Air Pollution Determination Using Remote Sensing Technique 71

X

Air PoIIution Determination
Using Remote Sensing Technique

H. S. Lin, M. Z. Mal}afri, K. AlduIIah and C. }. Wong
Scncc| cf Pnqsics, Unitcrsi|i Sains Ma|aqsia
11800 USM, Pcnang, Ma|aqsia.

1. Introduction

LnvironnenlaI poIIulion lecone nore and nore serious due lo lodays deveIopnenl aII
around lhe vorId. LnvironnenlaI poIIulion is our concern novadays lecause aII lhe daiIy
aclivilies are reIaled lo lhe environnenl. In order lo ensure lhis silualion is under conlroI,
MaIaysias governnenl has aIready eslalIished a nelvork lhroughoul MaIaysia lo nonilor
lhis silualion. Air poIIulion is one of lhe nosl inporlanl environnenlaI prolIens, vhich
concenlrales noslIy in cilies. Air poIIulion in Asian cilies has grovn vilh lhe progressing
induslriaIizalion and urlanizalion. Air quaIily slandards oflen refer lo respiralIe suspended
parlicuIale naller (IM), leing aerosoIs vilh a dianeler snaIIer lhan 1O n (IM1O) (UNLI).
Iine parlicIes are of lhe grealesl concern since lhey are capalIe of leing easiIy lransporled
over Iong dislances on currenls of air. AIso, fine parlicIes nay le dravn inlo lhe respiralory
airvays vhere lhey nay adverseIy affecl heaIlh. RecenlIy, lhe allenlion of scienlisls has
leen dravn lovards sludying lhe IM2.5 fraclion and even snaIIer parlicIes, vhich can
penelrale lhe very deepesl parls of lhe Iung (LnvironnenlaI Iroleclion Service Taneside
MC CounciI Offices, 2OO8). The effecls of environnenlaI poIIulion in lhe sludy area are
shovn in Iigure 1. The oljeclive of air quaIily noniloring is lo ollain an eslinale of
poIIulanl (lolaI suspended parlicuIales TSI) concenlralions (Ung, el aI., 2OO1a, 2OO1l). Iirsl,
conpared lo alnospheric gases, aerosoI is highIy inhonogeneous and varialIe, lhal is,
aerosoI olservalions have lo le gIolaI and conlinuous. Second, lhe avaiIalIe accuracy of
aerosoI characlerizalion is oflen nol sufficienl. Ior inslance, in silu neasurenenls
lradilionaIIy considered as lhe nosl reIialIe olservalions are inappropriale for gIolaI
noniloring of aerosoI radialive forcing paranelers and usuaIIy do nol characlerize lhe
aerosoI in lhe lolaI alnospheric coIunn (Dulovik, el aI., 2OO2).
Renole sensing has leen videIy used for environnenlaI appIicalion such as for air quaIily
and valer quaIily sludies. ul lhe alnosphere affecls saleIIile inages of lhe Larlhs surface
in lhe soIar speclrun. So, lhe signaI olserve ly lhe saleIIile sensor vas lhe sun of lhe effecls
fron lhe ground and alnosphere. Tropospheric aerosoIs acl lo significanlIy aIler lhe Larlhs
radialion ludgel, lul quanlificalion of lhe change in radialion is difficuIl lecause
alnospheric aerosoI dislrilulions vary grealIy in lype, size, space and line (Ienner, el aI.
2OO2). Surface refIeclance is a key lo lhe relrievaI of alnospheric conponenls fron renoleIy
sensed dala. OplicaI alnospheric effecls nay infIuence lhe signaI neasured ly a renole
5
Advances in Geoscience and Remote Sensing 72

