Engineering Structures 31 (2009) 2224–2235

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct

Real-time wireless vibration monitoring for operational modal analysis of an

integral abutment highway bridge
Matthew J. Whelan a , Michael V. Gangone a , Kerop D. Janoyan b,∗ , Ratneshwar Jha c
a
Clarkson University, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Potsdam, NY 13699-5712, United States
b
Clarkson University, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Potsdam, NY 13699-5710, United States
c
Clarkson University, Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, Potsdam, NY 13699-5725, United States

article info abstract

Article history: Remote structural health monitoring systems employing a sensor-based quantitative assessment of in-
Received 8 May 2008 service demands and structural condition are perceived as the future in long-term bridge management
Received in revised form programs. However, the data analysis techniques and, in particular, the technology conceived years ago
17 March 2009
that are necessary for accurately and efficiently extracting condition assessment measures from highway
Accepted 19 March 2009
Available online 7 May 2009
infrastructure have just recently begun maturation. In this study, a large-scale wireless sensor network
is deployed for ambient vibration testing of a single-span integral abutment bridge to derive in-service
Keywords:
modal parameters. Dynamic behavior of the structure from ambient and traffic loads was measured
Bridge dynamics with accelerometers for experimental determination of the natural frequencies, damping ratios, and
Modal analysis mode shapes of the bridge. Real-time data collection from a 40-channel single network operating with a
Bridge inspection sampling rate of 128 Hz per sensor was achieved with essentially lossless data transmission. Successful
Wireless sensor network acquisition of high-rate, lossless data on the highway bridge validates the proprietary wireless network
Structural health monitoring protocol within an actual service environment. Operational modal analysis is performed to demonstrate
Stochastic subspace identification (SSI) the capabilities of the acquisition hardware with additional correlation of the derived modal parameters
to a Finite Element Analysis of a model developed using as-built drawings to check plausibility of the
mode shapes. Results from this testing demonstrate that wireless sensor technology has matured to the
degree that modal analysis of large civil structures with a distributed network is a currently feasible and
a comparable alternative to cable-based measurement approaches.
© 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction of structural retrofitting. Additionally, inherent monitoring of

