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Lec5 Transes
Lec5 Transes
Lec5 Transes
How it Functions?
P a g e 2 | 10
SYNERGISTIC ACTIONS
ELEVATOR/DEPRESSOR
CONSTRICTOR
FLEXION
PRONATION
ABDUCTOR
P a g e 3 | 10
2. hypaxials of the abdomen have no
myosepta & form broad sheets of
muscle
3. hypaxials are oriented
into oblique, rectus, &
transverse bundles
Epaxials of Tetrapods
lie along vertebral column dorsal to
transverse processes & lateral to neural
arches
extend from base of the skull to tip of the tail
Urodeles & some lizards - epaxials are
obviously metameric & are referred to
as the dorsalis trunci
Higher tetrapods - superficial epaxial
bundles form long muscles that
extend over many body segments;
deep bundles are still segmented
Longest bundles:
1. longissimus group
lies on transverse
processes of vertebrae;
includes the longest Epaxials of Tetrapods
epaxial bundles Shortest bundles - intervertebrals
subdivisions include: remain segmented
o longissimus dorsi
connect processes (spinous,
o longissimus cervicis
transverse, & zygapophyses) of
o longissimus capitis
adjacent vertebrae
2. iliocostalis group
lateral to longissimus &
Function of Epaxials of Tetrapods
spinalis
arises on ilium & inserts on 1. short epaxials perform same function as in
dorsal ends of ribs or uncinate fish (side-to-side movements of vertebral
processes column)
3. spinalis group 2. short & long bundles arch & support the
lies close to neural arches vertebral column
connects spinous processes or 3. most anterior bundles = attach to & move the
transverse processes with skull
those several vertebrae
anteriorly
P a g e 4 | 10
Hypaxials of Tetrapods HYPAXIALS: Rectus muscles
1. Muscles of lateral body wall: weakly developed in most fish; 'stronger' in
oblique (external & internal), tetrapods
transverse, & rectus muscles support ventral body wall & aid in arching the
2. Muscles that form longitudinal bands in roof back
of body cavity (subvertebral muscles) in mammals - rectus abdominis (typically
extends from the anterior end of the sternum
to the pelvic girdle)
P a g e 5 | 10
Tetrapods
hypobranchials stabilize & move
hyoid apparatus & larynx
the tongue of amniotes is a 'sac'
anchored to hyoid skeleton & filled
with hypobranchial muscle
P a g e 6 | 10
Extrinsic Appendicular Muscles Mammals - similar to reptiles but more
1. most develop from hypaxial blastemas in the diverse
body wall
2. referred to as secondary appendicular
muscles because it was not their original
function to operate appendages
3. chief extrinsic muscles of forelimbs of
tetrapods include: scapular deltoid,
latissimus dorsi, rhomboideus, serratus
ventralis, & pectorals
Appendicular Muscles
Amphibians - much
more complex than
in fish
Reptiles - more
numerous & diverse
than in amphibians;
better support of body & increased mobility of
distal segments of the limbs
Birds - intrinsic musculature is reduced;
pectoralis (downstroke muscle) &
supracoracoideus (upstroke muscle) are
enlarged
P a g e 7 | 10
Muscles of the Mandibular Arch
Squalus & other fish - operate the jaws
(adductor mandibulae & intermandibularis)
Tetrapods
muscles of 1st arch still operate jaws
adductors of mandible:
o masseter & temporalis
o pterygoid
o digastric
V. Integumentary Muscles
Extrinsic integumentary muscles (e.g.,
platysma)
originate (usually) on the skeleton &
insert on the underside of the dermis
striated
move skin of amniotes
Intrinsic integumentary muscles (arrector pili
muscles)
entirely within the dermis
found in birds & mammals
mostly smooth muscles The electric organ contains electrically
excitable cells called 'electrocytes', which
receive simultaneous command signals from
the brain to 'fire'. At the moment of 'firing', the
electrocytes are asymmetrically polarized
acting as serially connected batteries.
P a g e 9 | 10
The simultaneous firing of electrocytes results
in the electric organ discharges (EODs)
which are emitted in the surrounding water.
In strongly electric fishes, such as the electric
eel, electric catfish, and electric rays, the
electric organ is huge containing numerous
electrocytes. Therefore, their discharge
voltage can reach as high as 600 volts. In
weakly electric fishes, which use electricity for
navigation and communication, the
discharge voltage is small -- often less than a
volt.
There are two types of EODs, pulse type and
wave type. All strongly electric fishes and
some weakly electric fishes are pulse-type
Electric fishes are divided into the three main
electric fishes. They discharge short electrical
categories.
pulses intermittently. Some weakly electric
Strongly electric fish
fishes are wave type. They produce wave-like
electric eel
continuous A.C. electricity.
electric catfish
electric rays
Weakly electric fish
knife fishes
elephant nose
Fishes that can only sense electricity
All electric fishes mentioned so far not only sharks
produce electricity but sense it with a very rays
sensitive sensory organ called skate
'electroreceptors' which are embedded in the catfish
skin. paddle fish
Electroreceptors are used to detect a slight Platypus (though not a fish, they are
change of electric field cause by nearby electroreceptive.)
objects. Electric fishes can thus electrically
'see' objects in an environment where vision
is useless (at night, or in murky water). This
process is called 'active electrolocation'
because the source of electricity that they use
for electrolocation is their own electric organ.
P a g e 10 | 10