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McKay's
Building Construction
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 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
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BY

W. B. M~KAY, M.Sc.Tech., M.I.Struct.E.

REGISTERED ARCHITECT AND CHARTERED STRUCTURAL ENGINEER

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING IN THE

COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY, MANCHESTER

WITH DRAWINGS BY THE AUTHOR

I~ ~~o~;~~n~f{:up
LONDON AND NEW YORK
 First published in 1938 by Longmans, London

Published by Donhead Publishing Ltd 2005

Published 2015 by Routledge

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2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

©Taylor & Francis 2005

New introduction to this 2005 edition© Henry Russell

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or

utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.

Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,

and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

ISBN 13: 978-1-873394-72-4 (hbk)

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

McKay, William Barr
McKay's building construction
l.Building
I. Title
690
ISBN 1873394721
 Introduction to the 2004 edition
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My father-in-law was a civil engineer who worked on water schemes and it is thanks to him
that I was introduced to the early editions of W.B. McKay's Building Construction some
years ago. The most attractive feature is the sheer volume and quality of drawings with
which it is illustrated. These show construction details and processes in such clarifying
detail.
Many practitioners still have a copy of the old McKay beside their desks, because it is an
intensely practical textbook. His grandson, Neil McKay, tells me that architectural students
are still urged to beg, steal or borrow the books. This facsimile publication should avoid the
temptation to break the law! Building Construction was regarded as a classic at McKay's
untimely death in February 1958, when he and his wife were killed in a road accident.
William Barr McKay came from Consett, County Durham and started his career in
architectural training before 1914. He also qualified as a structural engineer, becoming a
member of the Institute of Structural Engineers in 1927, and he served on the institute's
council.
He spent most of the First World War with the Royal Engineers, and much of that in
France. When he was demobbed went to Leeds College of Technology, becoming head of its
building department when it was established. He became the first honorary secretary of the
Yorkshire Educational Association for the Building Industry. In 1928 he moved to
Manchester to become Head of the Building Department at Manchester College of
Technology, where he remained until his retirement in December 1956. One of his early
successes was to establish a degree course in building.
The first volume of the original three-volume Building Construction was published in
1938, and the next two volumes were produced over the next six years. After McKay's
 death, his son J.K. McKay was responsible over the next 30 years for reprints of the books,
as well as undertaking the huge task of converting them from imperial to metric.
His obituary in The Builder magazine describes him as being an excellent and gifted
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teacher, but also hot-headed and impetuous, and goes on to say that 'no story about him is
incredible and most are probably true'.
Building Construction was one of the last of the traditional textbooks to be published
before the building design and construction process became industrialised. The urge
towards fast-track building processes has led to the design process of many buildings been
driven by the technology, and this in turn has led to a reduction in the craft skills available.
Those of us who work with traditional building materials often seek in vain to find modern
textbooks to explain details of joinery, stonemasonry or leadwork. It is all here in McKay,
brilliantly illustrated by his drawings, which are second to none in their quality.
McKay was part of a tradition of works such as Jaggard and Drury's Architectural
Building Construction and The Architects Library: Building Construction. Both books have
very good illustrations, but none surpasses the quality of those by McKay. But all three
show building as a craft. Portland cement was becoming much more common in use for
mortars and renders, but there is full discussion of the limes: fat lime, poor lime and the
hydraulic limes. The construction textbooks of the first half twentieth century remain true
to the pattern of those of the late nineteenth century, such as John Parnell Allen's Practical
Building Construction of 1893.
The value of old construction books is in informing us of methods of construction which
are no longer current in modern construction. For instance, pre-war building construction
textbooks have detailed information on traditional carpentry and joinery. We erroneously
tend to think that timber-framed partitions have no structural role in a building. Up until
the 1930s, trussed partitions were still being described- and presumably still constructed.
They were built to carry floor or roof loads, and a misunderstanding of their role and
purpose may well have catastrophic results.
 Stonemasonry and brickwork are dealt with in great detail in these books, and they
remain valid source books for information of this kind. Architectural stonemasonry is
covered in all the principal pre-war textbooks, including the construction of medieval stone
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vaults - groin, rib, lierne and fan. In contemporary construction the 102 mm facing of brick
cavity wall has led to the supremacy of stretcher bond. There is a wealth of other brick
bonds which are ignored nowadays. Looking at construction textbooks from the late
nineteenth century onwards, the history of the cavity wall can be traced. It was introduced
as a means of reducing dampness, but quite soon its thermal insulation qualities were
recognised as a way of equalising the effects of the extremes of summer and winter
temperatures.
By the end of the Second World War, there was a palpable change taking place. New
materials and wartime economy were having their effect. R. Greenhalgh's Building Repairs
was published in 1945. By then, Portland cement mortar was the favoured product, asbestos
cement corrugated sheeting and rainwater goods were popular - and steel tube had largely
replaced fir poles for scaffolding. One would not argue the case for keeping timber
scaffolding, but the other changes in the post-war years heralded the industrialisation of the
process of building. More standardised components and the loss of traditional skills have
led to many unfortunate repairs to historic buildings, and it is only in the last decade that
this problem is being addressed, and the shortage of traditional skills is beginning to be
reversed.
Volume 1 of McKay's Building Construction covers masonry and brickwork, carpentry
and joinery, slating and plumbing at the elementary level Volume 2 goes into greater detail
on masonry and brickwork, and covers drainage. Drainage details have changed
substantially over the last half-century, but McKay describes the drainage systems the
practitioner will often find. Volume 3 covers carpentry and joinery in greater detail,
including the conversion of timber. Roof coverings are covered, including tiling, stone
slating and shingling.
 The book, incorporating all three volumes, describes construction at the craft level, and
while adjustments have to be made for modern practices, the drawings and text combine to
give an unparalleled level of understanding of the traditional forms of construction the
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practitioner may encounter in many other buildings.

Henry Russell and the publishers would like to thank the family of W.B. McKay for their
support for this reprint, and for providing an illustration of the author.
Henry Russell
College of Estate Management
Reading
December 2004

Henry Russell MA (Can tab) DipBldgCons FRICS IHBC

Henry Russell is a chartered surveyor and director of the Programme in Conservation of the
Historic Environment at the College of Estate Management, Reading. He lectures on
conservation subjects regularly. He is a trustee of The Georgian Group and of the
Woodchester Mansion Trust in Gloucestershire. He is also a member of the Gloucester
Diocesan Advisory Committee for the Care of Churches.
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W.B. McKay
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 BUILDING CONSTRUC TION
THREE VOLUMES IN ONE
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BY

W. B. M~KA Y, M.Sc.Tech., M.I.Struct.E.

LECTURER IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER
AND HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERlNG
IN THE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY, MANCHESTER

WITH DRAWINGS BY THE AUTHOR

LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO

LONDON NEW YORK TORONTO
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PREFACE
TO THE THIRD EDITION (Vol. 1)

NEW building materials, new ways of using the older materials, and new forms of construction have raised
several problems in recent years for the teacher of building construction. One of these has been to decide
which of the new materials and forms of construction should be accepted for class instruction ; · another,
to assess the extent to which the older materials and methods have been superseded.
Some of the new materials have been applied with much success, but others have proved to be inferior
to the old and already have been abandoned. Moreover, certain traditional materials, such as bricks, on
account of their well-tried qualities of appearance, durability, convenience in handling and low maintenance
costs, are still the most popular choice for houses and often for larger buildings. There are also signs of
a return, on a limited scale, to the conventional stone house, especially in districts within easy reach of
quarries. Another point to be borne in mind is that no small proportion of the building industry is engaged
upon the reconstruction, alteration, extension and repair of existing buildings, requiring a knowledge of
sound construction based on long-established principles.
Accordingly, it has not been considered necessary to make substantial changes in this new edition
of a book dealing with fundamentals. Several emendations have been made in the text, figures 7 and 12
have been re-drawn and certain details in figures s8 and 6I have been modified. A brief description has
been added of the more important portable power tools, which have recently been developed.
W. B, McK.
September, 1952.
 PREFACE
TO THE SECOND EDITI O N (Vol. 1)

THE preparation of this new edition has enabled certain corrections to be made.
It has also afforded an opportunity to refer to a matter concerning syllabuses which was not made
sufficiently clear in the first preface. It should be emphasized that this volume is limited to a general first
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year syllabus. As an assessor in this subject for National Certificates and Diplomas the author has been
able to make a careful analysis of many syllabuses from colleges which have been approved for participation
m the scheme.
These approved syllabuses are not by any means standard. Very properly, they differ according to the
special requirements of the students, the individual views held by the teachers, the uses in construction of
varying local materials, etc. Therefore, whilst the syllabuses show agreement in respect to most sections,
certain summaries include one or more headings which are absent in others, and omit sub-divisions of the
subject which may be given extended treatment elsewhere. For instance, many lecturers deal with the double-
hung sashed window in the first year, whilst others defer its consideration until the second year of the course ;
it is not by any means general in the first year to extend the subject of brick bonding to the consideration of
rebated jambs ; the king-post roof truss is sometimes deferred, and in the minority of schools plain tiling
is preferred to slating as a first year subject.
But rather than give a limited treatment of the subject which would only satisfy a minimum syllabus,
it was thought desirable to meet, as far as possible, maximum requirements. Hence the comprehensive
sectionalised syllabus which appears as headings to the various chapters and which is dealt with in this volume.
It is appreciated that the amount of work done in class will depend largely upon the nature of the course
(whether evening, part-time day or full-time) as the total time allotted to the subject per session varies.
The suggested Homework Programme takes account of such variation. It is anticipated that some of the
existing syllabuses will be widened in scope when the recommendations on part-time day training which
appear in the Report on Training for the Building Industry recently issued under the auspices of the Ministry
of Works and Planning have been implemented.
W. B. McK.
August, 1943.
 PREFACE
TO THE FIRST EDITION (Vol. 1)

DuRING the past few years syllabuses in Building Construction have been extensively revised, and to-day
those operating in Technical Schools and Colleges approved for National Certificate purposes show
general agreement as to what parts of the subject should be treated in the earlier stages.
This also applies to Building Construction as taught in Schools of Architecture, although its treat-
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ment and presentation may not be the same.

Accordingly, one of the aims of the author has been to include in this first volume only such
matter as is now generally accepted as being suitable for the first stage of the subject. Each chapter
is headed with the appropriate section of the syllabus in detail, and this is covered by the text
and drawings.
Most of the drawings have been prepared to large stze to enable associated details to be
grouped conveniently for reference.
In Schools of Architecture, where Building Construction IS closely related to Design, the
illustrations may prove helpful to the first-year student in preparing his constructional sheets,
particularly during the early months of the session, when adequate design subjects are not available
and his ability to design is limited.
Attention is drawn to the suggested " Homework Programme." It is recognised that only a
relatively small proportion of the details shown in the book can be drawn to scale by the student
during a session, and a selection has therefore been made of those which may be regarded as
typical ; as far as time will permit, additional alternative details should be sketched by students
in their notebooks.
Teachers of apprentice-students attending Trade Courses, such as Brickwork and Masonry,
Carpentry and Joinery, etc., will find that the subject matter in the chapters concerned more than
covers the first-year syllabuses. Whilst the Homework Programme does not apply to such courses,
where the subjects need to be developed more gradually and treated in greater detail, it is hoped
that the arrangement of Fig. 6o, referred to in the programme, will serve as a useful guide to these
students in preparing well-balanced sets of homework sheets.
In preparing certain sections of this book the author has had assistance from several sources,
and he is especially indebted to Mr D. H. England and Mr W. I. Tarn who gave him many
valuable and practical suggestions in connection with the chapter on Plumbing. Thanks are also
extended to his colleague Mr E. Spencer for reading the proofs of the chapters on Carpentry and
Joinery, and for much useful criticism bearing upon these sections.

August, 1938 W. B. McK.

 PREFACE (Vol. 2)
VoLUMES II and III are devoted to those parts of Building Construction which are regarded as suitable for
a second-year course. Brickwork, drainage, masonry and mild steel roof trusses are dealt with in Vol. II (this
volume), carpentry, joinery and roof coverings in Vol. III.
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One of the aims of the author has been to treat the subject sufficiently comprehensively in order to meet,
as far as possible, the individual requirements of both students and lecturers concerned with the examinations
of the Royal Institute of British Architects and allied professional bodies, and for National Certificates
and Diplomas in Building. A wide syllabus has therefore been adopted to meet a variety of needs.
It is not intended that the whole syllabus should be covered by one class in one session, but rather
that most classes should be able to select those parts of the syllabus that apply specially to them.
The syllabus adopted has been divided into seven parts, and these appear as headings of the respective
chapters of both volumes.
Materials have been treated at some length. Much of the description in smaller type is intended
for the more advanced students and for reference purposes.
Because of the relatively large size of many of the drawings it has been possible to include
associated details for convenient reference. Thus, for example, Fig. 47 incorporates complete details
of the small steel roof truss. Again, the several openings showing the stone dressings in Fig. 38
are detailed in Fig. 39 on the opposite page. It is hoped that the arrangement of the details in the
full-page drawings especially will be of assistance to students preparing homework sheets and testi-
monies of study. A Homework Programme appears on p. 129. This is suggestive only, to be departed
from according to the requirements and capacity of the students. Its purpose is not the production
of sheets identical in detail and composition.
The author wishes to express his appreciation to several colleagues for their valuable criticisms
and suggestions during the preparation of this volume, and particularly· to Mr V. C. Barnes, A.R.I.B.A.,
Mr D. A. G. Reid, B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E., and Mr A. V. Wilson, M.Sc.Tech., M.I.Struct.E. His thanks
are also due to the Controller, H.M. Stationery Office, for kindly allowing the inclusion of extracts
from several British Standard Specifications, many more of which have been consulted. He is also
indebted to the Director of the Building Research Station for permission to quote from the Reports
of the Building Research Board, 1933 and 1936. Acknowledgment has been made in the text to
several firms who have readily supplied information on building materials and processes of manufacture.

W. B. McK.
 PREFACE (Vol. 3)
THis volume covers the latter portion of the syllabus in Building Construction, Stage Two, which
appears on p. 136, and to which reference has been made in the preface to Vol. II.
Care has been taken to exclude from these volumes details of construction which are generally
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accepted as being out of date. It is not, however, always easy to distinguish between obsolete and
obsolescent types. Much depends upon local practice. For example, the wood roof truss is considered
by many to be obsolete, and yet king post roof trusses were adopted in some districts in a number
of buildings erected just before the war. · As, however, the vast post-war building programme v.·hich
has to be undertaken will include the reinstatement of war-damaged property, and as many students
will be engaged upon this work, it has been thought desirable to refer to one or two types of
structures which, although employed extensively in the past, are now gradually falling into disuse.
Hence, for example, the queen post roof truss detailed in Fig. r8 is included largely for reference
purposes.
It is also realised that for some time after the war there will be a shortage of certain building
materials. This applies particularly to timber, as most of it is imported, and it will be imperative
that timber shall be used economically. Special attention should be given, therefore, to the descrip-
tion of plywood and similar products which is given on pp. 97-103, and in the production of which
the rarer and more valuable timbers especially are made to go as far as possible by conversion into
thin veneers.
Many alternative joinery details have been provided for comparison and selection. These include
both traditional and contemporary construction, examples of the latter being the flush door and the
solid-balustraded stair detailed in Figs. 25 and 35 respectively.
The homework programme on p. 135 continues and completes the one begun on p. 129, Vol. II.
The author's thanks are due to his colleague, Mr. E. Spencer, for his valuable assistance, especially
in connection with the sections devoted to woodworking machinery. Thanks are also extended to
the Director of Forest Products Research for permission to refer to several publications of the Forest
Products Research Board, to the Controller, H.M. Stationery Office, for authority to include brief extracts
from certain British Standard Specifications, and to various firms for particulars of new building
materials and manufacturing processes to which references have been made in the text.
W. B. McK.
 CONTENTS

VOLUME ONE
CHAPTER PAGE

I. BRICKWORK

Materials-Bonding-Stopped Ends-Junctions and Quoins-Piers-Jambs-Foundations-Damp Proof Courses

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-Site Concrete-Offsets and Corbels-Lintels-Arches-Window Sills-Thresholds-Copings-Plinths-Tools,

Construction, Jointing and Pointing.

II. MASONRY 33
Classification of Stones-Quarrying-Preparation-Defects-Walling-Rubble Work-Ashlar-Arches-Window
Sills-Plinths-Cornices-String Courses-Copings-Masonry Joints-Mortar Jointing-Lifting Appliances.

III. CARPENTRY 55
Structure, Growth, Felling, Seasoning, Preservation, Conversion, Defects and Classification of Timber-Floors-
Single, Double and Framed Roofs-Trench Timbering-Centering.

IV. JoiNERY 86
Ledged Braced and Battened, Framed Ledged Braced and Battened, Panelled and Flush Doors-Casement,
Cased Frame, Pivoted and Yorkshire Windows -Hardware- Architraves, Skirtings, Picture Rails and Angle
Beads-Nails, Screws and Fasteners-Tools.

V. SLATING
Formation, Quarrying, Conversion, Preparation and Characteristics of Slates- Centre-nailed and Head -nailed
Slating Details-Nails-Ridges-Hips-Valleys-Tools-Plain Tiling.

VI. PLUMBING
Manufacture and Characteristics of Lead-Lead Rolls, Drips, Flashings and Soakers-Details of Leadwork at
Gutters, Flats, Chimney Stacks, Ridges, Hips and Valleys-Lead Pipe Joints-Eaves Gutters-Down-pipes-Tools.

VII. MILD STEEL SEcTIONS, BoLTS AND RIVETS

VOLUME TWO
CHAPTER PAGE

VIII. BRICKWORK 160

Materials, including Bricks, Lime, Cement, Mortars and Concrete- -Squint Junctions-Squint Quoins-Rebated
and Splayed Jambs-Piers-Cavity Walls-Circular Work-Raking Bonds-Reinforced Brickwork-Special Bonds
-Arches-Damp Proofing of Basements-Open Areas-Stepped Foundations-Concrete Floor Construction-
Decorated Brickwork--Fireplaces, Flues, Chimney Breasts and Stacks-Setting Out.
 IX. DRAINAGE 230
Sewage Disposal-Drain Pipes and Traps-Setting Out and Excavation of Drain Trenches-Construction of Draim
-Drainage Schemes- Intercepting and Inspection Chambers-Ventilation-Testing.

X. MASONRY 244
Formation and Classific'ltion of Stones-Granites-Sandstones-Limestones-Marbles-Slates-Defects-Tests-
Quarrying and Mining-Machine Dressing-Dressings to Door and Window Openings-Cornices-Steps
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and Stairs.

XI. MILD STEEL RooF TRussEs 280

Bolts and Rivets-Details of Roof Trusses suitable for zo-ft., 30-ft., 30 to 40-ft. and 40-ft. Spans.

VOLUME THREE
CHAPTER I' AGE

XII. CARPENTRY 288

Classification, Structure, Conversion, Seasoning, Preservation, Defects, Characteristics, Uses, Prep~ration and
Sources of Timbers-Woodworking Machinery- Doubled, Framed and Fire-resisting Floors, Determination
of Sizes of Joists and Hcams, and Floor Finishes-Stoothed, Trussed and Slab Partition:;- Sound-
proofing-Double, Laminated ami Queen Post Roofs-Deep Trench Timbering-Centering.

XIII. JOINERY 350

Transomed, Semicircular Headed, Glazed and Flush Doors-Semicircular Headed and Thr<.:c Light Cased
Windows and Metal Windov;s-Details of Straight Flight, Dog-leg and Open Stairs, Winders and Special
Steps-Manufacture, Characteristics and Uses of Plywood, Laminboards, lllockboards, llattenboards and
Composite Boards.

XIV. RooF CoVERINGS 391

Manufacture and Characteristics of Cfay, Shale and Asbestos-Cement Tiles and Sheets-Details of Plain,
Pan, Italian and Spanish Tiling, Asbestos-Cement Sheeting, Stone Slating, Shingling, and Copper and Zinc
Roofing-Thatching.

HOMEWORK PROGRAMME (Vol. 1) 422

HOMEWORK PROGRAMME (Vol. 2) 424
HOMEWORK PROGRAMME (Vol. 3) 425

SYLLABUS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, STAGE TWO 426

GENERAL INDEX 427

 VOLUME ONE
LIST OF ILLUSTRATI ONS
NO. NO.
OF FIG. PAGE OF FIG. PAGE
1. Comparative Strength of Bonded and Unbonded Wall 3 39· King Post Roof Truss 78
2. Bricks 5 40. Elevation, Section, and Details of King Post Roof 79
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3· English Bond: Square Stopped Ends 6 41. Alternative Fastenings for King Post Roof Truss So
4· Flemish Bond : Square Stopped Ends 8 42. Timbering to Trenches 82
5· Right Angled Junctions 9 43 Centering 84
6. Right Angled Quoins II 44· Ledged and Battened Door and Frame 89
7· Piers I2 45 Ledged, Braced and Battened Door and Furniture 91
8. Rebated Jambs I4 46. Framed, Ledged, Braced and Battened Door 93
9. Foundation for One-and-a-half Brick Wall IS 47· Flush Doors (Laminated and Framed)· 94
IO. Foundations I6 48. Various Types of Doors and Panel Mouldings 96
1 I. Offsets, Corbels, Buttress Cappings . I9 49· Mitred and Scribed Joints 97
12. Lintels 20 so. Single Panelled Door 99
1 3. Isometric Sketch of Portion of Brick Arcade 22 51. Door Casings and Methods of Fixing IOI
14. Key Detail, showing Application of Arches, etc. 23 52. Two Panelled Door 102
I5. Brick Arches (Flat Gauged, Segmental, Semicircular, etc.) 25 53· Details of Twin Tenon Joint . IOJ
16. Window Sills and Thresholds . 27 54· Four Panelled Door 105
17. Copings, Plinths and Joints 30 55· Setting Out and Hand Preparation of Doors 107
18. Section through Face of Limestone Quarry 34 56. Casements and Solid Framed Windows 109
19. Preparation of StOfle, Surface Finishes and Masons' Tools 37 57, 58, 59· Casement Window Details 110, I 12, II3
20, 22, 23. Rubble Work 40, 42,44 6o, 61. Details of Window with Cased Frame and Sliding Sashes 115, II7
21. Key Detail of Stone Gable 4I 62. Window with Pivoted Sash 120
24. Ashlar 46 63. Window with Horizontal Sliding Sash 121

25. Stone Arches, Window Sills and Plinths 48 64, 65. Architraves, Skirtings, Picture Rails and Angle Beads I23, 124
26. Cornices. so 66. Nails, Screws and Fasteners 125
27. Copings and Joints . 51 67. Joiners' Tools IJI
28. Lifting Appliances . 53 68. Tools and Preparation of Slates IJ3
29- Structure and Seasoning of Timber 56 69. Slating Details 139
30. Conversion of Timber 57 70. Plain Tiling Details 140
3 1. Defects in Timber . 58 71. Lead Details of Parapet Gutters 147
32. Plan, Sections and Details of Single (Ground) Floor of Domestic Dwelling 63 72. Lead Flat Details 149
33· Methods of Laying Floor Boards, Etc. 64 73 · Leadwork at Chimneys, etc. ISI
34· Plan, Section and Details of Single (First) Floor of Domestic Dwelling 67 74· Protection of Cornices I 52

35· Sketch showing various Roof Members 69 75· Rain-Water Pipes I 55

36. Plans, Sections and Details of Single Roofs 7I 76. Plumbers' Tools I 56
37, 38. Plans, Sections and Details of Double Roof 75.77 77. Steel Flat, Square, Round and Tee Bars, Angles, Channels, Beams, Holts and Rivets 159
 VOLUME TWO
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
NO. NO •
. PAGE PAGE
OF FIG. OF FIG.
1. Sketches of Brick Moulding 1\·lachinery 163 27. Setting Out 228
2. Brick Mould used in the 1-Iand 1\,loulding Process 164 28. Drain Pipes and Traps
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232
3· Brick Kilns 168 29. Setting Out and Construction of Drains 236
4· Tunnel Kiln 169 30. Drainage Scheme and Details of Intercepting Chamber . 238
5· Special Bricks . 177 31. Inspection Chamber . 240
6. Lime Kiln 178 32. Sanitary Fittings 242
7· Diagram of Lime l-Iydrating Plant 180 33· Map showing Disposition of Building Stones 252
8. Diagram of Cement Works 182 J.f.. Diagrams showing Typical Structures of Building Stones 254
9· Testing Apparatus for Cement, etc. 192 35· Apparatus for Frost Action Test 259
10. Squint Junctions in English and Flemish Bonds 196 36. Masonry Machines 262
I 1. Acute and Obtuse Squint Quoins in English and Flemish Bonds 197 37· Stone Dressings to Semicircular-headed Door Openings 265
12. Rebated and Splayed Jambs, Squint and Octagonal Piers 198 38. Stone Dressings to Square-headed Door Openings 267
13, 14. Cavity Walls 200,202 39· Stone Mouldings at Door Openings 268
I 5. Circular Work . 204 40. Stone Dressings to Window Openings . 269
I 6. Reinforced Brickwork 206 41. Details of Masonry at Window Openings 270
I 7. Raking Bonds . 208 42. \Vindow with Stone Dressings, including Consoles 271
18. Special Bonds . 209 43. Cornices 273
19. Brick Arches (Semicircular with Orders, Circular, etc.) . 212 44· Stone Steps, Thresholds 275
20. Damp Proofing of Basements 216 45· Stone Open Well Staircase . 277
21. Dry Area 217 46~ Reinforced Concrete and Marble Staircase 278
22. Stepped Foundations for Sloping Sites 218 . 4 7. Mild Steel Roof Truss suitable for 20-ft. Span 282
23. Concrete Floor Construction, Concrete l\1ixer 220 48. Mild Steel Roof Truss suitable for 30-ft. Span 284
24. Decorated Brickwork 222 49· Mild Steel Roof Truss suitable for JO to 40-ft. Span 285
25, 26. Fireplaces, Flues, Chimney Breasts and Stacks 225,226 so. Mild Steel Roof Truss suitable for 40-ft. Span 286
 VOLUME THREE
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
NO. NO.
OF FIG. PAGE OF FIG. PAGE
I. Structure of Hardwood and Softwood 290 27. Three l.,ight Cased Windows 362
Woodworking Machinery . . 293 28. Metal Windows with and without Wood Fran1e~ . 364
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2.
3· Timber Kiln 296 29. Types of Staircases . 368
4· Map showing Disposition of Principal Building Timbers. . 312 30. Straight Flight Stair 372
5· Woodworking Machinery . . . 313 3 I. Details and Setting Out of Stairs 373
6. Saws and Rotary Cutters 314 32. Dog-leg Stair . 376
7· Double and Framed Floors 320 33· Balustrade Details 377
8. Details of Double and Framed Floors 322 34· Isometric Sketch of Open:..balustraded Dog-leg Stair and
9· Fire-resisting Floor . .• 324 Details 378
10. Board, Block, Plywood, Parquet, Cork and Rubber Floor 35· Isometric Sketch of Solid-balustraded Dog-leg Stair and
Finishes 326 Details 379
I I. Stoothed Partition 329 36 .. Open Well Stair 381
12. Trussed Partitions 331 37· Axonometric Sketch of Solid-balustraded Open Well Stair 382
13, Clay, Concrete, Plaster, Glass, etc., Partitions 333 38. Details of Winders 383
· 14. Sound-proof Details of Floors and Partitions 337 39· Details of Splayed, Bull-no3ed and Curtail Steps 384
I 5. Double Roof showing Bracing 338 40. Rotary Cutter, Plywood, Laminboard, Blockboard, Batten-
16. Double Roof showing Trussed Purlin and Steel Beam Supports 340 board, etc. . 386
17. Laminated Wood Trusses . 341 41. Plain Tiling Eaves and Ridge Details 394
18. Queen Post Roof Truss 342 4~· Plain Tiling Hip and Valley Details 395
19. Timbering of Excavations . 346 43. Vertical Plain Tiling Details 400
20. Centering for Arches 348 44· Pantiling Eaves and Ridge Details 402
2 1. Door with Fanlight . 351 45· Pantiling, Abutment, Hip, Valley and Verge Details 404
22. Door and Fanlight Details . 352 46. Italian and Spanish Tiling Details 406
23. Semicircular Headed Door 354 4 7. Asbestos-Cement Sheet, Slate and Tile Details 410
24. Glazed Doors . 356 48. Stone Slating Eaves and Ridge Details 414
25. Flush Doors 358 49· Shingle Eaves and Ridge Details 415
26. Semicircular Headed Cased Windo'v . 360 so. Copper and Zinc Roofing Details 418
 CHAPTER ONE

BRICKWORK
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Syllabu~.-Brief _description of. the manu;acture of bricks ; ~haracteristi~s. Lime mortar, cement mortar and concrete. Sizes and shapes of bricks ; terms ; heading,
stretchmg, Enghsh and _Flemish bond~ ; I, ~ ! and z -bnc~ walls w1th stopped ends; ! to I, I to I and I to I i -brick junctions; right-angled quoins to I,
I ~- ~nd z-bnck walls ; p1ers ; rebat~d Jambs w1th z! and 4~-m. recesses to I and I i-brick walls. Foundations for t, I , I i and z-brick walls ; surface concrete;
honzontal damp-proof co~:ses. Lmtels ; _ax~d and gal:'ge_d flat, segmental and semicircular arches ; rough relieving arches ; terms. Copings ; window sills ;
steps ; corbels and oversallmg courses. Jomtmg and pomtmg.