sensor in lvo vays: radionelricaIIy and geonelricaIIy. This neans lhal lhey can nodify lhe
signaIs inlensily lhrough scallering or alsorplion processes and ils direclion ly refraclion
(Sifakis and Deschanps, 1992).
The prolIen of parlicuIale poIIulion in lhe alnosphere has allracled a nev inleresl vilh lhe
recenl scienlific evidence of lhe iII-heaIlh effecls of snaII parlicIes. AerosoI oplicaI lhickness
in lhe visilIe (or alnospheric lurlidily), vhich is defined as lhe Iinear inlegraI of lhe
exlinclion coefficienl due lo snaII airlorne parlicIes, can le considered as an overaII air
poIIulion indicalor in urlan areas (Sifakis, el aI., 1998). Air poIIulion has Iong leen a
prolIen in lhe induslriaI nalions of lhe Wesl. Il has nov lecone an increasing source of
environnenlaI degradalion in lhe deveIoping nalions of Lasl Asia. The Iack of delaiIed
knovIedge of lhe oplicaI properlies of aerosoIs resuIls in aerosoI leing one of lhe Iargesl
uncerlainlies in cIinale forcing assessnenls. Moniloring of alnospheric aerosoI is a
fundanenlaIIy difficuIl prolIen. The prolIen of parlicuIale poIIulion in lhe alnosphere has
allracled a nev inleresl vilh lhe recenl scienlific evidence of lhe iII-heaIlh effecls of snaII
parlicIes. Air poIIulion is one of lhe nosl inporlanl environnenlaI prolIens, vhich
concenlrales noslIy in cilies. AerosoIs are Iiquid and soIid parlicIes suspended in lhe air
fron naluraI or nan-nade sources (Kaufnan, el aI., 1997).
The nain oljeclive of lhe presenl sludy is lo lesl lhe perfornance of our proposed aIgorilhn
for napping IM1O using Landsal saleIIile inages. In silu neasurenenls vere needed for
aIgorilhn caIilralion. We used a DuslTrak AerosoI Monilor 852O lo coIIecl lhe in silu dala.
We coIIecled lhe IM1O dala sinuIlaneousIy during lhe saleIIile Landsal overpass lhe sludy
area. An aIgorilhn vas deveIoped lo delernine lhe IM1O concenlralion on lhe earlh
surface. The efficiency of lhe proposed aIgorilhn vas delernined lased on lhe correIalion
coefficienl (R) and rool-nean-squares devialion, RMS. IinaIIy, lhe IM1O nap vas generaled
using lhe proposed aIgorilhn. In addilion, lhe IM1O nap vas aIso geonelricaIIy correcled
and coIour-coded for visuaI inlerprelalion.


efore
Air Pollution Determination Using Remote Sensing Technique 73


(a)
Source: vincenlchov, 2OO9


Source: The DigilaI Avakening-Haze in Ienang
Afler
efore
Advances in Geoscience and Remote Sensing 74


(l)
Source: The DigilaI Avakening-Haze in Ienang Updale - 1O.48an
Iig. 1. Air poIIulion vas found al (a) Kuching and (l) Ienang, MaIaysia

2. Remote Sensing

Renole sensing is a lechnique for coIIecling infornalion aloul lhe earlh vilhoul laking a
physicaI sanpIe of lhe earlhs surface or louching lhe surface using sensors pIaced on a
pIalforn al a dislance fron il. A sensor is used lo neasure lhe energy refIecled fron lhe
earlh. This infornalion can le dispIayed as a digilaI inage or as a pholograph. Sensors can
le nounled on a saleIIile orliling lhe earlh, or on a pIane or olher airlorne slruclure.
ecause of lhis energy requirenenl, passive soIar sensors can onIy caplure dala during
dayIighl hours. The najor appIicalions of renole sensing incIude environnenlaI poIIulion,
Iand cover/use napping, urlan pIanning, and earlh nanagenenl. We have lo undersland
lhe lasic concepl of eIeclronagnelic vaves veII enough for appIying lo lhe renole sensing
lechniques in our sludies. We cIassify eIeclronagnelic energy ly ils vaveIenglh. This
eIeclronagnelic radialion gives an energy source lo iIIuninale lhe largel excepl lhe sensed
energy lhal is leing enilled ly lhe largel (Iigure 2).