Highway administrators have been faced with the burden of
managing a rapidly aging network of highway bridges in which
a significant portion have met or exceeded their design lifetime
and service limits. As demonstrated in the aftermath of recent
bridge collapses over the past several decades, current schedule-
based visual inspections fall short of ensuring a safe operational
model for highway bridge management with bridge closures
preceding imminent failure. Following development of advanced
diagnostic and prognostic approaches, in-service monitoring of
highway bridges with sensor networks may serve to evaluate
the operational health of a particular structure and estimate
the remaining service life. Wireless sensor networks furthermore
enable the rapid instrumentation of bridges for assessing the
impact of construction-related activities and evaluating the effect
∗ Corresponding address: Clarkson University, Department of Civil and Environ-
mental Engineering, 8 Clarkson AveBox 5710, 13699-5710 Potsdam, NY, United
States. Tel.: +1 (315) 268 6506; fax: +1 (315) 268 7985.
E-mail address: kerop@clarkson.edu (K.D. Janoyan).
0141-0296/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2009.03.022
environmental loads and influences, operational loads, and traffic
patterns and densities can be used to collect a database of field
measurements for providing feedback on bridge design practice.
A study of over 500 bridge failures conducted by Wardhana
and Hadipriono [1] assessing events from 1989 to 2000 concluded
that the majority of collapse instances occur due to a triggering
event. In particular, short-term hydraulic events, long-term scour,
collision, and overload were sighted for 73% of the documented
collapse, while deterioration of structural members, design flaws,
and construction-related issues resulted in nearly 12% of the
failures. Collisions, scour, and structural deterioration significant
enough to produce bridge collapse should produce detectable
changes in the dynamic response of the structure. Feedback from a
sensor-based monitoring system would preemptively signal such
deterioration to permit a schedule of repair or closure prior to
unsafe operation. The aforementioned study also noted that bridge
failures due to overloading were the most devastating in terms
of human casualties. Since the load carrying capability is not a
static quantity over its service life, routinely assessing and posting
the structural capacity of bridge structures is further essential for
maintaining public safety.
 M.J. Whelan et al. / Engineering Structures 31 (2009) 2224–2235
Due to the reasonable limitation on the density of deployed
sensors across large civil structures, nondestructive testing has
generally focused on characterization of changes in global dynamic
properties as a consequence of local damage. A limited library of
vibration-based instrumentation studies exist that have measured
modal parameters of a full-scale bridge prior to and after
progressive induced damage scenarios [2–5]. However, a definitive
method of deriving damage identification and localization has
yet to be formulated. Consequent to the prohibitively high cost
and oversight associated with permanent, continuous monitoring
of a county or statewide distributed system of bridges, short-
term monitoring, concurrent to existing visual inspections, has
also been another, more utilized, approach. As an overwhelming
number of bridges nationwide have approached or surpassed their
service lifespan, it has become critical to allocate resources to
the structures most in need of repair or replacement. Diagnostic
testing through short-term strain measurements from known
truck load patterns has been utilized to assess the condition of
these bridges [6]. This approach generally merges the results of the
experimental strain analysis with codified analytical load rating
measures to determine revised operating loads and ratings for the
in-service bridge. The hardware deployed in this study is unique
in that it provides a wireless platform for both vibration response
measurement as well as static load ratings through strain readings.
While traditional cable-based sensors can be utilized to assist
the field engineer with schedule-based inspections, the excessive
instrumentation costs and time of installation often limits their
use to special cases. Recently, there has been much interest in
the use of wireless transceivers for communication of sensor
data to alleviate the burdens associated with widely-distributed
cable-based sensors [7]. However, while the number of unique
wireless sensor platforms has continued to rapidly expand, there
has been limited success in replicating previous cable-based test
programs in regard to the number of deployed sensors and data
acquisition rates. A review of recent wireless sensor deployments
for structural health monitoring of bridges [8–10] reveals that the
networks have generally relied on either local data logging and
post-sampling transmission of sensor data or on low sampling
rates and/or limited numbers of sensors in order to address
transceiver bandwidth limitations. Such concessions severely limit
the versatility and capability of a structural health monitoring
system in terms of sampling duration, data acquisition rates, and
