Welcome to

Computer Organization and Design Course

Second Semester 2023/2024

Instructor: Prof. Yazeed Al-Sbou
 Course Objectives
• What the course is about:
– Understand how computers are organized and
why they are organized that way
– Understand hardware and software layouts from
the system-level view of computers.
– Introduce the Digital Logic, Microarchitecture,
Instruction Set Architecture, and Operating
Systems levels
– Learn how components and devices are organized
into an architectural configuration

• Our goal: show you how to understand

modern computer architecture in its rapidly
changing form.
 Tentative Outline
• Chapter 1 - Intro to Computer Organization
• Chapter 2 - Basic Computer System
Organization Concepts
• Chapter 3 - Digital Logic Level
– Gates  circuits, Boolean algebra, buses.
• Chapter 4 - Microarchitecture Level
– “Implementation” of the ISA
• Chapter 5 - Instruction Set Architecture Level
• *Chapter 6 – Operating System Level
• *Chapter 8 – Parallel Computer Architecture
 Chapter One
Introduction to
Computer Organization
 What are Computer, Program,
and Machine Language?
• Computer is “a machine that can solve problems
for people by carrying out instructions given to it.”
– General purpose computers- e.g. PC, Workstations,
Mainframes, etc.
– Special purpose- e.g. the computers in cars, washing
machines, Microwaves, cell phones, …etc

The current spectrum of available computers.

• Program: is a sequence of instructions for
performing a certain task.

• Machine language: Instructions that can be

executed by the hardware of a computer. For
example,
– Add two numbers.
– Check a number to see if it is zero.
– Copy a piece of data from one memory location
to another.

• Machine programs are difficult and tedious

for people to use.
• How can we manage the complexity
of computer systems?
– A computer can be regarded as a hierarchy of
levels.
• Each level performs some well-defined function.
• Each level is implemented on top of the next lower level.
• The lowest level is the physical level (hardware).
– Each level serves as a layer of abstraction.
• An abstraction omits unneeded details, helps us cope
with complexity.
• It hides the details of the lower layers from the upper
layers.
– We can understand a computer on different layers
of abstraction.
 Programming Languages
1. High-level languages:
– Easier for humans to work with, because they provide
many useful things not found in most CPU instruction sets:
• Control flow instructions
• Functions and procedures
• Ability of checking to eliminate errors at compile time
• Portability between very different processors.
2. Low-level languages
– Each CPU has its own instruction set, or assembly
language, which closely reflects the processor design.
– Low-level languages instruction sets are NOT easy to work
with! Because:
• Limited control flow
• Limited support for functions and procedures
• Very little error checking provided
• Very low portability between CPUs
 Programs Executing
• Every machine has its own machine language, assume we
have another language rather than the built in machine
language, what do we need to do?
– Language L0 (Machine language) executed by computer.
– Language L1 used by people.
The answer is that the L1 language should be converted
into Machine language (L0), How? This can be done by
one of the following methods:
1. Translation
• Replace every instruction in L1 program (the source) by an equivalent L0
instruction (the target).
• The output is completely L0 program.
• The computer executes the generated L0 program.
2. Interpretation
• Write an L0 program that takes L1 programs as inputs and executes them.
• The computer executes the L0 program (the interpreter).
 Virtual Machine
• Imagine a virtual machine.
– Hypothetical computer M1 whose machine
language is L1.
– If such a machine can be constructed, no
need for machine executing L0.
• People can write programs for virtual
machine.
– M1 may be built in hardware.
– L1 programs may be translated to L0
programs.
– L1 programs may be interpreted by L0
program.
• After the invention of the series of the
programming languages, the computer
can be viewed as a series of layers or
levels.

• Therefore, a computer with n levels can be

viewed as n different virtual machines.