Afler
Air Pollution Determination Using Remote Sensing Technique 75


Iig. 2. Renole sensing inslrunenl (}ensen, 2OO6)

There are lvo lasic lypes of sensors: passive and aclive sensors (Iigure 3). Iassive renole
sensors delecl refIecled energy fron lhe sun lack lo lhe sensor, lhey do nol enil energy
ilseIf. ul aclive sensors can enil energy or provide ils ovn source of energy and delecl lhe
refIecled energy lack fron lhe largel.
Advances in Geoscience and Remote Sensing 76


(a)


(l)
Iig. 3. (a) Iassive sensor and (l) Aclive sensor (IundanenlaIs of Renole Sensing -
hllp://vvv.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/resource/lulor/fundan/pdf/fundanenlaIs_e.pdf.)

3. Study Area

The sludy area is lhe Ienang IsIand, MaIaysia, Iocaled vilhin Ialiludes 5
o
9 N lo 5
o
33 N
and Iongiludes 1OO
o
O9 L lo 1OO
o
3O L. The nap of lhe sludy area is shovn in Iigure 4.
Ienang IsIand is Iocaled in equaloriaI region and enjoys a varn equaloriaI vealher lhe
vhoIe year. Therefore, il is inpossilIe lo gel lhe 1OO cIoud free saleIIile inage over
Ienang IsIand. ul, lhe saleIIile inage chosen is Iess lhan 1O of cIoud coverage over lhe
sludy area. Ienang IsIand Iocaled on lhe norlhvesl coasl of IeninsuIar MaIaysia.
Ienang is one of lhe 13 slales of lhe MaIaysia and lhe second snaIIesl slale in MaIaysia afler
IerIis. The slale is geographicaIIy divided inlo lvo differenl enlilies - Ienang IsIand (or
IuIau Iinang in MaIay Language) and a porlion of nainIand caIIed Selerang Ierai in
MaIay Language. Ienang IsIand is an isIand of 293 square kiIonelres Iocaled in lhe Slrails of
MaIacca and Selerang Ierai is a narrov hinlerIand of 753 square kiIonelres (Ienang-
Air Pollution Determination Using Remote Sensing Technique 77

Wikipedia, 2OO9). The isIand and lhe nainIand are Iinked ly lhe 13.5 kn Iong Ienang
ridge and ferry.
Ienang IsIand is predoninanlIy hiIIy lerrain, lhe highesl poinl leing Weslern HiII (parl of
Ienang HiII) al 83O nelres alove sea IeveI. The lerrain consisls of coaslaI pIains, hiIIs and
nounlains. The coaslaI pIains are narrov, lhe nosl exlensive of vhich is in lhe norlheasl
vhich forns a lrianguIar prononlory vhere Ceorge Tovn, lhe slale capilaI, is silualed. The
lopography of Selerang Ierai is noslIy fIal. ullervorlh, lhe nain lovn in Selerang
Ierai, Iies aIong lhe Ierai River esluary and faces Ceorge Tovn al a dislance of 3 kn (2
niIes) across lhe channeI lo lhe easl (Ienang-Wikipedia, 2OO9).
The Ienang IsIand cIinale is lropicaI, and il is hol and hunid lhroughoul lhe year. vilh lhe
average nean daiIy lenperalure of aloul 27oC and nean daiIy naxinun and nininun
lenperalure ranging lelveen 31.4
o
C and 23.5
o
C respecliveIy. Hovever, lhe individuaI
exlrenes are 35.7
o
C and 23.5
o
C respecliveIy. The nean daiIy hunidily varies lelveen 6O.9
and 96.8. The average annuaI rainfaII is aloul 267 cn and can le as high as 624 cn
(Iauziah, el aI, 2OO6).


Iig. 4. The sludy area
Advances in Geoscience and Remote Sensing 78

4. SateIIite Remote Sensing Data

Ior our research in USM, ve use saleIIile inages fron passive sensors in our anaIysed.
Inages acquired ly Landsal TM 5. On March 1, 1984, NASA Iaunched Landsal 5 vere used
in lhis sludy, lhe agencys Iasl originaIIy nandaled Landsal saleIIile. Landsal 5 vas
designed and luiIl al lhe sane line as Landsal 4 and carried lhe sane payIoad: lhe
MuIlispeclraI Scanner Syslen (MSS) and lhe Thenalic Mapper (TM) inslrunenls.


