LA CULTURE SENOUFO

Senufos
Significant Senufo populations by region
Drapeau from
305,800 (2005)
Burkina Faso
Drapeau du
2,2 millions (2013)
Mali
Flag of Côte
2,4 millions (2017)
d'Ivoire
Languages Senufo Languages
Religions Islam, Christianity, Animism
Minianka, Ivory, Ivory, Tagbanas/Tagouanas, Nanfarans, Fodonons,
Related Palakas, Kafibélés, Kadilé (Tengrela), Tèninwérê (Boundiali),
Ethnicities Tagba/Tagban (Côte d'Ivoire/Burkina Faso/Mali),Karaboro,Gouin (Côte
d'Ivoire/Burkina Faso)

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DISTRIBUTION MAP

Introduction

The Senufo (or Siéna, as they call themselves, or Sénéfo, Séné,

Syénambélé or Bamana), are a population of West Africa that includes
about thirty sub-groups, shared between southern Mali (mainly in the
Sikasso region), Burkina Faso and northern Côte d'Ivoire, where
Korhogo, their main centre, is located. The Senufo people are one of the
largest peoples in Côte d'Ivoire, accounting for 9.7 per cent of the
population. The Senufo represent about 1,500,000 people divided into
more than thirty subgroups. Each sub-group has its own characteristics,
but they share several cultural traits that make it unified: language,
surnames, social and religious organization.

Ethnonym

The word Senufo, which derives from the word senanbele itself
composed of the words ségi (field) and nanbéle (men), means "those
who work in the field".

Geographical distribution

In Côte d'Ivoire, the Senufo are found around the towns of Boundiali,
Madinani and Séguélon, Tengréla, Korhogo, Ferkessédougou, Katiola,
Dabakala.

Subgroups

The Senufo are subdivided into about thirty groups, including:

1. The Pongala in the sub-prefecture of Kasséré;

2. The Niarafolo (or Niarafoplo) mainly in the department of
Ferkessédougou;
3. The Tchébara (or Tchébala) in the department of Korhogo;
4. The Tagouana (or Tagbana) of Tafiré in Katiola;
5. The Nafanra (or Nafaga/Nanfaran) in the sub-prefectures of
Karakoro, Napie, Komborodougou, Sinématiali, etc.;
6. The Fodonon (who dance the boloye commonly known as the
panther dance) in Lataha, Waraniené, Moroviné, Plagbo, Breh;
7. The Gbato in Séguélon and Madinani, Ganaoni and Dianra;
8. The Kafibélé in Sirasso, Dagba, Nafoun and Kanoroba;

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1. The Nafana, Kadile, Gbandjé, Fononbelé, Kagnin, Tiembara,

Pogabelé in the departments of Boundiali, Kouto and Tingréla;
2. The Tagbas/Tagbans in Niellé, Pogo (in Côte d'Ivoire) and in
southwestern Burkina Faso and southeastern Mali;
3. The Palaka;
4. The Kafibeles;
5. The Nanerghé, Sénar and Kar (Karaboro) in the Cascades region
of southern Burkina Faso;
6. The Minianka or Mamaala; they are settled in the circles of Koutiala
and San, in Mali, Burkina Faso and in Côte d'Ivoire in the region of
Tingréla.
7. The Djimini in the department of Dabakala. The Djimini are
subdivided into several sub-groups and speak for each of them, a
dialect sometimes very distinct from their "cousins". Thus, they are
essentially grouped according to their proximity in the sub-
prefecture in the department of Dabakala: Dabakala, Bassawa,
Boniérédougou, Foumbolo. The latter were the first occupants of
the central-eastern regions of Côte d'Ivoire. And they were greatly
influenced by the arrival of the migratory waves of the Diouala in
the first place, and the Akan in the second.
8. The Gouins in Ouangolodougou and Ferkessédougou and in the
Cascades region of southern Burkina Faso.
9. The Nonwoloka in the sub-prefecture of Madinani-Séguélon.