• Each machine has its own language that

can execute and understand.
Languages, Levels, Virtual Machines

A multilevel machine
Contemporary Multilevel Machines

A six-level computer
 Level 0 – Digital Logic Level
• This level is the machine true hardware which
executes the machine language programs
• In this level, there is no concept of a program
• Interesting objects in this level are logic gates.
– Built from transistors (analog components).
• Operates on digital inputs.
– Signals representing 0 or 1.
– Computes simple function on inputs (AND, OR, . . . ).
• Gates can be used to implement registers.
– Groups of 1-bit memories (e.g., 16, 32, or 64).
 Level1 – Microarchitecture Level or
Microprogramming Level
• This level contains a group of registers, the Arithmetic
Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU)
• Registers are connected to the ALU to form a data
path over which data flows
• ALU operates on the values in the registers and stores
the result back into the memory or into one of the
registers
• CU controls the data path so that data is moved where
and when it should be.
• Data path is controlled by a program called
microprogram
• Microprogram is an interpreter for the instructions in
Level2.
• No two computers have identical microprogramming
level.
 Level 2 – Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)
Level or Conventional Level
• This level defines the instruction set of the
computer.
• Some computers may not have a
microprogramming level, therefore, the ISA level
instruction will be directly carried out by L0.
• Due to that, ISA instruction can be executed by
hardware or be interpreted by a microprogram
(L1)
• This set of instructions are published by
processor manufacturer in reference manual.
Level 3 - Operating System Machine Level
• Some of this level’s instructions are also in level 2
• A series of programs serves as a kind of
protective shell or buffer to save users and
application programs from the complexities of the
hardware.
• Operating system controls the sharing and
interaction among various computer units as they
execute application programs.
• Operating system also aids in process as a
resource allocator such as sharing memory
resource among users and application programs.
 Level 4 – Assembly Language
Level
• This level language is textual, i.e., uses words,
abbreviations and symbols to write programs
which more meaningful and understandable than
the numeric ones.
• Programs in Level 4 are first translated to Level
1, 2 or 3 languages and then interpreted by the
appropriate machine to Level 0 (digital logic level)
• An assembler translates programs written in
an assembly language into a sequence of
machine instructions.
 Level 5 – Problem Oriented
Language Level
• This level represents the high level languages
which are much easier for human to understand than
assembly language program like C++, Visual BASIC,
PASCAL.

• Therefore, this level uses languages needed by the

application programmers.

• Programs at these levels are usually translated to

level 3 or 4. Such translators are known as
Compilers.
 There is a break between the
L3 and L4
• The lowest 3 levels are used by the system
programmers who build interpreters and translators to
support higher levels
• Level 4 and above are used by application
programmers with specific problem to solve
• L3 and L2 are always interpreted (i.e., uses
interpretation)
• L4 and L5 and above usually uses translation
• L1, L2 and L3 machine languages are numeric
• L4, L5 and above languages are words, abbreviations
and symbols.
 Programmers
1. System programmers: these are
responsible for developing programs for
the operating systems, interpreters, etc.
These are more closer to the system.
2. High level programmers: these are
responsible for developing application
programs e.g. word processing, image
manipulation, web browsers. These are
more away from the system.
 Hardware and Software
• Computer hardware:
– Tangible objects (ICs, boards, cables, power
supplies, memories, . . . )
– Based on electronics, optics, magnetic, . . .
• Computer software:
– Algorithms (instructions to perform a task) in a
particular computer representation (programs).
– Software can be stored on physical media (hard disk,
floppy, CD-ROM, . . . ).
– Essence of software is their information content, not
their physical representation.
• Distinction has considerably blurred.
– Functionality implemented in hardware can be
performed in software and vice versa.
– Hardware and software are logically equivalent.
 Evolution of Multilevel Machines
• Early digital computers (in 1940s) were
simple which typically consisted of two
levels:
1. ISA – where all the programming were done
in the machine language of the computer.
2. Digital logic level – which executed the above
programs

– As the ISA level got more complicated, the

digital logic level got more complicated,
unreliable and expensive.
• In 1950s, this gave the way to the 3-
level computers, where in addition to
the ISA and the digital logic level, the
microprogramming level was added:

1. This addition aimed to reduce the

complexity of the hardware.