MATERIALS
BRICKS.-Bricks are made chiefly from clay and shale.2 Clay, a plastic earth,
is constituted largely of sand and alumina and may contain varying quantities
of chalk, iron, manganese dioxide, etc. Shale is a laminated deposit of clay
rock which is capable of being reduced to a plastic condition when broken up
and ground to a fine state of division. Bricks are approximately 9-in. by 4!-in.
by 3-in. (see p. 3).
MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS.-The processes of manufacture vary considerably
according to the variety of clay used, machinery available, etc., and the following
is a brief general description. Bricks are moulded either by machinery or by
hand.
MACHINE-MADE BRICKS.-Most bricks are made by machinery. The various
processes are: (r) preparation of the earth, (z) moulding, (3) drying and (4)
burning.
(I) Preparation.-The clay or shale is excavated, and after large stones or
other extraneous matter have been removed, it is conveyed to a pug mill and
finely ground by heavy rotating and revolving wheels which force it through
small perforations in the bottom of the mill.
(z) Moulding.-There are two kinds of machine-made bricks, i.e., wire-cuts
and pressed.
WIRE-CUT BRICKS are moulded as follows :- The fine clay from the pug mill
is forced through a mouthpiece (approximately 9-in. by 4!-in.) of a machine in a
continuous band and conveyed by rollers to a frame which contains several
fine vertical wires which are about 3-in. apart. A portion of this continuous
band, equal in length to that of the frame, is pushed forward through the frame
by means of a metal plate and the wires thus divide it into ten or more 9-in. by
4!-in. by 3-in. slabs of clay.
1 Flemish bond is sometimes deferred until the second year of the Course.
' Sand-lime bricks (consisting of a mixture of lime and sand) and concrete bricks are
PRESSED BRICKs.-Of the many different types of machines for moulding
bricks by pressure the simplest is worked by hand and the larger type is operated
by steam power. The former consists of a metal box which is the size of a brick
and into which is placed a clay slab which has been wire-cut as explained above ;
a metal plate is caused to descend, and by exerting pressure upon the clay,
consolidates it ; it is then removed. The larger type of machine consists of a
rotating table which contains twelve or more boxes or dies each of which is
the size of a brick ; as the table revolves each die in turn is brought under a
hopper which contains the prepared clay or shale ; a plunger operating in the
hopper descends and .forces the clay into the die after which the raw brick (or
slab of clay) is pushed out as the table rotates.
(3) Drying and (4) Burning.-Both of these operations are carried out in a
modern kiln, one type of which contains several chambers, each accommodating
4o,ooo or more bricks. The wire-cut or pressed raw bricks are carefully stacked
with a space between each and in alternate layers at right angles to each other.
Heat, produced from gas or coal dust, is gradually applied until a maximum
temperature is obtained (which is maintained for approximately two days), when
the bricks ar~ then allowed to cool. The loading, drying, burning, cooling and
emptying of the kiln may occupy two weeks, and as it is a continuous process,
a chamber of finished bricks is emptied daily.
HAND-MADE BRICKS.-Whilst most bricks arc machine-made and used for
general purposes (on account of their relative cheapness) there is an increasing
demand for hand-made bricks for superior facing work. The preparation,
drying and burning processes are similar to those already described, but the
moulding is done by hand. The mould used for this purpose is of wood or
metal and somewhat resembles the sides of a rectangular box and equal in
size to the required bricks.1 It is either wetted or sanded to prevent the clay
from adhering to it and is placed on the moulder's bench. A portion of the
1 Clay shrinks during the drying and burning processes by approximately one-tenth

also manufactured (seep. I7, Chapter Eight, Vol. II). and allowance for this is made by using a mould which is larger than the finish ed brick.
 2 BRICKWORK
prepared clay or shale sufficient to fill the mould is now taken, roughly shaped,
and dashed by the moulder into the mould. The clay is pressed with the fingers
to fill the mould completely and the slab is levelled off by means of a wood
fillet or a piece of wire which is drawn across the top ; the slab is then
removed and placed on a slip of wood from which it is transferred to a barrow.
The slabs are finally taken to the kiln, dried and burnt. Sometimes the drying
process takes place in a heated " drying shed."
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Characteristics.-Good bricks should be thoroughly burnt ; this makes them
hard and durable (the quality of lasting for a long period without perishing)
and enables them to withstand pressure. A hard ringing sound emitted when
two bricks are struck together indicates that they have been burnt satisfactorily.
Generally the bricks should be true to size and shape, with straight edges and
even surfaces, so as to facilitate laying them in position. 1 They should be free
from cracks, chips and large particles of lime. Unless desired, uniformity of
colour is not now specified. 2
Inferior bricks are generally underburnt and as a consequence are easily
broken and are very porous ; these are neither hard nor durable and are in-
capable of withstanding heavy loads. If they contain coarse grains of uncom-
bined lime, any water absorbed causes the lime to expand, resulting in the
partial disintegration of the bricks. They are invariably of poor appearance.
The weight of bricks varies considerably ; approximately, wire-cuts are
between 5 and 6-lb. and pressed bricks weigh from 7 to 8-lb. each.
LIME.-Of the several varieties of lime, that used chiefly for brickwork
and masonry is known as hydraulic lime.3 It is produced from limestone or
chalk which is burnt in a kiln for three or four days, when it is ready to be made
into mortar.
CEMENT.-That generally used is known as Portland cement because of its
resemblance to the colour of the stone of that name. It is manufactured from
chalk and clay. The former is crushed and the clay is liquefieU by the addition
of water, when it is called slip. These two materials are mixed together in
correct proportions and very finely ground ; the mixture, known as slurry, is
conveyed to tanks and then to a kiln where it is gradually subjected to a high
temperature and converted into a hard dark-looking clinker ; the latter is passed
to a mill where it is ground to an exceedingly fine powder to complete the
process. The cement is automatically packed into paper or jute sacks, each full
sack weighing I -cwt.
SAND.-That obtained from pits or quarries is the best for mortar because
of its angularity (called " sharp ") ; failing this, that from river banks or beds
1 Bricks having rough surfaces (termed texture) and slightly irregular edges are selected
purposely for certain first-class work. Thus the external walls of country houses are
frequently faced with such bricks.
2 Bricks of a variety of colours in tones of red, purple, grey, brown, etc., are now
available, and, provided the colours have been carefully selected, brickwork when faced
with bricks of mixed shades has a very satisfactory appearance.
3 This has the property of setting under water.
is used. Sea sand is unsuitable for mortar as it contains salts which attract and
retain moisture, in addition to producing a whitish powder or efflorescence
which discolours the brickwork or masonry. Sand should be well graded, clean,
sharp and free from loam, clay or other impurity. Dirty sand should never be
used as it may reduce the adhesive value of the mortar considerably, and in
order to ensure a clean sand it is frequently specified that it shall be washed.
LIME MoRTAR.-This is a mixture of quicklime (burnt limestone-see above)
and sand in the proportion of I part lime to 2 or 3 parts sand, in addition to
water. It is the principal material used for bedding and jointing bricks, stones
etc. It should be thoroughly mixed either by hand or in a mortar mill. If
mixed by hand, the lime is placed in a heap, sprinkled with water and completely
covered with the measured proportion of sand ; the lime expands and breaks
into small particles owing to the heat which is generated ; this is known as
slaking or slacking the lime and the heap should be left undisturbed for at least
twenty-four hours so as to ensure thorough disintegration of the lime. As
unslaked particles of lime in mortar may cause damage to walling, it is necessary
to pass the lime through a screen which. eliminates unslaked lumps; after slaking,
the material is turned over with a shovel on a ·boarded platform, more water is
added and the mixing operation continued until the mortar is of the right con-
sistency, neither too stiff nor too plastic. If mixed in a pug mill, the lime and
sand are thoroughly incorporated after about twenty minutes' application of the
rotating and grinding rollers. The mortar should be used fresh and just sufficient
should be mixed for each day's use.
CEMENT MoRTAR.-This is a inixture of I part cement to 2, 2t or 3 parts
sand. The sand is placed on a platform, the correct amount of cement is added
to it, both are thoroughly mixed dry before water is added and the mass gradually
worked up into a plastic condition. As cement mortar sets comparatively quickly,
it should only be mixed in small amounts and used at once ; it should not be
used after it has commenced to set.
Cement mortar is sometimes referred to as campo, and in some districts this
term is also applied to a mixture of sand, lime and cement.
Cement Grout is cement mortar which has been reduced to a thick liquid
consistency by the addition of sufficient water.
Cement mortar is used in the construction of piers (seep. I2), walling below
ground level, chimney stacks, etc., as brickwork built in cement mortar is much
stronger than that built in lime mortar. Cement mortar is also used for general
walling, especially if constructed during cold weather, as it sets more quickly
than lime mortar and the work is therefore less liable to damage from frost.
CoNCRETE consists of a fine aggregate (or body), a coarse aggregate and a
matrix (binding material). The fine aggregate is usually sand, common coarse
aggregates are broken brick or stone (or gravel) and the matrix is usually cement.
The proportions vary, but a common mix is composed of I part cement, 2 parts
sand and 4 parts broken brick or stone ; the maximum size of the latter depends
upon the use to which the concrete is to be put and may be I!-in. (that passed
 BONDING
through a I 1-in. square mesh sieve) for foundations and ~-in. for reinforced
concrete work. The aggregates must be carefully graded from a minimum to
a maximum, so that when the materials are mixed together the space (or voids)
between the particles shall be reduced to a minimum and a dense concrete
ensured.
The mixing is done either by hand or by machinery. If mixed by hand,
the materials in correct proportion are placed on a boarded platform and mixed
twice (or thrice) dry and then twice (or thrice) wet. 'The amount of water
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3
mtmmum length, 8~-in., maximum length, 8A-in. ; nmumum width 4§-in.,
maximum width 4i in. ; minimum depth or thickness I {~-in., maximum thick-
ness 2H-in. 1 The length of a brick should be twice its width plus the thickness
of one vertical joint in order that proper bond may be maintained (see A, Fig. 2).
FIGURE I

added after the materials have been turned over dry (by using shove1s) must be
carefully regulated, as an excess of water considerably reduces the strength of the
concrete. The mixing should always be done on a platform otherwise dirt
would be shovelled into the mixture and its strength thereby reduced. LOAD
If a concrete-mixing machine is used, the materials in proper proportion arc (PORTION OF WALt)
charged through a hopper into the mixer, when the correct amount of water
(regulated by a measuring device) is added ; the mixer is rotated at a specified
speed for a definite period, usually a minute, after which the concrete is dis-
charged from the machine.
The concrete should be carefully deposited where required on the building
~o as to ensure that the density of the material shall be uniform throughout.
9 11 BONDED WAlL
BONDING
The craft of the bricklayer is concerned with embedding bricks in mortar
and suitably arranging them so that the mass, called brickwork, conforms with
certain requirements such as strength and appearance. Strength depends a good
deal upon the bond.
Bond is the interlacement of bricks produced when they lap (project beyond) SKETCH SHOWING
those immediately above and below them. An unbonded wall, with its con- COMPAI\ATIVE STRENGTH
tinuous vertical joints~ has little strength and stability and such joints must be OF A BONDED WALL ~ WEAKNESS
avoided. Fig. I illustrates the comparative strength of a bonded wall A and
weakness of an unbonded wall B which are shown supporting a load. The
OF AN UNBONDED WALL
portion of the load transmitted to the wall A is distributed over a relatively large
area, as indicated within the broken lines c and D, whereas that transmitted TERMS.-The following defines those which have a general application to
to the wall B is practically concentrated on the portion between the continuous brickwork :-
vertical joints E and F, with the result that this portion would tend to drop as Arris.-An edge of a bnck (see A, Fig. 2).
shown ; in addition, the two vertical sections G and H would tend to separate Bed.- The lower 9-in. by 4!-in. surface of a brick when placed in position
because of the absence of bond. Various bonds are described on p. 7· (see A, Fig. 2).
SIZE OF BRICKS.-Uniformity in the size of bricks is essential if the main- Header.-The end or 4l-in. by 3-in. surface of a brick (see A, Fig. 2).
tenance of correct bond is to be facilitated during the construction of a wall ; Stretcher.- The side (usually referred to as the " edge ") or 9-in. by 3-in.
time is wasted if a consignment contains bricks of varying sizes as the bricklayer surface of a brick (sec A, Fig. 2).
is required to make a selection as the work proceeds. Face.-A surface of a brick such as the header face (4!-in. by 3-in.) and
Bricks in common use vary in size from 8~ to 9-in. long by 4k to 4~-in. wide
by rt to 3-in. thick. The following sizes are recommended in the British
1 Included by permission of the British Standards Institution. Country houses, etc.,
have a more attractive appearance if the walls are faced with 2-in. thick bricks (with
Standard Specification (No. 657-1936) for Clay Facing and Backing Bricks: ~-in. thick mortar joints) instead of the thicker standard bricks.
 4 BRICKWORK
strctdu:r face (9-in. by 3-in.) (see A, Fig. 2) ; is also applied to an exposed surface
of a wall.
Frog or Kick.-A shallow sinking or indent (either rectangular, triangular or
trapezoidal in section) formed on either one or both of the 9-in. by 4fi-in. faces
of a brick (see D and M,' Fig. 2) ; a wire-cut brick has no frogs, a pressed brick
ha3 two frogs as a rule and a hand-made brick usually has only one frog ; a frog
affords a good key for the mortar (see M, Fig. 2) and therefore walls which are
required to show thin bed joints should be constructed of bricks with frogs ;
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bricks having only one frog should be laid with the frog uppermost so as to
ensure it being completely filled with mortar.
Course.- A complete layer of bricks ; a heading course consists of headers
and a stretching course comprises stretchers (see u, Fig. 2) ; a brick-on-edge
course consists of bricks placed on their 9-in. by 3-in. faces (see J and K, Fig. 17)
and a brick-on-end or soldier course is composed of bricks laid on their
4~-in. by 3-in. faces (seeN and o, Fig. 17).
Continuous Vertical Joints or Straight Joints.-Vertical joints which come
immediately over each other in two or more consecutive courses (see B, Fig. 1) ;
although these are sometimes unavoidable (as in Flemish bond shown in
Fig. 4) they should never appear on the face of brickwork (see " English
Bond " on p. 7).
Bed Joints.-Mortar joints, parallel to the beds of the bricks, and therefore
horizontal in general walling ; thickness varies from l to t-in.-the i-in. joints
shown at u, Fig. 2, are generally adopted in first-class facing work.
Quoin.-A corner or external angle of a wall (see u, Fig. 2 and G, Fig. 6).
Stopped or Closed End.-A square termination to a wall (see Fig. 3) as distinct
from a wall which is returned as shown in Fig. 6.
Perpends.-Imaginary vertical lines which include vertical joints (see broken
lines at u, Fig. 2) ; these should he plumb or true.
Lop.- The horizontal distance which one brick projects beyond a vertical
joint in the course immediately above or below it (see u, Fig. 2) ; it varies from
approximately 2 to 4~-in.
Raching Back.-The stepped arrangement formed during the construction of
a wall when one portion is built to a greater height than that adjoining (see u,
Fig. 2, and p. 31). No part of a wall during its construction should rise more
than 3-ft. above another if unequal settlement is to be avoided.
Toothing.-Each alternate course at the end of a wall projects in order to
provide adequate bond if the wall is continued horizontally at a later date (see
u, Fig. 2).
When a new wall has to be connected to an exis.ting wall and where such provision
has not been made, it is necessary to form a sinking or indent in each alternate course
of the existing wall so that the new work may be properly tied into it ; the depth
of the indents should be such as to allow the new work to be bonded into the old for
at least 2 .\-in. and the width should be equal to the thickness of the new wall. Some-
times the indents are formed three or four courses high with a similar distance
bctwcl'n each.
Bat.-A portion of an ordinary brick with the cut made across the width of
the brick ; four different sizes are shown at E, F, G and H, Fig. 2. Applications
are illustrated in the following: Half Bat (E) at F, Fig. 4, Three-quarter
Bat (F) at K, Fig. 3, Bevelled Bat (G) at N, Fig. 8, and bevelled hd (H) at E,
Fig. 8.
Closer.-A portion of an ordinary brick with the cut made longitudinally and
usually having one uncut stretcher face; seven forms are shown at J, K, L, N,
o, p and v, Fig. 2. The Queen Closer (J) is usually placed next to the first brick
in a header course (see J, Fig. 3) ; sometimes the abbreviated queen closer v
is used (see K, Fig. 3) ; the queen closer K is obtained by cutting an ordinary
brick into two half bats and then splitting one into half; K is more often used
than J as it is easier to cut, although (as shown at L, Fig. 3) it generally produces
a 2!-in. wide continuous vertical joint. The King Closer (L), formed by re-
moving a corner and leaving half-header and half-stretcher faces, is shown
bonded at o, Fig. 8. The Bevelled Closer (N) has one stretcher face bevelled
(splayed or slanted) and is shown at E, Fig. 8. Mitred Closers (o and P) are
only used in exceptional cases as when the ends are required to be mitred (joined
at an angle), i.e., quoins of certain bay windows.
The remaining bricks Q, R, s and T shown in Fig. 2 are usually moulded
specially to the required shape and are called specials or purpose-mades, although,
for common work or where the brickwork is to be covered with plaster, ordinary
bricks may be cut by a trowel or chisel to form all but the last of these.
Bullnose (Q).-These are used for copings (see D, Fig. 17) or in such
positions where rounded corners are preferred to sharp arrises (see Q, Fig. 7) ;
a brick with only one rounded edge is known as a Single Bullnose and one with
both edges rounded is termed a Double Bullnose ; the radius of the quadrant
curve varies from 1! to z!-in.
Splay (Rand s).-These are often used to form plinths (seeP, Fig. 17); the
amount of splay varies.
Dogleg or Angle (T).-These bricks are used to ensure a satisfactory bond
at quoins which depart from a right angle and are to be preferred to the mitred
closers o and p ; the angle and lengths of faces forming the dogleg vary.
The above purpose-made bricks are only a few of many which can now be obtained.
Most of the larger brick-manufacturing firms make " standard specials " which arc
kept in stock. Wherever possible, a selection should be made from these, as purpose-
mades which differ from the standard are more costly on account of the moulds which
have to be made specially and delivery may be dt>layed.
TYPES OF BoND.-There are many varieties of bond, and in a First Year
Course it is usual to confine the instruction to Heading, Stretching, English
and Flemish bonds.1 It is sometimes considered advisable to postpone the
study of Flemish bond until the following year.
1 It is considered desirable to defer the consideration of cavity-wall construction until
the second year of the Course. Details of this and other types of bond are given in
Chaptcr Eight, Vol. II.
 THE BRITISH STANDARD sP~CIFICATION (1936) For.. DIMENSIONS m &RICKs RECOMMENDs:-
MINIMUM LHJ<iTH, 85/6": MINIMUM WIDTH.4'•l>'; MINIMUM DEPTH,115/Ib.
BRICKS
MAXIMUM LENGTH. 81/a•; MAXIMUM WII1TH,41/4'; MAXIMUM DEPTH, :2 15/lb.
MOST OF THE BRICKS SHOWN BELOW HAVE 6EEN DRAWN TO THE DIMENSIONS 9•
p,y 411:1• BY .3 11 OR FRACTIONS THEREOF. IT IS CUSTOMARY TO ADOPT THESE
SIZES WHEN BONDING IS SHOWN BY SINGLE LINES ONLY.

VARIES FROM
1~ 0 TO .3"
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HALF BAT THREE QUARTER BAT BEVELLED 5AT -LARGE

' I
/")I
/
/

81:0 OR BOTTOM FACE

I
",v/ ./
/
J
VIEW OF BRICKS us• C. •c• BEVELLED BAT- SMALL QUEEN CLOSER -HALF QUEEN CLOSER -QUARTER
(SEE BELOW)

PRESSED BRICKS

}::::==~~==::;1;::=t======~RACKING SECTION SHOWING

KEYED JOINT
[~'OR~
itr===;-;;:=:!::./__,/CK M PLAN
BEVEllED CLOSER MITRED CLOSERS DOUBLE BULLNOSE

SPLAY- STRETCHER SPLAY -HEADER DOGLEG

ELEVATION OF POJI..TION OF WALL IN ENGLISH BOND u

SHOWINO MAXIMUM SIZED &lUCKS IN ACCOWANCE WITH THE BRITISH STANOAJI.O SPECIFICATION {1936) I T i i '1
1111 1' 11 11111 1111 ,I FIGURE :l.
SCALE FEET
 NOTE:
KEY P l AN
ENGLISH BOND
I. BOND CONSISTS OF ALTERNATE COURSES OF HEADERS
& STRETCHERS.
:l. QUEEN CLOSE!\. ALWAYS ADJOINS THE QUOIN HEADER.
3. LAP EQUALS :lJ~•; (STRETCHING BOND LAP EQUALS 4Y:l"\.
S Q U A R. E ,4. EACH ALTERNATE HiAO£R IS CENTIIALLY OVE'/.. .A STRETCHER.

s s
S fORMATION OF UNITS WITHIN 8'/..0KEN DIAOONAL LINES.
6. ABSENCE OF CONTINUOUS VERTICAL JOINTS_ m lUEmott.
T 0 P P E D E N D l VERTICAL PERPENDS.

u
PERPENDS~ r l 1·11f.l1-

T
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m•L~FIG.4~
DETAILS 'J' TO "N' INCLIJSIVE SHOW ALTERNATIVE MODEII.N METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION & MATEJI.JALS
&ONDIN<:i AT THE STOPPED END OF A WAll. THIS HAVE REDUCED THE NEED FOil. WALtS EXCEEDIN£i TWO
CONSTII.UCTION COULD &f APPLIED TO THE JAM& 8JI.ICKS IN THICKNESS. CAVITY WALU AJI.E EXTENSIVELY
OF THE DOORWAY OPENING •c• ·SH KEY PL.&.N. USED IN LIEU OF SOLID UTEI\NAL WALU. FIGURE .3.
 BONDING
The thickness of a wall is either expressed in inches or in terms of the
length of a brick, thus: 4~-in. or ~-brick, 9-in. or 1-brick, IJ}-in. (often
specified 14-in.) or 1!-brick, I8-in. or 2-brick, etc. 1
A bond is usually identified by the appearance of the external face of the
wall, and it is this face appearance which is referred to in the following description
of bonds. Thus the expression " alternate courses of headers " refers to the
arrangement of the bricks on the face, even if the headers in each course are
backed by stretchers.
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Note that the joints in most of the details are indicated by single lines, the
thickness not being shown. Students are not recommended to show the joints by
double lines, for, unless they are very accurately drawn, accumulative errors are likely
to occur resulting in the bond being shown incorrectly. Drawing is further facilitated
if, as shown in the examples, the dimensions of a brick are assumed to be 9-in. by
4~-in. by 3-in.
HEADING BoND.-Each course of a wall consists of headers only. It is used
chiefly in the construction of footings (see Fig. 10) and walls which are sharply
curved, where the long faces of stretchers would unduly break the line of the
curve.
STRETCHING BoND.-Each course consists of stretchers, with exception of a
half bat which must be placed at the stopped end of a wall at each alternate
course so that the work will break joint. Note that at H, Fig. 3, the break joint
is formed by the first or quoin stretcher appearing as a header on the return face. 2
This bond is suitable for 4!-in. thick walls, such as are required for cavity walls,
chimney stacks, sleeper walls and division walls.
ENGLISH BoND.-This consists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers
(see Fig. 3). Observe: (I) in each heading course a queen closer is placed next
to the quoin header 3 and the remaining bricks are headers, (2) every alternate
header in a course comes centrally over the joint between two stretchers in the
course below, giving an approximate lap of 2!-in., and (3) there are no con-
tinuous vertical joints, excepting at certain stopped ends and particularly where
queen closers of the form K (Fig. 2) and not J are used. It is this comparative
lack of straight joints which gives to English bond its characteristic strength.
Square Stopped Ends.-Fig. 3 shows details of stopped ends to a 1-brick
wall (J), a 1!-brick wall (K), a 2-brick wall (L), a 2!-brick wall (M) and a 3-brick
wall (N). A key plan of a portion of a building is shown at A, and the treatment
of the stopped end of the doorway opening at c (which is called a square jamb
-seep. 13) would be in accordance with one or other of these details, depending
upon the thickness of the wall.
1 Large modern buildings are usually of steel-framed or reinforced concrete con-
struction which provide for the support of heavy loads by the use of either steelwork or
reinforced concrete, and therefore walls which exceed 2 bricks in thickness are rarely
required.
2 Low division walls which are not required to support loads may be built with the
bricks placed on edge and in stretching bond ; the thickness is thus reduced to 3-in.
3 A heading course should never commence with a queen closer, for, in this position it
would be liable to displacement.
7
The external walls of a house if built of solid brickwork are usually 13!-in. thick,
and the division walls are either 4! or 9-in. thick ; other types of buildings may have
thicker walls, but, as already explained, walls exceeding 2 bricks in thickness are now
rarely required.
Special attention should be taken in the construction of stopped ends of
walls as these are often required to take concentrated loads from lintels, etc.
(see Fig. 12).
The following should be noted :-
I. At least every alternate transverse joint is continuous from face to face ;
a r ~-brick wall consists of units comprising a stretcher backed with two headers,
or vice versa (see broken lines at K, Fig. 3); a stretcher course of a 2-brick wall
is formed of units having a stretcher on each face with two headers in the middle
(see L, Fig. 3).
Students at examinations frequently make the mistake of showing non-continuous
transverse joints.
2. Walls of an even number of half bricks in thickness present the same
appearance on both faces, i.e., a course consisting of stretchers on the front
elevation will show stretchers on the back elevation (see J, I. and N, Fig. 3).
3· Walls of an odd number of half bricks in thickness will show each course
consisting of headers on one face and stretchers on the other (seeK and M, Fig. 3).
+ The middle portion of each of the thicker walls consists entirely of headers
(see L, M and N, Fig. 3). 1
FLEMISH BoND.-This comprises alternate headers and stretchers in each
course. There are two kinds of Flemish bond, i.e., (I) Double Flemish and
(2) Single Flemish.
(r) Double Flemish Bond (seeD, E, F and G, Fig. 4) shows the characteristic
appearance of Flemish on both external and internal faces. As shown at D,
each header comes centrally over a stretcher and, unlike English bond, no
header comes over a vertical face joint. It is not so strong as English bond
because of the large number of short continuous vertical joints (indicated by
thick lines) which occur in the longitudinal joints. Some consider that double
Flemish bond has a more pleasing appearance and is more economical than
English bond.
"Whilst there is a difference of opinion regarding the superiority or otherwise of the
appearance of Flemish bond (some favouring the design produced by a series of units
of cross formation which appear on the face--see D, Fig. 4), it is accepted that where a
fair or uniform face is required on both sides of a 9-in. wall this is more readily obtained
if Flemish and not English bond is used. The reason for this is that the stretcher
faces of bricks often vary in length on account of the unequal shrinkage which may
occur during the burning process and thus the combined length of two headers together
with the thickness of a vertical joint exceeds the length of a stretcher. Consequently
when a 9-in. wall is built in English bond one face is fair but the opposite face shows
1 A scale of 1-in. to 1-ft. is generally used when detailing brick bonding; students are
recommended to commence with the heading course followed by the stretching course
immediately below it; a tracing of the latter course transposed over the heading course
will emphasize the fact that there are no continuous vertical joints (see L, Fig. 3).
 FLEMISH BOND
SOUA R.E S T 0 P P E D E NDS
DOUBLE FLEMISH S I NGL E FLEMISH

IIRJ'iG H Hil
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E
P L A N 0 F C 0 U R S E 'P' tJ
..,
ii2

Hli
F R 0 N T E L EVAT I 0 N PLAN OF COURSE "P:'

IIPJ PJ PJ ~Hg
SECTIONS SHOWING COMPARATIVE
STRENGTH OF ENGLISH BONO AND
WEAKNESS OF SINGLE FLEMISH BOND
f ENGLISH FLEMISH
!i
I I ~ ---.. I
I 3 I
JPLAN
I I fi I OF COURSE "P'
I ~
I ..,
I I
i r- I
...~
J
I I
r---
r--t-18"-+-
~
I
f- 18'--t---

l
CONTINUOUS
VE~TICI\l ......._ f - -
SECTION 1 ST"
'l~FIG . ~.
SECTION 'MN'
'J.'FI<i.4. l JOINTS
SEE NOll U
""' ~
I
I

PLAN OF COURSE·~

NOTE: ~
I. IN OOUIIlE Fl.fMISH WND, AI.TE'-HATE HEAD£1f.S (,
STI\HCHE'-S IN'EACH COU'-Sf ON 80TH FN:ES.
:J. IN SINULE FLEMISH IIOND, AI.TEJ\NATE HEADE'-S £, ALTERNATIVE BONDING
G STI\ElCHEJt.S IN EACH COUI\SE ON ONE FACE T 0 C 0 U 11:s E "R' AT 'J"
ONLY WITH A Ma~NG IN ENCiUSH IIOND. NOTE !\EDUCTION IN WIDTH OF CONTINUOUS VEI\TICM JOIIm
:). QUEEN CLOSE!\ ALWAYS ADJOINS THE QUOIN
HEAOEI\.
4- EACH HEADEI\ IS CENTI\ALLY OVEI\A SlJI.fTCHEI\ •
.5. CONTIN~ VEI\TICAL JOINTS SHOWN IY lHICI(.
LINES.
6. FOIVMTION ~ UNITS WITHIN &WKfN DWA>NAL
UNES• ••
l VEI\.TICAL PEIU'ENOS.
PLAN OF COURSE~ PLAN OF COURSE 'II!'
THE ABOVE All 1\llfllNATIVE DETAILS OF THE STOPPfO EfUI
OF THE DOOP.WAY OP£HIN<i 'C' AT 'A~ Fl<i.3.
5C~LL--~----~-----L----~---F-LL~T FIGUF..E 4
 RIGHT ANGLED JUNCTIONS
E.NGLISH- BONO{;.D EXTE.R..NAL t, INTERNAL WALLS DOUBLE. f:"LEMISH BOND~D
E.XTER.NAL WALLS ~ E.NGLISI-+
BONDED INTE.R.NAL WALLS
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COUR-SE 'P"
(SEE 'i:?,~IG.3)
COUR.SE. 'P"
(SEE~~ICi.3.)

TEE .JUNCTION BETWEEN 4!/::l" 6 9" WALLS D

(M An.t.FIG.3.A-)

lEE. .JUNCTION P>ETWEEN 9" E., 131/.:~" WA.LLS

(AS AT •W' I=IG ..3.A)
T+,-~-r ~~-r~

CROSS JUNCTION I!>ETWEEN 9 11 E., 13Y:l" WALLS

(AS .A.T"E'!I=IG.3 ..A.)
TEE .JUNCTION &ETWEEN 9" ~ 1.3V:l0 WALLS
(AS A-T"ll:FIG.3A)

C 1---1----liNTE.JUJA.L
NOTE:
I. Tlo+£ 1-+EM>ING COUR..SE 01'
W.a.LL CROSS WA.LL ENTEI<.:i THE
STRETCHING COU~E OF
THE MMN W}.LL •
.:l. i1tE I!>ONO EFFECTED f!>V THE
TIE I!>Ft.ICK..S.SHOWN SlfAOEO.
3. ALTERNATE COUP.SES A~E
UNI!>ONOEO.
4 AT"'"t.'E"EACH W.A.LL IS
INUOUS AT .A.LTE~ ...TE

SECTION"H-J"

Tl::l:: .JUNCTION P>ETWEEN 13V:l11 E., 18" WALLS CROSS JUNCTION I'>ETWEEN 13V.:l~ c. 18" WALLS :~I
(As _.,T"U':FI0 ..3.,6,.) (M AT'E':FIG.~.A-) SCA.LE FEET
I=IGUllE .5
 10 BRICKWORK
each heading course set back slightly in relation to the stretching course ; this
irregularity is not so pronounced if the wall is built in Flemish bond as each course
consists of alternate headers and stretchers, and therefore the slight set-back of the
short headers is better distributed and is considered to improve the surface texture
or character of the work.
Square Stopped Ends.-On reference to the elevation D and the plans E, F
and G, Fig. 4, it will be seen that in every alternative course a queen closer is
placed next to the quoin header so as to provide a lap of approximately 2!-in.
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This agrees with the rule for English bond. Attention is drawn to the units
of which every course in each wall is comprised and which are indicated within
the broken diagonal lines. The notes on Fig. 4 should be carefully studied
(2) Single Flemish Bond consists of a facing of Flemish bond with a ba~.dng
of English bond in each course (see H and J, Fig. 4). It is adopted where ex-
pensive facing bricks are required to give the characteristic appearance of Flemish
bond and where comparatively cheaper bricks are used as a backing. This
bond cannot be applied to walls which are less than It-brick thick. It is
relatively weak, as can be seen on reference to H and J, which show 9-in. long
continuous vertical joints appearing in the longitudinal joints. Note that half
bats are used which are known as. snap headers or false headers. An alternative
arrangement of bricks in the 2-brick wall at J is shown at K (where the snap-
header and full-header backing are substituted by two three-quarter bats);
this results in a reduction in the length of the continuous vertical joints with a
corresponding increase in strength, but at an increase in cost due to the labour
and wastage of bricks involved in the cutting of the three-quarter bats. This
alternative bond may also be substituted for the corresponding course of the
It-brick wall (H).
The comparative weakness of single Flemish bond is illustrated at L, Fig. 4,
which shows a perfectly bonded 18-in. wall built in English bond and an in-
adequately bonded wall of the same thickness built in single Flemish bond ;
the continuous vertical joint shown by a thick line in the section through the
latter wall is 9-in. wide, as shown in the plan at J, Fig. 4·
JUNCTIONS AND QUOINS
The key plan at A, Fig. 3, shows several connections between walls. One
type of connection is termed a junction (D, E, u, w and x) and another form is
known as a quoin (F and Y).
}UNCTIONS.-These are classified into right-angled junctions and squint
junctions.1 There are two forms of right-angled junctions, i.e., (a) tee-junctions
and (b) cross-junctions or intersections.
(a) Tee-junctions.-A tee-junction is a connection between two walls which
on plan is in the form of the letter T (seeD, u, wand x in the key plan).
Plans of tee-junctions between walls built in English bond are shown at
A, B and c, Fig. 5· At A one of the courses of the 4t-in. internal division wall
1 Squint junctions are detailed in Chapter Eight, Vol. II.
enters the stretching course of the 9-in. external main wall, giving a 4!-in. lap,
and the alternate course of the division wall butts against the heading course of
the main wall. Note the following in connection with details B and c : (I) the
heading course of the internal wall is bonded into the stretching course of the
main wall, the first header or tie brick (shown shaded) giving a 2!-in. lap and
being adjacent to a queen closer; (2) the stretching course of the cross wall
butts against the heading course of the external wall. The tie bricks are also
shown in the section at K, Fig. 5·
Plans of junctions between external walls built in double Flemish bond and
English bonded division walls are shown at F and G, Fig. 5· As in the above
examples, the key header has a lap of 2!-in.
(b) Cross-junctions or lntersections.-A cross-junction is an intersection between
two continuous walls (see E in the key plan at A, Fig. 3). Details are given at
D and E, Fig. 5 ; the walls are shown in English bond, it being assumed that
they are to be plastered. Note: {I) one of the courses is continuous and the
course at right angles butts against it; (2) these continuous courses alternate;
and (3) a key header forms a 2!-in. lap at each side of the non-continuous course.
The above are only a few examples of several methods of bonding at junctions.
The arrangement of the bricks depends largely upon the relative position of the
walls. Variations to these examples will be necessary when a continuous transverse
joint in the main wall does not coincide with a face of the entering course of the
adjacent wall. The essential requirements are the avoidance of continuous vertical
joints with the employment of the minimum number of broken bricks.
QuoiNS OR EXTERNAL ANGLES.-There are two forms of quoins, i.e., right-
angled or square quoins and squint quoins.1 As is implied, a right-angled
quoin is formed by two walls which meet at 90°. Examples of right-angled
quoins are shown at F and Y, Fig. 3·
Square Quoins in English Bond.-Plans of alternate courses of right-angled
quoins formed by walls built in English bond are shown detailed at A, B and c,
Fig. 6. The following should be noted :-
I. At the same level, the heading course on one face of the angle is returned
by a stretching course ; thus at A the heading course P is returned by a stretching
course similar to R.
2. There are no continuous vertical joints.
3· When the wall is an even number of half-bricks in thickness the brick
figured 3 is a header projecting 2!-in. (see A and c, Fig. 6).
4· When the wall is an odd number of half-bricks thick, the brick figured 3
is a stretcher projecting zt-in. (see B, Fig. 6).
5· At the zl-in. projection (or quarter bond) of number 3 brick the transverse
joint is continuous (seeM at B, Fig. 6).
6. In the 1 and 2-brick quoins the heading course of one wall is continuous
to the front of the return face and that in the It-brick quoin is continuous to
1 Squint quoins are usually dealt with in the second year of the Course and they are
therefore detailed in ChapterEight , Vol. II.
 RJGHT ANGLE.D QUOINS
ENGLISH BOND DOUBLE FLEMISH BOND
f--9~--j
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H COURSE 'fl..'
SEE
---r
FIG.~
COUII.SE 'P'
(,.,
SEE FIG.4. ~~~--~~--~~_1_~~~~~~~~~
PLANS OF A ONE BI!..ICK QUOIN PLANS OF A ONE BRICK QUOIN

NOTES ON ENGLISH BONDED QUOINS

I. HEADING COURSE ON ONE FACE OF QUOIN FORMS
THE P.EGINNING OF THE STRETCHINO COURSE ON
THE RETURN FACE -SEE 'A~ 'C' ~ "G~
J. WHEN WALL IS AN EVEN NUM8Ell OF HALF 8JIJCKS
THICK, BRICII. 13 1 IS A HEADER -SEE 1 A~ "C' (. "G~
3. WHEN WALL IS AN ODD NUMBER OF HAlf BRICKS THICK,
6RJCK '31 IS A STRETCHER- SEE "8~
4- ONE WAU. IS CONTINUOUS f. ADJACENT WALL BUTTS
AGAINST IT- SEE 1 H1 ·~ "t<.' 6 'I!
COURSE 'fl.'
SEE FIG..3.