Iig. 5. Landsal SaleIIile TM

5. AIgorithm ModeI

The alnospheric refIeclance due lo noIecuIe, R
r
, is given ly (Liu, el aI., 1996)

Y V
U U
U
3
5
P P
W
4
) (4

(1)

Where

r
= RayIeigh oplicaI lhickness
I
r
(
4
) = RayIeigh scallering phase funclion

v
= Cosine of vieving angIe

s
= Cosine of soIar zenilh angIe
Air Pollution Determination Using Remote Sensing Technique 79

We assune lhal lhe alnospheric refIeclance due lo parlicIe, Ra, is aIso Iinear vilh lhe a
|King, el aI., (1999) and Iukushina, el aI., (2OOO)j. This assunplion is vaIid lecause Liu, el
aI., (1996) aIso found lhe Iinear reIalionship lelveen lolh aerosoI and noIecuIe scallering.

Y V
D D
D
3
5
P P
W
4
) (4

(2)

vhere

a
= AerosoI oplicaI lhickness
I
a
(
4
) = AerosoI scallering phase funclion

Alnospheric refIeclance is lhe sun of lhe parlicIe refIeclance and noIecuIe refIeclance, R
aln
,
(Vernole, el aI., (1997).

R
aln
=R
a
+R
r
(3)

Where

R
aln
=alnospheric refIeclance
R
a
=parlicIe refIeclance
R
r
=noIecuIe refIeclance

Y V
U U
Y V
D D
DWP
3 3
5
P P
W
P P
W
4
) (
4
) (

> @ ) ( ) (
4
1
4 4
U U D D
Y V
DWP
3 3 5 W W
P P
(4)

The oplicaI deplh is given ly Canagni and Sandroni, (1983), as in equalion (5). Iron lhe
equalion, ve revrile lhe oplicaI deplh for parlicIe and noIecuIe as equalion (6)

V VU W
(5)

Where

= oplicaI deplh
= alsorplion
s = finile palh

U D
W W W
(Canagni and Sandroni, 1983)

Advances in Geoscience and Remote Sensing 80

V
U U U
U V W
(6a)
V
S S S
U V W
(6l)

Lqualions (6) are sulsliluled inlo equalion (4). The resuIl vas exlended lo a lhree lands
aIgorilhn as equalion (7) Iorn lhe equalion, ve found lhal IM1O vas IinearIy reIaled lo lhe
refIeclance for land 1 and land 2. This aIgorilhn vas generaled lased on lhe Iinear
reIalionship lelveen and refIeclance. RelaIis el aI., (2OO3), aIso found lhal IM1O vas
IinearIy reIaled lo and lhe correIalion coefficienl for Iinear vas leller lhal exponenliaI in
lheir sludy (overaII). This neans lhal refIeclance vas Iinear vilh IM1O. In order lo sinpIify
lhe dala processing, lhe air quaIily concenlralion vas used in our anaIysis inslead of using
densily, , vaIues.

> @ ) ( ) (
4
1
4 4
U U U D D D
Y V
DWP
V3 V3 5 U V U V
P P

> @ ) ( ) (
4
4 4
U U U D D D
Y V
DWP
3 3
V
5 U V U V
P P

> @ ) , ( ) ( ) , ( ) (
4
) (
1 1 1 1 1
O O V O O V
P P
O 4 4
U U D D
Y V
DWP
*3 33
V
5

> @ ) , ( ) ( ) , ( ) (
4
) (
2 2 2 2 2
O O V O O V
P P
O 4 4
U U D D
Y V
DWP
*3 33
V
5

) ( ) (
2 1 1 0
O O
DWP DWP
5 D 5 D 3
(7)

Where

I = IarlicIe concenlralion (IM1O)
C = MoIecuIe concenlralion
R
alni
= Alnospheric refIeclance, i = 1 and 2 are lhe land nunler
a
j
= aIgorilhn coefficienls, j = O, 1, 2, . are lhen enpiricaIIy delernined.

6. Data AnaIysis and ResuIts

Renole sensing saleIIile deleclors exhilil Iinear response lo inconing radiance, vhelher
fron lhe Larlhs surface radiance or inlernaI caIilralion sources. This response is quanlized
inlo 8-lil vaIues lhal represenl lrighlness vaIues connonIy caIIed DigilaI Nunlers (DN).
To converl lhe caIilraled digilaI nunlers lo al-aperlure radiance, rescaIing gains and liases
are crealed fron lhe knovn dynanic range Iinils of lhe inslrunenl.