spatial resolution as well as quality of the derived mode shapes.
The wireless sensor network deployed in this study has
achieved more than adequate sampling rates necessary for
modal analysis of highway bridges, including short-span and stiff
structures, while maintaining reliable communication within a
large, dense array of sensors. Consequent to years of development
and limited field success with high throughput networks, wireless
sensor technology has often become viewed as a conceptually
ideal solution to the problem of in-service structural condition
assessment, although incapable of providing the instrumentation
framework needed. The results of this paper aim to demonstrate
that low-cost wireless technology has emerged to the point that
it is now a feasible and comparable alternative to cable-based
structural instrumentation systems.
2. Test structure
The in-service bridge investigated consists of a 24.1 cm (9.5 in)
thick reinforced concrete slab supported by four integral abutment
girders with a single-span of 17.07 m (56 ft). Carrying Wright Road
over Trout Brook in Potsdam, N.Y., the bridge was constructed
in 2004 and is under the jurisdiction of the St. Lawrence County
Department of Highways (NBI# 000000003231620). Four W36 ×
135 steel beams are spaced at 2.74 m (9 ft) with MC8 × 20 end
2225
diaphragms and two equally spaced C15 × 33.9 intermediate
diaphragms between all girders (Fig. 1). The abutments are a
U-type integral design supported by nine HP10 × 42 piles with
strong-axis orientation at the south abutment and weak-axis
orientation at the north abutment. The bridge has an inventory
load rating of 40.8 metric tons for the HS25.4 truck and an
operational load rating of 68.9 metric tons for the HS42.4, as
determined through the load factor (LF) method. The bridge was
inspected by a Professional Engineer through the NYSDOT under
the National Bridge Inspection Standards (NBIS) in the same month
as the in-service monitoring. Given that the bridge was only two
years old at the time of inspection, the deck, superstructure, and
substructure were all assigned condition ratings of 8 on the NBIS
0–9 rating scale.
3. Test setup, method, and instrumentation
A total of 20 data points were monitored with dual-axis
accelerometers, as shown in Fig. 2. The instrumentation layout
was chosen to balance the requirements of the modal testing
outlined and a concurrent quasi-static investigation using strain
transducers connected to the same wireless hardware. The general
test setup consists of twenty dual-axis accelerometers deployed
alongside eleven reusable strain transducers that were interfaced
with twenty wireless sensor nodes. All wireless sensor nodes
communicated in a single-network star topology with a central
coordinator node connected to a local microcomputer notebook.
Acceleration responses of the bridge from ambient excitation
were measured using low-cost Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems
(MEMS) accelerometers mounted directly to the web of each
girder using a fast curing epoxy. All measurement data was
wirelessly streamed to the microcomputer in real-time in an
acceleration time history format. The acquisition of complete
time histories, rather than preprocessed spectra or extracted
parameters, permits the application of multiple post-processing
analysis methods including those necessitating multi-node time-
series data or high computational overhead, such as stochastic
subspace identification.
3.1. Test methodology
Individual tests consisted of time history responses concur-
rently streamed in real-time from all forty sensor channels dis-
tributed across twenty wireless sensor units. Durations of three
minutes and six seconds (186 s) were specified with an effective
sampling rate of 128 Hz in an effort to replicate similar recent
experimental programs utilizing wired instrumentation as doc-
umented in Wenzel and Pichler [11]. Excitation of the structure
was provided only by ambient environmental loads and vehicular
traffic. The bridge selected exhibits very low-level vibration from
ambient loading due to its relatively short-span length and the
integral abutment design, thereby providing a challenging plat-
form for structural response measurement and modal analysis.
The accelerometers were distributed along all of the girders
in a pattern (Fig. 2) established to derive the operational
mode shapes. Finite element analysis was performed in advance
to ensure that data points did not correspond with nodes
of zero displacement for the modes of interest. One central
girder was instrumented with a denser array as a result of
concurrent strain monitoring; this configuration resulted in
increased spatial resolution along this girder. The vertical and
longitudinal vibration responses were measured as a result of
sensor orientation. Longitudinal responses were inadvertently
measured due to the orientation of the sensor placement.
Transmission of the longitudinal acceleration served solely to
demonstrate the network throughput capability. Consequently,
only the vertical vibration response was incorporated in the
operational modal analysis.
2226 M.J. Whelan et al. / Engineering Structures 31 (2009) 2224–2235

Fig. 1. Concrete slab on steel girder integral abutment bridge.

Fig. 2. Vibration measurement locations.