COURSE 'I"
SEE FIG.4.
PLANS OF A ONE l. A HALF BRICK QUOIN PLANS OF A ONE l. A HALF BRICK QUOIN

~18"--1
...,..._.:::::!:::r·-
NOTES ON FLEMISH BONDED QUOINS
I. IN THE I t. 11/;1 6RJCJ<. QUOINS, EACH OF THE CONTIN-
UOUS COURSES CONTAINS A QUEEN ODSER tJ IS
I
c 'r-~r
~
AS DETAILED AT 'E' & 'P,FIG.4; BUTT COURSES
COMMENCE WITH UNITS SIMILAR TO THOSE SHOWN
BY BROKEN LINES IN Fl<l.4.

f----
:ll/4"
COURSE 'P"
:I. IN THE AWIE QUOINS,BIUCII.".J"IS A STRETCHER
WHICH PIIOJECTS 63#"; IN T~? BRICK QUOIN
~ / I ',
1 SEE FIG . .3. \ IT IS A HEADER & ProJECTS ~ --f----'n ~T I
T
3 'R!
\ L 1----' ~COURSE I
_.$

-
I -[
SEE FICi.J.

I If ~
3 3
~ 1--
I
j_ I COURSE 'P'
SEE FIG.4. ]
PLANS OF A TWO OF A TWO BRICK QUOIN
AU ALTERNATIVE DETAILS
'A:"D"~'C'
OF TH£ QUOIN •F• SHOWN AT 'A:'FIG~
SCAI.E FEET
I '~'f'L'F' AAi ALTEI\NATIVE DETAIU
OF THE QUOIN 'Y' SHOWN A.T "A': FICi.l.
FIGURE. 6.
 12 BRICKWORK
p E R. s
ALTERNATE DETAILS OF DETACHED PIER~"
the back of the stretching face ; the return stretching course in each case butts E N G L s H DOUBLE FLEMISH
against the heading course. 8 0 80NO
When drawing these details (usually to a scale of I -in. to I -ft.) the student should STONE- r--
P,.,os--... ~

set out the outline of the quoin and, commencing with the heading course, fill in
the three bricks numbered I, 2 and 3 followed by the remaining bricks ; if number 3 T T I
brick is placed in correct position according to either (3) or (4) above and if (s) is
complied with, little difficulty will be experienced in completing each course, as the
T T G H
details are in accordance with those of English bond shown in Fig. 3·
I
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Square Quoins in Double Flemish Bond.-Details of these are shown at D, J

I
E and F, Fig. 6. Note:
E L E VA T I 0 N

Kfffi
E L E V A T I 0 N S S

LEffO rmN
r. In the I and I!-brick qucins the continuous course is that which contains
the queen closer; also the butt courses are similar toE and F, Fig. 4, commencing
with units which are similar to those shown within the broken lines in Fig. 4·

{IJ
2. Number 3 brick in the I and I~-brick quoins is a stretcher which projects
6!-in., and in the 2-brick quoin it is a header which projects 2!-in. as in the
English bonded 2-brick quoin.
13fi.ICI<. 11/.z 6JI.ICK. 2 Bfi.ICI<. 2 BI'.ICI<. 11/.z 6fi.ICK.
3· The half bat at the internal angle of the 2-brick quoin is necessary to p
avoid a long continuous vertical joint and to form the continuous transverse
L A N S P L A N S
joint which bounds the characteristic 6-brick unit enclosed within the broken
lines. AlTERNATE PLANS OF ATTACHED PIER. "8"
PIERS E N G L I S H DOUJHE I=LEMISH
& 0 N 0 BOND
Piers (also known as pillars or columns) of brickwork are adopted either to
support concentrated loads such as are transmitted by arches, floor beams and
roofs, or to strengthen walls. Such piers may be isolated (or detached) or they
may be attached to walls.
DETACHED PIERS.-Such may be either square, rectangular, circular or
polygonal on plan. A plan of a portion of a building in which piers are employed 0
is shown at A, Fig. 7, and a detached pier is shown at c. Such a building may
be an arcade or loggia, or it may be considered as a portion of a factory,
although modern buildings of the latter type usually have pillars of mild steel 1!1 i 111111! ~R
Q~l
IT
or reinforced concrete. Maximum strength is obtained if pillars are con-
structed with sound dense bricks built in English bond and in cement mortar.
English Bonded Detached Piers (see plans J, K and L and the corresponding
elevations n, E and F, Fig. 7).-·It is only necessary to show one course of each
IT
pier, as in every case the arrangement of the bricks in each course is the same.

----nr--
Thus the 9-in. pier has every alternate course constructed as shown at J with K. E y P L A N
similar intermediate courses at right angles (see elevation D) ; the I3!-in. pier has
alternate courses as shown at K with similar adjacent courses having the stretcher --~----?t-
------ ----- --
face of two three··quarter bats at the front over the three headers (see E) ; each course
in the I8-in. pier is as shown at L, but every alternate course is turned to the side
11

:11
'IDETM:HEDI.t ""
PIEIU 1~
:I
1..........,.

,..,J•
I

(see elevation F). 1 II oC"'"'ll

The only continuous vertical joints are those shown by thick lines at K. A :: l~rRUSSII
II ~nM:aU>I-1
stone pad or template as shown in each elevation is usually provided at the top Ji l1 PIEIU 1:
of a pier to ensure a firm bed for a beam or roof truss and to distribute the load ,, ol/ ""'"
l'1lllf11f11t
SCALE FEET I FEET
10 A FIGURE 1
 JAMBS
effectively. Detached pillars to which gates are hung are often finished with
a coping as illustrated in Fig. 17.
Double Flemish Bonded Detached Piers (see G, H, M and N, Fig. 7).-In the
x!-brick pier (which is the smallest that can be constructed in this bond) con-
tinuous vertical joints are produced, as indicated by thick black lines at N ;
owing to the small size of this pier the true face appearance of Flemish bond is
not presented in the elevation at H (as the headers are not centrally over the
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
stretchers), but the pier is nevertheless considered to be in Flemish bond as in
each course there is a header adjacent to a stretcher. The short continuous
vertical joints shown in the plan M of the 2-brick pier can be avoided if bevelled
closers (see broken lines) are used as an alternative.
Piers may be formed with rounded arrises by using bullnose bricks ; thus
double bullnose bricks (see Q, Fig. 2) may be used in the construction of pier J
and single bullnose bricks for the remaining piers.
ATTACHED PIERS OR PILASTERS.-Such are shown at B in the key plan at A,
Fig. 7, and some alternative details are given at o to s inclusive. The stability
of walls is increased by the use of these piers at intervals, and like those of the
detached type they may be used as supports for concentrated loads.
Examples in English bond are shown at o, P and Q. Rounded arrises may
be obtained by using bullnose bricks (see Q). The width of a pier is usually a
multiple of 4!-in. and the projection may be either 4!-in. (as at o and P), 9-in.
(as at Q) or upwards.
The piers and adjacent walling shown at Rand s are in double Flemish bond ;
the 4!-in. projection may be increased as required.
A gate pier of the attached type is shown at A, Fig. 17.
BuTTRESSES are piers which are provided to resist thrusts from roof trusses
or to strengthen boundary walls, etc. Examples of buttress cappings are illus-
trated in Fig. I I.
The brick and concrete foundations for piers are referred to on p. 17.
JAMBS
Jambs are the vertical sides of openings which are formed in walls to receive
doors, windows, fireplaces, etc. There are three forms of jamhs, i.e., (a) square
or plain, (b) rebated or recessed and (c) rebated and splayed. 1
(a) Square Jambs.-Examples of square jambs are shown in Figs. 44, 46, 51,
52, 54, 56, 58 and 59 in connection with door and window openings. The
stopped end details in Figs. 3 and 4 show the construction of the brickwork.
A frequent cause of dampness in buildings is due to door and window frames
being fixed in openings with square jambs on account of the pointing becoming
defective and allowing wind and rain to enter.
(b) Rebated Jambs (see Fig. 8).-These details are shown in both English and
double Flemish bond. The plans and sketch c show that a rebated jamb con-
1 Rebated and splayed jambs are detailed in Chapter Eight, Vol. II.
IJ
sists of (1) an outer reveal or .face, (2) a recess and (3) an inner reveaJ.l 'Vindow
and external door openings are best provided with rebated jambs for the reasons
stated below, and applications of these are illustrated in Figs. 45, 50, 57 and 62.
As is implied, the outer reveal is that portion of the jamb which is seen
from the outside ; it may be 4!-in. (see D, M, G, etc., Fig. 8), or it may be 9-in.
wide (see Q and R). The recess varies in depth from 2!-in. or less-suitable for
external doors (see Fig. so) and casement windows (see Fig. 57)- to 4}-in.
-suitable for windows of the boxed frame type illustrated in Fig. 6o. A 2t-in.
recess is shown at D and that at K is 4!-in. deep.
The object of the recess will be appreciated on reference to F, Fig. 8, which
indicates by broken lines the relative position of a window frame ; the protection
afforded by the outer " nib " of brickwork assists effectively in preventing the
access of rain into a building between the frame and adjoining brickwork ; the
bedding and pointing of the frame (described on p. 87) affords an additional
protection.
Rebated jambs having 4!-in. outer reveals and 2!-in. recesses in 1, xt and
2-brick walls built in English bond are detailed at D, E and F, Fig. 8 ; these are
plans of the alterna(e courses T and u shown at A. The corresponding courses
in double Flemish bond are shown at G, H and J. Jambs with 4!-in. recesses
are shown in English bond at K, L and M, and in double Flemish bond at N, o
and P. Examples of rebated jambs in both English and Flemish bonds having
9-in. outer reveals and 2!-in. recesses are detailed at Q, and with 4}-in. recesses
at R. These details may be associated with the window z shown at A, Fig. 3,
and which is shown in the alternative elevations A and B, Fig. 8 ; the former
indicates 3-in. thick bricks built in English bond and B shows 2-in. thick bricks
built in Flemish bond.
Excepting at Q and R, the joints of the brickwork above and below the window
opening are indicated by broken lines. Consideration should be given to the size of
the bricks to be used and the desired thickness of joints when deciding upon the
sizes of door and window openings. The width of an opening should be a multiple
of I brick for English bond, and for double Flemish bond the width should be a
multiple of I brick up to IS-in. thick and a multiple of It brick afterwards , in order to
maintain vertical perpends and the normal face appearance of the bond above and
below the opening. Thus, for English bond the size of the opening may be 9-in.,
I-ft. 6-in., ::-ft. 3-in., 3-ft., etc., plus the combined thickness of the vertical joints ; for
thick walls built in double Flemish bond the width may be I-ft. 6-in., ::-ft. 7!-in.,
3-ft. 9-in., etc., plus vertical joints ; it will be noted that in Fig. 8 the width of the
window opening is ::-ft. 3-in. and ::-ft. 7!-in. for the English bond and Flemish bond
respectively. The figured dimensions on working drawings. should include the
thickness of the joints, although the thickness has not been shown in the given examples
in order to facilitate draughtsmanship. The height of openings must also conform
with the brick courses ; if this is disregarded an unsatisfactory appearance usually
results (see p . ZI).
A careful study of the details shows that either king, queen or bevelled
closers or half, three-quarter or bevelled bats are employed in order to prevent
continuous vertical joints and to obtain the correct face appearance ; note that
1 Sometimes frames are fixed in reverse rebated jambs (sec c, Fig. 57).
 ENGLI5~ BOND ~EBATED JAMBS DOUBLE FLEMIS~ BOND
'.-----
I I I I I I
CENTRE LINE~

II I I I 1
( .
WINDOW OPENING WINDOW OPENING
I I I I I I
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1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
II I L I _l
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-
FR..ONT ELEVATION SHOWING 3" TI-HC~ f)FliCI<.S FR..ONT ELEVATION SHoWING :l" TH1C~ e,R.JcK.5
R..EBATED .JAMBS WITH- 2V4" RECESSES
REBATI::D JAMBS Q
D WITH 9" OUTE.R. Jt.EVE.AL5 G
ENGLI5H &OND OOU&L£ I=LEMISH 60.

F J

COUilSE 'tJ" COURSE "W"

&llOI<.EM LINE$ INDIC4TE THE I!>OMDING

""&aVE t. &ELOW THE WINDOW OPEMING.
R.EBATE.D .JAMBS WITH- ~n R..E.CE.SSE.S IEVflLEO BAT

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K. WITH 9' OUTER. R.EVEALS - ---1 1-- r-----1 N
ENOLISH flOND DOUBLE FLEMISH t'> I 1 I I

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CO<.IIt5E. 'T" COUilSE 'tJ' COUilSE 'U" COURSE "W" CO<.IllSE "V'1 COURSE. •w•

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NOTE. THE .A.&OVE .A.RE .A.LTERNA.TIVE OF PETA.IL~ ~~~~'11~
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'i'~6'I1:EJI'i~'fiB:'iff===~~f===~~===~l--==
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n.e.T FIGURE 8
 FOUNDATIONS I$
any half bats and header queen closers are placed on the imier face at least 4~-in. cement to I2 parts aggregate. 1 It is probable that this form will be adopted
from the sides of the openings in order to prevent their displacement and to extensively il) the future.
provide a strong support for the ends of the lintels (detailed in Fig. I2).

F\GUR.E 9
FOUNDATIONS
In its widest sense the term foundations may be defined as an expanded
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

base of a wall or pier in addition to the ground or subsoil which supports it.
The ground which receives the building is known as a natural foundation, and
the extended bases which are constructed of brickwork, masonry or concrete
are called artificial foundations.
An artificial foundation may consist of : (I) a concrete bed only (see A
and n, Fig. 10), or (2) one or more courses of brickwork (see B, Fig. 10) or stone-
work (see Fig. 20) which are wider than the wall or pier they support and which
are called footings or (3) a concrete bed together with footings (see Fig. 9 and
c, E, F and G, Fig. xo).
The object of a foundation is to distribute the weight to be carried over a
sufficient area of bearing surface so as to prevent the subsoil from spreading
and to avoid unequal settlement of the structure.
Whilst slight settlement or subsidence of a building may, in some cases, be
unaYoidable, it is essential that any such subsidence shall be uniform. Unequal
settlement is. the usual cause of cracks and similar defects occurring in walls,
floors, etc.
The size and type of foundation depend upon the character of the subsoil and
the weight which is transmitted to it. The bearing capacity of a soil means the
maximum load per unit of area (usually in terms of tons per square foot) which the
ground will support without displacement. As the nature of the soil varies con-
siderably it follows that the capacity of the soil to support loads is also variable.
This difference in the bearing capacity of soils may be experienced on a single
building site, as frequently its character is not exactly the same throughout. Hence
it is not always possible to adopt a uniform size of foundation for the whole building,
even if the walls and piers may wpport equal loads.

The design of foundations to support heavy loads is beyond the scope of

this volume and the following are typical details only. The requirements of
many local authorities in respect to foundations-(especially for small buildings
which transmit relatively light loads) have been modified considerably within
recent years. Briefly, the following are the requirements of the Model Bye-laws
(1937), when the walls do not exceed so-ft. in height and the bearing capacity
of the ground is satisfactory :-
The foundation may consist of either :
(a) Concrete only (see A, Fig. xo). The width of the concrete bed must be
at least I2-in. or twice the thickness of the wall (whichever is the greater), and
the thickness of the concrete must be at least . 9-in. or one and one-third the
projection of the foundation from the base (whichever is the greater). The
composition of the concrete must be not less than I 12-lb. Portland cement
to I 5-cub. ft . of fine and Coarse aggregate ; this is equivalent to I part
SKETCH SHOWING
FOUNDATION FOR A
ONE l. A HALF BRICK WALL
(SEE 1 E~ FIG.IO)
(b) Brick Footings only (see B, Fig. 10). The width of the bottom course
of footings must be at least I2-in. or twice the thickness of the wall (whichever
is the greater) ; the height of the footings must be at least 9-in. or one and one-
third the projection of the lower footing course from the base (whichever is the
1 Cement weighs !)o-lb. per cub. ft., therefore the volume of I I 2-lb. cement is approxi-
mately d-cub. ft. Note that the relative proportions uf line and coarse aggregate are not
_speciticd.
 F 0 u N D A T 0 N s

''
CON<:MTE &eo-' ',
•',
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

E L E V
~ 11-lO'b'-

J- I--

SOME LOCAL .t.U'Ttai'TIES

8
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~E OF FOUN~TION 1[)11
WHEN THE WAll SUPPORTS A
SMALL LOlD t. DOfS NOT
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v E T c A s E c T s J

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HOlE: FOUH~TtONS 'A~ •a• t, 'C' COMPLY WITH THE MODEL IIYE·LAWS (1931). IN FOUN~TION 1A~ WIDTH OF CONCUTE &ED EQUALS TWICE THICKNESS OF WALL ~ THICI<NESS OF &ED EQUALS
W3 PltOJECTIOH (1 P') IIEYOND MSf OF WALL. IN FOUNDATION "Bl' NO CONC~HE llfD IS PIIOVIOfD, WIDTH OF BOTTOM COUIUE OF FOOTINGS EQUALS TWICf THICI<NfSS OF WAU..HEICiHT
OF FOOTINGS fQUAU IVl •p• 6 BOTICWI COUII.Sf MUST &E OOUBlfD WHEN WALL EXCffOS 9• THICKNESS. IN FOUNDATION "C~ WIDTH OF CONCJt.fTE BfD EQUALS TWICE THICK - K.
NESS Of WALL ~ THICI<HfSS OF FOUNDATION EQUAI.S IVl •p•-
(WHEN •P• U INCMASED TO 61, DfPTH Of &ED IS I~D TO e•- SEE M.OJ<.EN UNfS).

:l'-1Y.:I" -----'+-

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Ci~ND LEVEL\
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NOTE: IN FOUNDATIONS '£~ 'F' t, "Ci' -I. NUMMP. OF FOOTII~ COUIUES EQUALS NUM8Eil OF HALF 8l.laS IN THICI<HUS OF WAU..
.), WIDTH OF BOTTOM FOOTINCi COUIUE EQUALS TWICE THICI<HESS OF WALL 3.EN:H OFFSET IS :>V4~ 4.EACH OF THE PLANS OF FOOTIN<i COURSES ~"K:"L~"M'
fOOTINCi COUIUES CONSISTS OF MAXIMUM NUM8£R OF HEADEIU.
llRICKWOM llELOW GI\OUND LEVEL SHOULD BE OF SOUND
WfLL-IlUJ<HT llltJCK5 BUILT IN CEMENT MOJI.TAJI.. fiT
SCAlf FOil A C
~~=x===::.:;~
I IIFIJ2:!l~-,:;
F toG
ol 3 FEET
FIGU~E 10
 FOUNDATIONS-DAMP PROOF COURSES
greater), and when the wall exceeds g-in. in thickness an additional footing course
must be provided at the bottom as shown; the offsets or set-backs (or steps) must
be regular (z!-in.) or the footings may be of uniform thickness throughout (i.e.,
one offset only); the footings must be in cement mortar and not lime mortar.
This type of foundation was generally employed before cement concrete had
reached its present high standard of efficiency ; as the concrete foundation shown
at A is more economical than B it is not anticipated that the latter will be often
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adopted unless for some special reason such as the availability of sound second-
hand bricks (those from a demolished building which have been cleaned, i.e.,
the mortar has been removed).
(c) Concrete and Footings (see c, Fig. 10). The width of the concrete bed and
the composition of the concrete are as described for (a) ; the thickness of the
concrete must not be less than one and one-third the projection of the concrete
from the footings ; this results in the combined thickness of the concrete and
footings being equal to that of the concrete bed at A. As a working space of
6-in. between the bottom course of footings and the edge of the concrete is
usually preferred, a more practical section is that shown by broken lines at c
which results in a slight increase in the minimum requirements in width and
thickness of the concrete.
The section at D shows a form of construction which is permitted by many
local authorities for walls which support light loads and do not exceed 2o-ft. in
height. The width of tl~e trench must be sufficient to give a clear working space
of 6-in. between the sides of the trench and each face of the wall.
Sections E, F and G, Fig. 10, show the construction which conforms to the
bye-laws of some local authorities. Whilst it is still adopted for first class work,
it may be expected that it will be replaced by the lighter (and therefore cheaper)
construction shown at A, B or c as local authorities amend their bye-laws in
accordance with the Model Bye-laws (1937), and especially for general work
where the minimum requirements are sufficient for the purpose. Fig. 9 shows
a sketch of the foundation shown at E, Fig. 10.
The method of obtaining the depth of the concrete beds shown at E, F and G
should be noted in addition to notes 1, 2, 3 and 4 which are stated on the drawing.
Rule 4 is important, as, in addition to being more effectively tied into the wall,
headers are less liable than stretchers to accidental displacement before the
mortar has set ; whilst stretchers in the top footing course at F are unavoidable,
these should not be laid continuously along one side but should be staggered,
i.e., should alternate with two headers.
The depth of the foundations varies with the character of the subsoil and
the relative importance of the work. Clay soils are liable to expand and contract,
and such movement may cause damage to the foundations unless they are placed
at a sufficient depth ; if such sites are waterlogged it may be desirable to adopt
4-ft. deep foundations. It is not necessary to exceed 3-ft. depth for dry soils
such as gravel. All brickwork below the ground level should be built in cement
mortar in order to increase its stability.
17
The construction of the floors shown by broken lines at E and G is
explained on pp. sg-6s .
Pier Foundatiom.-An example of a foundation suitable for a detached pier
(as illustrated in Fig. 7) is shown at H, J, K, L and M, Fig. 10. Whilst footings
may be dispensed with and the foundation designed in accordance with A, it
should be noted that brick footings serve a useful purpose in gradually trans-
mitting the concentrated load from the pier to the concrete.
DAMP PROOF COURSES
One of the chief essentials in building is that the structure shall be dry. A
damp building is unhealthy to those who occupy it, it causes damage to the
contents of the building, and it gradually impairs the parts of the structure
affected. There an: various causes of dampness in walls, the chief of which
are: (1) moisture rising up the walls from the adjacent ground, (2) rain passing
down from the tops of walls, (3) rain beating against the walls which may absorb
the water to such an extent as to show dampness on the internal faces and (4)
the absorption of water from defective rain-water pipes.
\Vith reference to the first cause, the student of Building Science (a subj ect which
normally forms part of a grouped course in Building) will have probably studied the
structure of a porous material such as a brick ; he may have carried out tests to
determine its porosity (the percentage of its pore space), relative permeability (its
capacity to permit the passage of water through it), and the amount of water that it
will absorb . He will appreciate that brickwork below the ground level will draw the
moisture from the ground and may impart it from one course to another for a con-
siderable h eight. The amount of moisture absorbed depends upon the water content
of the soil and the quality of the bricks, mortar and workmanship.
To prevent water absorbed from the soil rising and causing dampness in the
wall and any adjacent woodwork and plaster, a continuous layer of an im2ervious
material is provided. Such a material is known as a horizontal damp proof
course. The position of such a course varies from 6 to 12-in. above the ground
level (see sections in Fig. 10). The level should not be less than 6-in. otherwise
soil (forming flower beds and the like) may be deposited against the external
face of a wall at a greater height than the impervious layer and thus water may
be transmitted from it to the wall above the damp proof course. ·
The following are some of the materials used to form horizontal damp proof
courses:-
Asphalt.-The raw material is a chocolate-coloured limestone which is
impregnated with bitumen or natural pitch. It is quarried and imported from
the British West Indies (Lake Trinidad), France (Seyssel), Switzerland (Val de
Travers) and Germany. Fine grit in varying proportions is added and com-
pletely incorporated with the asphalt at a very high temperature, after which
it is cast into blocks (weighing about !-cwt. each). These are received on the
site, when they are re-heated and applied in the following manner : \Vood
 18 BRICKWORK
battens are fixed horizontally along both faces of the wall with their top edges
usually ~ -in. above the top of the course of the wall which is to receive the
asphalt. The heated material is placed on the wall between the battens and
finished off by means of hand floats to the top of the battens. The asphalt is
kept slightly back from the external face of the wall so that it may be pointed
with cement mortar after the wall has been completed ; this covers the dark
line of the asphalt and assists in preventing the asphalt from being squeezed
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out and discolouring the brickwork, especially if it is subjected to intense action
of the sun. Asphalt forms an excellent damp proof course, it being impervious
and indestructible ; in addition it does not fracture, if, on account of unequal
settlement, cracks arc caused in the brickwork.
Fibrous Asphalt Felt.-There are many varieties of this damp proof course,
one of which consists of a base of tough hessian (woven jute cloth) or felt which
is impregnated with and covered by a layer of hot natural bitumen, and sanded
on the surface or covered with talc to prevent the layers from adhering to each
other. It is obtained in rolls, 24-yds. long and in various widths from 4! to
36-in. In laying it in position, a thin layer of mortar is spread on the brickwork
and the damp proof course is bedded on it. It should be lapped 3-in. where
joints occur and lapped full width at all crossings and angles. It should be
pointed in cement mortar.
This type of damp proof course is extensively used, it being easily handled
llnd, provided it is adequately impregnated with bitumen and obtained from a
reputable manufacturer, it forms a thoroughly reliable damp-resisting material.
Some of the cheaper varieties are practically worthless ; they are comparatively
thin and both the bases and the bitumen are of inferior quality ; such should
be avoided. It is not suitable for certain classes of stone walling, i.e., Lake
District Masonry (described on p. 44), as the weight of the ragged undressed
gtones cut it and produce defects through which moisture may pass to cause
dampness.
Another variety of this class of damp proof course consists of a continuous
core of light lead (weighing only 4-oz . per sq. ft.) covered both sides with bitumen
which is surfaced with talc to prevent sticking of the -folds. It is made in two
or three grades of varying widths and in rolls which are in 8-yd. lengths. It is
an excellent damp proof course, especially for damp sites, and whilst it is more
expensive than the above, it is more durable.
Slates.-Such a damp proof course consists of two layers of sound slates
embedded in cement mortar composed of I part Portland cement and 3 parts
sand. A layer of mortar is spread over the brickwork, upon which the first
layer of slates is bedded with butt joints ; more mortar is spread over these
slates and the second layer of slates is laid in position so as to form a half lap
bond with the first course of slates (when the slates are said to " break joint ") ;
the next course of brickwork is then bedded .in cement mortar on the top layer
of slates. The slates must extend the full thickness of the wall, be at least 9-in.
long, and be neatly pointed in cement mortar. It is a very efficient damp proof
course and has been used on important buildings_! It is used in connection
with Lake District walling and similar construction as it is not damaged by the
sharp edges of the rough stones. Thig damp proof course is liable to be broken
if unequal settlement occurs, and thus water may be absorbed through the
cracks.
Lead.-This is a costly but very effective damp proof course. It consists
of a layer of sheet lead (see Chapter Six) which weighs from 4 to 8-lb. per
sq. ft., embedded in lime mortar. 2 It is either lapped as described for fibrous
asphalt felt or the joints may be welted (seep. 145). The mortar does not adhere
to it readily unless the lead is well scored (scratched).
Copper.- This is another excellent damp proof course. The copper should
weigh at least 1-lb. per sq. ft., lapped or jointed as described for lead, and em-
bedded in lime or cement mortar.
Blue Staffordshire Bricks and Vitrified Stoneware Blocks.-These provide
effective damp proof courses, although the latter especially is not now so
extensively used as formerly. The former is built in two to four courses in
cement mortar ; the colour of the bricks renders them unacceptable for general
application. The glazed stoneware blocks vary from 2 to 3-in. in thickness.
They are sometimes perforated in the direction of their width, and thereby
serve a dual purpose of resisting dampness and of providing a current of air
under wood floors. Further reference to the necessity of providing adequate
ventilation to wood floors is made on p. 61.
The second cause of dampness stated on p. 17 (i.e., rain passing down from
the tops of walls) may be prevented by the provision of a horizontal damp proof
course either immediately below the top course of brickwork or some little
distance below it. Thus, in the case of boundary walls, the damp proof course
may be placed immediately under the coping (see Figs. 17 and 27), and parapet
walls may be protected by continuing the cover flashing (see p. 143) the full
thickness of the wall.
Vertical damp proof courses which are necessary to exclude dampness in
ba:;ement, etc., walls are described in Chapter Eight , Vol. II.
SURFACE OR SITE CONCRETE
The area of a building below wood floors must be covered with an
impervious material in order to exclude dampness. 3 The material used may
1 Horizontal slate damp proof courses are being used in both the Anglican and
Roman Catholic cathedrals at Liverpool. In addition, lead and blue Staffordshire bricks
are being used in connection with the latter building.
2 Certain mortars, especially cement mortars, act upon lead and ultimately destroy it ;
such should therefore not be used as a bedding m aterial for lead damp proof courses.
·3 Vegetable soil or turf covering a site should be removed as a preliminary building
operation ; the excavated soil may be spread over that portion of the s ite set apart for the
garden, etc. , and the turf may be stacked {as rotted turf is a valuable manure) or used
subsequently for making lawns. The d epth of soil removed varies from 6 to 9-in. and
the s ite concrete is laid on the exposed surface.
 OFFSETS OFFSETS-CORBEL S
be concrete or asphalt. The requirements of most bye-laws are met if 6-in.
thickness of cement concrete is provided, or, alternatively, 4-in. thick concrete
laid on a bed of broken bricks, clinker, etc. The Model Bye-laws (I937)
require that such concrete shall consist of not less than I I2-lb. of cement to
3~-cub. ft. of fine aggregate (sand) and 7-cub. ft. of coarse aggregate (broken
brick, stone, etc.). The concrete should be well surfaced with the back of
the shovel (known as " spade finished "). Surface concrete is shown in Figs.
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

IO and 32). Besides excluding dampness, surface concrete prevents the growth
of vegetable matter and the admission of ground air.
Dwarf 4!-in. walls, known as sleeper and fender walls (see Fig. 32), are some-
times constructed on the surface concrete (see E, Fig. IO, and R, Fig. 32) or they
may have the usual concrete foundation (see Q, Fig. 32). The site concrete
adjoining the walls may be finished as shown atE, Fig. IO (this is the best method
if a separate sleeper wall as shown is to be supported), or at A, B, c, etc., Fig. IO.
Whilst most local authorities insist upon the provision of site concrete, others do
not. Those responsible for the erection of buildings in districts where the use of
site concrete is optional should be satisfied that the site is very dry before deciding
to omit the concrete, for its omission has been a frequent cause of dry rot (see p. 58).
OFFSETS.-These are narrow horizontal surfaces which have been formed by
reducing the thickness of walls. Fig. IO shows 2}-in. offsets. Wider offsets
than these may be required to support floor jmsts, roof timbers, and 'he like.
Walls of tall buildings are formed with offsets; thus a so-ft. high wall may be
I8-in. thick at the base, 9-in. thick at the top, with an intermediate thickness of
I3!-in., and the 4l-in. wide ledges or shelves so formed are termed offsets. A
broken vertical section through a portion of such a wall is shown at A, Fig. I r.
The 4!-in. offsets support horizontal wood members called wall plates which
receive the ends of the floor joists (see P· 6 I). Only one 2!-in. offset is necessary
at u as the broken lines at v show that the wall conforms withE, Fig. IO.
The plan at B, Fig. II, shows an alternative and cheaper method of sup-
porting wall plates than at A. In the latter the increased thickness of the wall
at the base to form the offset is continuous for the full length of the wall, whereas
:>ECTION ELEVATION :>ECTION at B the wall plate rests upon small piers which are usually not more than 3-ft.
CONTINUOUS COR.f>E.LS apart. Two methods of forming these piers are shown at c and D, the former
being the stronger as it is bonded into the main wall and the latter is not. The
BUTTR..ESS CAPPINGS foundation for pier D is strengthened if the site concrete is formed to occupy
the space at w.
R. CoRBELS.-These are similar to offsets except that the ledges are formed by
oversailing or projecting courses (see Fig. II). They are constructed to support
floor beams, lintels, etc. As a load carried by a corbel tends to overturn the
wall, certain precautions are taken to ensure a stable structure ; these are : ( 1)
the maximum projection of the corbel must not exceed the thickness of the
wall, (2) each corbel course must not project more than 2! -in., (3) headers must
be used as they are more adequately tailed into the wall than stretchers, and
SECTION 5ECTION (4) only sound bricks and workmanship should be employed. The corbels
5PLAYE.D CAPPING 'TUMP.>LED IN' CAPPING
FIGURE II
 20
shown at L, M and N are continuous and that at o (with the sketch at P) is an
example of an isolated or non-continuous corbel. The latter is used to support
concentrated loads (as transmitted from large floor beams) and the stone pad is
provided to distribute the load more effectively.
OvERSAILING CoURSES.- These are frequently employed as decorative
features, as for example in the construction of cornices (a crowning member of
BRICKWORK
A 9-in. by 3-in. wood lintel used in conjunction with a rough relieving
arch is shown at B and c, Fig. xs. An alternative to this lintel would consist
of either two 4!-in. by 3-in. or two 4-in. by 3-in. pieces. Built-up lintels may
be used for larger spans ; the sect:on at B, Fig. 12, shows !juch a lintel which
comprises three 7-in. by 3-in. pieces bolted together with }-in. diameter bolts

s
a wall), string courses (provided between the base and top of a wall), eaves (top
L N T E L
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

of a wall adjacent to a roof) and chimney stacks (the upper portion of brickwork
which encloses chimney flues- see Figs. 38 and 73). Simple examples of brick
oversailing courses are shown at E, Fig. 17, D, Fig. 38, and G, Fig. 69. Stone
cornices, etc., are detailed in Figs. 24 and 26.
•
::::r::J[ JD
r-1--j
" II
n
Vz' DIA:r~LTS~
II
H
D B c
BuTTRESS CAPPINGS.- Buttresses have been referred to on p. 13 . These L~t'-3' 1'-3' ~ = II
arc usually completed with simple cappings (see Fig. u). The section at Q I I B I H H 0 ID -o•
shows the capping to consist of two courses of splay bricks of the type illustrated 0 3 N0.1' • ;)' PIEC:ES1 [
cI[
I
&OLTED TOGETHEII.
at R and s, Fig. 2 ; a sketch of this capping is shown at R. The sketch at T /
shows another weathered capping formed of ordinary bricks which are tilted R.. I C K w 0 0 D I
c.
or tumbled into the wall ; the section at s shows the cutting of the bricks L I N T E L L I NT E L
which is involved. FRONT ELEVATION SECTION "DE" BACJ<.. ELEVATION
uNMs
PA~T PA~T

As mentioned on p. 13, the vertical sides of doorways and window openings

N CONCMTE
6~1<~<-
LINTEL REINFO~CEO BY 1/2"

00 : ; \ !}•z••kj H
are known as jambs. The top or head of such an opening consists of a lintel or lAM. J'•Z,'
&A~ 'h." DIAM.BOLTS
..
an arch, or both, and the bottom of a window opening is called a sill whilst the
~
bottom of a door opening is usually provided \vith one or more steps or threshold.