Radiance, L () = ias () + |Cain () x DN ()j (8)

vhere
= land nunler.
L is lhe radiance expressed in Wn
-2
sr
-1
Pn
-1
.
Air Pollution Determination Using Remote Sensing Technique 81

The speclraI radiance, as caIcuIaled alove, can le converled lo al sensor refIeclance vaIues.

T O
O S
U
cos ) (
) L(
0
2
*
(
G

(9)

Where

* = Sensor RefIeclance vaIues
L (O) = Apparenl Al-Sensor Radiance (Wn-2 sr-1Pn-1)
d = Larlh-Sun dislance in aslrononicaI unils
= |1.O-O.O16729cos |O.9856(D-4)j vhere (D = day of lhe year)
LO (O) = nean soIar exoalnospheric irradiance (Wn-2 Pn-1)
= soIar Zenilh angIe (degrees)

The rescaIing gain and offsel vaIues for Landsal TM 5 used in lhis paper are Iisled
in TalIe 1 (Chander, el aI. 2OO7) and SoIar Lxoalnospheric speclraI irradiances are given in
TalIe 2 (Chander and Markhan, 2OO3).

Landsal TM 5
RescaIing Cain and ias
Irocessing
Dale
Mar 1, 1984 - May
4, 2OO3
May 5, 2OO3 - Apr
1, 2OO7
Apr 2, 2OO7 - Iresenl
Acquisilion
Dale
Mar 1, 1984 - May
4, 2OO3
May 5, 2OO3 - Apr
1, 2OO7
Mar 1, 1984 - Dec
31, 1991
}an 1, 1992 -
Iresenl
and Cain ias Cain ias Cain ias Cain ias
1 O.6O2431 -1.52 O.762824 -1.52 O.6687O6 -1.52 O.762824 -1.52
2 1.1751OO -2.84 1.44251O -2.84 1.317O2O -2.84 1.44251O -2.84
3 O.8O5765 -1.17 1.O3988O -1.17 1.O3988O -1.17 1.O3988O -1.17
4 O.814549 -1.51 O.872588 -1.51 O.872588 -1.51 O.872588 -1.51
5 O.1O8O78 -O.37 O.119882 -O.37 O.119882 -O.37 O.119882 -O.37
6 O.O55158 1.2378 O.O55158 1.2378 O.O55158 1.2378 O.O55158 1.2378
7 O.O5698O -O.15 O.O65294 -O.15 O.O65294 -O.15 O.O65294 -O.15
TalIe 1. RescaIing gains and liases used for lhe conversion of caIilraled digilaI nunlers lo
speclraI radiance for Landsal TM 5

Unil: LSUN = Wn
-2
Pn
-1

and Landsal TM 5
1 1957
2 1826
3 1554
4 1O36
5 215.O
7 8O.67
TalIe 2. SoIar Lxoalnospheric speclraI irradiances in Wn
-2
Pn
-1
for Landsal TM 5
Advances in Geoscience and Remote Sensing 82

Landsal TM saleIIile dala sel vas seIecled corresponding lo lhe ground lrulh neasurenenls
of lhe poIIulion IeveIs. The ICI Ceonalica version 1O.1 inage processing soflvare vas used
in aII lhe anaIyses. The Landsal TM 5 saleIIile inages vere acquired on 15lh Ielruary 2OO1
(Iigure 6), 17lh }anuary 2OO2 (Iigure 7), 6lh March 2OO2 (Iigure 8) and 5lh Ielruary 2OO3
(Iigure 9).
Rav digilaI saleIIile inages usuaIIy conlain geonelric dislorlion and cannol le used direclIy
as a nap. Sone sources of dislorlion are varialion in lhe aIlilude, allilude and veIocily of lhe
sensor. Olher sources are panoranic dislorlion, earlh curvalure, alnospheric refraclion and
reIief dispIacenenl. So, lo correcl lhe inages, ve have lo do geonelric correclion. Afler
appIying lhe correclion, lhe digilaI dala can lhen le used for olher processing sleps
(Anderson, el aI. 1976). Inage reclificalion vas perforned ly using a second order
poIynoniaI lransfornalion equalion. The inages vere geonelricaIIy correcled ly using a
nearesl neighlour resanpIing lechnique. SanpIe Iocalions vere lhen idenlified on lhese
geocoded inages. Regression lechnique vas enpIoyed lo caIilrale lhe aIgorilhn using lhe
saleIIile nuIlispeclraI signaIs.