Capacitance-based dual-axis MEMS accelerometers (STMicro-
electronics LIS2L02AL) were selected for low-power consumption
and ultra-low noise floor characteristics. These integrated circuit
sensors were mounted on printed circuit boards and encased in a
small external housing with potting epoxy to enable direct place-
ment of the sensor on the structure for superior vibration transfer.
−1
The accelerometers feature +/ − 2 g full-scale range,
√ 600 mV g
sensitivity at 3V supply, and an ultra-low 30 µg/ Hz noise den-
sity. Signal amplification of 64V/V or 128V/V was applied to the
accelerometer channels depending on sensor location to maximize
the range and resolution of the conversion. This signal condition-
ing resulted in approximate sensitivities of 38 Vg−1 and 76 Vg−1 ,
respectively, with analog-to-digital conversion resolution of 16 µg
and 8 µg, accordingly.
Conversion of the raw signals is provided at each node by a
12-bit ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) that was programmed to
over-sample each measurement channel at 512 Hz. The data was
then processed using a 56th-order digital low-pass filter to remove
 M.J. Whelan et al. / Engineering Structures 31 (2009) 2224–2235
potential alias frequencies and then down-sampled to an effective
rate of 128 Hz. The oversampling approach implemented increases
the effective resolution of the ADC, rejects alias frequencies from
the transition band of the analog low-pass filter, and produces a
near brick-wall filter response with less than 0.01 dB of attenuation
in the 0–50 Hz bandwidth.
3.2. Wireless sensor network
A wireless sensor is comprised of a traditional sensor and
appropriate signal conditioning integrated with a transceiver unit
for the digital conversion and transmission of the raw signal from
a remote measurement location to a central acquisition station
without cabling. The wireless sensor network deployed utilized a
commercial transceiver platform (MoteIV Tmote Sky) incorporated
with a custom software, signal conditioning hardware, and
sensor design developed in-house to specifically address the
requirements of bridge condition assessment through modal
analysis and load rating. The commercial transceiver platform
features a 4 MHz microcontroller interfaced with a 2.4 GHz chip
transceiver with a maximum data rate of 250 kbps. The device
is compliant with U.S. and Canadian radio frequency regulations
and is certified by the FCC and Industry Canada for unlicensed use
in either country. A complete description of the wireless sensor
network hardware and software as well as results of laboratory
validation can be found in Whelan and Janoyan [12].
The Wireless Sensor Solution (WSS) is a multi-functional sys-
tem developed in-house by the authors to address both dynamic
response and strain monitoring for load rating of in-service high-
way bridges. Independent circuits accommodate signal condition-
ing hardware specific to vibration measurement of typical bridge
spectra and strain measurement from commercial transducers. The
accelerometer conditioning section provides a two-channel inter-
face featuring a low-noise 3 V power supply, 14-stage digitally
programmable signal amplification, auto-offset nulling, and a 5th
order analog low pass filter. A complementary signal conditioning
circuit for differential sensors, such as strain transducers, offers
an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) tailored to high-
resolution measurements of resistive-bridge sensors. The chip fea-
tures programmable gain and offset of the differential signal, a
15-bit charge-balancing ADC, a temperature interface with a dig-
ital correction algorithm for compensating strain measurements,
and nonvolatile memory for storing configuration settings during
power cycling. Hardware shutdown of the individual signal condi-
tioning circuits as well as the transceiver provides for power con-
servation during periods of inactivity (Fig. 3).
Custom embedded software applications were written for
the sensor nodes to accommodate in-network task triggering
and large-scale concurrent node operation. Unique features of
the software include digital filtering of sensor data using the
hardware multiplier, in-network remote sensor configuration,
control of component power supplies, and robust communication.
An optimized radio transmission protocol that coordinates the
sampling and transmission software operations with node-based
scheduling is implemented in favor of the TinyOS radio stack
typically used for this transceiver platform, which relies on
concurrent processing of these tasks. Embedded software was
also written for the microcontroller at the host transceiver;
a high-speed transparent bridge between the chip transceiver
and the virtual COM port operating at 262144 baud across
the USB bus enables significantly higher data throughput. A
user-friendly LabVIEW software application controls bidirectional
communication through the base transceiver, configures the
sensor nodes remotely, displays real-time sensor data, and logs
time histories to the hard disk for subsequent analysis.
The radio transmission protocol developed enabled nearly
100% data delivery across the entire twenty node network.
2227
Data packets from each node are scheduled for transmission
based on the local address of the node to prevent packet
collision. The built-in clear channel assessment (CCA) feature
of the transceiver is also utilized to further prevent packet
transmission when the channel is already active. Data packets
request an acknowledgement message from the base transceiver
upon reception of packets that pass the error checking algorithm.
Data packets that fail to receive acknowledgements are placed in a
transmission queue for retransmission during a second scheduled
window. Packets are removed from the queue only upon successful
receipt of their respective acknowledgement. The optimized
network transmission protocol coupled with high-speed base node
communication transfers between the chip transceiver and the
host microcomputer are directly responsible for alleviating issues
with data delivery, reduced sampling rates, and limited remote
acquisition channels that have typically plagued wireless sensor
networks.
4. Test results
4.1. Wireless sensor network performance
The average data success rate across all of the sensor nodes
over ten 3 minute test cycles was 99.91%, with 184 of the 200
time histories reported with 100% data delivery success. The
minimum data success rate over these tests was 98.0%, which
corresponds to a loss of only 17 data packets of the 850 requested
for the sampling duration specified. The small loss of data has
been attributed to a software bug discovered in the portion of
the embedded software code responsible for transmitting any
residual packets in the transmission queue after completion of
sampling. While correction of the software will likely improve
the data success rates, the current level of data recovery is
generally more than sufficient for structural health monitoring
as the system identification analysis suffered from no noticeable
adverse distortion. For the network size and sampling rate of the
deployment in this study, the radio protocol during active sampling
resulted in a transmission overhead in the range of 97 kpbs to
126 kbps depending on the packet success and retransmission
rates. The degree of transmission reliability attained at the high
data throughput rate prescribed in this testing demonstrates that
wireless sensor networks are currently capable of performing
large-scale, real-time structural health monitoring.
4.2. Dynamic bridge response
A single-span integral abutment bridge provides an ideal
platform for testing the performance of a structural health
monitoring system as the high stiffness of the bridge results in a
demanding measurement scenario in that structural vibrations are
of very low amplitude. Throughout the duration of testing, peak
accelerations across the structure ranged from less than 2 mg to
only nearly 10 mg. Despite this low excitation, the amplified sensor
signals produced clear time-history representations of the traffic
loading (Fig. 4) as well as distinct peaks in the frequency spectra.
The WSS signal conditioning hardware provides an extensive range
of programmable gain amplification and therefore can adapt to the
measurement range of bridges of various span lengths and support
conditions. Likewise, it can be reasonably assumed that the system
will even provide improved measurement performance on longer-
span structures with larger amplitude vibrations, as the signal-to-
noise ratio will be increased.
A particular concern with wireless sensor networks is that in
using localized self-contained data acquisition nodes distributed
across a structure, there is no longer a shared sample clock
by which time synchronization of measurements can be strictly
2228 M.J. Whelan et al. / Engineering Structures 31 (2009) 2224–2235