LINTELS SUPPOR-TS
I

11.01> TILES
•••

FAAMf~j
FOR
SECTION~'
BUILT-UP WOOD LINTEL
\ PLAN

A lintel is a member of wood, brick or concrete which is fixed horizontally B~ICK Ll NTE LS l"fTT't
and used to support the structure above the opening.
In the class in Building Science the student will study the behaviour of lintels
ALTE~ATIVE TO'F"
p Q SC,I,LE FEET

or beams when loaded. Experiments will show that if a wood beam is loaded as
indicated at T, Fig. 12, it will change its shape as the load increases. The beam wil!
bend, and if it is ultimately broken it will be seen that the fibres of the upper portion
are crushed and those of the lower portion are torn apart ; the bending action tends
to contract or compress the upper fibres and to stretch the lower fibres. Hence the
statement that the " upper part is subjected to a stress called compression and the
lower portion to a stress known as tension " ; the fibres along the centre of the beam
are neither in compression nor tension and this horizontal plane is called the neutral
axis. In addition·, the load tends to produce either vertical, horizontal or diagonal
cracks which indicate failure in shear. Lintels must of course be sufficiently strong SECTION "RS' T FIGURE 12
to resist failure due to the forces of compression, tension and shear.
Wood Lintels.- These are usually of redwood (seep. 6o). The size depends near the ends and at every IS-in. of its length; a part elevation is shown at
upon the thickness of the wall, the span (distance between opposite jambs) and c and indicates the bolts which are provided with the necessary nuts and
the weight to be supported. The depth is approximately one-twelfth of the washers (see J, Fig. 77). An alternative to this built-up lintel is shown at H;
span with a minimum of 3-in. ; the width may equal the full thickness of the this consists of two 7-in. by 2-in. pieces (which bridge the opening and have a
wall-as is necessary for internal door openings (see B, Fig. S4)-or the width 6-in. bearing or wall-hold at each end) and 2-in. thick packing or distance pieces
of the inner reveal as shown at B, Fig. I2, and B, Fig. xs. Additional examples at the ends and at IS-in. centres; holes are bored through the continuous pieces
showing the application of lintels are illustrated in Figs. q, 46, so, 52, s6, and packing pieces through which bolts are passed to secure them and ensure
o2, etc. that the pieces will act as one unit ; the elevation of lintel H is similar to that
 LINTELS
at c except that the packing pieces would be indicated by broken lines at each
bolt, as shown at J.
The ends of the lintels have a 6-in. wall-hold and are bedded on mortar
so as to . ensure a level and firm bearing. Lintels afford a ready means of
securing the heads of door and window frames (seep. 100).
Brick Lintels.-As is implied, a brick lintel is a horizontal member consisting
of bricks which are generally laid on end and occasionally on edge. It is a
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relatively weak form of construction and is quite unsuited to support heavy
loads. They should therefore be used to span small openings only (unless
they are to receive additional support as explained later) and the span should
not exceed 3-ft.
In recent years this type of lintel has been used extensively, and failures have
occurred either because adequate precautions have not been taken in their con-
struction or the spans have exceeded a reasonable limit. A common failure is due
to shear along the vertical joints which results in one or more bricks dropping below
the normal level.
A section and part elevation of a brick lintel are shown at A and B, Fig. 12.
Cement mortar should be used, and pressed bricks having a frog on each bed
are better than wire-cuts. The term joggled brick lintel is sometimes applied
to this type when bricks having frogs are used, the joggle or notch being formed
by the widened joint at each frog ; the joggle assists in resisting the sliding or
shearing action to which the lintel is subjected.
The lintel is constructed on a temporary wood support known as a turning piece
(see p. 83); mortar is spread over the lower, back and front edges of each brick
before being placed in position ; when all of the bricks have been laid, grout (see
p. 2) is poured through the holes which have previously been formed at the top until
each frog is completely filled with the liquid mortar; M, Fig. 12, shows a section
through a brick-on-end lintel with the frog and the hole at the top indicated by
broken lines. If grouting is not adopted care must be taken to ensure that the joints
are properly filled and flushed with mortar.
The depth of the lintel depends upon the size of the opening and the appear-
ance required ; it varies from 4!- to g-in. For the sake of appearance it is
essential that the top of the lintel shall coincide with a horizontal joint of the
general walling (see A and G, Fig. I2), otherwise a partial course of brickwork
would be required between the top of the lintel and the bed joint of the wall
above it; such a split course is most unsightly. A common depth is that which
is equal to two courses of the adjoining brickwork (see c) ; one end of each brick
is carefully removed (usually with a hammer and bolster-see 35, Fig. Ig) and
the bricks are placed in position with the cut ends uppermost ; the grouting
operation is facilitated as the frogs are exposed at the top.
An alternative method of forming the two ends of a brick lintel, and one
which has a somewhat stronger appearance, is shown at F in the elevation A,
Fig. 12.
Brick lintels are sometimes known as " soldier arches," presumably because
of the upright appearance of the bricks. This is a misnomer, for such does not
21
comply with the requirements of a true arch as defined on p. 22. Incidentally
great care should be taken to ensure that each brick is placed absolutely vertical
as the appearance is spoilt if one or two of them show a departure from the
vertical, however slight. Examples of such an " arch " are shown at A, Fig. 46,
and B, Fig. s6.
Supports for Brick Lintels.-Additional support must be provided if a brick
lintel is required for a greater span than 3-ft. Alternative methods of such
reinforcement are shown in section at K, L, M and N, Fig. 12. At K a 3-in. by
*-in. steel fiat bar (see Fig. 77), having a 6-in. bearing at each end, is used.
For spans exct;eding 6-ft. it is recommended that one of the following should
be used : (a) a steel angle (see Fig. 77) having 6-in. bearings as shown at L and
in detail w, Fig. 56, or (b) purpose-made bricks supported by a reinforced con-
crete lintel as indicated at N or (c) a reinforced brick lintel which is illustrated
at M. The latter consists of a !-in. diameter steel rod which is threaded through
the bricks before they have been grouted ; each end of the rod is bedded 6-in.
into the wall ; the bricks used for this purpose are holed during the moulding
process before being burnt, the centre of each hole being approximately I ~-in.
from the underside of the lintel. The exposed surfaces of the above fiat bar
and angle may be rendered inconspicuous by painting them to conform with the
colours of the bricks ; alternatively they may be completely covered by the door
and window frames ; the soffit or underside of the concrete lintel at N between
the brick lintel and the door frame may be covered by bedding l-in. thick tiles
to the concrete as shown.
It is a common practice for small spans to bed brick lintels directly upon
the heads of the door and window frames ; such frames should be set back for
not more than I-in. from the external face of the wall (see c, Fig. 46).
Stone Lintels or Heads.- These are rectangular blocks of stone of varying
thickness and depth ; the latter should be at least 9-in. It should course with
the adjacent brickwork as shown at o, Fig. 12. Additional examples are shown
in Figs. 22, 24, 6o and 63.
Concrete Lintels.-A suitable mix of concrete consists of 1 part Portland
cement, 2 parts sand and 4 parts gravel or broken brick or stone of ! -in. gauge.
The lintel may be cast in situ (in position) or precast (formed and allowed to
set before being fixed) ; the former is cast in a WOOd mould (with If tO Il-in.
thick bottom and sides) which is removed when the concrete has set. The
precast method is more often employed as the lintels can be formed in the wood
moulds well in advance to allow them being sufficiently matured for fixing when
required and the construction of the walling above them may be continued
immediately after fixing. As concrete is comparati-vely weak in tension, the use
of plain concrete lintels should be limited to spans not exceeding 3-ft., otherwise
failures may occur which are usually due to shear and which may produce
fractures such as that indicated by the broken line u at Q, Fig. I2. If this span
is to be exceeded, the lintel must be strengthened by using mild steel bars or
some other form of steel reinforcement. A simple type of reinforced concrete
 22 BRICKWORK
lintel is shO\vn at P ar.J Q ; the number and size of the reinforcement depend
FIGUR.E 13
upon the span, width and load to be supported ; the steel is placed in the moulds
and at about I-in. from the bottom; the concrete is poured in, care being taken
in packing it round the reinforcement. The ends of the bars are hooked as
shown in order to increase the bond or grip between them and the concrete.
If precast, the top of the lintel should be marked so that the fixer will bed it
with the reinforcement lowermost. Other examples of a reinforced concrete
lintel are shown at A and c, Fig. zs, and B, K and o, Fig. 6o. See footnote top. 26.
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ARCHES
An arch is a structure comprising a number of relatively small units 1 such as
bricks or masonry blocks which are wedge-shaped, joined together with mortar,
and spanning an opening to support the weight above. Because of their
wedge-like form, the units support each other, the load tends to make them
compact and enables them to transmit the pressure downwards to their
supports.
TERMS.-Most of the technical terms applied to an arch and adjacent structure
are illustrated in the isometric sketch (Fig. I3), and the following is a brief
description of them :-
Voussoirs.~The wedge-shaped bricks or blocks of stone which comprise an
arch ; the last voussoir to be placed in position is usually the central one and is
known as the key brick or key stone ; it is sometimes emphasized by making it
larger and projecting it above and below the outlines of the arch. The key shown
in the sketch consists of several i or !-in. tiles.
Ring, Rim or Ring Course.-The circular course or courses comprising the
arch. The arch in Fig. I3 consists of three half-brick rings, each of those
at c and L, Fig. IS, has two half-brick rings, and those at o and M Fig. IS, and
F and J, Fig. 43, have each a one-brick ring.
Extraios or Back.-The external curve of the arch.
Intrados.- The inner curve of the arch.
Soffit.- The inner or under surface of the arch ; in some localities the terms
" soffit " and " intrados " are accepted as meaning the same.
Abutments.-The portions of the wall which support the arch.
Skeru;backs.- The inclined or splayed surfaces of the abutments prepared to
receive the arch and from which the arch springs (see A, Fig. IS)·
Springing Points.- The points at the intersection between the skewbacks and
the intrados (see A, Fig. IS)·
Springing Line.-The horizontal line joining the two springing points.
Springers.- The lowest voussoirs immediately adjacent to the skewbacks (see ISOMETRIC SKETCH
Pat c, Fig. IS)· OF A PORTION OF A
Crown.- The highest point of the extrados.
Haunch.- The lower half of the arch between the crown and a skewback. BR.ICK. ARCADE
ILLUSTRATING TE.R.M5
1 Steel and reinforced concrete arches of large span are adopted in bridge construction.
 ARCHES
Span.- The horizontal distance between the reveals of the supports.
Rise.-The vertical distance between the springing line and the highest
point of the intrados.
Centre (or Striking Point) and Radius (see Fig. 13).
Depth or Height.- The normal (perpendicular) distance between the extrados
and intrados.
Thickness. -The horizontal distance between and at right angles to the front
and back faces ; it is sometimes referred to as the width or breadth of the soffit.
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23
Impost.- The projecting course or courses at the upper part of a pier or other
abutment to stress the springing line ; sometimes moulded and known as a cap
(see Fig. 13, and L, Fig. 15).
Plinth.- The projecting brickwork at the base of a wall or pier which gives
the appearance of additional strength ; also known as a base.
Arcade.-A series of arches, adjoining each other, supporting a wall and
being supported by piers.

CLASSIFICATION OF ARCHES.-Arches are classified according to (a) their shape,

In some districts the term " thickness " is considered to have the same meaning
as" depth"; to remove any doubt, the arch at A and n, Fig. 15, would be specified
as being a " flat gauged arch, 12-in. deep with 4!-in. wide soffit, to a 3-ft. 9-in.
opening. "
Bed Joints.- The joints between the voussoirs which radiate from the centre.
Spandril.-The· triangular walling enclosed by the extrados, a vertical line
from the top of a skewback, and a horizontal line from the crown ; when arches
adjoin, as in Fig. 13, the spandril is bounded by the two outer curves and the
horizontal line between the two crowns.
and (b) the materials and workmanship employed in their construction.
(a) The more familiar forms of arches are either flat, segmental or semicircular,
whilst others which are not so generally adopted are of the semi-elliptical and
pointed types. 1
(b) The voussoirs may consist of either (1) rubber bricks, (z) purpose-made
bricks, (3) ordinary or standard bricks cut to a wedge shape and known as axed
bricks or (4) standard uncut bricks. The following is a brief description of
these bricks:-
1 These are illustrated in Fig. 19, Vol. II.