History

The first stage of the penetration of the Senufo people into Côte d'Ivoire
took place from the tenth to the fifteenth century, and the second in the
sixteenth century. The Senufos are, after the Mande group of the north,
the first inhabitants of present-day Côte d'Ivoire. The Senufos are with
the Mande and the Krous group, the oldest inhabitants of their respective
regions, in what is now Côte d'Ivoire.

These peoples function as chiefdoms and this can be explained by:

1. population growth, which has led some peoples, especially the

Senufo, to move in search of new lands;
2. the development of the trans-Saharan trade, which focused mainly
on cola and gold; in particular, the Mande, Akan and Krou peoples;

1. the expansion of the great empires of the Sudan has caused some
peoples to flee, anxious to escape military conquests and to keep
their their autonomy, their social order, and their religious order.

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The Senufo being an eminently peaceful and hard-working people

of the land have sought to avoid all types of conflicts.

Siénéfo refers to the first occupants of Siéné, a region located between

San, in eastern Mali, and Nouna on Burkina Faso's border with Mali. The
Siénéfos are said to have been settled since a very ancient time in the
north-east of Côte d'Ivoire, in the Pays du Sel. They probably arrived at
the beginning of the second millennium, at the same time as the
Koulango and the Lobi in northeastern Côte d'Ivoire.

In fact, the languages of these three peoples belong to the "Gur" group,
also known as Voltaic. They also share the same institutional and
cultural backgrounds, including the matrilineal system10. This is because
the main role is played by the mother's family. So, you might think that in
the beginning they had a few types of relationships with each other.

The Siénéfo were the first to settle in the area between the Baoulé (in
present-day Mali) and the Black Volta (in present-day Burkina Faso)11.

The known ancestors of the Senufo are the Pallaka (or Falafala) and the
Myoro who lived by hunting and gathering. They were settled in the
northern regions of present-day Senufo country. There were also voltaic
elements descended at a remote date from the region between Banfora,
Bougouni and Sikasso.

The original home of the Pallakas was the village of Ténigréra, in the
vicinity of the historic city of Kong. They were considered the masters of
the land. But under pressure from later immigrants, especially the Mande
from the north, they dispersed to the Ferkessédougou region.

The Myoros were initially settled on the right bank of the Comoé. They
were excellent hunters and great healers.

It is probably these two groups that are supposed to have had the first
contact with the famous "mandebele" or small men with upturned feet,
from whom they inherited initiatory ceremonies such as the "poro". Thus
like hunting techniques of which the "dozo" still jealously guard the
secret.

These ancestors of today's Senufos led a quasi-nomadic life as

gatherers and hunters. They were looking for more abundant game and
set out from Koutiala in Mali around the eleventh or twelfth century. They
emigrated little à peu vers le Pays de la Kola, southwards until they are
blocked by the forests of the tropical zone.

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However, the versions of "Malian" origin claimed by the great Senufo

families have yet to be proven. In fact, these versions are mostly due to
cultural influences from the world of the Mande, the Malinke. The Mande
Marathi families, settled around the great Senufo chiefs, could not accept
that their masters said they came from a country other than their own.

The Senufos, for their part, great admirers of the culture of the Mande
world, claimed, until recently, to enhance the greatness of their
chiefdoms by linking them to the historical origins of the Mande of the
Sahel and the Sudano-Guinean savannahs.

The process of formation of the Senufo, a historical process of fusion of

diverse groups including indigenous and emigrant people, dates back to
protohistory and was completed in the first millennium AD. It is from the
mixture of these populations that the present-day Senufo originated.

This training went through two main phases:

1. The creation of villages;

2. The organization of a system of hierarchical sacred groves.

The Senufo founded Katiola, then gradually occupied all the space
between the present-day localities of Bouna, Prikro, Mankono, Séguéla,
Touba and Odienné in Côte d'Ivoire, an area that was probably
uninhabited at the time.

The Senufo also founded Kong, Dabakala, Kanangoro and Boundiali.

From the thirteenth to the fourteenth century, Korhogo was born, which
means "heritage" in the local language. This city is the current "capital" of
the Senufo country.

