, and the hourglass control
identifier HGID. Since many elements in LS-DYNA use uniformly reduced numerical
integration, zero energy deformation modes may develop. These modes are controlled by
numerically by either an artificial stiffness or viscosity, which resists the formation of these
undesirable modes. The hourglass control can optionally be user specified using the input in the
*HOURGLASS section. The input data following each keyword can be input in free format. In
the case of free format commas, the formats must not be violated. The format of the input can
change from free to fixed anywhere in the input file.

List of references

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Bhatnagar, N., Naik, N.K., and N. Ramakrishnan, (1991) "Experimental Investigations in the
Drilling of CFRP Composites," Processing and Manufacturing of Composite Material, pp. 77-
92.

Bhattacharyya, D., and D.P.W. Horrigan, (1998), "Study of Hole Drilling in Kevlar
Composites," Composites Science and Technology, Vol. 58, pp. 267-283.

Chandrasekharan, V., S.G. Kapoor., and R.E. DeVor, (1995), " A Mechanistic Approach to
Predicting the Cutting Forces in Drilling: With Application to Fiberreinforced Composite
Materials," Journal of Engineering for Industry, Transactions of ASME, Vol. 117, pp. 559-570.

Dornfeld, D. A., and B.Y. Guo., (1998), "Integration of CAD of Drill with FEA of Drilling Burr
Formation," Technical Paper - Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Vol. 26, pp. 1-6.

Fischer, C.E., Chigurupathi, P., Oh, lY., and Y.L. Yin., (2003),"Recent Advances in Finite
Element Simulation of the Chip Forming Process," Proceedings of sixth CIRP International
Workshop of Modeling of Machining Operations, Hamilton, ON, Canada, pp. 164-172.

Hallquist, lO., (1998), "LS-DYNA3D Theoretical manual," Livermore Software Technology

Corporation.

Hinds, B.K., and G.M. Treanor., (2000), "Analysis of Stresses in Micro-drills Using the Finite
Element Method," International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Vol. 40, pp. 1443-
1456

Hitchings,D., Robinson,P., and F. Javidrad, (1994), "A Finite Element Model for Delamination
Propagation in Composites," Composites and Structures, Vo1.60, pp. 1093- 1104.

Ho-cheng, H., and Dharan, e.K.H., (1990), "Delamination during Drilling of Composite
Laminates," Journal of Engineering for Industry, Transactions of ASME, Vol.ll2, pp.236-239.
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Ho-cheng, H., Chao, Y.e., and H.Y. Puw, (1995), "A General Model for Thrust Force-induced
Delamination in Drilling of Composite Laminates" Machining of Advanced Materials, Vo1.208,
pp. 29 39.

Ho-cheng, H., and Tsao, e.e., (2005), "The Path towards Delamination-free Drillingof Composite
Materials,"Journal of MaterialsProcessing Technology,Vol. 167, pp. 251-264.

Jain, S., and Yang, D.C.H., (1993), "Effects of feedrate and chisel edge on delamination in
composite drilling," Journal of Engineering for Industry, Transactions of ASME, Vol.ll5,
pp.398-405.

Langella, A., Nele, L., and A. Maio, (2004), "A torque and thrust prediction model for drilling of
composite materials," Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing,Vol. 36, pp. 83
93.

Lin, S.C., Chen, I.K., (1996), "Drillingcarbon fiber-reinforcedcompositematerial at high speed,"

Wear, Vo1.l94, pp. 156-162.

Madhavan, N. R., Durairajan, B., and B. Bahr., (2002), "High speed drilling of A12024-
T3alloy", SAE General Aviation Technology conference, pp 21-29.

Madhavan, V., Olovsson, L., Swargam, S.c., and R. Agarwal., (1999), "Eulerian finite element
analysis of 3D Machining," Proceedings of the ASME, Fluids Engineering Division, pp. 149-
155.

Malhotra. S.K., (1990), "Some Studies of Drilling of Fibrous Composites," Journal of materials
processing technology, VoL24, pp. 291-300.

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Parthasarathy, R., and Bahr, B., (2005), "Finite Element Simulation of 3D Drilling Using an
Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian Approach," Department of Mechanical Engineering, Wichita
State University.

Point. N., Sacco, and E., (1996), "A Delamination Model for Laminated Composites,"
International Journal of Solids Structures, VoL33, pp.483-509.

Ramkumar, J., Malhotra, S.K., and R. Krishnamurthy, (2002), "Studies on Drilling of

Glass/epoxy Laminates using Coated High-speed Steel Drills," Materials and Manufacturing
Processes, voU7, pp. 213-222.

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