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 BRICKWORK
I. Rubber Bricks, Rubbers, Cutters or Maims.-These are soft bricks, obtain-
able in various sizes, and of a warm red or orange colour. They can be readily
sawn and rubbed to the desired shape. They are used in the construction of
gauged arches (see below).
2. Purpose-made Brichs.-These are specially hand-moulded to the required
shape and are used for good class work in the construction of purpose-made
brick arches (see below). Owing to the standardized form and size of many
arches, stocks of the more commonly used purpose-made voussoirs are carried
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by the larger manufacturers, and delivery is thereby expedited ; such bricks
are usually machine-pressed.
3· Ordinary Bricks Cut to a Wedge Shape.-These are standard bricks which
have been roughly cut to the required wedge shape by the use of the bolster
and dressed off with a scutch or axe (see 34, Fig. I9)· They are used in the
construction of axed brick arches (see p. 26).
4· Ordinary Standard Uncut Bricks.-When such bricks are used in the con-
struction of arches, the bed joints are not of uniform thickness, but are wedge-
shaped. They are used for rough brick arches (see p. 26).
FLAT, STRAIGHT OR CAMBER ARCH.- There are three varieties of this type, i.e.,
(a) gauged flat arch, (b) purpose-made flat arch and (c) axed brick flat arch,
depending upon the class of bricks and labours used in their construction.
(a) Gauged Flat or Camber Arch (see A and J, Fig. IS).-Rubbers are used.
The extrados is horizontal and the intrados is given a slight curvature or camber
by providing a rise of 1\, to ~-in. per ft. of span; thus the arch at A would hav(
a rise of approximately l-in. The reason for the camber is to avoid the appear-
ance of sagging which is produced if the intrados is perfectly horizontal and which
defect would be accentuated if the slightest settlement occurred. The angle
of the skewbacks may be 6o 0 (as shown at A and J) or the amount of skewback
(the horizontal distance between the springing point and the top of the skewback)
may equal I!-in. per ft. of span per foot depth of arch (as shown at A, Fig. so,
and A, Fig. s6). The adoption of the latter rule gives a more pleasing appearance
(compare A and J, Fig. IS, with A, Figs. so and s6) ; if it had been applied to
the two arches in Fig. IS the amount of skewback at A would be I!-in. by 3!
(span) by I (depth)= s~-in., and at J it would be I ~-in. by zl- by I= 3~-in., as
compared with 6 1'\)-in., which is common to both arches when the skewback
has a slope of 6o0 •
This type of arch is not very strong and should be limited to spans of from
4 to s-ft. unless they are strengthened by means of a steel bar or angle, as
described on p. 21. Observe that in each case the extrados coincides with a
horizontal joint of the adjacent walling and thus a split course is avoided (see
p. 2I) ; the intrados of the arch at A, Fig. Is. also coincides with a bed joint ;
this is not always desirable, as the brick at T is difficult to cut on account of the
sharp edge produced ; such is avoided if the intrados conies midway up the
course (sees, Fig. IS)·
" Gauge " means " measure," and a characteristic of gauged work is its
exactness. The bricks are accurately shaped as described below and the bed
joints are very thin, being as fine as :1\ - in., although a thickness of joint varying
from! to !-in. is much favoured. Such accurate work is possible by the use of
rubbers and a jointing material known as putty lime (lime chalk which has been
well slaked, worked up to a consistency resembling thick cream and passed
through a fine sieve).
When drawing this arch to scale, the student should note that all bed joints of
the voussoirs radiate towards the centre and that the 3-in. measurements (or 2-in. if the
general walling is constructed of 2-in. bricks) are set off along the extrados. Students
make a common mistake in measuring off along the intrados. When the bricks
are 3-in. thick at the extrados, satisfactory jointing results if the number of voussoirs
in the arch when divided by 4 gives a remainder of I, i.e., I3, I7, 2I, etc.
, Construction of Arch.-In order that the rubbers shall be correctly shaped, a
full-size drawing of the arch (showing the voussoirs and joints) is prepared and thin
pieces of zinc, called templets, are cut to the shape of the voussoirs shown on the
drawing. The bevels or inclinations are marked on each voussoir by transferring
them from the templet which is placed on it. The voussoirs are then sawn to shape
with each saw-cut parallel and near to the marks. They are finally dressed down to
the marks by rubbing each cut surface on a slab of hard stone or by using a rasp
(see p. I3o). A 6-in. long groove (about k-in. deep and I-in. wide) is formed on each
bed to form a key for the mortar and each rubber is numbered in accordance with
the corresponding number on the drawing for guidance to the bricklayer.
The wall at each side of the opening will have been built and the skewbacks
prepared to receive the arch, as indicated by the thick outline N shown at A, Fig. IS.
The turning piece (see A, D and E, Fig, 43) upon which the arch is to be constructed
will have been carefully fixed in correct position. When very fine joints are required,
each voussoir is dipped into the putty and its bed covered, any putty in the groove
is removed, and the brick is placed in position by pressing the bed coated with putty
against the adjacent brick. When all of the voussoirs have been placed in position,
cement grout is poured into the joggles formed by the bed grooves. It is usual to
work from each skewback towards the centre and complete with the key brick. The
voussoirs are kept plumb by using a straight-edge (a 3-in. by !-in. piece of well-
seasoned wood about 6-ft. long) and, as the work proceeds, it is placed horizontally
against the faces of the walling at the skewbacks when any voussoir not in true align-
ment is tapped either backwards or forwards as required.
If thicker joints are desired, the mortar is applied by a trowel (see 3I, Fig. I9)
in the usual way, care being taken that the joints are of uniform thickness and radiate
to a common centre. This is ensured by using a cord or " line " as shown at A,
Fig. 43 ; one end of the line is attached to the nail driven into the strut at the centre ;
the position of each voussoir and its bed joint is marked along the top of the turning
piece, and as each voussoir is placed in position the bed is made to coincide with
the line which is stretched taut. A piece of wood, called a trammel or radius rod
(see M, Fig, 43), may be used to traverse the face of the arch instead of the line.
A templet or wood pattern, shaped as shown at a, b, c, datA, Fig. IS, may be
employed to ensure that all of the skewbacks are made to the correct angle. The
bricks forming a skewback can be readily and accurately cut if a line parallel to it is
marked on the wall, as shown by the broken line x at A, Fig. 15, when the measure-
ments taken along the arrises of the shaded bricks which are intercepted by the 'mark
are transferred to the bricks to be shaped.
(b) Purpose-made Brick Flat Arch (see H, Fig. IS, A, Fig. so, and A, Fig. s6).
- This arch differs from the gauged arch type in that purpose-made bricks (see
above) are used instead of rubbers ; the jointing material and the thickness of
the joints are the same as for the general walling ; the camber and size of skew-
back are as described for gauged arches. This type of arch is frequently
employed in good-class work.
 <t. ARCHES
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 z6 BRICKWORK
(c) Axed Brick Flat Arclz.-This is similar to (b) except that its appearance
is not so satisfactory as the voussoirs are ordinary bricks cut to a wedge shape
as described on p. 24. This type of arch is now used only for common work.
It should be noted that if no cross joints are to be used, the depth of the arch will
be less than 9-in., i.e., 6!-in.--see w at A, Fig. IS, where the first voussoir of an axed
arch is shown shaded and the 9-in. by 3-in. face of the brick prior t:> cutting is indicated
by broken lines.
SEGMENTAL ARCH.-Half elevations of two varieties of this arch are shown at
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D, Fig. IS, and an elevation of a third example is shown at c. The geometrical
construction for determining the centre for the curved extrados and intrados
and from which the bed joints of the voussoirs radiate is shown. There are
four varieties of this type of arch, i.e. :
(a) Gauged Segmental Arch (see F, Fig. IS).-It is constructed of rubbers
upon a temporary wood support called a centre (see F, Fig. 43). Cross joints
may be omitted if desired.
(b) Purpose-made Brick Segmental Arch (see E, Fig. IS).-This is similar
to the above, except that purpose-made bricks and not rubbers are employed
and the thickness of the joints is the same as that of the adjoining brickwork.
(c) Axed Brick Segmental Arch.-Whilst this arch resembles (b) its appear-
ance is not so good, as it is constructed of ordinary bricks which have been cut
to the required wedge shape.
(d) Rough Brick Segmental Arch.-This type consists of one or more half-
brick rings which are constructed of ordinary stock uncut bricks. An elevation
of a two half-brick ringed rough arch is shown at c, Fig. IS. It will be noted
that, as the bricks are not cut, the joints are wedge-shaped. Such arches are
usually adopted when the appearance is not of primary importance (as for open-
ings in walls which are to be plastered) because of their relative cheapness.
In the example shown, the arch is used to relieve the wood lintel of the weight
of the superincumbent brickwork, the lintel being introduced essentially to
provide a square head to the opening and, incidentally, a rigid member to which
the head of the window may be secured. Such are called Rough Relieving or
Discharging Arches1 ; they are also sometimes referred to as Jack Arches.· Another
form of this arch, known as a trimmer arch, is shown at G, Fig. 34·
Attention is drawn to the springing points of the arch, which are at the ends
of the lintel. It is common to find that students, especially in examinations,
make the mistake of springing the arch from points on top of the lintel which
are vertically above the reveals of the opening ; this error is indicated by broken
lines at u (c, Fig. rs). In the event of the wood lintel rotting or being destroyed
by fire, the arch and the brickwork above it would collapse if the arch does not
spring from the ends of the lintel.
1 Rough relieving arches are almost obsolete. They were formerly employed when
openings exceeding 4-ft. spans were provided with comparatively thin wood lintels.
Reinforced concrete lintels, designed to support the brickwork, etc. above them, are now
prefened to wood lintels, especially for large spans, and thus rough relieving arches are
rendered unnecessary.
It is customary to make each sprmger a stretcher (on face), as shown at P,
as it is more effective in transmitting the thrust from the arch to the abutments
than if headers are used, as shown at o.
Wide joints at the extrados are avoided when the arch is constructed of half-
brick rings as shown. Some idea may be obtained of the very wide joints
which would be formed at the extrados if 9-in. rings were used by reference to
the shaded voussoirs Q and R.
The arch shown at c is built upon a turning piece supported upon wedges
which rest upon the lintel (seep. 8s). After this temporary support is removed,
the space-known as the core-is filled in with brickwork, the bottom course
being bedded in mortar on the lintel, and the bricks cut to the curve of the
intrados.
The geometrical construction of the arch is shown. The 3-in. measurements for
the voussoirs in the lower ring are set off along the intrados, and those for the upper
ring are set off along the middle curve. A 3-in. diameter circle is described at the
centre (it being equal to the thickness of the bricks). Each voussoir is drawn by placing
a set-square against the division on the intrados <for the lower ring) and alternately
tangential to the right and left of the small circle, thus forming the wedge-shaped
joints.
SEMICIRCULAR ARCH (see K, Fig. rs, which shows half elevations of two
varieties).- The impost may be omitted. It is constructed on a centre (seep. 8s,
and J, Fig. 43). There are four varieties of semicircular arches, i.e., (a) gauged
semicircular arches, (b) purpose-made brick semicircular arches, (c) axed brick
semicircular arches, and (d) rough brick semicircular arches. Excepting for
the shape, they are similar to the four classes of segmental arches. An example
of a gauged semicircular arch is shown at M ; this may have cross joints to give
·a " bonded face." The purpose-made brick type is shown at L and the axed
brick arch is similar ; the number of rings may be increased if desired. The
rough brick class, like the segmental arch, has V-shaped joints.
The arches illustrated in Fig. IS have been related to the small building
shown in part in Fig. 14 which is an example of a typical working drawing, it
being fully dimensioned to enable the bricklayer to set out the work accurately. 1
Stone heads and arches are described on p. 47·
WINDOW SILLS
A sill provides a suitable finish to the window opening and it affords a
protection to the wall below. Sills may be of brick, brick with one or more
courses of tiles, tiles, stone, concrete, terra-cotta and wood. The top of a sill
should have a slight fall outwards to prevent the lodgment of water ; this slope
is called the weathering of a sill.
Fig. r6 shows three forms of external sills.
That at A shows a section and part. elevation of a brick sill upon two courses
of tiles. Standard bricks are placed on edge and are slightly tilted. The tiles
1 Although the thickness of the joints of the brickwork (including those
of the arches)
has been shown in Fig. IS, it is usual for students when preparing homework sheets to
show the joints by single lines only.
 WINDOW SILLS THRESHOLDS
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 28 BRICKWORK
vary from ~ to I}-in. thick; those shown are ~-in. thick. Ordinary roofing
tiles- (known as plain tiles (see Fig. 70)-are sometimes used ; these arc
10!-in. by 6~-in. by ~-in. Purpose-made tiles, called quarry tiles, are thicker
than plain tiles and are usually square of 6 to I2-in. length of side. The tiles
arc given a l-in. projection beyond the face of the wall (see section) and a !-in.
projection beyond the jamb (see elevation) ; they are laid to break joint (see
also A, Fig. 43). The tiles must be solidly and uniformly bedded in mortar
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otherwise they may be easily damaged.
An alternative arrangement is shown at B, Fig. I6, where a double course of
tiles is bedded on a brick-on-edge course. An equally satisfactory and in-
expensive finish is provided by a double course of tiles bedded on the top course
of the general walling (see B, Fig. I4). The tiles may be given a much greater
slope if desired (see A, Fig. 57), and the brick-on-edge course may project! to
I -in. beyond the face of the wall.
An internal sill of one course of tiles (F) is shown at A, Fig. I6, and A, Fig. 57·
Lead-covered brick-on-edge sills are shown in Figs. 58 and 59·
The sill at c, Fig. I6, consists of two courses of purpose-made bricks or
terra-cotta blocks (made from special clay which may be either glazed or un-
glazed on the outside). The top course is weathered and slightly moulded ;
it has a groove to receive a wrought iron weather bar (see p. 108). The bottom
course is grooved or throated on the underside to throw off the water and prevent
it from passing along the underside of the sill and staining the brickwork below
it. The ends of the sill are called stools or seatings and provide level beds to
receive the jambs.
In all cases the sills should course with the adjacent walling in order to avoid
the unsightly split courses which have been referred to on p. 2 r.
Sills should be protected during the construction of the building, otherwise
falling bricks, etc., may cause damage. This protection is usually in the form of
pieces of wood which rest upon the sills and are tightly fitted between the reveals.
Stone sills are described on p. 47·
THRESHOLDS
The bottom of an external door opening is provided with one or more steps
which form a threshold. Such may consist of bricks, stone or concrete.
Fig. I4 shows a threshold consisting of three steps which are formed entirely
of bricks laid on edge.
An alternative to this, to a larger scale, is shown at D, Fig. I6. Ordinary
standard bricks may be used, but they must be very hard, otherwise the edges
or arrises will be readily damaged. The steps must have a satisfactory founda-
tion, hence the concrete bed. The height of each step, called the riser, is s-in.,
although this varies from 4! to 7-in. The risers consist of bricks laid on end
and the rest of each tread (or horizontal portion) comprises bricks laid on edge.
Treads should be at least I r-in. wide so as to afford adequate foot space. The
top step is given a slight fall (about -~-in.) to discharge water away from the
door. The two lower steps have returned ends ; this gives a much better
appearance than when all steps are of the same length. The bonding of the
bricks is shown on the plan and elevation. The whole of the brickwork should
be in cement mortar.
A single step in bricks on edge is shown in Fig. I3.
The threshold atE, Fig. I6, consists of two steps having brick-on-edge risers
and 2!-in. thick stone treads. The stone must be extremely hard and fine-
grained, and the upper surfaces should not be polished, otherwise they become
slippery, especially in wet weather. Unless the stone is hard it will wear badly
and the arrises will be readily damaged. The edges may be slightly rounded,
or splayed (chamfered) or-providing the stone is particularly hard-square as
shown. The treads must be well and uniformly bedded in cement mortar.
This form of step is also detailed in Figs. 44 and 50.
Stone steps are shown in Figs. 24 and 45· Similar steps may be formed in
concrete, although these do not look so well as those in stone. A concrete step,
which is a continuation of the concrete floor, is shown in Fig. 46.
It is advisable to defer the construction of thresholds until the completion
of the building, otherwise they may be damaged during the building operations
unless adequately protected.
COPINGS
Copings are provided to serve as a protective covering to walls such as
boundary walls (yard and garden walls) and parapet walls (those which arc
carried up above roofs). Their object is to exclude water from the walling below.
Very serious damage may be caused to a wall if water gains access, especially
during cold weather when the water may freeze. Under such conditions the
resulting expansion may rapidly disintegrate the upper courses of the brickwork. In
addition, the water may penetrate sufficiently to cause dampness to bedrooms, etc.
The most effective coping is that which throws the water clear of the wall
below. The fewer joints in the coping the better, and the jointing and bedding
material should be cement mortar. Copings may be of bricks, bricks and tiles
or slates, stone, terra-cotta and concrete, and all must be sound and durable.
Some of the simpler brick copings are shown in Fig. I7. They form an
effective finish to a brick building.
A portion of a garden wall is shown at A, Fig. I7, and alternative copings
which would be suitable for this and similar walls are shown at n to L inclusive.
Brick-on-Edge Coping.-The section at B and part elevation at c shows this
type, which consists of ordinary hard and durable bricks laid on edge. It has a
simple but satisfactory appearance, is inexpensive and is adopted extensively.
Another application is shown at M, Fig. 36, and in Fig. 72. Sometimes the
bricks are placed on end, or as shown in Fig. 13, the coping may consist of
two courses with the lower set back about ~-in. and comprising bricks-on-end
and the upper course set back a similar amount and consisting of bricks-on-edge.
 PLINTHS--TOOLS
Bullnose Coping.-This is shown in section o and the elevation is similar to
that at c. The double bullnose bricks are placed on edge.
Semicircular Coping (see E and F).-The purpose-made semicircular bricks
arc bedded upon an oversailing stretching course of ordinary bricks. The
space between the stretchers (about 2!-in. as shown in the section) should be
filled solid with pieces of brick and mortar if the dwarf wall is likely to be sub-
jected to side stresses from traffic, etc. The curved surface of the coping and
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the weathered or jlaunched bed joint cause water to get away quickly, and the
projecting course assists water to drip clear of the wall.
A similar coping, shown at G and H, consists of a top course of double bullnose
bricks placed on edge upon a projecting course of bats (or stretchers similar
to E with the intervening space filled as above described).
Brick-on-Edge Coping with Tile Creasing.-One form is shown at J and K.
The tile course is known as a creasing and serves to throw the water clear of the
wall. The creasing may also consist of two or more tile courses, laid in cement
to break joint. A creasing consisting of a double course of slates in cement may
be used instead of tiles.
Saddle-back Coping (see Land M).-This is effective, it provides a satisfactory
finish and may be used in conjunction with either a tile or slate creasing. Brick
or terra-cotta saddle-hack copings can also be obtained which have throated
projections and resemble the stone coping shown at c, Fig. 27.
A vertical joint in a coping is a potential weakness, and therefore one of the
demerits of brick copings is· the comparatively large number of such joints
which have to be made. Hence it is advisable to provide a horizontal damp proof
course on the top course of the brickwork before the coping is fixed (see p. 18).
Whilst a simple brick coping can form an attractive feature of a brick
structure and is extensively used, copings of stone are often preferred even for
brick erections. Stone copings are illustrated in Fig. 27.
PLINTHS
The projecting feature constructed at the base of a wall is known as a plinth.
It gives to a building the appearance of additional stability.
Three forms of simple brick plinths are shown in Fig. 17.
Brick-on-End Plinth (see N and o).-As is implied, this plinth consists of a
course of bricks laid on end, projecting about !-in. and backed with ordinary
brickwork.
Splayed Plinth (see P and Q).-This comprises two stretching courses of
purpose-made splayed or chamfered bricks similar to those shown at R, Fig. 2.
If preferred, the top course may consist of headers similar to that at s, Fig. 2.
Moulded Plinth.-One of the many moulded types is shown at Rands, and
consists of a simple curve (called a cavetto mould) and a narrow flat band known
as a fillet.
Stone plinths are detailed in Fig. 25.
29
T 0 0 L S, C 0 N S T R. U C T I 0 N, J 0 I NT I N G AN D P 0 I NT I N G
TooLs.-The tools in general usc by a bricklayer are : trowel, plumb-rule,
straight-edge, gauge-rod, line and pins, square, spirit-level, two-foot rule,
bolster, club hammer, brick hammer and chisels. Other tools used for special
purposes include : bevel, scutch, saw, pointing-trowel, frenchman, jointer,
pointing-rule and hawk.
Trowel (see 31, Fig. 19).-Consists of a steel blade and shank into which a wood
handle is fixed ; used for lifting and spreading mortar on to a wall, forming joints
and cutting bricks. It is the chief tool of the bricklayer.
Plumb-rule.-A dressed piece of wood, 4-in. by !-in. by 4l to 6-ft. long, having
parallel edges, holed near the bottom to permit slight movement of a lead plumb-bob
which is suspended by a piece of whipcord; similar to that shown at A, Fig. 28, but with
parallel long edges; used for plumbing (obtaining or maintaining a vertical face) a wall.
Straight-edge.-A piece of wood, about 3-in. by ~·-in. by 3-ft. long having parallel
edges; used for testing brickwork (especially at quoins) and checking if faces of
bricks are in alignment. Longer straight-edges are used for levelling concrete, etc.
Gauge-rod or Storey-rod.-Similar to the straight-edge but 4-in. by ! -in. by 9-ft.
long, upon which the courses, including the joints, are marked by horizontal lines ;
courses which conform with the tops and bottoms of window sills, springing points of
arches, etc., are also indicated on the gauge; used at quoins in setting out the work
and ensuring that the courses are maintained at correct level and uniform thickness.
Line and Pins (see 33, Fig. 19).-The line (at least three knots or 36-yds. long) is
wound round two steel pins : used to maintain the correct alignment of courses.
Square (see 26, Fig. 19).-Consists of a steel blade and wood stock or entirely of
steel ; used for setting out right angles from the face of a wall (as required for open-
ings), testing perpends and marking bricks preparatory to cutting.
Spirit-level tsce 17, Fig. 19).-Used, m conJunctiOn with the straight-edge for
obtaining horizontal surfaces. '
T wo-foot Rule (see 1, Fig. 67).-Used for taking measurements.
Bolster (see 35, Fig. 19).-Made of steel; used for cutting bricks; the euge of
the tool is placed on the brick where required when a smart blow with the hammer
on the end of the steel handle is usually sufficient to split the brick.
Club Hammer or Lump Hamnzer.-Similar to that shown at 27, Fig. 19, and with
the head weighing from 2 to 4-lb. ; used in conjunction with the bolster, chisels, etc.
Brick Hammer.-Similar to that at K, Fig. 68, but without the claw and with
a chiselled end instead of that shown pointed; used for cutting bricks (especially
firebricks), brick paving, striking nails, etc.
Chisels.-Similar to those at I and 5, Fig. 19; those shaped as shown at 5 arc
usually i-in. wide with 12 to 18-in. long octagonal steel handles; used for cutting
away brickwork, etc.
Bevel (see 30, Fig. 19).- Used for setting out angles.
Scutch or Scotch (sec 34, Fig. 19).-Used for cutting soft bricks and dressing cut
surfaces.
Saw (similar to that shown at 19, Fig. 67).-Used for sawing rubbers (sec p. 24 ).
Pointing Trowel.-Similar to that at 31, Fig. 19, but much smaller; used for
placing mortar into joints, etc.
Frenchman.-A discarded table knife the blade of which is cut to a point which
is bent !-in. at right angles to the blade ; used for tuck pointing (see p. 32).
Jointer (see 32, Fig. 19).-This has a steel blade (2 to 6-in.long), the euge of which
is either flat, grooved, concave or c.onvex rounded ; useu for jointing and pointing
brickwork (seep. 31).
Pointing-rule. (see .x8, F.ig. 19).-A dresse? piece o~ 3-in. by ! -in. wood having a
bevelled edge wtth ~ -m. thtck wood or cork dtstance pteccs fixed on the bevelled side ·
used for jointing (see p. 3 1). '
Hawk or Hand Board.-A 9-in. by 9-in. by ~-in . board having a l-in. diameter
st~ml? handle ~n the centre ; used for holding small quantities of mortar during
pomtmg operattons.
 KEY DETAIL OF A GAR.DEN E.NTR.ANCE.
PLINTHS JOINTS
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 CONSTRUCTION, JOINTING AND POINTING
CoNSTRUCTION OF A WALL 1 . - The corners or leads are first built to a height
of several courses (see u, Fig. 2) and the walling between the corners is completed
course by course. Normally the leads should not exceed 3-ft. in height.
Each quoin is set truly vertical by placing an edge of the plumb-rule (leaning
slightly towards the body to allow room for the plumb-bob to swing in and out of.
the hole) against one of the faces, any adjustment of the bricks being made until the
cord coincides with the gauge-line marked down the centre of the rule ; the return
face is then plumbed. The gauge-rod is used to ensure that the brick courses and
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
joints are correct and of uniform thickness. Each course is now constructed, aided
by the line and pins ; one of the pins is inserted in and near the top of a vertical joint
(usually on the return face of the wall) and, after the line has been stretched taut, the
second pin is inserted to bring the line level with the top of the course to be built
and at a slight distance (about t-in.) from the face.
Before being laid in position the bricks should have been wetted 2 (particularly
in hot weather) to prevent them from absorbing moisture from the mortar -too quickly
and reducing its adhesive qualities. The mortar should be of the correct consistency,
otherwise labour is wasted in " working it up " with the trowel.
In constructing a wall, the bricklayer <;ollects sufficient mortar on the trowel and
spreads it on the last completed course for several bricks ahead (not less than 3-ft.
length of bed being recommended). He then presses the point of the trowel into the
mortar and draws it in zigzag fashion along the centre of the layer to form a level and
uniformly thick bed. A brick is taken, placed in position, and pressed into the mortar
against the last laid brick ; a smart tap with the edge of the trowel or the end of the
handle may be necessary to bring the brick into line. The mortar which has been
squeezed out beyond the face of the wall is " cut off " by and collected on to the
trowel 3 and returned to the heap of mortar on the board. The cross joint is then
formed, a small portion of mortar being taken on the trowel and pressed on the end
or side of the brick to form a vertical joint against which the next brick is pressed. 4
" Plumbing-up " by means of the plumb-rule should be frequently resorted to
as new brickwork has a tendency to overhang ; the work is corrected and a vertical
face obtained by tapping the handle of the trowel (or using the brick hammer) against
the bricks concerned.
Perpends must be kept vertical ; this is checked as the work proceeds by placing
the straight-edge fiat on the course and slightly projecting beyond the face. The
stock of the square is set against the underside of the straight-edge with the blade
coinciding with the last-formed vertical joint and {if the work is satisfactory) with
that in the course next but one below.
The plumbing of the reveals of openings and the perpends adjoining them should
receive special attention.
In the construction of thick walls, mortar is spread on the bed and the outer
bricks on both faces are first laid as described above ; the inner bricks are then
pressed and rubbed into position to cause some of the mortar to rise between the
vertical joints, which are finally filled flush with liquid mortar or grout.
Hand-made bricks, having only one frog, should be laid with the frogs uppermost
to ensure that they will be completely filled with mortar. Machine-pressed bricks,
having two frogs, should have the " lower " frogs filled with mortar before being laid
in position. Care must be taken that certain textured or rustic bricks are laid on their
proper beds ; it is not uncommon to see these laid "upside-down."
}OINTING AND PorNTING.-Joints on the face are usually compressed by one
or other of the methods referred to below so as to eliminate pore spaces along
1 The setting out of buildings is described on pp. 67-70 in Vol. II. . Recessed Joints.- This finish is very satisfactory for facing work of good
2 Certain smooth-surfaced machine-pressed bricks should not be watered, otherw1se
they are difficult to lay.
3 The mortar may be left slightly projecting if the surface of the wall is to be plastered.
4 The projecting mortar which has been removed is often trowelled. on to t~e end of
the brick to form the vertical joint. When this is the only mortar apphed, the Jomts are
inadequately filled and inferior work results.
3I
which water may pass. The nature of this finish depends upon the type of
bricks used and the appearance required.
When this finish is done in sections as the brickwork proceeds the operation
is called jointing ; when it is deferred until afterwards it is known as pointing.
The following examples are illustrated at T, Fig. 17.
Struck Joint. -This is probably more extensively used than any other. It
is a good weather joint as it permits of the ready discharge of water. Its
appearance is not entirely satisfactory for every class of work as it exaggerates
any 'inaccuracy of the lower edges of the bricks (owing to the difference in the
thickness of the bricks which may exist) ; its smooth mechanical character
detracts from the appearance if adopted for bedding and jointing sand-faced
bricks of good texture. It is best used in conjunction with smooth-surfaced
machine-pressed bricks of uniform colour.
This joint is formed when the mortar is sufficiently stiff (usually after four stretchers
or their equivalent have been laid) by holding the handle of the trowel below the bed
joint and smoothing the mortar several times in one direction with the blade to an
approximate bevel of 6o 0 • The vertical joints are usually formed by pressing the
tip of the trowel down the centre to produce a V-section, or these joints may be flush
(see below). The vertical joints are first struck, followed by the bed joint.
Overhand Struck Joint (see broken line at x).-It should not be adopted as
water collecting on the ledge may pass through the mortar to cause dampness
on the inside, or frost action may destroy the upper edges of the bricks, especially
if they are not of good quality.
It is indicative of overhand work (constructed from an internal scaffold from
which the bricklayer must Jean to form the joints as the work proceeds) which is
apt to be scamped.
Flush or Flat Joint.-As shown, the joint is flush with (in the same plane as)
the face of the brickwork. When rubbed, it forms an excellent finish for first
class faced work.
The mortar is pressed into the joints during the progress of the work, any de-
pressions are filled by the addition of mortar, and when the mortar is " semi-stiff"
each joint is carefully rubbed in one direction by a piece of rubber which is held as
flatly as possible against the wall. This gives a satisfactory texture to the joint which
agreeably conforms with that of a sand-faced class of brick.
Provided the mortar is of good quality, this joint gives a satisfactory finish to
rustic brickwork if it is just left as the mortar is cut off with the trowel, no attempt
being made to smooth the surface of the joint. The fairly rough texture of such
joints gives to rustic brickwork a more satisfactory appearance than smooth struck
joints.
The flush joint is also adopted for walls requiring smooth internal faces
such as may be required for factories, cellars, coal-houses, garages, etc.
textured bricks and good quality mortar. The bricks should be carefully
selected of uniform thickness and the bed joints should be at least !-in. thick.
This type of joint is made as follows : The jointing tool is used immediately after
the projecting mortar has been cut. This tool may be similar to the jointer (see
 32 BRICKWORK
32, Fig. I9) or the improvised tool shown at v, Fig. I7; the thickness of the rubber
should be equal to that of the joint. The rubber accommodates itself to any irregu-
larities of the brick edges as it is pressed into the joint and worked to and fro until
the mortar is removed and the depression formed as shown. That shown at v is
suitable for the bed joints, a similar but shorter tool being used for the vertical joints.
The bricks must be hard and durable, otherwise any water collecting on the ledges
may become frozen and cause pieces of brick to flake off.
Keyed Joint.-Such joints give an appearance to the brickwork which is
distinctly attractive.
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It may be formed with either the convex rounded jointer (see above) or the wood
jointer shown at w, Fig. I7, which varies in thickness with that of the joint. The
vertical joints are formed first, followed by the bed joints. The latter are formed
by using the jointer in conjunction with the pointing rule (see I8, Fig. I9); the rule
is usually held by two men against the wall with the bevelled edge uppermost on
the same level as and parallel to the lower edge of the joint ; the jointer, resting upon
it, is pressed into the soft mortar and passed along several times in both directions
until the required depth is obtained, the surplus mortar falling between the distance
pieces of the rule. The vertical joints should have a slightly less impression than
the bed joints.
Vee-joint (see broken lines at z).-Its effect is to give the appearance of narrow
joints, especially if the colour of the mortar resembles closely that of the bricks.
It is not recommended. The joint is made as described for the keyed joint
and with a steel jointer having its lower edge suitably shaped.
Projecting Joint.-As stated in the footnote on p. 3 I, the inside faces of walls
which are to be plastered (in addition to external surfaces which are to be rough-
cast) are left with the mortar projecting. This gives a good key for the first
coat of plaster, as shown. Another good key is afforded if the joints are raked
out to a depth of about t-in. before the mortar has set.
In addition to its form, consideration should be given to the colour and texture of
the joint. Bricks of various colours and textures are now obtainable, and it is very
important that the colour of the mortar , should conform with that of the bricks.
Thus, mortar composed of lime and yellow sand is very suitable for certain sand-faced
bricks.
PoiNTING AND RE-POINTING.-It has been stated that pointing is the method
of finishing the joints after the whole of the brickwork has been completed. It
may be applied to a new building just before completion, or it may be used on
existing buildings when the joints have become defective and, if not attended
to, may result in dampness and the reduction of brickwork to a dilapidated
condition.
The first operation in pointing is the removal of the mortar for a depth of
~-in. in order to give an adequate key for the fresh mortar, after which the face
is brushed down with a bass broom to remove pieces of mortar and dust and
finally well drenched with water. The material used for refilling the joints
may be either lime mortar or cement mortar and the colour should conform
with the brickwork (cement can now be obtained in a variety of colours for this
purpose).
\Vaterproofed lime and Portland cement mixtures are now extensively used for
pointing ; the former mixture may consist of I part lime to 3 parts sand gauged
with a solution of I part waterproof compound to IS parts water, and the latter
mixture may be composed of I part waterproofed cement (containing 2 per cent.
of the waterproofing compound) to 3 parts sand.
The form of joint to be used for pointing or re-painting depencls a good
deal upon the condition of the brickwork. If the edges of the bricks are true
and in good condition the joints may be selected from the struck, flush, recessed
or keyed varieties described above ; if the edges are damaged, the mortar should
be finished with the flush form of joint.
Tuck Pointing, as illustrated at T, is occasionally adopted where the jointing
material has become defective and the brickwork at the joints has become ragged.
Generally it is only used when an alternative flush joint would cause the joints
to appear excessively wide.
Tuck poi,nting is done in the following manner : The joints are raked out, brushed
and watered as before described. Coloured cement may be used to match the colour
of the existing brickwork and this is trowelled with a flush joint and rubbed as
described for flush jointing-a small trowel being used together with a hawk (see
p. 29) to hold the mortar. A 1' « or i-in. wide by l-in. deep groove is immediately
and carefully formed along the centre of each joint. With the aid of the pointing-
rule and a flat edged jointer (32, Fig. I9) the groove is filled or " tucked in" (hence
the name given to the pointing) with putty lime (see p. 24) to which a small amount of
silver sand has been added. The putty is given a maximum projection of !-in. and
both top and bottom edges are neatly cut off by means of the frenchman (see p. 29),
the bent pointed end of which removes the surplus material as the knife is drawn
along the edge of the rule. The bed joints are formed first, in about 8-ft. lengths
(when two men are working together), followed by the vertical joints.
Tuck pointing gives a neat and attractive appearance to a building-the
shadows cast by the projecting putty assist in producing the illusion of narrow
joints-but the band of putty is not durable, and in course of time becomes
defective.
Bastard Tuck Pointing.-This is an imitation of tuck pointing and is formed
entirely of the infilling mortar. The profile of the joint is similar to that of
tuck pointing but the band which projects consists of the pointing material.
Whilst this does not look so well as the true tuck pointing, it is more durable,
although its durability is uncertain as the projecting mortar is apt to become
affected by weather action.
Another form of pointed joint which projects is known as a beaded joint.
This is indicated by broken lines at Y, Fig. 17. It is formed, in conjunction with
the pointing rule, by a jointer having a concave edge. It is liable to be damaged
and is not recommended.
 CHAPTER
MASONRY
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frl~abuf"b~!assg<ttion. of stones end brief dcsc~iptio? of ~he quarrying, preparation and characteristics of limestones and sandstones.
a ura ~ · c ccts m stone. lasses of walhng, mcludmg random rubble uncoursed, random rubble built to courses squared rubble uncoursed s uared
ru~~le dbUIJ! ~ 0 courshs, re1Ilar c~rrsed squared rubble, polygonal, flint, Lake District and ashlar. Dressings to door and' window openings including inbands
1
oud an1 s, mMe s, an; ~s,. SI s, Cmu tons,. transomes and .st~ps. Pl~nths. Simple string courses, friezes, cornices, parapets and copings. Joi'n.ts dowels cramp~
an p ugs. ortar JOinting. onstruct10n of walls. Ltftmg apphances.
THE art of construction in stone is called masonry.
CLASSIFICATION OF STONES
Rocks are diyided into the following groups: (I) igneous, (2) sedimentary
and (3) metamorphic.
(I) Igneous rocks have been formed by the agency of heat, the molten
material subsequently becoming solidified. The chief building stone in this
class is granite.
(2) Sedimentary rocks are those that have been formed chiefly through the
~gency of water. Mo~t of them have been derived from the breaking up of
tgneous. rocks, the particles, conveyed and deposited by streams, accumulated to
form thick strata that have been hardened by pressure. The principal building
stones in this group are limestones and sandstones.
(3) Metamorphic rocks form a group which embraces either igneous or sedi-
mentary rocks ':"hich have been changed from their original form (meta-
morphosed) by either pressure, or heat, or both. Slates (see Chapter Five) and
marbles come under this class.
Limestones and sandstones are those which are used chiefly for general
building purposes.
LIMESTONES.-A limestone consists of particle§ of carbonate of lime cemented
together by a similar material. Portland stone and Bath stone are in this class.
Portland Stone, obtained from the Isle of Portland (Dorset), is one of the
best-known limestones, and stone from one of the beds or seams, known as
U:hitbed (see Fig. 18), is one of the best building stones used in this country for
high-class work. Whitbed varies in colour from white to light brown, the
latter being the best ; it is durable, and, on account of its fine grain, is easily
carved and moulded. The Basebed 1 is not so durable and should only be used
. . 1 T~e basebed is slightly wh~ter and the texture is somewhat finer than the whitbcd ;
It IS castly worked on account of Its fine and even grain, and is suitable for internal work as
for monuments and for purposes where carving or much fine detail is required.
33
TWO
Surface finishes. Tools .
' '
for external purposes after careful selection. The Roach bed is not suitable for
general building purposes on account of the large number of cavities which are
present, but because of its great strength and good weathering properties it is
used in the construction of sea walls and similar marine work.
Bath Stone, obtainable in the vicinity of Bath, is used for general building
purposes. It varies in colour from white to light cream or yellow, it has a fine
grain and, because of its relative softness, it can be easily worked.
SA:'DSTONES.- These are composed of consolidated sand and consist chiefly
of grams of quartz (silica) united by a cementing material. The quartz grains
are p~actically indestructible, an~ the quality of the stone therefore depends
essentially upon the cementing material which may be silica (forming siliceous
sandstones), oxides of iron (forming ferruginous sandstones), calcium carbonate
(forming calcareous sandstones), etc.
Many excellent building sandstones are quarried in Derbyshire, Lancashire
and Yorkshire. Stancliffe stone (Darley Dale, Derbyshire) is light brown or
honey coloured, is very strong and durable, and, although relatively difficult
to work on account of its hardness, it can be moulded to give fine arrises.
Woo~ton (Lancashire) stone is being used in the construction of the Liverpool
Anglican Cathedral. Some of the Yorkshire stones are exceedingly hard
(especially those from the Bradford and Huddersfield districts) and are suitable
for steps, landings, flags, as well as for general walling where fine mouldings are
not required.
QUARRYING
The methods adopted in quarrying stone vary considerably, depending
upon the type of stone to be quarried and its depth below the surface. Most
stone is obtained from open quarries, but where the stone beds are very deep
(such as Bath stone) it is obtained by underground mining.
Fig. I8 shows a section through the face of an open limestone (Portland)
quarry. As much as possible of the overburden (which varies from a few feet
 34
to so-ft. thick) is removed by a powerful mechanical excavator and the more
persistent is loosened by hand picking and cranes. The top and skull caps are
loosened by blasting.
After the roach bed has been cleared, the quarrymen begin to remove the
stone from each stratum. This operation is facilitated by the presence of
natural vertical joints which exist parallel to and at right angles to the face of
the bed, and also the existence of horizontal beds of shells which separate the
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MASONRY
the thickness of the beds of good building stone varies from a mmmmm of
2-in. to a maximum of 4-ft., and comparatively little labour is required for the
removal of the stone.
PREPARATION
Whereas formerly the whole of the labours involved in dressing building
stones after removal from the quarry were done by hand, by the " banker mason,"