In successive waves, the people occupied an immense geographical

area, the boundaries of which were roughly marked by the present-day
localities of Odienné, Touba, Séguéla, Mankono, the northern zone of
the Baoulé country, Bondoukou and Bouna.

The Senufo settlement, covering a relatively large geographical area,

was little disturbed by the Mande settlement, which was instead cut in
two by the Senufo territory.

The Mande settled around the thirteenth century in the regions of Kong,
Korhogo, Boundiali, Odienné, Dabakala, Bondoukou and Bouna.

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Initially, Mande immigrants with no other concerns than trade were

favourably received. They introduced weaving and leather crafts to the
country.

In addition, they integrated into their new environment, spoke Senanri

and even became the originators of some of the most famous rituals of
the Senufo country: the "korobla".

Borrowing is reciprocal. In addition to the introduction to "korobla", the

Senufo also learn the techniques of a few other trades from Mali and
acquire new eating habits.

In this way, a cultural balance was created that favoured good

neighbourly relations, which were broken with the arrival of the last
Mandinka arrivals (Ligbi, Soninke and Dioula) in the first half of the
sixteenth century for the following reasons:

1. Economic: the importance of certain commercial centres such as

Bobo-Dioulasso, the discovery of a gold deposit near Begho, trade
with Sudan by the Bas-Bandama. Also around Kong and in Djimini
and Lobi country;
2. Political: the Mali Empire had lost its power, so a few warrior chiefs
came to settle in the territory inhabited by the Senufo;
3. Religious: The Malinke wanted to convert the Senufo to Islam by
force. But also by looking for the kola nut which was an essential
element when giving the name to the newborn, during the
celebration of a wedding or for any other prestigious ceremony.

Sometimes they entertained their guests with the principles of the Muslim
faith, or they were content to put their "spiritual" knowledge and powers
at their disposal, making them "safy" or "sèbè" (a kind of talisman to
protect against bad luck).

Thus, the Senufo emigrated in three main directions:

1. To the Bobo-Dioulasso region in the northeast. These Senufo are a

cultural mix of Samogho, Lobi, Tuka, Toussian and Bobo-Dioula.
Their radius of influence still extends to Sikasso and also to Bobo-
Dyula;

1. To the east, Bondoukou and Begho are to the east. During the
eighteenth century, Dioula traders settled among the Senufos of

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the south because they frequented the bustling and important

market of Katiola. They came to belong to the Senufo ruling
classes and to have their leaders among them;
2. Heading south between the Bandama and the Nzi to the Bouaké
region. These Senufos are a cultural mix of immigrants from the
vicinity of Odienné and Fourou who for centuries had intermarried
with the groups of the Kingdom of Kénédougou, the "Land of Light"
established during the 9th century Sikasso was its capital. So much
so that Islam was the official religion. This was accepted only by
the elite of the Kingdom and the local chiefs.

Sources converge to indicate that Senufo emigration took place in

several stages, probably clan by clan.

These clans were remarkably socially structured, but they did not
organize themselves into kingdoms. This is why very few proper names
are known from Senufo history. There are about thirty Senufo subgroups
that strongly retain their cultural identity.

The Senufo possessed armies similar to those of the Mandingo people,

consisting mainly of foot soldiers and cavalry. The battles fought by the
kingdoms, tara or Senufo chiefdoms are good examples.

All these different Senufo sub-groups settled in different and clearly

demarcated territories.

Cultural Elements

1. Legendary Origins

Among the Senufo, there are accounts that the first Senufo was created
by God himself in their current habitat to show that they are ancient
groups that came out of nowhere, autochthonous, so they have no
accounts of territorial conquest. Rather, the Senufo have been subjected
to invasions and forced displacement throughout their history.

The Senufo subgroups from which they emerged are still unknown. They
can, however, be considered as the "pre-fohobele" or the "proto-
fohobele".

2. The Mandebele

The Senufo speakers occupy a territory that, according to legend, was

inhabited by the Mandebeles. The Mandebele were a people of hunters

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(especially elephants) and practiced shifting millet cultivation. They

practiced a secret language, "tiga", which they taught to the children. On
the other hand, they did not have access to initiation ceremonies until
adulthood. They are said to have introduced the Senufos to the
cultivation of millet and to have led them to settle down.