Fig. 3. Wireless sensor solution (WSS) hardware with MEMS accelerometer and BDI strain transducer.

Fig. 4. Typical acceleration time histories.

enforced. Conversely, all nodes operate with their own clocks

that will have unique offset and drift characteristics affecting
the relative timing of tasks among nodes in the network. Unlike
many wireless sensor networks that use the main microcontroller
oscillator to provide sample timing, the WSS system relies on
an accurate 32.768 kHz crystal oscillator to provide a precise,
stable clock to each of the nodes. Synchronized initiation of
sampling is invoked by a single command broadcast to all nodes
in the network. Since the radio packet is an electromagnetic
wave, therefore travelling at the speed of light, the difference in
reception time amongst the nodes in the network will be on the
order of nanoseconds. Consequently, the accuracy and stability
of the crystal oscillators dictates the time synchronization of
the samples relative to each node throughout time. Investigation
of the accelerations measured across the network during traffic
events reveals that the wireless sensors maintain phase amongst Fig. 5. Time window overlay of accelerations during a traffic event.
themselves, which is imperative for accurate operational modal
analysis (Fig. 5). This thereby substantiates the assumption that an forced vibration to the bridge would require at least a partial
accurate crystal oscillator can provide time synchronization of the closure of traffic and does not lead itself to long-term continuous
network for at least the sampling duration utilized. or autonomous structural health monitoring. Furthermore, the
presence of any nearby vibration sources, such as machinery or
4.3. Operational modal analysis traffic, and the effect of dynamic environmental loads, such as
wind, geological, and hydrodynamic forces, are additional system
Analysis of in-service dynamic measurements of highway inputs that are not accounted for in the measurement of the
bridges challenges conventional modal analysis techniques as controlled excitation input. Consequently, extraction of system
it is often impractical to measure the input excitation. The modal parameters of civil structures from ambient excitation
use of impulse excitation (drop-weight) or a shaker to provide has recently emerged as a widely sought-after approach for
 M.J. Whelan et al. / Engineering Structures 31 (2009) 2224–2235
Fig. 6. Average normalized power spectral density.
in-service condition assessment. Traditional system identification
methods requiring both input and output measurements, such as
using the frequency response function (FRF), cannot be applied
to data yielded from ambient excitation, as there is no measure
of the system input. Recent work in the development of ambient
vibration methods has produced several approaches for output-
only system identification to enable modal parameter extraction
from ambient time histories [13,14]. In this study, output-
only system identification from the accelerometer time histories
was performed using the Modal Analysis on Civil Engineering
Constructions (MACEC) software package [15]. This software
analysis package permits the use of both the classical Fourier-
based Frequency Domain Decomposition (FDD) with peak peaking
as well as the stochastic subspace identification (SSI) method for
deriving mode shapes, natural frequencies, and damping ratios.
During implementation of FDD modal analysis, a 4096-
point average normalized power spectral density (ANPSD) was
computed using the time histories from all test sequences
and sensor locations (Fig. 6). Natural frequencies were selected
from the modal peaks present in the power spectrum and the
corresponding mode shapes were derived for each test sequence.
In this approach, discrete mode shape data are determined using
the relative magnitude and phase angle of the spectral peaks
at each sensor location, corresponding to the eigenfrequency,
with respect to a specified reference sensor. Since multiple time
histories were available for analysis, the derived mode shapes
were then normalized and averaged to provide the final mode
shape estimates (Fig. 7). Averaging reduces the effects of noise
and improves the resolution of the mode shapes. Due to the mass
of passing vehicles, the mode shapes and natural frequencies of
the unloaded bridge will be slightly affected by traffic loads and
patterns. When using traffic excitation, averaging mode shapes
from a large number of tests also alleviates the effect of traffic load
bias on one lane of the bridge, which is more probable from the
results of only a single test.
Application of the FDD method on the experimental data was
found to produce smooth mode shapes that correlate well with the
FEA analysis. However, this method relies on sufficient excitation
of the eigenfrequencies to permit identification of each modal
peak in the average normalized power spectrum. Additionally, the
mode must be sufficiently under-damped such that resonance at
the natural frequency is represented by a distinct peak. In fact,
the frequency domain peak-picking method actually produces
operational deflection shapes rather than mode shapes in that
the shape constructed from the spectral data is the naturally
weighted combination of all mode shapes that would arise if
the structure was excited by a pure harmonic at the selected
natural frequency [16]. Since only spectral content near the natural
frequency contribute noticeably to the constructed mode shape
2229
estimate, the operational deflection shapes are generally similar
to the mode shapes. However, for structures with closely spaced
modes, the estimated mode shapes will be a combination of
multiple modes and therefore may not produce accurate response
estimation. Fortunately, the structure tested has adequately spaced
natural frequencies with sufficient damping to permit clear
extraction of many of the dominant modes within the measured
bandwidth. However, the traffic patterns captured in the field
testing either did not adequately excite several additional modes
identified in the subsequent SSI analysis to permit identification
in the frequency spectra and/or these mode were damped
sufficiently to prohibit visual identification. Furthermore, while
the second longitudinal bending mode (4th mode) was identified
and estimated, the peak was relatively small in the spectrum and,
as evident in the mode shape estimate, the low signal-to-noise
ratio resulted in a relatively coarse approximation.
It should be noted that although the 6th and 8th modes
identified closely resemble each other, they are in fact distinct
modes as evidenced by several indicators. The reason that they
appear so similar is that the 6th mode is a largely girder-based
mode shape, while the 8th mode is characterized by deck motion
that produces similar consequent girder deflection. When the
frequency spectra is examined, these modes produce distinct
and well-excited poles, which is anticipated as the width and
lane loading associated with vehicular traffic is conducive to
excitation of these modes. The presence of the same mode shapes
in subsequent stochastic subspace identification furthers this
rationale; close examination of the finite element analysis results
fully illustrates this initially subtle difference in the actual mode
shapes.
While the Fourier-based peak-picking method analyzes the
frequency-spectrum to extract natural frequencies and mode
shapes, stochastic subspace identification techniques use a time-
domain driven approach to solving for modal parameters from a
discrete-time stochastic state–space model. The derivation of this
method is outside the scope of this paper; full presentation of
the state–space equations and model development can be found
elsewhere [14], [16]. In short, the method uses a state–space model
developed from the linear, second-order differential equation for
a multi-degree of freedom spring, mass, and damper system
with input forces. To account for inherent sensor noise and
fixed-width computational effects, the state–space model includes
stochastic terms to represent measurement and process noise that
are assumed to have zero-mean, white noise characteristics. The
MEMS accelerometers utilized in this study do in fact exhibit
a white noise spectrum according to electrical specifications, so
spurious poles should not arise in the model as a result of violations
of this assumption. Since the system inputs are unknown and
immeasurable in the case of ambient excitation, the input terms
are then implicitly modeled within the noise terms resulting in
a purely stochastic system. It should be noted that by modeling
the unknown excitation forces with the noise terms, the inputs
are assumed to also exhibit zero-mean, white noise characteristics.
Violation of this assumption may produce spurious poles in the
state–space model that are not inherent to the dynamics of the
structure but arise from spectral bias within the excitation force.
Once the system inputs to the state–space model are reduced
solely to the stochastic terms, numerical methods can be used to
solve for the state–space matrices from the measurement data in
order to produce a mathematical description of the system from
which all the modal parameters, except the mode scaling factor,
can be determined.
Although the mathematical formulation of the SSI method and
subsequent numerical solution is rather rigorous, especially to civil
engineers unfamiliar with systems and control modeling, the ap-
plication of the method is facilitated through the MACEC soft-
ware environment, which requires only a basic understanding of
2230 M.J. Whelan et al. / Engineering Structures 31 (2009) 2224–2235