layers of stone. Commencing from one of the right-angled vertical joints, a most of this work is now executed by machinery.
number of strong metal wedges (see c, Fig. 19) are inserted at intervals along a
shell bed and gradually and evenly hammered Speedy erection of buildings is generally a necessary requirement, and this would
not be possible if machines were.not available for the purpose of converting the rough
in until the stone is split horizontally and blocks into dressed or wrought stone ; indeed, it is not uncommon in connection
TOP SOIL
TOP
~&aLE
l SKETCH
SHOWII-J<i
SECTION
the slab becomes detached; if necessary,
this slab is divided vertically by wedging
with large contracts, for the machines to be worked continuously day and night, in
order that the rate of delivery of the dressed stone shall comply with the strictly
limited scheduled time.
~
~J,~~JrOHI)
~ THROUGH (see B, Fig. 19). Each block is now lifted
~~~Gk~J·, FACE OF clear of the stratum by means of a crane, Although most of the work involved in dressing stone may be done by
BOTTOM
...2.~ LIMESTONE roughly squared up by the use of a large machinery, there are certain surface finishes which can only be worked by hand.
RUBBLE QUARRY hammer and loaded into a truck for transit These finishes are described on pp. 35-38.
a;
DIRT BED a to the works for final dressing. MACHINE DRESSING.-The machines used for this purpose include the

b "'::l PO~lli'IND
NOTE: THE WHilefD
frame saw, circular saw, rubbing bed, and planing and moulding machines.
..."' Blasting has sometimes to be resorted
TOP
"" FOII.IUILDIIIOSTONE to in
PROVID£S THE BEST
CAP
~ > sandstone quarries because of the The rough block of stone from the quarry is first taken to the frame saw

l
PU~SES.
0 SCULL ; hardness of the stone. Briefly, a series of which converts it into a number of slabs such as are shown at A, Fig. 19, the
T CAP thickness of the slabs varying in accordance with requirements.
ROACH . ... l
deep holes (about 1-in. in diameter) are
!~ formed by a drilling machine at the re- The frame saw is a machine consisting of a rectangular horizontal frame, suspended
'1
!:! WHIT BED quired distance from and parallel to the by rods, which holds several (sometimes six) plain or corrugated steel blades, each
11

6"'
face of the quarry ; a small charge of black blade being from 3 to 6-in. deep, 1''\r-in. thick, and from 6 to xs-ft.long. These blades
>; •

. BOTTOM gunpowder and a fuse
are placed in each
e BASEB£0 OF
QUtAAY hole and the hole is partially packed or
"' . ,., .. , •.,.. tamped with sand ; the fuses are con-
FIGU~E 18 nected to a battery and the charges fired ;
this explosion is sufficient to shake the
mass of stone ; the holes are now cleared of tamping and the second or main
charges inserted and again fired simultaneously. This removes a large bulk
of stone which is only slightly shattered because of the use of two blasts.
The large blocks are then divided by splitting and wedging (see p. 35) and
roughly squared up for dispatch to the works for subsequent dressing. The
average size of the blocks when dispatched is from 25 to 30-cub. ft., although
much larger blocks are obtainable when required.
There is very little overburden in many of the sandstone quarries. Thus
in the Stancliffe stont (see p. 33) quarry the overburden does not exceed 6-ft.
in depth; the depth of the present working face is 16o,-ft. although some of
the best stone is obtained at a depth of from 8 to 1o-ft.
Blasting is not necessary in those sandstone quarries where the beds are
thin and frequently divided by natural fissures . Thus, in quarries from which
much of the" walling stone "used for" Rubble Work "(seep. 39) is obtained,
are parallel to and at adjustable distances from each other. Electric or other power
is supplied to give the frame a short backward and forward motion at a rate of from
150 to x8o strokes per minute.
The rough stone is placed on a movable table which is brought under the frame.
After the blades have been set to the required distance apart the frame .is-lewered
and set in motion. The frame, being under constant pressure, causes the blades to
descend as they cut the stone during the to-and-fro movement. During this process,
water is supplied immediately over the cuts through nozzles of a water feed which
swings backwards and forwards. At the same time an abrasive agent such as sharp
sand, chilled shot (small steel balls} or carborundum is applied along the length of
the cut, and thereby assist in the cutting action of the blades. Sand should be the
abrasive used for the sawing of Portland stone as steel shot tends to discolour the
stone on account of rust.
The frame is raised after the sawing operation has been completed, the table is
pushed clear of the frame, and the slabs are unloaded and taken to another machine
for the next dressing operation.
The frame saw is the best machine for cutting hard stone. The speed of
cutting depends upon the number of cuts and the hardness of the stone. Hard
sandstone may be cut at the rate of 6-in. (thickness) per hour and Portland stone
may be cut at the rate of 12-in. per hour.
Assuming that these slabs of stone are required for general walling, each is
now conveyed to the circular saw for the cutting of the remaining faces . There
are two types of this machine, i.e., the diamond saw and the carborundum saw.
 PREPARATION OF STONE
The diamond saw consists of a circular steel blade, one size being 5-ft. in diameter
and !-in. thick. Some 240 diamonds are secured in small U-shaped sockets round the
edge of the blade. The slab of stone is clamped on to a moving table which is caused
to travel towards the blade at a uniform rate ; at the same time the blade rotates
at a speed which varies from soo to 6oo revs . per min., a common speed being
s6o revs. per min.
The cutting rate of the diamond-saw machine depends upon its horse-power
and the hardness of the stone. Thus a 20-h.p. machine will cut from 100 to
16o-sq. in. of Portland stone per minute (i.e., if the stone is 20-in. deep, the rate
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will be 5 to 8-in. per minute). Whilst this rate is considerably faster than that
of the frame saw, the circular saw can only deal effectively with comparatively
thin stones which are less than 3-ft. thick, the thickness in respect to some
machines being limited to 1-ft. 6-in. Further, only limestones or soft sandstones
should be cut by means of the diamond saw as hard sandstones cause an excessive
wearing action on the sockets and blade.
The carborundum saw has a 2-in. wide continuous rim of carborundum which is
dovetailed round the periphery of the steel blade.
The cutting rate of the carborundum saw is half that of the diamond saw.
It is preferred to the diamond saw on account of the more accurate work which
it produces, and it is therefore very suitable for the jointing (forming the ends)
of cornices and similar stones which have been moulded. Cuts as fine as i-in.
are obtainable.
Water is supplied during the cutting operation in order to cool the blade
of each of the above two circular saws. Some circular saws have two blades.
Another type consists of a blade which traverses the fixed stone as it rotates,
and it is therefore particularly useful for cutting long stones.
The above operations are usually all that are necessary for the cutting and
dressing of stones for walling, but it is sometimes required to have the surface
of each stone which will be exposed when fixed, rubbed so as to remove the
machine marks. This is accomplished on .a machine called a rubbing bed.
A rubbing bed consists of a steel circular table, about xo-ft. in diameter, which
rotates. The stone is placed on the bed, clamped from above, and as the table rotates
the abrasive action of carborundum, sand and water eliminates the machine marks:
It takes approximately twenty minutes to polish one face of a block of Portland stone
of average size. Small surfaces are rubbed by applying sand and water to the surfaces
whilst a piece of the same stone is worked over them.
Cornices, string courses, plinths, etc., are moulded by means of planing and
moulding machines. After the moulding operations have been completed as
described below, the stone is jointed in to the required lengths by the carborundum
saw as explained above. Intersections of mouldings arc usually worked by
hand, the maximum length of mouldings being machined so as to reduce the
hand labour to a minimum.
A simple type of planing and moulding machine consists of a cutting tool of cast
steel which is suspended from a box at an angle of about 45°. Cutting tools are of
various shapes and sizes and their cutting edges are shaped the reverse of the desired
moulds. One end of the stone is first hand-moulded to the required section ; this is
35
?one b y the .b~nker maso.n on his bench. The stone is then clamped to the table
~n such a position as to brmg the surface to be tooled uppermost. The tool or chisel
IS caused to traverse the stone backwards and forwards until sufficient stone has
been removed to conform with the section cut at the end.
In another type of planer the stone is fixed to a table which moves backwards and
forwards below the tool which is fixed.
In both of these types, after the tool has traversed the stone on the forward journey,
the box or head automatically swings over, bringing the tool in the correct position
for the return traverse.
Another type of machine has four cutting tools and is therefore particularly
effective for large cornices.
There i~ also a. moulding apparatus known a~ the Pneumat£c Dressing and Carving
Plant.. Th1s consists of ~n a1r compressor wh1ch operates tools of various shapes
and s1zes called pneumatic hammers. The finest carving as well as the heaviest
dressing, can be executed by these tools. '
HAND DRESSING.-In the absence of machinery, the following arc certain of
the operations which arc performed by hand :-
Splitting, Stoping, Wedging or Coping.-A large block of stone is split into
smaller units as shown at B, Fig. 19. Straight lines are marked on three of
the faces along which a narrow groove is chiselled by means of the punch
(6, Fig. 19) or wide chisel called a nicker. Shallow holes at 6 to 9-in. centres
are formed along the groove, a steel bar is placed ·under the stone in the same
1)lane as the groove, steel wedges or gads or wedges and feathers are placed in
the holes, and the wedges are gradually and uniformly hammered in until the
stone splits.
Large blocks of hard sandstone are divided at the quarry as described but
the work is expedited by using a pneumatic drill to form 4 to 6-in. deep holes
to receive the wedges.
Snapping.-This is adopted for splitting hard stones which are about 6-in.
thick. In splitting a block of stone, a groove is formed on all four sides and in
the same plane. The pitching tool (r, Fig. 19) is held vertically and struck
smartly as it is moved along the groove on each face. A piece of waste stone is
placed under the block and a few blows of a heavy hammer on the latter (which
is protected by a piece of wood) will be sufficient to snap the stone. Alternately,
a continuous nick is formed across the top and both sides, the block is turned
over on to a small stone and a smart blow with a heavy hammer is sufficient to
split it.
Bath or similar stone is best divided into units by sawing immediately after
the stone has been quarried, as it then contains moisture (called quarry sap)
which renders it comparatively soft.
Forming a True Face.-A true face is worked on the stone as follows and as
shown at D, Fig. 19. The marginal draft E is first formed; this is made by the
mason using a drafting chisel (22, Fig. 19) and wood mallet (24) to remove the
superfluous stone to a level slightly below that of the deepest hollvw on the
rough face. The draft must be level as tested by a straight-edge, although an
experienced mason can dispense with this. A similar draft is formed at F
which is parallel to and in the same plane as E in order that the face shall be
 MASONRY
" out of winding or twist." This is tested by placing straight-edges on the
drafts and sighting through as indicated by broken lines at J. Any adjustment
is made by the removal of the necessary amount of stone where required. Drafts
G and H are then formed and the whole of the superfluous stone between the
drafts removed by means of the pitching tool (I), punch (6) or point (9). After
continuous furrows have been formed across the face with the point or punch,
the ridges may be removed by the claw chisel (2o) and mallet ; the chisel is
worked parallel to the furrows, the teeth preventing the formation of holes.
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Diagonal drafts (K), in addition to the marginal drafts, are necessary for working
a true face on a large stone. The adjacent surfaces may be dressed in a similar
manner, the square (26) being used to ensure that the adjacent surfaces are
square and also for marking any necessary lines.
The terms plain work or plain face are applied to the labour on a stone
to form a true face. Half plain work describes a similar but rougher dress-
ing, such as is only necessary for beds and joints where the appearance is
not material.
Surface Finishes. -The finishes which may be given to the face (exposed
surface) of a stone are many and varied, but those applied to surfaces of the
beds (upper and lower surfaces), joints (ends) and back of the stone are more
limited, as the essential requirements are reasonably smooth and square surfaces
to permit of mortar joints of the required thickness.
The finish varies with the stone and the class of work for which it is required.
Thus for rubble worh of the random rubble, uncoursed class (see Fig. 20), very
little labour is expended on the stones, whereas certain other finishes are both
elaborate and costly. Stone which is roughly shaped and dressed is known as
quarry-dressed stone.
QuARRY DRESSIJ'\G 1 .-Stone quarried in many districts is walled in its
rough state. In certain quarries the stone lies in thin beds and splitting is
all that may be necessary to fit the blocks for walling on account of their natural
smooth faces and flatness of bed. Such smooth-faced stone is known as self-
faced. Other stone may require a small amount of labour expended upon it.
Examples of such finishes are hammer-dressed and straight-cut.
Hammer-dressed.- This is also known as hammer-faced, quarry-faced, quarry-
pitched and rustic-faced and its appearance somewhat resembles that shown at
L, Fig. I9. The face is roughly shaped by means of the mash hammer
(27, Fig. 19) which is used to remove the larger raised portions of stone and to
bring it to the required shape. The blocks are sometimes squared, the beds
and joints being dressed back some 3 or 4-in. from the face (see plan in Fig. 22).
This is done by using the square to mark the boundaries and working the pitching
tool along them, each blow on the tool removing a piece of stone. This enables
the stones to be fitted more closely together to give reasonably uniform thick
joints.
1Quarry-t!ressed stone has been used extensively in the construction of houses,
especially in Yorkshire.
Straight-wt.- - This is applied to the faces of small blocks of stone used for
squared rubble (Fig, 22) and regular coursed rubble (Fig. 22). The larger blocks
are split at right angles to the natural bed (sec p. 38) into smaller blocks and it is
this split surface which provides the face, the slightly uneven texture being very
effective. These small blocks are quickly squared hy applying the mash hammer
along the edges to remove the superfluous stone, followed by the punch. 1
ELABORATE DRESSIKG.- The following arc some of the finishes which are
worked by hand on squared stones : Boasted, punched, picked, tooled, furrowed,
rock-faced, scabbled, combed, vermiculated and reticulated.
Boasted or Droved (see M, Fig. I9).-A true face is first formed as described
on p. 35· The face is then boasted or finished with the hammer and boaster (5)
by forming a series of I} to 2-in. wide bands of more or less parallel tool marks
which cover the whole surface. These marks may be either horizontal (see 2),
vertical (3) or at an angle of 45 ° (4) as required, and in making them the boaster
is moved in the direction of the band at each stroke. This is a common finish
which is applied to relatively inexpensive work, and it is also an intermediate
dressing which is subsequently tooled, fluted, etc. (see below).
Punched, Broached or Stugged (see N, Fig. I9).-Depressions are formed on
the rough surface with the punch (6). It may take the form of a series of parallel
ridges and· hollows (7), or the punch may be held almost vertically and driven
in to form hollows at about 1-in. apart (8). It is used especially on the lower
portions of large buildings.
Picked, Pecked or Dabbed (see o, Fig. I<)).- This is similar to but finer than
punched work, the small pits being formed by the point (9) . Fine dressing is
sometimes called close-picked or sparrozo-picked. It is used for quoins and
occasionally for general faced work.
Tooled or Batted (see P, Fig. 19).-The face is first boasted to bring it to a
regular surface, after which a series of continuous and parallel horizontal ( 10)
.or vertical (II) or diagonal (I 2) fine chisel lines are formed with the batting or
broad tool (21) which is caused to move in the direction of its edge. It is usual
to specify the number of lines per inch, the number varying from 8 to ro,
depending upon the hardness of the stone and the degree of fineness required.
This is a common dressing for ashlar work (see p. 45). Note the difference
in the appearance between boasted and tooled work ; in the former the marks
are flat and not continuous, whereas in tooled work the lines are deeper and are
continuous.
Furrowed or Fluted (see Q, Fig. 19).-The surface is first boasted and then
rubbed (see p. 35) ; ! to ~-in. wide flutes (see section xx) are then carefully
formed by a gouge (I3) either vertically (14) or horizontally (15). Lines
showing the arriseR of the flutes are lightly scored and these serve as a
guide to the mason as he works the gouge along each. This finish is
1 This dressing is very popular in Yorkshire (thus most of the built!ings in Huddersficlt!
are faced with straight-cut stone) as the hard local sant!stonc is particularly suited to receive
this finish.
 STONE ~LOCK..
SAWN INTO ~//
~
N
5LAB5 ~.--::;
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PUNCHED X
13.

1 ~ ~Willllll i-il--lr-:;:; Q
l.----15~§
I

"' z

l~
I I

~'
SPLITTING A // ;p
~LOCK. OF
STONE. --x_~'-
/
, I
/ l_
- ~'-.., GOUG~ v 1".
FUI<.~OWE.D S X
v

FORMING A
TR.<.JE FACE

33.

;)

DUMMY MA:Sf+ f*AMMI':R.

q.( lao/ -~
~EVEU.. EO EDGE - INCH£3 p•=+=Ll-?+:qJ:q:::w. J:::r~
SCALE FOil. ~lt.FACE FINISHES
1FEET
SPIRIT LEVEL POINTING INCHI:~
0 3 6 ' l:l
EI_--::r::::r-_c.c:r::r_ L:L:J::J::j_ r::::c::::t:::J
l.5
INC!-+[~ FIGURE 19
.5 1• 0''1'0 8'- SCALE FOR TOOLS
 MASONRY
sometimes applied to the fillets or flat bands of cornices, string courses, door
and window architraves, etc.
Rock-faced, Rusticated or Pitch-faced (see R, Fig. I9).-After the marginal
drafts have been worked (see p. 35), the pitching tool is used to remove certain
of the superfluous stone in the centre which is left raised or rough to imitate a
rock-like surface. It resembles hammer-dressed work, excepting that it is
much bolder and greater care is exercised in obtaining an effective appearance.
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This dressing is sometimes applied to plinths to give a semblance of strength
and solidity.
Scabbled or Scappled.- This is similar to the rock-faced dressing, the scab-
bling or scappling hammer (shown by broken lines at 29) being used to remove
some of the irregularities.
Dragged or Combed.- This finish is given to soft limestones, such as Bath
stone, by the application of drags (23). These drags are steel plates (about
1 10 ~in. thick) having serrated edges, and graded into " coarse," " second " and
" fine," according to the number of teeth per inch ; they are of various shapes
and sizes. After the surface of the stone has been brought to the required level
by means of the dummy (the head of which is made of zinc or pewter and is
shown at 25) and soft stone chisel (I9), the coarse drag is· dragged backwards
and forwards in different directions across the surface until the tool marks have
been eliminated ; this is followed by the second drag and finally by the fine
drag until all scratches have disappeared.
Vermiculated (see s, Fig. I9).-The face is brought to a level and smooth
finish. Marginal drafts are sunk at least !-in. below this surface, when sinkings
are then worked to a depth equal to that of the drafts (see section uu) so as to
form a winding snake-like (verminous) ridge which is often continuous (as shown
at T) and which has to be carved by means of gouges (IJ).
Reticulated (see v, Fig. I9).-This is similar to vermiculated, excepting that
the ridges or veins are less winding and are linked up to form a network (hence
the name) of irregularly shaped sinkings or reticules; the bottom of these
hollows is sometimes sparrow-picked (see p. 36) with a fine point (9) as shown
at Y.
Neither vermiculated nor reticulated dressings are applied much to modern
work, probably on account of their expense, but they are occasionally adopted
for quoins and to decorate and emphasize horizontal courses. They are examples
of rusticated work which are supposed to resemble decayed or " worm-eaten "
stonework. They must be done with great care and to a bold scale if they are
to be effective.
Although the whole of the above surfaces may be done by hand, economy in
labour and cost results if certain of the intermediate operations (such as sawing and
rubbing) are performed by machinery.
CHISEL DRAFTED MARGINS.-Besides marginal drafts which vary from ! to
2-in. and are necessary in the working of a true face (see p. 35), drafts are also
used for the sake of appearance and some of these are shown in Fig. I9. These
may be pitched (see L), square (Nand s) or chamfered (Q and v). Stones whic~
have been hammer-faced must be pitched or roughly trued up at the edges 1f
close-fitting joints are needed. Drafted margins are usually given a boasted
finish (N), or the surfaces may be rubbed (s) or tooled (R). Quarry-pitched
walling must have drafts (called angle drafts) worked on both sides of the
arris of each quoin stone and on jambs of door and window openings (see B,
Fig. zo). This is to permit the use of the plumb rule and line to ensure plumb
and accurate walling during its construction, the face of the drafts giving the
line of the wall.
TooLs.-A few of the many tools used by the mason have been referred to
on the foregoing pages and illustrated in Fig. I9· Chisels are struck either with
the mallet (24)-which is made of hardwood such as beech or hickory-or the
hammer. The striking ends of mallet-headed chisels are broader (see 5, 9 and
IJ) than those which are hammer-headed (e .g., I and 6) so as to prevent the
mallet from being damaged. Cutting tools which have to withstand heavy
impacts are usually made entirely of cast steel, others used for the dressing of
soft stones may have wood handles (I9) and these are struck with the dummy
(25) which has a zinc or pewter head. Other tools, such as the trowel, square,
line and pins, bevel, etc., have been described on p. 29.
NATURAL BED.-Sedimentary rocks, such as limestones and sandstones, are
stratified or laminated (due to the deposition of successive layers or laminre
during the formation of the stone) and occur in beds of varying thickness. The
layers are usually parallel to the bed and the term " natural bed " is applied to
the surface of the stone which is parallel to these Layers or bedding planes.
The beds are generally more or less horizontal, although in some quarries they
are inclined (see A, Fig. 68). Some stones show the laminations ye~y cl.e arly and there
is no difficulty in ascertaining the natural bed ; in other vanettes It can only ~e
detected with the aid of the microscope. The direction of the natural bed of c~rtam
sandstones is indicated by an examination of the small embedded flakes of mtca (a
silicate of a shining dark hue) which lie flat and parallel to the bed, and that of some
limestones by the position of the minute shells which lie flat in the direction of the
bedding planes. The trained mason can usually ascertain the lie of the bed on work-
ing the stone, it being easier to dress it in the direction of the planes: I!l ord~r to
prevent mistakes, it is the practice in some quarries to mark the dtrectwn of the
natural bed on each stone before dispatch.
It is important that the stone shall be built in the correct position in relation
to the natural bed, otherwise serious defects may occur. Thus for:
(a) General walling, the stone should be bedded on the natural bed as in
this position the laminations of the stone are horizontal and at right angles to
the pressure and thus the stone is better able to support the superimposed
weight. This position is indicated by thin parallel lines at I', Fig. 24.
A wall should never be constructed of stones which are " face-bedded," i.r. ,
with the lamin:e vertical and parallel to the face of the wall, for in this position the
action of the weather may cause decay along the edges of the stone, and, in extreme
cases the exposed layer may separate and flake off.
 D E F E C T S-W A L L I N G
(b) Cornices, string courses and similar projecting courses should be con-
structed of stones which are " edge-bedded " or " joint-bedded," i.e., the stones
are bedded with the laminations vertical and at right angles to the face of the
wall (see 2', Fig. 24), otherwise the mouldings may be defaced owing to weather
action.
Thus if the natural bed were vertical and parallel to the face of the wall, portions
of the stone may flake off, as at o, Fig. 26, where the portion of the cornice on the
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left of the broken line may become detached. Similarly, if the natural bed were
horizontal any undercut mouldings and horizontal fillets (flat bands) would tend to
disappear, e.g., the lower portion below the broken line at P, Fig. 26.
An exception to this rule applies to quoin cornice, etc., stones which are returned,
as the return faces would be face-bedded and would result in rapid loss of shape ;
therefore such must be carefully selected compact stones, free from obvious lamina-
tions, and bedded on the natural bed.
(c) Arches should be constructed having the natural bed of the voussoirs
normal (right angles) to the face of the arch and perpendicular to the line of
thrust, i.e., parallel to the radial centre line of each stone (see 3', Fig. 24).
DEFECTS
The following are some of the defects in stone :-
Vents.-These are small fissures or hollows in the stone which may cause
it to deteriorate rapidly, especially if exposed. Stone with vents should not be
used for building purposes.
Shakes or snailcreep are minute cracks in the stone containing calcite (a
carbonate of lime) and forming hard veins which, in course of time, project
beyond the general face on account of their greater durability. It is not advisable
to use stone containing them on account of the difference in texture which
results.
Sand-holes are cracks which appear in the stone and which are filled with
sandy matter. Clay-holes are vents which contain matter of a clayey nature.
Both are readily decomposed when subjected to the action of weather, and the
stone should be rejected.
Mottle is a defect which causes the stone to have a spotted appearance
due to the presence of small chalky patches. Such stone is unfit for building
purposes.
An inherent defect which occurs in Portland stone is the presence of shells
(known as shelly bars), fossils, cavities and flints. These are often not detected
until the large blocks from the quarry are being converted into smaller units,
the saw-cuts revealing their presence. The affected portions must be removed
and therefore waste results.
The presence of clay and oxide of iron is apt to cause disfigurement of the
stone, producing brown-coloured bands which interfere with the uniformity in
colour of the stone and diminish its durability.
39
WALLING
CLASSIFICATION.-The various classes of walling may be divided into:
1. Rubble Work, which consists of blocks of stone that are either
undressed or comparatively roughly dressed and having wide
joints, and
2. Ashlar, consisting of walls constructed of blocks of carefully dressed
or wrought stone with narrow joints.
RUBBLE WORK
r. Rubble Work includes:
(m Built
Uncoursed.
(a) Random Rubble {
to courses.
(i) Uncoursed.
(b) Squared Rubble { (ii) Built to courses.
(iii) Regular coursed.
( (i) Polygonal walling.
(c) Miscellaneous J (ii) Flint walli11g.
l
(iii) Lake District masonry.
{a) RANDOM RuBBLE.-The stones are those which have been quarry-dressed
(see p. 36). The principles of bonding referred to on p. 3 apply equally well
to this class of work as they do to brickwork. Unlike bricks, the stones are
not of uniform size and shape, and therefore greater care and ingenuity have to
be exercised in arranging that the stones shall adequately distribute the pressure
over the maximum area and in the avoidance of long continuous vertical joints.
The bond should be sound both transversely (across the thickness of the
wall) and longitudinally (along both faces of the wall). Transverse bond is
obtained by the liberal use of headers (or bonders) and throughs. Headers are
stones which reach beyond the middle of the wall from each face to overlap
in the centre (sometimes called dog's tooth bond). Through stones or throughs
extend the full thickness of the wall (see Fig. 20). Satisfactory stability may
reasonably be assured if one-quarter of the face consists of headers (approximately
two per square yard), in addition to one-eighth of the face area of throughs
(one per square yard).
Unless the relative impermeability of the stones is satisfactory it is not advisable
(O use through stones for exte~nal walls, as moistu.re may be conducted through them
an~ cause dampness on the mternal faces. Th1s may be prevented by either (a)
~.ISing three-quarter bonders or {b) using throughs extending to within f-in. of the
mternal face and covering the ends with slate bedded on good mortar. The latter
method is only applied if the internal faces of the walls are to be plastered.
T?e footings should consist of large flat-bedded stones, and, as in brickwork,
the wtdth of the bottom course should be twice the thickness of the wall.
 MASONRY
(a) (i) RANDOM RuBBLE, UNCOURSED (see A, Fig. 20).-This is the roughest and
cheapest form of stone walling and consists of stones which are usually quarried
near, if not on, the building site. The face appearance varies considerably on
account of the great difference in the sizes and shapes of the material used. The
"waller" takes the stones, more or less at random (hence the title), from the
heap and builds them in to form the strongest bond, any inconvenient corners
or excrescences being knocked off the stones if such will assist in this operation.
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are well filled and flushed with mortar ; these are sometimes of considerable
width on face, being as much as 2-in. or more in places. A reduction in the
quantity of mortar results if small pieces of stone are driven into the mortar
at the face joints ; these splinters may also be used to wedge up the stones ;
such joints are said to be galleted (see A). The larger stones are selected for
the quoins and jambs to give increased strength and, incidentally, to improve
the appearance.

The larger stones are flat-bedded and packed or wedged up with small pieces Boundary walls constructed of this class are usually given a slight batter on
of stone or spalls (see figure) ; the intervening spaces are then filled in with the both faces, as shown, to give additional stability (seep. 53).
smaller stones, no attempt being made to form vertical side joints. The joints It is common to build dwarf walls, such as garden or field boundary walls

1\ U B L E W0 ~ K
RANDOM 1\UB B L E · UNCOU 1\S ED RAND OM RUBBlE · B U I l T TO COUI\SES
0
BATTE~ P.>ATTE~

A B
0
I

i0
ANGLI:-
GALLE.TING DRAFT

b
I

:iECTION CC 5E.CTJON DO
lq'l 1~1'1'f1'111 1 1f ,I .I FEET
FIGURE :20
 WALLING
or fences, of common rubble without mortar. Such is known as dry rubble
walling. The stability of these walls is entirely dependent upon the careful
interlocking and bonding of the stones.
(a) (ii) RANDOM RuBBLE, BUILT TO CouRSES (B, Fig. 20).-This walling is
similar to the above, excepting that the work is roughly levelled up to form courses
varying from r2 to r8-in. thick. These courses usually coincide with the varying
heights of the quoin and jamb stones.
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Although uniformity is neither essential nor desirable, it is found that an extremely
well-bonded wall of pleasing appearance results if the approximate depths of the
snecks, levellers and risers are in the proportion of I : 2 : 3 respectively ; thus, if the
depth of the sneck is 3-in., that of the levellers would be about6 in. and the depth of
the riser would be approximately 9-in., as shown. The vertical joiht between each pair
of levellers is more or less centrally over a riser, and the snecks link up with the risers.
The snecks are characteristic of this class of wall (hence the name) and their
object is to prevent the occurrence of long continuous verucal joints. As shown

In the construction of the wall, the quoins are built first (as for brickwork--see
KEY DE.TAIL oj"
p. 3 I) , the line is stretched level with the tops of the quoin stones, and the intervening
walling is brought up to this level. One of the courses is shown numbered in the
order in which the stones would be bedded . The stones are set in mortar and at
every course the work is well flushed with mortar and pressed into the internal joints. STONE GAE>LE SEE FIG. 21 FO~
DETAILS OF
This forms a stronger wall than the uncoursed type (long continuous vertical KNEELEI!. 'B'
joints being more readily avoided), although the somewhat regular horizontal E.. COPING 'A~
joints at the courses detract from its appearance. SEE FIG. 31 FOil.
Provided the site and stone are satisfactory, one course of through stones at F..OOF DETAILS.
E (equal to twice the thickness of the wall) is a sufficient foundation for boundary
walls, otherwise a double course (E and F) would be required as shown in the
section.
Note.-Although the illustrated examples refer to boundary walls, this form of
construction has been adopted in the erection of thousands of houses and farmsteads
in various parts of the country.

r
(b) SQUARED RuBBLE.-The stone used is generally one which is found in
quarries in thin beds, or in thicker beds of laminated stone which can be easily
JOISTS
split into smaller units. Little labour is necessary to form comparatively straight
bed and side joints ; the stones are usually squared and brought to a hammer-
dressed or straight-cut finish (seep. 36) although they may be given either tooled
(see p. 36) or dragged (seep. 38) surface finishes.
Fig. 21 shows a gable wall (i.e., an end wall which is continued up to and
sometimes above the roof line and the upper portion of which conforms with
the shape of the roof) of a building which may be constructed in any one of the
three types of squared rubble. A portion of the wall is drawn to a larger scale
in Fig. 22 and details of three varieties are shown. The stones forming the
window may be given a smoother finish than that of the general walling so as
to form a contrast. A description of the head, sill, mullions, transome and
coping is given on pp. 47-51. Brick footings, as shown, would only be adopted _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _!.

= ===--=-----~I
=--------..£.o
-------....&.&
if the stone is comparatively expensive. Where stone is readily available, the
footings would be of stone as shown in Fig. 20. --------~
(b) (i) SQUARED RUBBLE, UNCOURSED (F, Fig. 22).-This is often known as
Square-snecked Rubble. The stones are available in various sizes and are arranged SECTION
on face in several irregular patterns. A very effective appearance results if the
walling comprises a series of combined units consisting of four stones, i.e., a
large stone called a riser or jumper (generally a bonder or through stone), two PLAN FIGUR.E ::ll
thinner stones known as levellers and a small stone called a sneck or check.
 Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

-
5CAI-E.
FEET
FIGURE :2:2
 WALLING
on plan, the side joints of the face stones are only dressed square for about 3-in.
from the face which is usually only quarry-dressed (see p. 36). Another form
of snecked rubble is shown at F, Fig. 23.
(b) (ii) SQUARED RunBLF, BUILT TO CouRSEs.-The stones are similar to those
used for snecked rubble, but, like the random rubble built to courses class, the
work is levelled up to courses of varying depth. The squared face stones may
be arranged as shown at B, Fig. 20, or each course may consist of quoins, jamb
stones, bonders and throughs of the same height, with smaller stones built in
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between them up to the height of these larger stones, to complete the course.
This latter arrangement is, sometimes known as Coursed Header Work and is
shown at G, Fig. 22.
(b) (iii) SQUARED RUBBLE, REGULAR CoURSED (H, Fig. 22).-This type of
walling is built in courses of varying height, but the stones in any one course are
all of the same depth. The stones vary from 2 to 9-in. thick and are from 6 to
·9-in. wide on bed. The faces may be pitched to give a rusticated appearance,
or they may be dressed to a smoother finish, the straight-cut dressing described
on p. 36 being particularly effective.
This work is very popular in certain parts of the country where there is available
a plentiful and convenient supply of hard stone of good colour and satisfactory
weathering quality. The majority of buildings in many towns in Lancashire and
Yorkshire are built of this class of external walling.
Regular coursed rubble walling which consists of large squared blocks that
are usually either hammer-faced or pitch-faced is sometimes called Block-in-
Course. It is usually associated with heavy engineering work, such as in the
construction of sea walls, retaining walls, etc., and is not often used in general
building work.
(c) MISCELLANEOUS.-There are many variations of walling which may be
classed under Rubble Work. These variations are due to the particular charac-
teristic qualities of the local materials available and the traditional forms of
construction peculiar to those localities. The three examples mentioned under
class (c) on p. 39 are all well known, and hence their inclusion. It should be
observed that, owing to the comparative cheapness of bricks, they have, to a
certain extent, replaced the local material and thus none of the following three
examples are adopted for new work to the same .extent as formerly.
(c) (i) PoLYGONAL WALLING (A and B, Fig. 23).- The stone used for this class
of wall, although tough, can be easily split and dressed to any shape. It is
hammer-pitched on face to an irregular polygonal shape and is bedded in position
to show the face joints running irregularly in all directions.
In one class of this work the stones are only roughly shaped, causing them to fit
together only approximately. This is Rough-picked and is shown at A . A second
class shows more accurate work as the face edges of the stones are more carefully
formed to permit of the small blocks to fit more intimately into each other to form
what is called Close-picked work (seen). Walls faced with this material are generally
backed with brickwork. This work is perhaps better known as Knztish Ra~ on
account of a limestone found in Kent which has been used fairly cxtcnsivdy for this
43
purpose. It is common in the southern counti<·s. A soft sandstone has also been
adopted to give a similar appearance.·
(c) (ii) FLINT WALLING (c and D, Fig. 23).-The stones used in this class are
flints or cobbles. They vary in width and thickness from 3 to 6-in. and in
length from 6 to 12-in., being irregularly shaped nodules of silica. Although
extremely hard, they are brittle and can be readily snapped across. They arc
sometimes employed for the construction of walls in those counties where the
flints are readily obtainable from the gravel beds which are often associated
with chalk or limestone. Buildings near the coast have been constructed of
walls in which the rounded flints from the beach have been used.
The external walls, which are generally from 14 to r8-in. thick, may consist
of either (I) a facing of flints which have been snapped transversely across the
centre, with a backing of the undressed flints as in section GG, or (2) similar but
with the broken surfaces of the facing flints squared at the edges as shown at D
or (3) undressed flints throughout. The face arrangement may be either un-
coursed, built-to-courses or regular coursed. Uncoursed flint walling especially
is deficient in strength on account of the small-sized material. This is partly
made good by the introduction of through stones (two to every superficial yard),
or continuous courses-known as lacing courses-of long thin stones or bricks
or tiles at vertical intervals of 3 to 6-ft. and stone or brick piers at about 5-ft.
intervals ; alternatively, brick headers may be inserted in diagonal lines across
the face to give a diaper appearance.
An elevation and section of a portion of a wall faced with split flints, backed
'vvith undressed flints, and provided with brick lacing courses and piers are shown
at c. The snapped flints are laid in courses. This is known as polled facing.
The facing flints are placed in position with the black or dark grey split
surfaces outwards. This facing may either be built up with the body of the work,
or, the wall may be constructed by bedding the face flints on both sides to a height
of about 9-in., when a thick layer of soft mortar is spread in between into which the
nodules are placed to force the mortar up between them-this is known as larrying ;
alternatively, grouting may be adopted, liquid mortar being poured o\·er the nodules
packed in the heart of the wall to fill up the interstices. The split or polled flints
should be at least 4-in. long from front to back, and the internal facing flints are laid
as headers in order that they may be well tailed into the body of the wall. Thin
flakes removed from the flints may be used to gallct the joints for the reasons stated.
on p. 40 and shown at L.
Knapped flint facing, in conjunction with a brick quoin, is shown at D. The
larger cobbles are snapped across, and the split surfaces are dressed (knapped)
to give faces which are approximately 4-in. square. This is the best type of
flint walling and is sometimes known as gauged or squared flint.
The facing flints are laid very close together so that little, if any, mortar joints
are visible. Knapped flint work is sometimes arranged to form panels between stone
or brick dressings, when the flints are sometimes unbondcd, i.e., the vertical joints
arc continuous.