Iig. 6. Rav Landsal TM saleIIile inage of 15lh Ielruary 2OO1

Air Pollution Determination Using Remote Sensing Technique 83


Iig. 7. Rav Landsal TM saleIIile inage of 17lh }anuary 2OO2


Iig. 8. Rav Landsal TM saleIIile inage of 6lh March 2OO2



Advances in Geoscience and Remote Sensing 84


Iig. 9. Rav Landsal TM saleIIile inage of 5lh Ielruary 2OO3

Il shouId le noled lhal lhe reIfeclance vaIues al lhe lop of alnospherr is lhe sun of lhe
surface refIeclance and alnospheric reIfeclance. The signaIs neasured in each of lhese
visilIe lands represenl a conlinalion of surface and alnospheric effecls, usuaIIy in
differenl proporlions depending on lhe condilion of lhe alnosphere. Therefore, il is
required lo delernine lhe surface conlrilulion fron lhe lolaI refIeclance received al lhe
sensor. In lhis sludy, ve exlracled lhe surface refIeclance fron nid-infrared land lecause
lhe surface refIeclance al various lands across lhe soIar speclrun are correIaled lo each
olher lo sone exlended. The surface refIeclances of dark largels in lhe lIue and red lands
vere eslinaled using lhe neasurenenls in lhe nid-infrared land (Quaidrari and Vernole,
1999). Over a sinpIe lIack largel, lhe olserved alnospheric refIeclance is lhe sun of
refIeclance of aerosoIs and RayIeigh conlrilulions (Lqualion 1O). This sinpIificalion,
hovever, is nol vaIid al shorl vaveIenglhs (Iess lhan O.45 pn) or Iarge sun and viev zenilh
angIes (Vernole and Roger, 1996). In lhis sludy, a sinpIe forn of lhe equalion vas used in
lhis sludy (Lqualion 11). This equalion aIso used ly olher research in lheir sludy (Iopp,
2OO4).

Air Pollution Determination Using Remote Sensing Technique 85

R
s
- TR
r
= R
aln
(1O)
R
s
- R
r
= R
aln
(11)

vhere:

Rs = refIeclance recorded ly saleIIile sensor
Rr = refIeclance fron surface references
Raln = refIeclance fron alnospheric conponenls (aerosoIs and noIecuIes)
T = lransnillance

Il shouId le noled lhal lhe reIfeclance vaIues al lhe lop of alnosphere vas lhe sun of lhe
surface refIeclance and alnospheric reIfeclance. In lhis sludy, ve used ATCOR2 inage
correclion soflvare in lhe ICI Ceonalica 9.1 inage processing soflvare for crealing a
surface refIeclance inage. And lhen lhe refIeclance neasured fron lhe saleIIile |refIeclance
al lhe lop of alnospheric, (TOA)j vas sullracled ly lhe anounl given ly lhe surface
refIeclance lo ollain lhe alnospheric refIeclance. And lhen lhe alnospheric refIeclance vas
reIaled lo lhe IM1O using lhe regression aIgorilhn anaIysis (Lqualion 7). In lhis sludy,
Landsal TM signaIs vere used as independenl varialIes in our caIilralion regression
anaIyses. The alnospheric refIeclances for each land corresponding lo lhe ground-lrulh
Iocalions vere delernined. The alnospheric refIeclance vere delernined for each land
using differenl vindov sizes, such as, 1 ly 1, 3 ly 3, 5 ly 5, 7 ly 7, 9 ly 9 and 11 ly 11. In
lhis sludy, lhe alnospheric refIeclance vaIues exlracled using lhe vindov size of 3 ly 3 vas
used due lo lhe higher correIalion coefficienl (R) vilh lhe ground-lrulh dala. The exlracled
alnospheric refIeclance vaIues vere regressed vilh lheir respeclive ground -lrulh dala and
lhe proposed aIgorilhn lo ollain lhe regression coefficienls. IM1O naps for aII lhe inages
vere lhen generaled using lhe proposed caIilraled aIgorilhn and fiIlered ly using a 3 x 3
pixeI snoolhing fiIler lo renove randon noise.
The dala poinls vere lhen regressed lo ollain aII lhe coefficienls of equalion (7). Then lhe
caIilraled aIgorilhn vas used lo eslinale lhe IM1O concenlraled vaIues for each inage. The
proposed nodeI produced lhe correIalion coefficienl of O.8 and rool-nean-square error 16
g/n
3
. The IM1O naps vere generaled using lhe proposed caIilraled aIgorilhn. The
generaled IM1O nap vas coIour-coded for visuaI inlerprelalion |Landsal TM 5 - 15lh
Ielruary 2OO1 (Iigure 1O), 17lh }anuary 2OO2 (Iigure 11), 6lh March 2OO2 (Iigure 12) and 5lh
Ielruary 2OO3 (Iigure 13)j. CeneraIIy, lhe concenlralions alove induslriaI and urlan areas
vere higher conpared lo olher areas.
Advances in Geoscience and Remote Sensing 86