Fig. 7. Operational deflection shapes extracted by Frequency Domain Decomposition (FDD) (numbering corresponds to mode as identified in subsequent FEA analysis).

Fig. 8. Principal angles between subspaces and stabilization plot for typical SSI analysis (⊕- stable pole, ·- pole with partial pass of stability criteria).

state–space models and general system identification methodol-
ogy. Following calculation of the system model from the measure-
ment data, the principal angles between subspaces can be plotted
to provide a means of estimating the model order (Fig. 8(a)). A gap
in the subsequent principal angles indicates the model order [15],
which correlates to twice the number of system poles, or eigenfre-
quencies, captured in the measurement bandwidth. Unfortunately,
real-world data rarely produces a single, distinct gap, as evidenced
in the results for the Wright Road Bridge analysis in which gaps in-
dicate several possible model orders ranging from as low as six and
 M.J. Whelan et al. / Engineering Structures 31 (2009) 2224–2235
Fig. 9. Average spectral density of computed SSI state–space model (order 44, poles
indicated with star).
as high as 44. Given this all too common scenario, over-specifying
the model order is recommended [15] and the suggested model or-
der can be determined from the number of stable poles identified in
the stabilization diagram (Fig. 8(b)). At this point, subjectivity is re-
quired to select the poles likely to be a result of structural dynamics
rather than spurious poles resulting from the numerical process.
The previously outlined approach to extracting modal param-
eters from a SSI model, as suggested by the MACEC manual, can
be treated as a relatively simple means of quickly extracting mode
shapes, natural frequencies, and damping ratio estimates from
experimental data. However, through experience with applica-
tion of output-only system identification to in-service dynamic re-
sponse measurements from highway bridges, the authors of this
paper highly recommend developing a single state–space model
from which all modal parameters are estimated. In this manner,
subjectivity in identification of actual structural poles versus spu-
rious poles can be greatly reduced and the derived modal parame-
ters will reflect a more consistent estimate of the system response
less affected by spurious poles. The appropriate model order can be
coarsely predicted by doubling the number of spectral peaks evi-
dent in the average power spectrum and then more accurately esti-
mated by finding a gap in the principal angle plot (Fig. 8(a)) greater
than the coarse model order prediction. This process can be aided
by comparing the spectral density estimate of state–space model
to the power spectrum of the measured data. For the case study
presented, a model order 44 was determined to be most appropri-
ate; the discontinuity in the principal angle plot was found to be
the last significant gap in the profile. The average spectral density
of the 44th order state–space model (Fig. 9) correlates well with
spectral content of the ANPSD computed from the measurement
data (Fig. 6) and the majority of poles have been found to arise from
the structural response. Plotting the poles over the average spec-
tral density of the state–space model provides an efficient means of
identifying which poles are spurious and which relate to the struc-
tural dynamics of the structure. Structural poles, i.e. the natural fre-
quencies of the bridge, coincide with distinct peaks in the average
spectral density, whereas the spurious poles generally fall between
peaks for a model of appropriate order.
Modal parameters were then extracted from the state–space
model to estimate the natural frequencies and damping ratios of
the in-service bridge. Twelve non-spurious poles were identified in
the model permitting successful extraction of twelve mode shapes
from the measurement data, thereby demonstrating significant
improvement over the application of FDD system identification
(Fig. 10). In addition to identifying mode shapes that are less
pronounced in the frequency spectrum, the SSI analysis resulted
in smoother mode shapes, alleviating signal-to-noise issues for
poorly excited modes. Consequently, although the SSI technique
requires substantially more understanding of system identification
and state–space modeling, is computationally more complex, and
necessitates a higher degree of subjectivity, the process effectively
2231
yields a greater number of modes with higher quality shape
estimation than the FDD technique for output-only modal analysis.
Given the insignificant number of spurious poles in the state–space
model, particularly in the portion of the spectrum above 8 Hz
where the dynamic structural response occurs, the signal-to-noise
ratio is low enough to permit reliable extraction of these twelve
modes. It will be shown in the subsequent section that by over-
specifying the model order, as suggested in the MACEC manual,
the remaining two structural modes can be extracted from the in-
service measurements.
5. Numerical model of test structure
A solid model of the bridge tested consisting of the steel
superstructure, concrete slab, abutments, and railings was drafted
in AutoCAD 2004 from the as-built Department of Highways
drawings (Fig. 11). Finite element analysis of the model was
performed using the FEMPRO software package by ALGOR
Incorporated. Natural frequency (Modal) with Load Stiffening
analysis was performed using three-dimensional solids consisting
of brick elements. A mesh size of 20.32 cm (8 in.) was specified
in the auto-mesh generation, which resulted in 33768 total solid
elements across the model. Abutment and slab properties were
specified by assigning the material type to medium-strength
concrete as defined by the built-in library, while the steel
superstructure and railings were assigned the material properties
of A588 and A500 steel, respectively.
Modeling the behavior of an integral abutment bridge is
substantially more complex than developing a similar model for
a deck supported by bearings, as the soil–structure interaction on
the abutments and piles has a significant influence on the dynamics
of the superstructure [17]. Given that the analysis was performed
simply to provide a plausibility check with the measured response,
some assumptions and modeling simplifications were made in
providing boundary constraints and loads on the surfaces of the
abutments. Lateral soil pressure on the abutments and wingwalls
was provided using an assumed linear pressure distribution, a
1.922 Mg/m3 (120 lb/ft3 ) unit weight of the backfill soil, and a
coefficient of lateral earth pressure of 0.5. This soil pressure results
in a slight decrease in natural frequencies, due to the longitudinal
compressive force applied on the deck. While nonlinear spring
elements are often used to model soil–structure interaction, the
FEA software allowed only for linear elastic spring elements in the
natural frequency with load stiffening analysis. Consequently, the
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) curves
for earth pressure coefficient versus relative wall displacement, as
presented by Civjan [18] were approximated with a linear fit to
the initial slope of passive pressure development. Since the backfill
soil properties are unknown, the linear slope approximations
for loose and dense sand were averaged. Translational spring
elements were placed on vertices across the abutment in both
the longitudinal and transverse directions of the bridge deck. The
elastic modulus of each spring element was assigned with a linear
profile increasing with depth, as determined by the approximation
to the NCHRP curve. Translational stiffness was applied to the base
of the abutment to represent bearing pressure and frictional forces
along this surface. A moderate 350.4 kN/m (31.25 lb/in/in2 ) spring
stiffness was assigned to the lateral springs on these vertices;
vertical springs were applied with 14.01 MN/m (1250 lb/in/in2 )
stiffness. The contribution from support piles was modeled with
additional translational springs at the vertices corresponding to
pile locations. Although the pile axis orientations differed at each
abutment, the translational springs applied to represent the piles
assumed equal stiffness in both lateral directions.
The superstructure-dominant mode shapes, i.e. those measur-
able through the accelerometer placement on the girders, esti-
mated within the measurement bandwidth through the FEA are
2232 M.J. Whelan et al. / Engineering Structures 31 (2009) 2224–2235

Fig. 10. Operational mode shapes present in SSI model of 44th order (3D surface plot and plan view with magnitude shading; Numbering corresponds to mode as identified
in the subsequent FEA analysis).