But the Mandebele no longer felt safe, especially since the Senufo had
superior hunting equipment, for they had iron weapons, and monopolized
all the game. Thus, the Mandebele sought refuge in the bush and
disappeared. Since then, they have been said to live in trees and have
the ability to make themselves invisible. They became the "geniuses of
the forest". The Senufo took advantage of the vacuum created to seize
the land. Their migrations spanned three centuries. Given the distances,
the groups quickly split up and differences soon became apparent
between them.

In this process, the Senufo considered the principle of initiation rites

useful to society and instituted the tchologo, then the poro, which
became compulsory for all Senufos in the fourteenth century. The
tchologo is a set of initiations to life in society.

Today, the Mandebele are mythical beings represented by statuettes of

dwarves with upturned feet. Soothsayers use these statuettes for
ceremonies, so mythology and history come together.

1. Myth of origin of the Senufo country

The following information comes mainly from: Collected in Burkina Faso

by Françoise Diep and François Moïse Bamba.

In ancient times, it is said that there was a man, Safazani, who was a
snake hunter. He killed almost all the snakes in the land, except for a
huge boa that lived in the mountain, next to a large stone. This snake
had a guitar called a kolonko. One day, Safazani came to the snake's
house to kill it.

The latter began to play the kolonko and sang:

"Safazani, don't kill me here in the bush. But Safazani said, "I'm going to
kill you anyway." »

And he cut off the boa's head. Despite this, the snake continued to sing
anyway. Safazani fetched some wood, cut the snake into pieces and
roasted it. As it cooked, the snake sang louder. Safazani fetched a

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canary to cook the grilled snake pieces. While the pieces were in Boiling
train In the canary, they continued their song. Once fully cooked, the
meat sang on Safazani's plate, but he ate it. When he finished eating,
Safazani felt his belly begin to swell. He became extremely thirsty and
began to swallow gallons of water. His belly continued to grow, and soon
he became as big as a mountain. Safazani then began to urinate, without
stopping. This urine formed backwaters, and when he relieved himself,
his droppings formed mountains.

This is how Safazani ended, the one who had not listened to what the
last snake in the land was saying to him. This legend marks the
beginning of Senufo country.

1. Society

Senufo villages are governed by a council of elders.

2. Poro

Main article: Poro (ritual)

Senufo theology is based on the belief in Koulotiolo (or "kolochôlô"), a

powerful god, and Katielo, a mother goddess. Among the Senufo people,
God was called to create man but did not finish him. The initiation rite,
called the Poro, is intended to perfect the adolescent and make him an
adult by giving him the ability to face social difficulties.

This initiation plays a decisive role in the life of the Senufos. It is done in
the sacred woods (sinzang) outside the village. The initiation is divided
into several stages, including the "Kafôh" which closes the initiation.

Senufo society has remained very traditionalist and has no clear

boundaries between different social, economic and religious institutions.
Religious sentiment permeates all social manifestations. The Poro, in the
hands of the initiated elders, is a politico-socio-religious organization that
constitutes the keystone of the entire social life of the Senufos.

The traditional dances, performed at each ceremony in the region, are

the N'Goron, a sacred dance, and the Boloye, also called the "dance of
the panther men" because the dancer's costume faithfully imitates the fur
of these felines, and which is performed to close the initiation rites,
particularly the Poro.

3. Social Organization

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Among the Senufo, as in all the other neighbouring ethnic groups, there
are three main social classes: the nobles or free men, the men of caste
and the former slaves.

The men of caste were the craftsmen: the blacksmiths (fonombélé) who
worked with iron as well as wood, and exceptionally with leather (their
wives made pottery), the lorhos, copper jewellers, the professional
musicians, the koulés, specialized in the manufacture of statues and
religious masks, who were feared as spell casters. The sonons, priests of
the cults, make fetishes and are the animators of the ceremonies and
dances in which they participate.