When the flints arc undressed throughout (as for cottage work) the external
and internal face Hints are laid as headers and the hearting of headers and
 44
stretchers arc tightly packed between. The appearance is improved if the mortar
joints on the outer face are well raked back with a pointed stick. If the joints
are brought up flush with the face of the work, the appearance which results of
only small portions of the flints surrounded by broad joints is not good.
The colour of the crust of the flint varies from a white to greyish blue, but,
when snapped, the broken surface is almost black (flecked with brown or white)
and glassy in appearance. Thus polled and knapped facing is of a shiny black
colour, and that of undressed flint work is much lighter.
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MASONRY
work with 4!-in. brick internal linings having continuous heading courses cvcrv
fifth course. The brick lining provides a good surface for plastering and reduce~
the amount of plaster required.
(c) (iii) LAKE DISTRICT MASONRY (E and F, Fig. 23).--This is peculiar to
buildings in certain parts of Cumberland and We~tmorland. The stone, which
is a slate, is obtained locally. The colour of the two varieties used chiefly for
walling is olive (popularly known as " blue ") and green/ the former being-very
durable and used for the best work. The stone arrives on the job in irregularly

shaped flat-bedded blocks varying from small pieces to a maximum size of

Cottages in the Norfolk district arc sometimes constructed with 14-in. thick
external walls with brick foundations, and above ground level, they consist of flint 1 This stone is often the waste from the slate quarries.

R. u B B L E W0 R K
POLYGONAL F L I NT WA l L L A KE DISTRICT MASONRY
WAlLING
{ { J \ "1:
1 ~ J.
n ~ TI-+J<..OIJGHu-

+-n " J
~
0 I

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it)
J ~
r E
c
' !=" _....{

t-n
iO l
0 i
--~

0
t-
_l .. '\ A I
9 T ~R9UGH1j ~..:x::
T I L ]._
SECTION JJ R.OUGH FACE.D RANDOM)
::J..
I
I l T l=
I I
I I I ~
J r 1
I M/ I
I-
L.: F
I I
I r I I
D 1
I I T I I p: r 1----"~
l
J rr
l I J I -
5ECTION 1-Ht KNAPPED FLI NT.S WITH SECTION 1(,.1(... ~E5T FACED RANDOM .;L,
CLOS £ PICK.£0 F.JR..ICK. QUOIN
NOTES ON LAKE DISTRICT WA-LLING- 1. STONES ARE 'WATt.R.SHOT" (TILTED) :l" TO :lV," PER FOOT THICI<.NES:5 01' WM..L.
::l.MORTAR 1s 3ET BACI<. ::l" FROM FAcE<!: SPRtAO s• WIDE (!lEE TI-HCk.. L.INE.~ IN sECTION~ 3. HEARTINC IS PACK.EP DRY. FIGURE :23
 WALLING
approximately z-ft. wide by 3-ft. long. These blocks arc broken and dressed
by the wallers to the size and shape required as the work proceeds. The amount
of dressing done depends upon the desired face appearance of the wall. There
are two types of this masonry, i.e., rough-faced random walling, built to courses,
and best-faced random walling.
Rough-faced Random Walling, Built to Courses (E, Fig. 23).-The face of the
stones are roughly dressed and the stones are irregular in shape. The blocks
are closely fitted together, spalls being used to pack up the larger of them, and
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at vertical intervals of from 12 to 18-in. they are levelled up to the watershot
(see below) to form a continuous joint which is more or less horizontal. The
through stones form continuous courses at from 2 to 3-ft. intervals. The quoins
are of limestone (usually obtained from Kendal or Grange-over-Sands) and these
are hammer-dressed and angle-drafted.
Best-faced Random Walling (F, Fig. 23).-This resembles square snecked
rubble (Fig. 22), the stones being squared on face with the hammer. The
faces are naturally smooth and the stones are referred to as being self-faced.
Some of the snecks are very thin (e.g., that at M is only !-in. thick). Unlike the
last mentioned, the throughs are staggered, and on an average two throughs
per square yard of face are allowed. The quoi~s a~e of _limestone. . .
The walling is constructed in a manner wh1ch IS umque and much skill IS
demanded of the wallers. As shown in the sections, the wall in effect consists
of three portions, i.e., inner and outer faces with an intermediate " hearting."
Particular attention is drawn to the through stones which are tilted downwards
towards the external face. This is known as " watershot," and the amount of
watershot is z to zi-in. per ft. thickness of wall. Thus if the watershot is 2-in.,
the back edge of the bed in a 24-in. thick wall will be 4-in. above the corresponding
front edge. The remaining face stones are given a similar watershot. The
characteristic colour and rich texture of the stone give a delightful appearance
to this class of work.
External walls vary in thickness from 21 to 3o-in. The top bed of stone
window and door heads and the bottom bed of window sills are watershot. As
mentioned on p. I 8, the damp-proof course consists of two courses of slates in
cement.
An external wall is constructed in the following manner : Two layers of flat
through stones, each approximately 4-in. thick, are bedded to form t~e fo~ndation
which is adequate for a two-storeyed house. These st~n~s are about 6-m. w1der tha_n
the thickness of the wall to be supported. Although It IS not necessary, the wall IS
often started with the stones watershot, as the natural face of the stone is not square
but canted to the bed. 1 The wallers work in pairs, the more experienced man worki_n g
on the outside and the other inside to assist in the packing up of the face stones w1th
small pieces of stone or spalls. Both faces are partially bedded in mortar which is
set back from each face some 2 or 3-in., and the width of each layer of mortar after
it h as been spread and squeezed out by the weight of the stone is about s-in. Mort~r
is not usually applied to the side joints as sufficient is squeezed up when the stone IS
bedded. The maximum overlap in the centre is given to the stones in both faces of
1 This is due to the cleavage planes being inclined to the bedding planes (sec A, Fig. 68).
45
the wall. Th e h earting b etween the two-faced portions cons ists of sma ll stones
padwd dry. The object o[ this is to t'nsure that any '~·atcr pcnctratmg_the outer tact'
will pass do ;vn the dry filling to the throughs belo:v, which, on account of the watns hot ,
will not penetrate and cause dampness on the mternal face. If any of the mortar
joints were continuous from front to back, dampness Would be caused b y capillary
attraction.
This form of cons truction has been proved to b e most effective in res ist ing damp-
ness in a district with a no toriously high rainfall, and it is fur tl1is reason that it is
still largely employed in that area. 1
ASHLAR
z. Ashlar.- This class of masonry consists of blocks of accurately dressed
stone with extremely fine bed and end joints. 1'he thickness of these joints is
often only }-in. and rarely exceeds / ', -in. 2 Such accurate work is only possible
when the blocks are cut perfectly true to the required shape, and therefore the
beds and joints at least are sawn. The backs are usually sawn, except when the
ashlar is to be backed with rubble, when they may be given a rougher dressing.
The surface finish is usually that left by the carborundum saw or it may be
rubbed ; several of the more elaborate dressings described on pp. 36-38 may
also be applied.
The face arrangement of ashlar may resemble either of the three varieties
shown in Fig. 22, the regular coursed being common with the courses of varying
height, depending upon the size and character of the building. Great care
must be exercised when determining the sizes and proportions of the blacks of stone
to ensure that they will conform with the general scale of the building. Badly pro-
portioned stones, which may be either too small or too large for the purpose,
will completely mar the appearance of the work.
An adequate bond of blocks of uniform size is obtained if the length of each
stone is from twice to thrice the height and if the courses break joint as shown
in Fig. 24. There is a risk of the stone being fractured if unequal settlement
occurs and if the length exceeds three times the height, although this length may
be increased to five times the height if the stone is exceptionally strong.
Ashlar is sometimes given a face appearance resembling that of Flemish
bond in brickwork. Occasionally it is arranged in courses which diminish in
thickness from the base upwards, or alternately the courses are arranged with
comparatively thick courses alternating with thinner courses. . .
CoMPOUND \VALLS.-Ashlar is the best grade of masonry and It IS also the most
expensive. In order to reduce the cost, it is the practice to construct walls
faced with blocks of ashlar having a minimum thickness on bed combined with
a backing of a cheaper material. Such are called compound walls. In " stone "
1 In add ition, this ~ tyle harmonizes best w ith an exceptionally beautiful landscape.
2 There are exceptions to fine jointed work, for example, at the Anglican Cathedral,
Liverpool, where the large sandstone ("'-:oolton) blocks are constructed in cement mortar
and pointed with a 11!-i~ture of 1 part ~h1te cement to 3 parts Leighton Buzzard sand, and
the thickness of the JOints 1s about !-m.
 Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

SECTION BE>
:KALE.
~H-Q
A
s
H L A

FIGUR...E 24
 WALLING
districts, the usual backing is rubble (see D, Fig. zs). otherwise the backing is
generally of brickwork (see Fig. 24).
It is essential that the facing shall be effectively bonded with the backing, and if
the latter is of brickwork, unnecessary cutting of the bricks must be avoided. Effective
bonding results and wastage of bricks and labour in cutting avoided when : (a) the
ashlar courses are alternately 4! and 9-in. thick on bed, (b) the thickness of the backing
is a multiple of half-bricks and (c) the height of each course of ashlar conforms with
the combined height of the brick courses and the thickness of the bed joints.
On account of the thin mortar joints of the ashlar and the larger number of bed
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joints of the backing, it is necessary that the latter joints shall be as thin as possible
so as to guard against unequal settlement. Cement mortar is frequently used for
the backing ; if the facing is of Portland stone, care must be taken to prevent the
cement from working through and discolouring the face of the ashlar, and it is for
this reason that the back of each ashlar block is covered with lime mortar (consisting
of I part grey lime and 2 parts sand). Black mortar should not be used for the backing
as this has been known to stain Portland-stone facing.
So as to ensure the ashlar vertical joints being completely filled with mortar, a
vee-shaped notch is usually formed in each vertical joint surface so as to form a square
hole between each pair of adjacent" blocks. In constructing ashlar, mortar is spread
on the front edge of the vertical surface (about 2-in. wide) of the last fixed stone ; the
adjacent stone is then placed in position, the back of the vertical joint is pointed with
the mortar, and liquid mortar (grout) is poured down the hole to form a joggle so as to
fill completely the space between each pair of stones (see Plan AA, Fig. 24, and N,
Fig. 26).
The complete beds of the ashlar blocks shall be square with the face. If a
bed is " worked hollow " (i.e., the surface is brought below the outer edge of
the stone to form an equivalent to a frog of a brick) there is a danger of the
pressure being concentrated on the outer edge, causing the stone to crack and
splinter off or spall (see p. 52 and x, Fig. 27) .
Fig. 24 shows a portion of a building which is faced with ashlar backed with
brickwork. Most of the ashlar courses are of uniform height and (excepting
where the work is interrupted by windows) are alternately 9 and 4!-in. thick
on bed. This permits of a brick backing consisting of alternate sections which
are 9 and 13!-in.thick respectively. The plan at AA shows the special bonding
in alternate courses owing to the presence of the door and window openings.
The splaying of the back of the outband (see below) at o is often done to avoid
continuous vertical joints.
The bonding of the quoins (sometimes called scuntions or scontions) should
be noted, where the 9-in. thick courses are continued to the return face. An
unsatisfactory appearance, indicating weakness, would result if the 4! -in. thick
courses were to show on the return face.
The diagonal lines and the ringed figures shown in the elevation indicate the
extent and amount of bed respectively of each stone. This conforms with the
usual practice, the diagonals being especially necessary when cornices, etc.,
comprise two or more stones in height.
The plan at Band the sketch D, Fig. 25, show the wall faced with ashlar with
a backing of rubble.
DooR AND WINDOW OPENINGS.-As shown in the plan AA, Fig. 24, the jambs
are bonded by using alternate headers (called inbands) and stretchers (termed
47
outbands), the former being rebated to receive the door or window frames. Some-
times the outer edges of these stones are splayed or chamfered which may be
stopped (see broken lines at R) or may be continued round the head to form
intersections called mason's mitres (see Fig. 22).
The head of an opening is finished with either a lintel or an arch, and the
bottom is completed with a sill.
LINTELS OR HEADS.-These have been described on p. 2r.
ARCHES.-Brick arches have been described on pp. 22-26, and the terms,
geometrical construction, etc., there detailed are also applicable to stone arches.
The temporary supports used in the construction of stone arches are shown in
Fig. 43·
Flat Arches (see H, Q and P, Fig. 24, and A, B, c and D, Fig. 25).-Alternatives
of that at H are shown at Q (partly indicated by broken lines and showing the
arch equal to two courses in depth) and P, which shows a stepped extrados.
The alternatives at A and n, Fig. 25, are called joggled or rebated arches.
That at A shows the keystone with small (about r-in.) projections at the joints
which fit into corresponding sinkings worked on the adjacent voussoirs ; the
object of these rebates or joggles is to prevent sliding taking place and dropping
of the voussoirs. An isometric sketch of one of the voussoirs, with a portion of a
reinforced concrete lintel behind it, is given at c. An alternative to arch A is
shown at B ; this shows secret joggles or rebates as they are not seen on the
face ; the construction is more clearly shown in the sketch at D.
Semicircular Arches (see N, Fig. 24, and J and K, Fig. 25).-That at N shows
a stepped extrados. The best appearance is obtained if an elliptical constructional
line is drawn and the top of the vertical portion of each joint made to conform
with the ellipse. An alternative arch is shown at J where each voussoir has
an elongated horizontal portion (called an ear or crossette) which courses in
with the wall.
That at K has a semicircular intrados and extrados. This type usually
necessitates the cutting of some of the adjacent walling stones to an awkward
shape (see w).
Segmental Arches, having either curved or stepped extradoses, are also built
of stone. The geometrical construction of these is similar to that required for
brick arches (see Fig. rs).
WINDOW SILLS.-Reference should be made to the brick sills described on
p. 26 as the terms are applicable to stone sills (see Figs. 22, 24 and 25). The
sill shown in Fig. 22 is weathered, twice rebated and chamfered ; that shown
in section Land part elevation M, Fig. 25, would be specified as a " 14-in. by 7-in.
sunk weathered 1 and throated sill, grooved for water bar," and that at o and
P, Fig. 25, is sunk-weathered, moulded and grooved, the upper portion of the
mould forming a throat to prevent water trickling down the face of the masonry
below. See p. ro8 regarding the bedding of the water bar. The level seatings
or stools formed at the ends of the sills to support the jambs may be finished
1 Note that szmh weathering begins with a vertical sinking.
 NOTE. THE.5E DE.TJo.ll.S lt.EFER. TO FIG. :l-4
c AR.CH-E.S j''lll!lll'~
SCALE
:ll ,:!I ~ 51==J FE~T

FEET
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SECTION ELEV.A.TION
.JOGGLED FLAT AR.Cf-t 5J<..E.TCH 01= VOUS:SOIR. E

ELEVATION

PLAN SEMI-CIR-CULAR. AR..CH

SECR.ET .JOGGLED FLAT AR.CH
WINDOW SILLS
I II .L
~ JSTOOL.___./ ·.. ~ p - 6' WALLHOLD -~
L
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,· ~·-.,,_.,•< ··.., '---STOOLl ----;!

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I. G~V£ WE..A.THERJNG./ '"-''7'

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5ECTION E.LEVATI ON ELEVATION SECTION

I I I
I I I I§ I I I I I ~I I I , 1··1 I I I i ~
INC>-IES
Q 3CALE

PLINTl--+5
FIGUR.E :2.5
 \1\f A L Ll N G
externally as shown in Fig. 25, or they may be weathered as indicated at c,
Fig. r6; seatings, as shown at J, Fig. 22, are also formed for the mullions.
The sills are in one length, having a 6-in. wall~hold at each end. They
should be solidly bedded only under the jambs- and mullions (Fig. 22)-with
the intervening portion of each bed left perfectly clear of mortar until the
building has completely settled and the mortar in the walling has set. The joint
is then neatly pointed.
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If this is not done, and the sill is bedded solidly throughout its length as the rest
of the work _p roceeds, ~he sill may be fractured unless it is very thick and is of very hard
stone. Thts damage ts due to the unequal stress produced by the pressure transmitted
from the jambs being concentrated only at the ends and not evenly distributed
throughout the entire length of the sill ; this unequal pressure tends to cause the
portions of the wall immediately below the ends of the sill to settle more than the
portion under the centre of the sill. To prevent such damage, each sill is sometimes
construc~ed of three ~ton_es as shown in ~ig. 22, the two vertical joints (indicated by
broken hnes at K) bemg m the same verttcal plane as that of the jambs. When this
is done the central stone of the sill may be bedded solid.
The appearance of the sill shown in Fig. 22 (the face of which is flush with
the wall) is sometimes preferred to that of the sills shown in Fig. 25 which
project oeyond the wall.
The latter type causes water to drip clear of the wall below, whereas when the
face of the sill is .in line with that of the wall, disfiguration of a building results
(especially if it is faced with Portland or similar light coloured stone) by the
staining of the walls im~ediately below the sills. This is due to the water (which
collects dtrt from the wmdows and dust f.rom the weathered portions of the sills)
passing down the walls. Further, unless the bed joint between each sill and the
wall is well pointed, water proceeds through the joint to cause dampness on the
internal face of the wall.
MULLIONS AND TRANSOMES.- The window shown in Fig. 22 is divided into
six lights.1 The vertical dividing stones are called mullions and the horizontal
dividing stone is known as a transome. The mullions are rebated to receive
the window frames and are chamfered to conform with the jambs, etc. They
are connected at the bed joints to the head, transome and sill by dowels of either
slate or gunmetal, which prevent displacement (see J and p. 52). The transomes
are rebated for the window frames, they are weathered and the ends are stooled
as for window sills. It is customary to divide a transome into units with a joint
over each mullion, as a single stone may fracture if the settlement at the jambs
exceeds that at the mullions.
STEPS.-Two steps are shown at the door opening in Fig. 24. The stone
should be a hard wearing sandstone and should be carefully selected. Much
of the description on p. 28 is applicable to these steps.
PLINTHS.-Brick plinths are described on p. zg. An enlarged detail of the
upper portion of the plinth at M, Fig. 24, is shown at Q, Fig. 25, and alternative
plinth mouldings are shown at R, s, T, u and v, Fig. 25. In each case the top
1A window of this type is often provided with steel frames and leaded lights instead of
wood frames and sashes. Metal windows are described in Chapter1b.irteen, Vol. III.
49
of the projection is slightly weatherecl to prevent water lodging and passing
through any defect in the joint. The names of the mouldings are stated in the
figure.
STRING CoURSES.-A string course is a horizontal course of masonry (or
brickwork) which usually projects and is provided as an architectural feature.
A simple example is shown at E, Fig. 24, and this is detailed at D, Fig. 26. A
larger string course is illustrated at B, Fig. 26 ; because of the greater projection,
it is possible to incorporate a throat with the lo·wer (ovolo) moulding which
prevents water trickling clown and staining the work below.
The upper portion of the fa<;ade (elevation) shown in Fig. 24 consists of a
coping, parapet, cornice and frieze. These are described below in the order
that they are constructed.
FRIEZE.-This is a stone course vvhich is surmounted by a cornice. That
at D, Fig. 26, is a detail of the frieze shown in Fig. 24. If there is not a projecting
member immediately below the frieze (such as a string course or architrave)
emphasis may be given to the frieze by projecting it slightly as shown at c,
Fig. z6.
CoRNICES.--A cornice is a comparatively large projecting moulded course
which is fixed near to the top of a wall. Its object is to provide an architectural
feature which will serve to discharge water clear of the building and thereby
protect the face of the wall.
Cornices vary considerably in detail.l Two designs are shown in the sections
A and c, Fig. 26, and A and v, Fig. 74, the two former being alternative details
of the cornice shown in Fig. 24.
The projecting por~ion of a cornice consists of the cymatium and the corona (see
c, Fig. 26). The cymatium is composed of two or more mouldings, that at c con-
sisting of a narrow flat band or fillet and a cyma recta moulding which is separated
by a second fillet from a cyma reversa or ogee moulding. The corona has a com-
paratively broad vertical face with a recessed soffit which stops water from travelling
along it to the face of the wall. The lower portion of the cornice is spoken of as a
bed mould, which at c consists of a fillet, agee mouldi:J.g and a bead.
The upper projecting portion of the cornice is weathered and the vertical
joints are saddled to prevent water from penetrating them. 2 A saddle joint is
shown at A, c, Q and M, Fig. 26. It is formed by rounding off the stone from
the top bed to the weathering at each end ; this prevents rain from lodging on
top of the joint. The saddle is rendered inconspicuous by bevelling it back-
wards from the front edge as shown.
The stones are joggle jointed at the ends to prevent any movement due to
unequal settlement which would cause irregularity in the horizontal lines of
the cornice. Such joggle joints (down which grouted mortar is poured) are
shown by broken lines at A and c and by full lines at M. Metal cramps may
1 See p. 97 concerning the importance of well designed mouldings.
2 Weathered surfaces of cornices and similar projecting members built of comparatively
soft stone should be protected with sheet lead or asphalt (see Fig. 74). Saddle joints are
not required when this is done.
 COR_NICES INCI-t£5
I ~ I l :.::±:S•----
SCM..E
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FR.I£2E._/
STRJNG COUR..SE.
(:5££ £., FIG. ::l4)

M
SK.E.TCH OF
CORNICE A-,
PARAPET c,.
STR-1 NG COU~E
COPING (SEE AL50
(M..TER.NA.TIVE TO D)

NOTE".. W.A.TEI!.. IS CM..I:5EO TO OR.IP ~ltOM

Tl-0£ OVEFU+ANGING MEM6E~ lo.T .J,IC...eL t.
15 "THU.3 PI!..EVENTED FR..OM STAINING TI-t£
WOR)(. 6ELOW THEM. FIGURE:l6
 COPINGS WALLING
A B c D
also be used (especially for securing quoin cornice stones) to resist any movement
which tends to separate the joints (see p. 52).
PARAPET.- This is the upper portion of a wall which is used as an architectural
feature to cover a gutter (as in Fig. 24, when it is sometimes referred to as a
blocking course, as it blocks from view the gutter behind it) or to protect the
edge or verge of a roof (see Fig. 21). It is provided with a coping, and its weight
assists in tailing down the cornice below it. The stability of the parapet is
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increased if each block of stone in the lower course is connected to the cornice
by means of one or two slate dowels (see Fig. 26 and p. 52).
CoPINGS.-Brick copings are described on p. 28. Sections through stone
copings are shown at A to E, Fig. 27. The feather edge coping (A) is an enlarge-
ment of that at F, Fig. 24; that at B is a detail of the coping shown in Fig. 21.
The saddle back coping (c) provides a more effective covering than those at 1.,
Fig. 17, and B, Fig. 20, because of the throated overhanging portions, although
the latter section is more in keeping with the rough character of the wall which
it protects. The segmental coping D is occasionally used for dwarf walls where
R..USTICATE.D JOINTS the curved surface can be seen to advantage.
The tops of some walls are inclined or raked and are protected by raking
copings (see Fig. 21). Such copings need not be weathered as the rain is quickly
discharged down the slope in the direction of their length and therefore the
parallel coping E, Fig. 27, is suitable for such positions. Raking copings, if not
supported, would tend to slide. This is prevented by the provision of adequate
supports at the bottom and at intermediate points (see A and B, Fig. 21). The
intermediate supports are called kneelers or knee-stones (see F, Fig. 27), which
is an enlargement of B, Fig. 21. A kneeler is a block of stone (which should be
well tailed into the wall) with the inclined or raking portion worked to the
SECTION ELEVATION SECTION ELEVATION SECTION ELE.VATIC'N
CHANNE.LLE.D VEE VEE 0 CHANNELLED
section of the coping stones and finished square to form butt joints with the
adjacent coping stones. The butt joint may be formed as indicated by the thick
DOWELLED, CRAMPED 6 PLUGGED .JOINTS broken line at F, but this requires a larger stone having the portion shown shaded
removed. · The lower support is provided by a springer or footstone-see A, Fig. 21

$~$
[~~'!~~/ T
and the enlarged detail at G, Fig. 27. This may be shaped as shown partly by
broken lines at G (the thin diagonal lines indicating the extent of the stone)
which, like the kneeler, is well tailed into the wall, or it may take the
SECTION
form indicated by the thick full lines at G when two slate dowels (see p. 52)
r-----rr----..:.:.:::::;METAL CRAMPED
are used to secure it to the stonework below and so provide an adequate
resistance to the thrust from the raking coping. The top stone at the
intersection of the coping is termed an apex stone or saddle stone, the raking
portions being worked solid to the section of the coping to form a vertical mitre
DOWE.LLE.D SLATE. CRAMPED
(see Fig. 21 ).
When the rake or inclination is less than 40°, the joints between coping stones
MOR.TAR.. .JOINTS are sometimes rebated (indicated by full lines at H, Fig. 27) to prevent water
u§ ·· w§
·. v§ '·:· , x_§j
.•··.. .. · ·
:...·. ··.·.
•. · .... ! SPALL / : ·· '
PLAN
§SC~"~L~E~I'O~R~R.~S.~T.:'.l:'-~Y.;:E=====I'::E.=E.T=i)
penetrating through them into the wall below. The correct rebate shows the
upper portion of the upper stone overlapping the lower portion of the lower
stone. The object of the rebate would be defeated if the rebate was reversed,
FrGuR.E ::n.
-· . +·- ·-i . :. . ·-·- --...4. I I I I • ,I I'E.ET
MASON's ..JOINT HOLLow eE.o 3C.O.LE. 1'01>. N\,O(.Q.
 52 MASONRY
as shown by broken lines at H. An alternate form of raking coping is shown
in the side elevation J, Fig. 27.
t-1ASONRY JOINTS
The following are some of the various joints which are used in masonry :
butt, rebated, tongued and grooved, rusticated, saddled, joggled, dowelled and
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
plugged. Some of these have been referred to on the previous pages.
Butt or Square Joint.-This is extensively adopted and is formed by pl~cing
the square surface of one stone against that of another. Of the many examples
of this joint which have been illustrated are the ashlar joints at B, Fig. 25, and
those at F and G, Fig. 27.
Rebated or Lapped Joint (see A, B, c and D, Fig. 25, and H, Fig. 27).-In the
former figure the check or rebate prevents movement between the arch voussoirs,
in the latter example the rebate is adopted to secure a weather tight joint.
Another form, known as a rebated and broken joint, is shown at J, Fig. 27.
Tongued and Grooved Joint (see K, Fig. 27).- It is now rarely used. It
consists of a tongue or projection worked along one edge of a stone which fits
into a corresponding groove in the adjacent stone. It is sometimes adopted as
an alternative to the rebated joint in flat arches and between the horizontal
slabs forming the landings of stone staircases.! It is also known as a joggled
joint, which must not be confused with the cement joggled joint described
below.
Rusticated Joints (see Fig. 27).-Plinths, lower storeys of buildings, and
quoins are sometimes emphasized by the use of blocks of stone which have their
margins or edges sunk below the general face. The term " rusticated " is
applied to such masonry. That at L and M shows a channelled or rectangular
joint and is often adopted (see also B, Fig. 26). Note that the sinking is on the
lower stone ; if the bed joint was at the bottom of the channel, water would
lodge on the bottom and perhaps penetrate into the mortar joint. The vee-joint
at N·and o is formed when stones having chamfered edges are placed in position;
see also Q and v, Fig. I9. A more elaborate form of vee-joint is shown at P and
Q, Fig. 27, and is known as a vee and channelled joint.
Saddle Joint.-These are illustrated at A, c, M and Q, Fig. 26, and have been
described on p. 49·
Joggles, Dowels and Cramps.-In order to prevent movement and displace-
ment of certain stones the ordinary mortar joints between them have to be
supplemented and strengthened by various means. This additional strength
is obtained by the employment of joggles, dowels and cramps.
Joggled Joint.- The mortar j9ggled joint is adopted for the end joints of
ashlar, especially when the blocks have a small bed (see p. 47), and for cornice
1 Stone landings arc seldom used nowadays, reinforced concrete construction being
preferred.
stones (see p. 49). The grooves down which the grout is poured are roughly
formed by means of a hammer and punch (see 6, Fig. I9)·
Dowelled Joint.-Stones which are liable to become displaced are prevented
from doing so by the introduction of dowels at the joints (see J, Fig. 22 and G,
Fig. 27). Dowels are either of slate or gunmetal (an alloy Of copper and tin)
which are from I to 2-in. square in section and two or three times the thickness
in length. They are set in cement mortar. A horizontal dowel in an end joint
is usually run in with grout (through a vertical hole prepared for the purpose)
after it has been inserted and the adjacent stone fixed (see R, Fig. 27).
Cramped Joint.- The joints between stones which are liable to be pulled
apart in the direction of their length are reinforced with either metal or slate
cramps.
Details of a metal cramped joint are shown at T, Fig. 27, which may be
considered to be an enlargement of that shown by dotted lines at s, Fig. 24,
and used to connect the coping stones. The cramp is a piece of non-corrosive
metal,l such as gunmetal, which is from I to 2-in. wide, ! to t-in. thick and
9 to 18-in. long with ends which are turned down from! to I!-in. The cramp
must be fitted in tightly, after which it is grouted and covered with either cement
or asphalt. A slate cramped or keyed j oint, consisting of a double dovetailed
piece of slate set in cement, is shown at s, Fig. 27. It is not so effective as the
metal cramped joint.
Plugged Joint (see Y, Fig. 27).-This is an alternative to the cramped joint
but is now rarely adopted. It is formed by sinking a hole (dovetailed on plan)
below the top surface and a vertical vee-joggle in each end of the adjacent stones.
The stones are jointed in the usual way (the hole and joggle being kept free from
mortar), after which cement grout is poured down to form a cement plug.
Formerly, molten lead was poured in to form what was called a lead plug.
MORTAR JOINTING
The thickness of mortar joints varies considerably, thus for ashlar the joints
may be as fine as !-in. whereas those in random rubble work may excee~ 2-in.
width on face . Certain of the joints used for brickwork illustrated at ;, F1g. I7,
are also suitable for stonework, e.g., flush joints are used for ashlar and the keyed
or vee-joint may be adopted for thicker joints. The mason's joint is ~!so used for
wide joints. This may be of the three forms shown at u, v and w, F_Ig. 27. The
two former are sometimes used for rubble work, and that at w IS frequently
adopted for pointing. These projecting joints should be of cement mortar if
the character of the stone wiii permit it.
As mentioned on p. 47, the beds of ashlar blocks should be square with the
face. When hand-dressed, there is a tendency for the mason to work hollow
1 Corrodible metal, such as wrought iron, must never be used for cramps, bolts, e~c.,
which are fixed in stonework. Extensive damage has been caused to m:.:sonry wh~ch
has been connected by wrought iron fastenings on account of them corrodmg. Du_nng
its formation, the rust exerts pressure upon the stone to such an extent as to fracture 1t.
 LIFTING APPLIANCES 53
beds when very fine ashlar joints arc required. This may cause the edges to the stone, '' hich is hoisted and lowered to the required position. Chain dogs
spali off when the stone is fixed owing to the pressure not being distributed arc particularly suited for lifting heavy stones and long stones with narrow beds.
over the whole area of the bed but concentrated at the edges. A pdrtion of They grip the stone very securely and are used when special safety precautions
a hoiiow bed is shown at X, Fig. 27, where the bed surface of the upper stone have to be taken.
only is concave. The shaded triangular portion is likely to be splintered off,
especially if the joint is not completely filled with mortar. There is little
likelihood of the beds being worked hoiiow when the stone is sawn by PL<JMB-
IU.JLE-
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machinery.
The mortar specified for jointing masonry depends a good deal upon the character
of the stone. Mortar joints for ashlar should be as inconspicuous as possible, and
it is often necessary to experiment with various compositions of mortar until the
desired colour (which should conform with that of the stone) is obtained.
That used for walling built of sandstone is sometimes composed of I part Portland
cement and 4 parts sand, and occasionally a little lime is added.
The mortar recommended for certain limestones, e.g., Portland stone, consists
of I part Portland cement, ~! parts lime putty (well slaked lime mixed with water to
a consistency of a paste) and 3-} parts stone dust (powder obtained by the crushing
of waste pieces of the limestone). Neat cement should never be used for grouting
Portland stone blocks, as this may cause staining of the face of the work ; only liquid
mortar of the above composition should be used for this purpose.
Rubble walling (especially if of sandstone) should be built with cement mortar
composed of I part cement to 3 parts sand, as the strength of the work depends very
largely upon that of the mortar.

CONSTRUCTION OF MASONRY WALLS.-Much of the description on p. JI

referring to the construction of brickwork is applicable to stone walls. The
batter which is sometimes given to walls may be maintained by the use of the
plumb-rule which has one edge shaped to the required batter (see A, Fig. z8).
Where a wail is to receive a batter on both faces (as at B, Fig. 2o), the batter is
preserved by the use of frames built of wood.
One form of such a frame is shown at n, Fig. ~8. The frame is shaped to that of
the section of the wall; and the outside edge of each inclined leg coincides with each
wall face. During the construction of the wall a frame is fixed temporarily at each
end. The correct alignment and the batter of each face are maintained by two lines,
the ends of which are wound round nails driven into both legs of each frame at the
required height.
LIFTING APPLIANCES
Blocks of dressed stone which are too large to be lifted by hand are raised
by means of a crane or other hoisting apparatus and lowered gently into the
correct position in the wall. Various appliances, such as Chain Dogs and
Lewises, are used for this purpose.
Chain Dogs.-Dogs, which are of various sizes, are made of steel and are
shaped as shown at c, Fig. 28. The stone to be lifted has a hole (about !-in.
deep) punched in the centre of each end and from 3 to 4-in. down. A steel
chain is passed through the ring of each dog and is hooked on to the chain from
the crane (as shown at D) and the points of the dog are placed in the holes of the
stone. \Vhen the chain from the crane is wound up taut, the dogs bite into
FIGU~E .::28
Chain Lewis.-This compnses three steel rings and two curved steel legs
(see E, Fig. 28). The legs vary in size. The hole which is formed in the centre
of the top bed of the stone is slightly dovetailed. If it is excessively dovetailed
there is a tendency for the lewis to be pulled out owing to the legs bursting the
stone during the lifting operation. The size of the hole varies from 2 to 3-in.
deep ; the 2-in. deep hole shown is about !-in. wide.
The lewis is placed carefully into the hole, one leg at a time. If the hole is found
to be too large, a narrow wedge shaped piece of steel, called a silver (see F), is driven
down between the legs. When the crane chain or that from a pulley block (which is
hooked through the large ring) is wound up, the two smaller rings pull the upper
ends of the legs together and thus cause the lower ends to grip the stone. For stones
which are more than 3-ft. long, additional control is obtained if a length of rope is
secured to the sling from the crane, as shown at G. The rope is generally secured
by two half-hitches just below the "ball," it is then passed round the stone at one
end, when a man pulling on the rope can assist in directing the stone as required as
it is being lifted.
 54 MASONRY
Lewises arc used for lifting stones up to from 15 to 2o-cwt. in weight, am!,
as they can be expeditiously fixed, they are used for general purposes probably
more frequently than any other form of lifting device.
Another form of lewis, known as a Three Legged Lewis, is shown at H, Fig. 28.
It consists of a parallel piece of steel between two dovetailed steel legs, a shackle,
a round steel pin which passes through the shackle and legs, and a cotter. The
hole in the stone must be cut accurately to the shape and size of the legs, as
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shown. The lewis is dismantled by withdrawing the cotter and pin, the two
dovetailed legs are inserted in the hole, the centre leg is driven down, the pin
is passed through holes in the shackle and legs, and the cotter is driven down
to make all secure. The hook from the sling is passed through the shackle,
when the stone is then ready for hoisting. If the hole in the stone has been cut
too large, a piece of zinc passed between a pair of legs before they are assembled
may be sufficient to enable the lewis to grip the stone securely.
The crane operator must exercise reasonable care during the hoisting opera-
tions and the blocks of stone must be hoisted with uniform movement. Any
sudden jerk of the crane chain may cause the stone to slip, with disastrous
results.
 CHAPTER THREE

CARPENTRY
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Syllabus.-Brief description of the structure, growth, seasoning, preservation, sizes, conversion, defects, classification, characteristics and uses of softwoods and
hardwoods. Ground floors, sizes and spacing of joists in accordance with bye-laws, boarding, joints, ventilation. Single upper floors up to rz-ft. span,
strutting, trimming to fireplaces and voids. Pitch, span and evolution of roofs ; single roofs including flat, lean-to, double lean-to, couple, close couple and
collar types ; double roofs, purlins, hips, valleys, trimming to voids, treatment of eaves ; simple principles of framing, framed roofs including king post truss
with box and tapered gutters ; connections and metal fastenings. Timbering to shallow trenches, lintels, turning pieces and centres up to 6-ft. span.

STRUCTURE OF TIMBER.-A cut section through a portion of a tree which produces
timber used for building purposes is shown at A, Fig. 29. This shows that the
structure (or arrangement of the various parts) comprises (a) a central core of
fibrous (thread-like) woody tissue (woven particles) called the pith or medulla
which disappears in time, (b) inner concentric rings of woody tissue called
heartwood or duramen (durability), (c) outer and lighter coloured concentric
rings of woody tissue called sapwood, (d) radial narrow bands of tissue called
medullary rays or transverse septa (partitions) which contain cells and radiate
from the centre and (e) the bark.
The irregular concentric rings of tissue, forming the heartwood and sapwood,
are called annual rings or growth rings as in temperate climates one ring is generally
formed annually. A diagrammatic view of a portion of an annual ring of a
softwood (seep. 59) is shown in cross-section at B, Fig. 29; this is much enlarged,
for the number of rings may vary from three to forty per inch. A ring, consisting
of rows of cells of variable size which run longitudinally (parallel to the trunk),
is divided into an inner portion called the spring wood and an outer and darker
portion known as the summer wood. The cells diminish in size from a maximum
forming the spring layer to a minimum at the outer layer ; in addition, the cell
walls of the summer wood are thicker than those of the spring wood. Hence
summer wood is more compact and darker coloured than spring wood. The
cells communicate with each other through holes in their sides, and the narrow
cells in the medullary rays also communicate with the annual ring cells.
Certain timbers have annual rings which are very distinct and the spring
wood and summer wood are easily distinguished ; other timbers have rings
which are indistinct and there is no contrast between the spring wood and
summer wood. The medullary rays are well defined in certain woods but in
most timbers they are only perceptible through the microscope (seep. 6o).
GROWTH.-Moisture, salts, etc., are absorbed from the soil by the roots of
the tree, and in the early spring these ascend through the cells (sec B) to the
branches to develop the leaves which convert the absorbed material, called sap,
55
into liquid food suitable for the tree. Meanwhile the cambium-a thin covering
of cells between the bark and the last-formed annual ring (see A)-produces new
cells which form the spring wood of the next annual ring. In the late summer
and early autumn the food descends between the spring layer and the bark to
form the denser summer wood of the annual ring. Thus trees which produce