Table 1
Comparison of experimental and FEA natural frequency estimates.
Mode shape Classical peak-picking method (Hz) Stochastic subspace identification (SSI) (Hz) Damping ratio (%) from SSI Finite element analysis (Hz)

1 9.5 9.58 1.60 9.18

2 11.09 11.14 1.03 11.26
3 17.66 17.74 1.10 19.07
4 22.44 18.71 17.15 22.33
5 – 26.92 7.59 25.69
6 29.97 30.03 0.82 34.65
7 31.56 31.47 0.26 35.61
8 33.78 33.89 0.97 57.87
9 35.38 35.21 1.23 35.74
10 46.88 46.98 0.59 49.14
11 – 47.96a 10.14 50.34
12 – 51.73a 9.76 57.13
13 53.09 54.04 2.54 53.19
14 – 62.01 / 65.99 0.86 69.65
a
Not in 44th order model, identified through over-specifying model order.

presented in Fig. 12. While additional mode shapes were identi-
fied in FEA, these mode shapes were generally either dominated
by slab or wingwall movement rather than motion at the gird-
ers or the result of rigid body translation and rotation on the
boundary springs. Comparison of the analytical modal parame-
ters with those identified in the experimental system identification
techniques yielded good correlation in terms of both visual
comparisons of mode shapes and relative estimation of natural
frequencies (Table 1). There are some differences in the order of
the natural frequencies between the FEA analysis and the exper-
imentally measured modes, particularly at the higher end of the
spectrum. Given the bending orders of the modes, it is natural to as-
sume that, for instance, the third order longitudinal bending mode
with first order bending in the lateral direction will occur at a lower
frequency than the third order longitudinal bending mode with
second order bending in the lateral direction despite the discrep-
ancy in the results of the FEA analysis. These differences can be at-
tributed to the assumptions, approximations, and simplifications
 M.J. Whelan et al. / Engineering Structures 31 (2009) 2224–2235
Fig. 11. Finite element model: (a) mesh, (b) loads and boundary constraints.
made in the finite element model. Consequently, the mode shapes
have been sequentially numbered according to the proper order as
measured experimentally.
It should be noted that the four highest order modes have
natural frequencies that reside in the portion of the bandwidth
with potential aliasing. As a result, these natural frequency
estimates may be incorrectly aliased from the 64–78 Hz frequency
range. However, due to the model order associated with the
bending patterns, it is likely that all of the modes, aside from the
last, can be assumed to be correctly associated with the 50–64 Hz
band, as the last mode is of the highest bending order. Furthermore,
signal attenuation in the aliased region for these modes is also
significant enough that identification of an aliased peak in the
spectrum would be highly unlikely. Consequently, only the last
mode has been identified with two possible natural frequency
estimates for the experimental analysis. While some discrepancies
exists among the analytical and experimentally derived modal
parameters, the complexity of modeling an integral abutment
bridge coupled with modeling assumptions could accounts for
these slight differences as well as any inconsistencies between
the bridge design and actual construction tolerances and material
properties.
Given that the FEA identified two additional superstructure-
dominant modes within the measured bandwidth, stochastic
subspace identification was revisited to employ a higher model
order to extract these missing modes (Fig. 13). At a model order of
76, the remaining two modes became apparent in the state–space
model, though the shapes are only approximate due to the low
excitation and large damping ratios associated with these poles.
2233
Examining the spectral density of the state space model, it becomes
apparent that these modes suffer from a lack of excitation as
well as significant damping. Furthermore, after introducing the
additional degrees of freedom necessary for the corresponding
poles to arise in the model, there are significantly more spurious
poles introduced. These spurious poles are not intrinsic to the
structural response, but arise from noise and excitation violations
of the zero-mean, white noise assumptions. Consequently, the
over-specified model is not recommended for implementation in
any further analysis, such as forward prediction with a Kalman
filter. It is recommended to use the lower order model even though
it does not include two of the fourteen modes known to be present
in the bandwidth of interest.
6. Conclusion and discussion
To field-test the performance of a wireless sensor network
for dynamic response assessment of in-service highway bridges,
a single-span integral abutment bridge has been investigated
through operational modal analysis using ambient vibration
testing. As a consequence of the experimental program, the
Wireless Sensor Solution (WSS) platform for structural health
monitoring developed at Clarkson University has demonstrated
the capability to replace cable-based instrumentation for the
majority of in-service condition assessment routines. In addition,
the alleviation of obstacles associated with cabling, such as the
associated installation time and cost, introduces the potential to
monitor the performance of an increased number of bridges in a
more condensed time frame.
2234 M.J. Whelan et al. / Engineering Structures 31 (2009) 2224–2235
Fig. 12. Finite element analysis of mode shape development.
Fig. 13. Remaining experimental mode shapes extracted through over-specification of model order in stochastic subspace identification (respective poles identified over
average spectral density of 76th order model).
The primary objective of the study was to evaluate the perfor-
mance of the wireless sensor network and local data acquisition
hardware in a typical field setup outside of the laboratory environ-
ment. Real-time streaming of 40-channels of measurement data
sampled at an effective rate of 128 Hz per sensor for ten test du-
rations each exceeding three minutes was successfully achieved
while maintaining nearly 100% data delivery across the network.