Iig. 1O. Map of IM1O around Ienang IsIand, MaIaysia-15/2/2OO1 (Iue < 4O g/n
3
, Creen =
(4O-8O) g/n
3
, YeIIov = (8O-12O) g/n
3
, Orange = (12O-16O) g/n
3
, Red = (>16O) g/n
3

and Iack = Waler and cIoud area)


Air Pollution Determination Using Remote Sensing Technique 87


Iig. 11. Map of IM1O around Ienang IsIand, MaIaysia-17/1/2OO2 (Iue < 4O g/n
3
, Creen =
(4O-8O) g/n
3
, YeIIov = (8O-12O) g/n
3
, Orange = (12O-16O) g/n
3
, Red = (>16O) g/n
3

and Iack = Waler and cIoud area)








Advances in Geoscience and Remote Sensing 88


Iig. 12. Map of IM1O around Ienang IsIand, MaIaysia-6/3/2OO2 (Iue < 4O g/n
3
, Creen =
(4O-8O) g/n
3
, YeIIov = (8O-12O) g/n
3
, Orange = (12O-16O) g/n
3
, Red = (>16O) g/n
3

and Iack = Waler and cIoud area)


Air Pollution Determination Using Remote Sensing Technique 89


Iig. 13. Map of IM1O around Ienang IsIand, MaIaysia-5/2/2OO3 (Iue < 4O g/n
3
, Creen =
(4O-8O) g/n
3
, YeIIov = (8O-12O) g/n
3
, Orange = (12O-16O) g/n
3
, Red = (>16O) g/n
3

and Iack = Waler and cIoud area)

7. ConcIusion

This sludy indicales lhal Landsal TM saleIIile dala can provide very usefuI infornalion for
eslinaling and napping air poIIulion. The proposed aIgorilhn is considered superior lased
on lhe vaIues of lhe correIalion coefficienl, R=O.8 and rool-nean-square error, RMS=16
g/n
3
. This lechnique has leen proved lo le reIialIe and cosl effeclive for such
environnenlaI sludy. Iurlher sludy viII le carried oul lo verify lhe resuIls.




Advances in Geoscience and Remote Sensing 90

8. AcknowIedgements

This projecl vas supporled ly lhe Minislry of Science, TechnoIogy and Innovalion of
MaIaysia under Cranl O6-O1-O5-SIO298 LnvironnenlaI Mapping Using DigilaI Canera
Inagery Taken Iron AulopiIol Aircrafl., and aIso supporled ly lhe Universili Sains
MaIaysia under shorl lern granl DigilaI LIevalion ModeIs (DLMs) sludies for air quaIily
relrievaI fron renole sensing dala. We vouId Iike lo lhank lhe lechnicaI slaff vho
parlicipaled in lhis projecl. Thanks are aIso exlended lo USM for supporl and
encouragenenl.

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Advances in Geoscience and Remote Sensing 92