In customary land management, the Senufo land tenure system provides

that land cannot be sold or exchanged. The current form of land
appropriation is community-based. Each patrilineage and matrilineage
who owns a portion of the land, in the traditional sense, exercises an
inalienable right of use. Access is granted by the head of the lineage to
any individual belonging to the community.

1. Rural life

The Senufo peasant uses seven agricultural implements: the tiya (a hoe
with a large iron blade reserved for men), the kakpéhé (a medium-sized
tiya reserved for women), the kamague (a small long-handled hoe), the
axe, the cutter, the sickle and the knife. The most typical is tiya, also
known as daba.

A very common tree is the shea tree, from which shea butter is extracted.
Another tree valued in Senufo culture is the néré, whose fruit grains are
used in culinary preparations.

Discovery of the Senufo

1. What is the culture of the Senufos?

What is the staple food of the Senufos?

The Senufo people, living in the savannah of the north of the country,
grow rice, yams, groundnuts and millet. Their dishes, such as "Kabato"
with peanut sauce, are therefore made of grains. The other peoples of
the North, such as the Dioulas or the Kulangos, depend on the cultivation
of rice, millet, groundnuts and cotton.

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2. What is the totem of the Senufos?

Status totem "CALAO" (or kalao), mythical sacred bird and venerated by
the "SENOUFO" ethnic group, Ivory Coast, who have made it their
emblem. He is the protector of villages and houses. A bulging belly
makes it a symbol of fertility and fertility.

1. What language does the Senufo speak?

The Senufo languages are a branch of the Niger-Congo language family

2. What is the dance of the Senufos?

The boloye is a sacred Senufo dance. It is also called the "Panther

Dance" because the costume worn by the dancer imitates the fur of
these felines. This dance is performed to close the initiation rites.

The Mystical Life of the Senufo

1. The Primordial Symbol of the Senufo (The Hornbill)

The hornbill is the most important bird of the

Senufos.
He is the protector par excellence. It is called
"Ségèn". Its bulging belly makes it a symbol of
fertility and fertility. It represents and evokes
prosperity. This bird is in Senufo myths, one of
the first five animals to appear on earth along
with the chameleon, the tortoise, the snake and
the crocodile. It transports the souls of the dead
to the next world and is usually used in the
initiation rites of the poro. Beyond fecundity, the
hornbill contains three main concepts that
characterize the Senufo:

1. His broad back means that he endures a lot to protect his posterity,
it will be said that he takes a lot;

 His big belly is the symbol of someone who knows a lot but doesn't
say a word. It is knowledge, knowledge that is covered, that is not
revealed to the eye;

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1. Its long, pointed beak represents the one who speaks little. It is the
expression of one who speaks only to commit himself and this
commitment is a symbol of determination.

1. Senufo Art

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Conclusion

A motif from the colonial imaginary of the Senufo thus allows

administrators to characterize a population and situate it in a hierarchy of
populations in the region. Industrious farmers, the Senufo enjoy more
consideration than the neighbouring populations of less assiduous
farmers. Industrious farmers rather than traders, they were not held in as
much esteem as the Dioula. There is no doubt that such a hierarchy is
based and informs as much on that of the Western values of the time as
on that of the values of an exotic society. However, neither the colonial
situation, nor the immediate interest of the administrators, nor even their
vision of the Western peasant suffice to explain the recurrence of the
motif of the laborious cultivator. Indeed, it seems that the colonial portrait
of the Senufo is not only inspired by Western representations or only
informs us about them. As biased and tendentious as it may be, we
cannot rule out the possibility that it feeds on representations that are
specifically Senufo: I intend to show, in fact, that the Senufo elevate their
status as farmers to the rank of constitutive element of their identity and
develop, through a discourse and institutions, a work ethic based on the
faliwi category. Does this mean that, apart from exaggeration, the
colonial portrait of the Senufo is still similar? Only partially: ardent in their
work, the Senufos have always been and still are. But we shall see that
this ardour does not make them the peaceful beings that the
administrators wanted to see in them.

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