Additionally, the signal conditioning and data acquisition inter-
face provided an in-network reconfigurable platform that enabled
sufficient resolution of the low amplitude vibration experienced
to extract fourteen mode shapes of the relatively stiff single-span
bridge using low-cost MEMS accelerometers. These results present
a significant breakthrough in the use of wireless sensor networks
for structural health monitoring. By essentially replicating a typi-
cal cable-based dynamic test routine in terms of not only sampling
rates, number of deployed sensors, and test duration but also in the
quality and breadth of extracted modal parameters, the developed
wireless sensing platform has emerged as both a feasible and com-
parable alternative to wired instrumentation in structural health
monitoring and in-service condition assessment.
In analyzing the ambient vibrations measured by the wireless
sensor nodes, a complementary study was performed in which
the effectiveness of applying two output-only system identifica-
tion methods to real-world measurements was evaluated. The
frequency domain decomposition technique was compared to
stochastic subspace identification to contrast the ability of the two
methods to extract modal parameters. Overall, FDD was capable
of constructing mode shapes and estimating natural frequencies
for well-excited modes in good agreement with finite element
analysis. However, the use of the SSI technique permitted the ex-
traction of an additional four modes from the time histories in
addition to damping ratio estimates for all vibration modes. Fur-
thermore, the relative quality of the mode shapes derived through
SSI was deemed to be higher than obtained from FDD and is likely a
result of the inclusion of stochastic noise components in the math-
ematical formulation of the SSI state–space model. In general, the
use of SSI techniques to estimate modal parameters from output-
only experimental data has been found to be preferable to the FDD
method despite the increased computational effort and subjectiv-
ity required to identify system poles. Lastly, the authors present
an approach for estimating modal parameters using a single or-
der state–space model developed through the SSI system identifi-
cation, rather than selecting poles from a stabilization diagram.
Acknowledgements
This research has been funded by the New York State Energy
Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA), in collaboration
with the St. Lawrence Highway Department, and the New York
State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT). The authors would
also like to acknowledge the assistance of Kevin Cross and Dan
Nyanjom during the field deployment and Michael Fuchs with
system development. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or
recommendations expressed in this paper are those of the authors
and do not reflect the views of the agencies.
 M.J. Whelan et al. / Engineering Structures 31 (2009) 2224–2235
References
[1] Wardhana K, Hadipriono FC. Analysis of recent bridge failures in the United
States. J Performance Construct Fac 2003;17(3):144–50.
[2] Farrar CR, Baker WE, Bell TM, Cone KM, Darling TW, Duffey TA, Eklund A,
Migliori A. Dynamic Characterization and Damage Detection in the I-40 Bridge
over the Rio Grande. Los Alamos National Laboratory, Technical Report LA-
12767-MS; 1994.
[3] Alampalli S, Fu G, Dillon EW. Signal versus noise in damage detection by
experimental modal analysis. J Struct Eng 1997;123(2):237–45.
[4] Maeck J, Peeters B, De Roeck GD. Damage identification on the Z24 bridge using
vibration monitoring. Smart Mater Struct 2003;10:512–7.
[5] Huth O, Feltrin G, Maeck J, Kilic N, Motavalli M. Damage identification using
modal data: Experiences on a prestressed concrete bridge. J Struct Eng 2005;
131(12):1898–910.
[6] Wipf TJ, Phares BM, Klaiber FW, Wood DL, Mellingen E, Samuelson A.
Development of bridge load testing process for load evaluation, Iowa DOT
Project Report TR-445; 2003.
[7] Lynch JP, Loh KJ. A summary review of wireless sensors and sensor
networks for structural health monitoring. Shock Vibration Digest 2006;38(2):
91–128.
[8] Pakzad SN, Kim S, Fenves GL, Glaser SD, Culler DE, Demmel JW. Multi-purpose
wireless accelerometer for civil infrastructure monitoring. In: Proceedings
of the 5th international workshop on structural health monitoring, Stanford
(CA); 2005.
2235
[9] Paek J, Jang OGK-Y, Nishimura D, Govindan R, Caffrey J, Wahbeh M, Masri S. A
programmable wireless sensing system for structural monitoring. 4th world
conference on structural control and monitoring, San Diego (CA); 2006.
[10] Lynch JP, Wang Y, Loh KJ, Yi J-H, Yun C-B. Performance monitoring of the
Geumdang bridge using a dense network of high-resolution wireless sensors.
Smart Mater Struct 2006;15(6):1561–75.
[11] Wenzel H, Pichler D. Ambient vibration monitoring. West Sussex, England:
John Wiley & Sons Ltd; 2005.
[12] Whelan MJ, Janoyan KD. Design of a robust, high-rate wireless sensor network
for static and dynamic structural health monitoring. J. Intell. Mater. Syst.
Struct.. 2009 (in press) doi:10.1177/1045389X08098768.
[13] Ventura CE, Felber AJ, Stiemer SF. Experimental investigation of dynamics of
Queensborough bridge. J Performance Construct Fac 1995;9(2):146–55.
[14] Peeters B, De Roeck G. Reference-based stochastic subspace identification for
output-only modal analysis. Mech Syst Signal Process 1999;13(6):855–78.
[15] Van den Branden B, Peeters B, De Roeck GD. Introduction to MACEC v2.0:
Modal analysis on civil engineering constructions user guide and case studies.
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven; 1999. p. 47.
[16] Peeters B. System identification and damage detection in civil engineering.
Ph.D. dissertation, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. 2000.
[17] Fennema JL, Laman JA, Linzell DG. Predicted and measured response of an
integral abutment bridge. J Bridge Eng 2005;10(6):666–77.
[18] Civjan SA, Bonczar C, Breña SF, DeJong J, Crovo D. Integral abutment bridge
behavior: Parametric analysis of a Massachusetts bridge. J Bridge Eng 2007;
12(1):64–71.