2. Microprogram interpreted the language in

the ISA level – rather than directly by the
electronics.
 Invention of Operating System
• Early computers had to be managed/
operated by the programmers
• This includes loading the compiler, the
program, the data, … etc.
• Then load the next level interpreter
• Then load and execute the machine
language program
• That was a tedious process which led to
the invention of the operating system to
– Facilitates multi-user access to computers
and simultaneous access from remote
terminals: timesharing
 Milestones in Computer
Architecture
• Generation 0: Mechanical Computers (1642-
1945)
• Generation 1: Vacuum Tubes (1945-1955)
• Generation 2: Transistors (1955-1965)
• Generation 3: Integrated Circuits (1965-1980)
• Generation 4: Very Large Scale Integration
(1980-2020?)
• These are structured by fundamental changes
in underlying technologies.
 Generation 0: Mechanical
Computers
• Mechanical computers which were based on
using gears, cranks and hand operating
• Simple calculators: add, subtract, multiply and
divide
• First calculating machine was invented by Blaise
Pascal in 1642
• Father of computing – Charles Babbage
• During 1937-1942, John Vincent Atanasoff from
Iowa State College and Clifford Berry built the
Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC) who were
declared later in 1973 to be the inventors of the
electronic digital computer.
 Generation 1: Vacuum Tubes
• The first general purpose electronic
computer- Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Computer (ENIAC) by Eckert and
Mauchley at University of Pennsylvania
• 18,000 vacuum tubes, 1500 relays, 2 feet
long registers, 30 ton and consumed
140KW of power.
• Data entered using punch cards
• Tedious to program
• In this period the von Neumann Machine
appeared.
• von Neumann Machine is the basic of the
all digital computers
• Programs and data are stored in the same
memory and the computer itself can be an
editor and calculator at the same time
– Input: data and instructions from the outside
world
– Memory: stores data and instructions
– ALU: arithmetic and logical operations
– Control: interpret the instructions
– Output: from memory to the outside world
 Generation 2: Transistors
• Invention of the Transistor technology at
the Bell Labs in 1948
• This made the vacuum tubes obsolete
• This led to smaller, faster, low power,
cheaper computers
• System software (e.g. OS) for managing
the computer
 Generation 3: Integrated Circuits
(ICs)
• ICs allowed dozens of transistors on a
single chip.
• Enable even smaller, faster and cheaper
computers
• This allows for the appearance of
computer families/series – like IBM
• Multiprogramming and multi-user systems
 Generation 4: Very Large Scale
Integration (VLSI)
• This allows for millions of transistors on a chip –
systems based on chips
• Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
(CMOS) technology for transistors for building
circuits with high densities
• Small Scale Integration (SSI), Medium SI (MSI),
Large SI (LSI), Very Large SI (VLSI), Very Very
Large SI (VVLSI)
• Chip area of 100-300 mm2 , Board area of 200
cm2 (was 140m2), i.e., improvement of 104
• Performance:
– 64 bit multiply in about 1 ns (multiplication of two 10-
digit numbers was in 2 ms), i.e., improvement of 106
 Generation 5: ?
• What will come in 2020 and beyond?
• 3-dimensional circuit designs.
– Pack transistors in cubes instead of chips.
• Optical computing.
– Replace electronics by optics.
• Molecular computing
– Use chemical/biological processes for computing.
• Quantum computing
– Use other physical properties for computing.
– Special applications only, e.g., quantum
cryptography.
 Computer Zoo (Advances in
Computer Industry)
• Computer industry is one of the fastest growing
technologies – where complicated chips and
circuits with increasing number of transistors
each year are rapidly growing which will provide
larger memories and more powerful processors.
• Gordon Moore (co-founder of and Intel
chairman) stated that
– The number of transistors on a chip double every 18
month,
– Memory capacity quadruples every 3 years
• Therefore, faster processors, bigger memories
and larger programs.
• This is known as Moore’s Law (Observation)
The Current Spectrum of
Available Computers
 1. Disposable Computers
• These include the Radio Frequency
Identification (RFID) Chip: it is the most
important technology in the area of
throwaway computers, which can be used
in:
– Single chip inside greeting cards
– Bar codes elimination
– Cars tracking
– Airlines baggage
 2. Microcontrollers
• These are computers that are embedded inside devices
which can be used to manage the devices and handle
the user interface, like:
– Appliances (washer machines, clocks, Microwaves,....)
– Communications (mobiles, cordless phones)
– Entertainments devices
– Imaging devices
• If RFID are minimal, then the microcontrollers are small
but complete computers (i.e., include processor,
memory,…etc)
• All microcontrollers operate in real time
• Embedded systems have many restrictions in terms of
size, weight, battery, …
3. Computer Games: These are normal computers
with special graphics and sound capabilities
like, the Sony Play-station 2 which includes a
295MHz CPU, 32MB RAM memory, DVD, …
etc.

4. Personal Computers (PCs)

5. Servers: These are usually computers or

Workstations which are used as network
servers for LANs or Internet with high-speed,
space and memory sizes networking
capabilities (with single or multiple
processors).
6. Collection of Workstations: These include
large number of workstations to form
Clusters of PCs or workstations connected
by a network which allows all the
machines to work on the same problem.

7. Mainframes and supercomputers: these

are very large computers which consists of
fast CPUs, very fast disks and networks,
gigabytes memories.