timber used for building purposes grow outwards immediately under the bark
and are called exogens, as distinct from endogens which mainly increase in size
by growth at their ends. The cells in the medullary rays act as reservoirs for
tree food.
In course of time the layers next the pith become stronger and the cells
cease to convey sap ; this is the heartwood. The outer part of the tree, or
sapwood, contains much more sap and is softer and lighter in colour than the
more mature heartwood. Sapwood is also known as alburnum on account of
its relatively light colour.
Building timbers are divided into softwoods and hardwoods (see p. 59).
FELLING.-Trees used for building purposes should be felled as soon as
possible after reaching maturity. If felled prematurely, the wood is not so
durable and contains an excess of sapwood ; if cut after its prime, the tree pro-
duces timber which is brittle and the central portion especially may show
evidence of decay. The time taken before trees reach their prime may vary
from fifty years (e.g., ash) to a hundred years (e.g., oak). The best time for
felling trees is in the autumn just before the fall of the leaf (when the sap is
still thin) or during winter after the fall of the leaf (when the trees contain little
sap), as during' these periods the evaporation of moisture and the resulting
shrinkage are comparatively small.
SEASONING.-Timber cannot be used for either carpenters' or joiners' work
immediately it has been felled because of the large amount of sap which it
contains. Most of this moisture must be removed, otherwise the timber will
shrink (contract) excessively, causing defects in the work and a tendency to
decay. Elimination of the moisture increases the strength, durability and
 CARPENTRY
resilience (springiness) of the timber, the wood is lighter in weight, it is easier
to work with the saw and other tools, it maintains its size and it is not so liable
to split, twist or warp (distort). The process of removing the moisture is
called seasoning or maturing. This is accomplished by either (a) natural or (b)
artificial means. In recent years the latter methods have been considerably
improved and extensively employed ; natural processes are not now so frequently
adopted owing to the relatively longer period required.
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(a) Natural Seasoning.-lmmediately after felling the branches are removed,
the trees are cross-cut into logs and the bark is removed. If the logs are of
softwood, they are shaped by machine sawing to a square in cross-section
(called baulks) and stacked (as shown at c, Fig. 29) under cover to allow the air
circulating round them to remove much of the moisture content. Hardwood
trees are usually sawn by machinery along their length into planl<s (pieces from
2 to 6-in. thick and at least II-in. wide) and stacked with cross-lags (pieces of
wood about i-in. thick) between, as shown at D, Fig. 29. Thin pieces of wood
(as shown at E) are nailed to the end of each plank to prevent the timber splitting
during the drying process. This is known as Dry Natural Seasoning, and the
time occupied depends upon the size and character of the timber. Thus,
softwood boards, 1-in. thick, may hke two months to season and 2-in. thick
planks four months ; hardwood of the same thickness may take about three times
as long to season.
The time occupied in seasoning is much reduced if the timber is subjected
to Water Natural Seasoninjf. By this method, the logs may be floated down a
STR...UCTUI<.E c SEASONING
A OF TIMBE~
SECTION OF PAR...T LOG
01= A TREE....____
river to the sawmill or they may be placed in the river, totally submerged with
the butt (thick) ends facing upstream, left for a fortnight to allow the water during
its passage through the pores to eliminate much of the sap, when they are
removed, sawn and stacked as shown at c.
(b) Artificial Seasoning.-By this method the time taken to season timber
varies from approximately one week to a fortnight. This process is carried
out in kilns of which there are several types. One form of kiln consists of a
long chamber, about 8-ft. wide and 10-ft. high. The timbers, which should be
of the same thickness, are carefully piled and sticked (cross-lagged) on trucks
which. run on rails extending the full length of the kiln. Hot air is circulated
amongst the timber by means of fans, the air being heated by passing it over
coils of steam pipes. The temperature of the air and its rate of flow vary with
the size and class of wood. The humidity (moisture content of the air) of the
kiln during the seasoning is rigidly controlled ; if it is too low, it is at once
raised by the admission of steam.
It is important to r.ote that the whole of the moisture content (abbreviated to
" m.c.") is not removed from the timber when seasoned. A certain amount of
moisture is allowed to remain. Thus, for internal work (as for floor boards, doors
and panelling), the timber is allowed to remain in the kiln until the moisture content
is reduced to 12 per cent. ; the maximum moisture content for good-class carpenters'
work is 20 per cent. If timber is used in a position where the humidity of the
atmosphere is in excess of that in the timber, the latter will absorb moisture from its
surroundings and swelling will result. Conversely, if the timber is insufficiently
seasoned (i.e., contains an excess of moisture), it will, if fixed in a very dry position,
lose a certain amount of moisture and will shrink. Therefore if movement -:-~ the
timber is to be kept to a minimum, the moisture content should approximate closely
FIGLJR..E .::19
 CONVERSION
to that of its environment. The extent of shrinkage movement in timber may vary
from about i to !-in. per ft. of original width if the moisture content is reduced from
20 to ro per cent.
PRESERVATION.--In order to increase the durability of seasoned timber it is
sometimes necessary to apply a preservative. Next to painting the most
common preservative process is creosoting, which consists of placing the timber
in steel cylinders in which hot creosote (an oil distilled from coal tar) is admitted
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and forced into the pores of the wood. A less effective method is to apply two
or more coats of creosote to the surface of the timber.
CoNVERSION.-A log of timber is divided or converted into various pieces to
which the following terms are applied : Baulks, planks, deals, battens, boards,
scantlings, quarterings, strips, etc. Baulk and planks have been referred to
on the previous page.
Deals are sawn pieces of softwood which are from 2 to 4-in. thick by 9 to under
rr-in. wide.
Battens are from 2 to 4-in. thick by 5 to 8-in. wide ; slating battens are from ! to
ri-in. thick by r to 3!-in. wide.
Boards are under 2-in. thick by 4-in. or more in width.
Scantlings are from 2 to 4-in. thick by 2 to 4!-in. wide. The term is often applied
to the dimensions of a piece of timber, thus" the joist is of 4-in. by 2-in. scantling."
Quarterings are square sections of from 2 to 6-in. side.
Strips are under 2-in. thick and less than 4-in. wide.
There are various ways of converting a log into planks, deals, boards, etc.,
i.e., (a) radial sawing, (b) tangential sawing and (c) slab sawing.
(a) Radial, Rift or Quarter Sawing.-Four forms are shown at A, Fig. 30.
That at B is the best if the timber has well defined medullary rays, as in oak.
The log is first sawn into four pieces (or is " quartered ") and each quarter is
cut into boards which, like the medullary rays, are radial. The rays appear
irregularly on the surface to produce the silver grain (or figure or flower) which
is so highly valued for high class joinery work. It is an expensive form of
conversion, as much waste results. More economical methods are shown at
A CONVER..SION OF TIMBEP...
RJFT SAWIN<J TANGENTIAL SLAB SAWING WARPING OF TIMBER.
SAWING
57
c and D, although the latter especially does not show up the figure to the same
advantage. Comparatively thicker boards or planks are obtained by the method
shown at E.
(b) Tangential Sawing is shown at F, Fig. 30. It is adopted when the timbers
have ill-defined medullary rays and distinct annual rings, as in pitch pine, as
the boards (having their faces tangential to the annual rings) show up to advantage
when cut in this manner.
(c) Slab Sawing (see a, Fig. 30).-The inner pieces are rift sawn and the
outer slabs approximate to tangential cuts. There is less waste by this method,
and it is therefore the cheapest.
As already mentioned, timber shrinks as its moisture evaporates, and the
heartwood shrinks less than the sapwood. Fig. H shows the distortion which
occurs.
The maximum shrinkage occurs in the direction of the lines of the annual rings,
it is much less in the radial direction (parallel to the medullary rays) and it is almost
negligible in the direction of its length. The thickness of the plank J varies from a
maximum at the centre (where there is little moisture in the heartwood) to a minimum
at the circumference (owing to the larger amount of moisture in the sapwood and
the shrinkage which takes place in the direction of the arrows). The piece of quarter-
ing, indicated by broken lines at K, is distorted as shown on account of the shrinkage
in the direction of the rings being more extensive than that radially. Similarly the
plank at L shows the shrinkage and warping which occurs. In each case the broken
lines indicate the shape of each piece of timber before seasoning.
Thin boards, used as floor boards, should be rift sawn to give the best results
(see o), but on account of the expem;e a cheaper method of conversion is· often
adopted and is shown at M, when the remaining sections, consisting of sapwood,
are converted into scantlings as required, as at N. Although ritt sawn boards
shrink less and have better wearing qualities, such boards are often sawn
tangentially on the score of economy. Tangentially sawn floor boards
should be fixed with the heart side downwards (as at P), for if they are fixed
with the heart side upwards, there is a tendency for portions to be kicked out
as shown at Q.
FLOOR. BOARD SAWING FLOOR.. BOARDS
(EOOE5 SHOl'J FI<JURE .30
 ss CARPENTRY
DEFECTS.-The defects in timber may be classified according to (a) those
developed during its growth, and (b) those occurring after it has been felled.
Those which appear during the growth of the tree include Deadwood, Druxiness,
Foxiness, Coarse Grain, Twisted Grain, Cup Shakes, Heart Shakes, Upsets and
Knots. Defects which develop or are produced after the timber ha:> been
felled are Doatiness, Dry Rot, Wet Rot, Shrinking, Swelling, Warp, Wane,
Chipped Grain and Chip Mark.
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The following is a brief description of these defects, some of them being
illustrated in Fig. 31 :-
Deadwood._:_Applied to redwood which is deficient in strength and weight
and having an abnormal pinkish colour ; is the result of trees being felled after
they have reached maturity.
Druxiness is an incipient (early) decay which appears as whitish spots or
streaks; is due to fungi (a form of plant life) gaining access, probably through a
broken branch, and setting up decay.
Foxiness.-Reddish or yellowish brown stains in oak caused by over-maturity
or badly ventilated storage during shipment; is an early sign of decay.
Coarse Grain timber has very wide annual rings caused by the tree growing
too rapidly ; wood is deficient in strength and not durable.
Twisted Grain or Fibre (see n).-Fibres are twisted to such an extent that
a relatively large number are cut through when the log is converted into planks,
etc. ; such planks or boards will twist or warp ; caused by wind action in branchell .
twisting the tree trunk.
Cup Shakes or Ring Shakes (see A).-·Cracks or clefts developed between two
adjacent annual rings ; interfere with conversion of timber, resulting in waste ;
caused by sap freezing during its ascent in tree during spring.
Heart Shakes (see B).-Shakes which begin at the heart or pith of the log ;
a single cleft is not serious. A Star Shake consists of several heart shakes
somewhat in the form of a star ; render conversion of timber difficult and
uneconomical. They are an early sign of decay and are caused by shrinkage
in an over mature tree.
Upsets or Rupture (see E).-Fibres deformed due to injury by crushing during
the growth of the tree.
Knots are sections of branches present on the surface of wood in the form of
hard dark pieces. It is almost impossible to obtain certain converted timbers
entirely " free from knots " (as is sometimes specified). Those known as
" tight knots " are sound (being securely joined to the surrounding wood) and
are not objectionable unless large. Wood with " large " or " loose " knots
should not be used as they are unsightly and readily removed ; wood containing
many knots is difficult to work. Knots are a source of weakness if present in
timber to be used as struts or similar members.
Dote or Doatiness.-Form of incipient decay indicated by patches of greyish
stains speckled with black which arc relatively soft; due to imperfect seasoning
or badly ventilated storage and found in American oak, beech and birch.
Dry Rot.-Decay caused by fungus which feeds upon the wood and reduces
it to a dry and powdery condition. It may appear as masses resembling cotton-
wool with grey or brown coloured strands which branch out in network formation
to adjacent timber. Badly affected timber has little or no strength and readily
crumbles by pressure of the fingers. Timber containing an excess of sap and in
badly ventilated positions is readily affected (see pp. 61 and 76). Diseased or
suspected timber must be removed at once. 1
Wet Rot is a chemical and not a fungoid decay of timber ; affected portions
are reduced to a greyish brown powder and these only need to be removed and
DEFECTS IN TIMBER-
B C
D-
CUP SHAK.E CIRCUMFERENTIAL
SHP.INKAGE
TWtSTED GRAIN
E.
WANE FIGURE .31
replaced ; caused by timber being subjected to alternating wet and dry
conditions.
Shrinking and Swelling.-When the amount of moisture in timber is reduced
during seasoning the wood shrinks (contracts), and if wood absorbs additional
moisture after seasoning an increase in volume (swelling) results. The extent
of this movement is referred to on p. 57 and is influenced by the manner of
conversion, moisture content and proportion of heartwood.
Circumferential Shrinkage (see c).-Defect denoted by clefts which radiate
from the circumference of the log towardsthe centre; clefts decrease in width
from the outside and are usually limited to the sapwood ; result of shrinkage
which occurs during seasoning.
Warp is distortion or twisting out of shape which may occur during shrinkage;
in one form (when it is called bow or bowing) the plank or board is slightly curved
1 The detection and cure of dry rot are described on pp. 15 and 16, Vol. III.
 CLASS I FICATI 0 N-FLOO RS
in the direction of its length and in another fcrm (called wp or wpping) the timber
is curved in cross-section.
Wane is the original splayed or rounded surface of the tree \vhich remains at
the edge or edges of a piece of timber after conversion ; sometimes known as
waney edges. A baulk with two waney edges is shown at F. They appear at
the upper end of the baulk, the lower end being sufficiently large to give a square
cross-section. Wane is due to converting too large a baulk from a tree ; not
considered to be detrimental if used for shoring, piling, etc., and in positions
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where the appearance and large amount of sapwood are unimportant con-
siderations.
Chipped or Torn Grain is a slight defect caused by the planing machine or
tool removing a portion below the surface of the wood as it is being dressed.
CLASSIFICATION
Timbers used for building purposes are divided into two groups -called (a)
softwoods and (b) hardwoods. This division has been established by long usage
and is not in accordance with the relative hardness of the woods (as certain
softwoods are harder than some hardwoods) but is concerned with the specific
species of the trees. Thus softwoods are a group which is confined to conifers
which are evergreen (having leaves throughout the year) trees having needle-like
leaves and which bear cones (seeds contained in conical sheaths), whilst hard-
woods form a class of broad leaf trees which cast their leaves in the autumn.
Softwoods are in general characterised by (I) distinct annual rings, (2)
indistinct medullary rays, (3) comparatively light colour and (4) the heartwood
and sapwood are not readily distinguished.
Hardwoods are characterised by ( 1) less distinct annual rings, which are
closer together than in softwoods, (2) distinct medullary rays, (3) richer colour
and (4) darker coloured heartwood which is readily distinguished from the
sapwood.
The thickness of the annual rings varies, thus in redwood (see Table I.) the
number of rings varies from five to thirty per inch. This variation is due to the
difference in the length of the summer. Where the summer is short, as in North
Russia, there is comparatively little growth each yea~, and therefore the number of
rings per inch is large. Generally, the annual rings of hardwoods are closer together
than in softwoods on account of hardwood trees being slower in growth.
Particulars of certain softwoods and hardwoods are given in Table I.
CARPENTRY embraces those forms of construction in wood which are sub-
jected to stresses on account of the loads which they support or the pressures
which they resist. Such construction may be permanent in character, as floors,
roofs, partitions and lintels, or it may be of a temporary nature, e.g., timbering
for trenches or similar excavations, centering for arches and formwork to support
reinforced concrete floors, etc., during construction. The following is a
description of some of these structures :-
59
FLOORS
'Vood covered floors 1 may be divided into two classes, i.e., (r) floors con-
sisting of bearing timbers, called joists, in addition to the boards which are used
to cover them, and (2) floors which consist of either wood boards or blocks upon
a concrete foundation.
(r) BoARDED AND JorsTED FLooRs.-Such are usually classified into:
(a) Single Floors.-This class consists of only one set of joists, called
common joists or bridging jo-ists.
(b) Double Floors.-In this class, additional and larger joists, called
binders, are introduced to support the bridging joists.
(c) Triple or Framed Floors.-Such a floor comprises three sets of
joists, i.e., bridging joists which transmit the load to binders,
which are in turn framed into and supported at intervals by
larger joists called girders.
Double and triple floors are required for buildings of large area. Whereas
formerly the binders and girders were of wood, this material is now rarely used for
this purpose. If wood joists are to be used in conjunction with binders, the latter
are now usually of mild steel, when they are called steel beams or girders~r rolled
steel joists, abbreviated to" R .S.J.'s" (see H, Fig. 77). Floors of large span are now
usually constructed of fire resisting materials, such as (i) reinforced concrete beams
and slabs, or (ii) main steel beams to which are fixed secondary steel beams that
support floors consisting of either small steel beams encased in concrete, concrete
floors with expanded metal or similar reinforcement, or patent fire resisting terra-
cotta or concrete blocks. The construction of such floors is detailed in Vol. II.
SINGLE FLOORS.-The floors of domestic buildings, e.g., houses, are generally
of this type, and the following description is applicable to the construction of a
typical ground floor and an upper floor of such a building.
GROUND FLOOR
Fig. 32 shows the plan, sectiGns and various details of a ground floor which
is of the single floor class.
Sizes of Joists.-The sizes of joists depend upon (a) the span, (b) the distance
between each joist, (c) the load on each square foot of floor and (d) the timber
used. With reference to :
(a), Intermediate supports to ground floors are usually provided in the form
of 4!-in. thick walls, called sleeper walls (see p. 6r), which are built at a
maximum distance apart of 6-ft. and therefore only small joists are required for
ground floors. As upper floors of this class have not such intermediate supports,
the joists span from wall to wall (usually across the shortest span) and therefore
they are relatively large.
(b), The spacing of joists varies from 12 to 16-in. centres (the distance between
the centre of one joist and that next to it). If 1-in. thick boards are used, this
1 Cork, rubber. mosaic, fireclay and marble tiles are also adopted to cover floors.
 6o CARPENTRY

TABLE I

I
WEIGHT
I GROUP. NAME. SouRcE. (lb. per CHARACTERISTICS. UsES.
cub. ft.).
-
HEDWOOD (Northern Pine, H.ussia, Nvrway, Sweden, 33 Reddish brown heartwood, yellowish brown sapwood ; well defined Doors, windows, floors, roofs,
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Scotch Fir, Red Deal, Finland annual rings, medullary rays invisible ; works easily ; very and general internal and ex-
Yell ow Deal) durable when painted ; strong. Russian best ternal carpentry and joinery
WHITEWOOD (White Deal, Do. 27 White to whitish yellow ; well defined anm;al rings ; slightly
of good quality.
Internal work, as·for floors, roofs,
I
White Pine, European difficult to work owing to hard knots ; not durable for external and shelving of cheaper grade I
Spruce) work than above ; shuttering.
CANADIAN SPRUCE (Quebec Eastern Canada 28 White ; well defined annual rings ; straight grained, easy to work ; Roofing, flooring, scaffolding.
Spruce, White Spruce) liable to warp ; not durable
DouGLAS FIR (British British Columbia (Western 33 Pink to light reddish brown ; well defined annual rings (spring Doors, panelling, flooring, in-
Columbian Pine, Ore- Canada), Oregon States wood and summer wood approximately of equal width) ; fairly terior fittings, sleepers, piling.
gon Pine) (U.S.A.) easy to wqrk ; fairly durable for external work ; should be rift
sawn for flooring
PITCH PINE Texas and Louisiana 41 Light red ; well defined annual rings with large proportion of Doors, windows, roofs, floors,
(U.S.A.) summer wood (dark) which gives good figure; contains much panelling, sleepers, piling.
resin, hard to work ; very durable and strong Used for good class work.
\VESTERN RED CEDAR Canada 24 Reddish brown ; distinct annual rings ; straight grained, easy to Roofing shingles (boards),
work ; very durable under all conditions ; brittle panelling, joinery.

I
OAK England, America, 43 to 53 Light yellowish brown to deep brown ; fairly well defined annual Doors, windows, floors , roofs,
Austria, Russia, Japan rings, well defined medullary rays; rift sawing gives beautiful stairs, panelling, furniture,
I
figure ; hard and .durable (excepting American) ; very strong gates, fences and general
carpentry and joinery of high
class quality.
TEAK Burma and Siam (India), Light golden brown ; annual rings defined by belts of porous tissue, High class general joinery as
West Coast (Africa) fine medullary rays ; very good figure ; difficult to work ; for doors, windows, stairs,
durable, fire resisting and hard wearing panelling, furniture.
MAHOGANY Honduras (Central 30 to so Rich reddish brown ; indistinct annual rings, distinct medullary High class internal joinery,
Ame,r ica), Cuba (West rays ; good figure ; not durable for external work. Cuban especially for decorative work,
Indies), S. Nigeria (Spanish) best, but most expensive and now difficult to obtain as for panelling, bank and
(Africa) shop fittings, newels and
handrails, furniture.
RocK MAPLE North America Light reddish brown ; indistinct annual rings, very distinct High class flopring, panelling,
medullary rays ; " Curly "or" Bird's-eye "maple has distinctive furniture.
and pleasing figure of dark " eyes " with curly dark lines ; durable
(if used internally) and very hard wearing
ELM England 35 to 43 Dull reddish brown ; distinct annual rings and medullary rays ; Weather boarding, piling.
durable if kept dry or wet but not if subject to both ; tough and
BIRCH . British Isles White to light brown ; indistinct annual rings and medullary rays ; Plywood, doors and furniture.
strong, tough, not durable

Timber required for first class carpentry and joinery should be sound, bright (i.e., free from discoloration), square-edged, thoroughly seasoned to suit the
particular use, free from shakes, large, loose or dead knots, warp, incipient decay and other defects which would render it unserviceable for its purpose. It
should be free from stained sapwood and the amount of bright sapwood should not exceed the following (for redwood) : 5 per cent. for first class joinery, 7
per cent. for medium class joinery and 10 per cent. for carpentry ; this amount is influenced by the normal temperature of the building in which the timber
is to be fixed.
 FLOORS 61
distance is generally 15-in., and for Ii-in. boards it is usual to specify the joists Ground floor wall plate3 are usually placed immediately over the horizontal
to be at" 16-in. centres." damp proof course.
(c), The minimum safe superimposed load (or live load) allowed on floors It is the usual practice to rest the ends of the joists upon the wall plate and
varies with the type of building, thus it is 30-lb. per sq. ft. for a house and zoo-lb. fix them by driving nails through their sides into it (see u). If the joists vary
per sq. ft. for a warehouse. slightly in depth, their upper edges are levelled by removing a portion of the
(d), Suitable timbers for floors are referred to in Table I. Redwood is the wall plate as required to form a housed joint (see K and L). 1 Other forms of
best softwood for this purpose. joints which may be applied to the ends of deep joists are notching and cogging.
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A single notched joint is sb.own at M, the lower edge of the joist being cut to fit
TABLE II over the wall plate (such as may be supported by a sleeper wall). A double

I
notched joint is shown at N and is formed by cutting both joist and wall plate.
A single cogged joint, used at the ends of joists, is shown at o, the joist being
I (spaced
Maximum Size of Joist Size of Joist
(spaced at I S-in. Maximum cut on its lower edge to correspond to the uncut portion or cog on the plate,
clear span. clear span. at S-in. I
centres). centres). where the joist cut coincides with the cog after two sinkings have been formed
4ft. 3 in. by 2 in. IJ ft. 9 in. by 2 in. in the plate, it forms a double cogged joint (see P) such as may be adopted when
s" 4 " by 2 " I4 " 9 , by 2! , or joists are supported by sleeper wall plates. Neither notching nor cogging
6 " 41 " by 2 " I I , by 2 , (sometimes called caulking) are much used.
7 " s " by.2 " IS " 9 , by 3 , or
Reference is made on p. 58 to a particularly virulent disease of timber known
8 " 6 " by 2 " I I , by 2 ,
9 ,. 7 " by 2 " I6 , II , by 2 , as dry rot. It is necessary to safeguard against this disease by using only well
10 " 7 " by 2 " I7 " I I , by 2l , seasoned timber and to provide adequate ventilation. Free circulation of air to
II , 8 " by 2 " I8 , I I , by 3 ,
12 " 9 " by 2 " all ground floor timbers is therefore essential, and it is for this reason that wall
plates should be supported either (a) by sleeper walls built parallel to and about
2-in. from the main walls (see this construction shown by broken lines at E,
The sizes given in Table II. will satisfy the requirements of the building Fig. 10) or (b) upon offsets(shown at A, c and D, Fig. II) or (c) upon corbels
bye-laws of most local authorities. The approximate depth in inches of 2-in. (see L, M and N, Fig. II). If, on the score of economy, the wall plates and ends
thick joists may be found by dividing the span in feet by 2 and adding 2 to the of the joists are built into the wall, it is necessary to form an air space round the
quotient. Thus the depth of a 2-in. thick joist with a span of Io-ft. would be sides and tops of the joists (see K, Fig. 32), and it is also advisable to apply two
10 . coats of creosote (see p. 57) or other preservative to the wall plates and to the
- +2=7-In.
2 ends of the joists. Attention is drawn to the provision made to ensure an
The maximum span for single floor joists should not exceed 16-ft. adequate circulation of air under the wood fl~r shown in Fig. 32 where air
WALL PLATES.-These are wood members, generally 4-in. by 3-in. or 4!-in. bricks (one type being shown at v) are fixed in the external wall, bricks are
by 3-in. which: (a) serve as a suitable bearing (4 to 4!-in.) for the joists, (b) omitted in the 4!-in. division walls to form ventilating openings (abbreviated
uniformly distribute loads from the joists to the wall below, (c) provide to "V.O.") and voids are formed in the sleeper wall (when it is said to be
suitable means of bringing the upper edges of the joists to a horizontal plane to " honeycombed ").
receive the floor boards and to ensure a level surface and (d) afford a fixing for An enlarged detail of an air brick built into a wall is shown at u. Air bricks are
the ends of the joists.1 They are solidly bedded level on lime mortar by the obtainable in various sizes, colours and textures to conform with the brickwork ;
they must be well perforated ; an alternative form of ventilator is a cast iron venti-
bricklayer for the full length or width of the floor (see broken lines at F, Fig. 32). lating grate.
Joints in long lengths are formed as shown at G. This is called a half lapped Sleeper wall foundations have been referred to on p. I9. A sleeper wall is
joint or scarf. The vertical cut extends to half the thickness of each plate and honeycombed simply by omitting bricks during its construction. The voids may
be arranged haphazard, or as shown by the two alternative forms indicated in section
after the cut surfaces have been fitted together, nails are driven in to make the DD. All sleeper walls must be provided with damp proof courses.
joint secure. Intersections between wall plates are formed as shown at H. Some local authorities stipulate that no timber shall be built in party walls
1 W<~ll plates are frequently omitted in cheap work (as shown at L, Fig. 36) and the
(those which are common to two buildings) within 4!-in. of the centre of the wall.
ends of the joists are packed up with pieces of slate, etc. This is an undesirable practice 1 A less satisfactory method of levelling up joists is frequently resorted to, i.e., the
as repeated vibration tends to disturb such bearings, resulting in unequal settlement of ends of the lower joists are packed up by inserting thin pieces of wood between them and
the joists and an uneven floor surface. the wall plate.
 62
To comply with this requirement for 9-in. walls it is necessary to resort to
either offsets (for ground floors) or corbels (for upper walls) to provide support
for the wall plates, as shown in Fig. I I. Alternatively metal bars, called corbel
brackets (see T, Fig. 32), may be used. These are of mild steel or wrought iron,
from 3 to 4-in. wide by ~-in. thick by about I -ft. 6-in.long with ends turned
2-in. in opposite directions. They should be painted and built 9-in. into the
wall at from 2-ft. 6-in. to 3-ft. apart.
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CARPENTRY
The sizes of floor boards vary from 3t to II-in. wide and from I to I2-in.
thick ; the narrower the boards the better, for then the shrinkage of each will
be reduced to a minimum, the joints will not appreciably open, and there will
be less tendency for the boards to cup (see p. 59). Hence 3!-in. wide boards
(specified as being " in narrow widths ") are used for first class work, 4i-in.
wide boards for average good work and 7-in. wide boards for commoner work.
Boards of 1-in. nominal (see below) thickness are used when the joists do not

An alternative fcrm of wall plate is shown at s, Fig. 32. This is a 2 or 3-in.
by ~-in. mild steel or wrought iron plate of any suitable length. It is rarely
adopted.
Whilst joists may be placed in any direction, it is usual to fix them across the
shortest span. A space of about 2-in. should be left between the wall and the
first joist which is parallel to it. When joists forming floors of adjacent rooms
run in the same direction, the overlapping ends on the division walls are nailed
to each other and to the wall-plates (see y' at A, Fig. 32).
The plan of the room shown in Fig. 32 includes a fireplace. The con-
struction of fireplaces is described in Vol. II. as it is outside the scope of the
syllabus of a First Year Course. In order however to make a description of
ground floors complete it is necessary to make a brief reference to certain
portions of a fireplace. A wall is built round the fireplace to retain the concrete
hearth (and the material supporting it) and to support a portion of the floor.
This is called a fender wall and its thickness may be 4i or 9-in., depending upon
its height and the load which it has to support. The internal dimensions of
this wall correspond to those of the front hearth which is usually I-ft. 6-in. 1 wide
with a length extending to at least 6-in. beyond each side of the fireplace opening.
The hearth may be of 6-in. concrete prepared for glazed tiles or other finish,
and the material supporting it should be well packed broken brick or stone,
called dry filling or hard core, although it often consists of well rammed earth. 2
The arrangement of the joists should be noted ; see also the enlarged plan and
section at J.
The site concrete should be well brushed, and all debris below the floor
removed, before the floor boards are fixed. Dry rot may be caused by small
pieces of wood, shavings, etc., left below a floor becoming affected (probably on
account of dampness) and spreading to the members of the floor. After the
joists have been levelled, with their upper edges in the same plane, they are now
ready to receive the floor boards.
FLOOR BoARDS.-Some of the timbers used for floor boards are stated in
Table I. (p. 6o). Redwood is used for ordinary good class work, whitewood
and spruce for cheaper work, and pitch pine and the hardwoods (such as oak
and maple) are employed for first class floors.
1Under the Model Bye-laws ( 1952) the minimum width of hearth is 1-ft. 4-in.
2Ground floor joists are often trimmed as described on p. 66 for upper floors. This
is in lieu of the fender wall construction, and is to be preferred as moisture (especially if
the site is a damp one) may be transmitted from the filling to the wall plates and ends
of the joists and may cause dry rot.
exceed IS-in. centres, and when the distance is increased to 16-in. centres the
boards should have a nominal thickness . of I!-in. These sizes are those after
the boards have left the saw and are known as the nominal or stuff sizes, but
after the boards have been shaped as required and dressed (or wrought) the
sizes are reduced and are known as net or finished sizes. Thus a floor board has
one side (which is of course laid uppermost) and both edges planed, and a
7-in. by I-in. (nominal size) board is reduced to 6£-in. by i-in. net, and a 1!-in.
(nominal) board has a finished thickness of 1!-in. ; the net width includes the
tongue (see Q, R, v and w, Fig. 34). Boards are usually obtained in either
16 or 18-ft. lengths, although boards which are from 20 to 22-ft. long are
obtainable.
The boards may be converted by sawing from the log, as shown in Fig. 30, or from
battens · thus six 3!--in. by 1-in. (approximately) boards may be obtained from one
7-in. by' 3-in. ba!ten -by two saw cuts down its depth(" deep cuts ") and one cut down
its thickness (" flat cut ").
The labours such as rebating, tonguing, grooving and planing floor boards (see
Fig. 34) are carried out in one operation by a machine called a Planing and Matching
Machine; Thus boards which are tongued and grooved (see R and u, . Fig. 34) are
made as follows : The sawn board as it passes horizontally through the machine is
first smooth finished on the lower surface. As it proceeds it is planed and grooved
on one edge, tongued on the other as the board is reduced to the correct width, and
just before it leaves the ma<:hine the board is red~ced to the required th!ckness.
The latest type of this machme, when fed automatically, can produce soo !meal ft.
of tongued and grooved boarding per minute.
JorNTS.- Various edge or longitudinal joints between floor boards are shown
in Fig. 34· These are described below.
Square or Plain Joint (see P).-The edges are cut and planed at right angles
to the face or side, when they are said to be either shot, butt jointed or straight
edged. This joint is never used for good work unless the boards are to be covered
by another layer of boards to form what is called a double boarded floor (p. 65).
Rebated Joint (see Q).-A !-in. wide tongue, one-third the thickness of the
board, is formed along the lower edge of one board and fits into a slightly wider
rebate formed on that adjacent. This joint is rarely used for edge joints, but
is sometimes adopted in good work for heading joints (seep. 64).
Tongued and Grooved or Feathered and Grooved Joint (abbreviated to
"t. & g." or" f. & g.") (see R and u). This is used more frequently than
any other for good work. A narrow projecting tongue or feather is formed just
below the middle along one edge and a groove along the other. The tongue is
slightly smaller than the groove (thus for a i-in. wide tongue the groove is
 s
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 CARPENTRY
approximately -/,, -in. deep) to enable the boards to be fitted closely together
at the top and bottom surfaces when the tongues arc engaged in the groove.
The tongues are sometimes slightly rounded off so as to facilitate the laying of
the boards and prevent them being damaged during the process.
Rebated, Tongued and Grooved Joint (see v) .- This is a good but expensive
joint and is sometimes adopted for hardwood fl.oors where the boards are to be
secured by nails which are required to be concealed, As described on p. 65,
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(which project from the side and under the top plate at G) cause the cramp to grip
the sides of the joist. A rough strip of wood is now inserted between the floor board
and the plate c to protect the edge of the board, the arm B is rotated in the direction
of the arrow" 3," and this causes the plate c to move forward as shown by the arrow H
to exert considerable pressure on the boards until the joints between them are com-
pletely closed . The boards are then nailed as described on p . 65, the cramps and the
strip of wood are removed, and the operation is repeated on the next five or six boards.
METHODS OF

floor boards are usually fixed to the joists by top nailing, i.e., the nails are driven LAYING FLOOR.. BOM.DS. ETC
through the entire thickness of the boards. This gives a somewhat unsightly
appearance which is avoided if secret nailing is adopted, i.e., each board is secured
by hammering two nails through the tongues into each joist.
Splayed, Rebated, Tongued and Grooved Joint (see w).-This is another joint
which is secretly nailed. It is an improvement upon that at v owing to the
thicker and stronger tongue.
Ploughed and Tongued Joint (see x).-Grooves are formed or "ploughed "
in the square edges of the boards to receive hardwood tongues or " slip feathers."
It is rarely employed unless very thick boards are required and where the ordinary
tongued and grooved joints would result in an excessive waste of material in
forming the tongues.
Heading or End Joints.-Wherever possible, the boards should be sufficiently
long to reach from wall to wall of a room in order to avoid end or heading joints.
Where such joints are necessary, as for large floors, they usually take the form of
the square joint shown at P. Each adjacent board is cut to cover half of the
thickness of the joist below: the ends are closely butted together, and four nails
are driven in, two on each side of the joint. Another form of end joint is called
the splayed or bevelled heading joint (see Y) ; the ends are splayed to give a tight
fit, and two nails are hammered in at an angle as shown. Rebated heading joints
(see Q) are sometimes specified for good work. The appearance of the work is
spoilt if the heading joints form one continuous line over the same joist. They
should be laid to break joint as shown on the plan at H\ Fig. 32 ; sometimes
they are arranged as shown at J1 when nut more than three heading joints appear
in one line, but the appearance is not so satisfactory.
(Note.- The boards used to cover the floor shown at A, Fig. 32, would not require
heading joints, as 16-ft. long boards (see p. 62) would be used ; the heading joints
at H 1 and J 1 have been shown to illustrate their application.)
CRAMPING AND NAILING BoARDS.-The joints must be as close as possible
before the boards are nailed . The best means of effecting this is to employ
an appliance known as a metal cramp, the plan of one of which is shown at A,
Fig. 33· As the work proceeds towards the opposite wall, the last few lengths of boards cannot
be cramped owing to lack of space. These boards may be brought up tight by using
Cramping is performed in the following manner : After the top edges of the a piece of floor board which is inclined with the upper edge against the wall and the
joists have been levelled, starting from one wall, the first board Is laid at right angles lower edge against the protecting strip ; a few smart knocks with a heavy hammer
to the joists and nailed. Five or six boards are laid loosely upon the joists. Two on the upper end of the piece of board will close up the joints.
cramps are placed temporarily over joists which are some 2 or 3-ft. from the ends of When a cramp is not available the joints between the boards may be closed by
the boards. Each cramp i> fixed to the joist as shown at A, the arm D is rotated in the "jumping them in" or" laid folding." This method is shown at J, Fig. 33· Assum-
direction of the arrow " I " ; this causes E to rotate towards the joist in the direction ing that tJ:te floor has been laid up to K, a board M is nailed at a distance L which equals
of the arrow " 2," when the grooved surface on E and the sharp metal points at F the width of the five boards when placed in position tightly by hand less t to i-in.,
 FLOORS
depending upon the width of the boards; the four boards, I, 2, 3 and 4, are then
placed as shown and forced into position by jumping on the board N which is laid
across them. The boards are finally nailed and the operation repeated.
Another method is adopted in the absence of a cramp, as shown at o , Fig. 33·
A metal dog is driven into a joist, and the boards (four or five at a time) are brought
dose together by tightening the hardwood wedges by means of a hammer.
When the boards are secretly nailed, and each board has therefore to be cramped
and nailed separately, it is usual to cramp each board with the aid of a strong chisel
which is driven into the top of a joist close to the protecting strip and used as a lever.
The blade of the chisel is forced against the strip and the pressure closes the joint.
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The boards are secured by nails called floor brads (see E, Fig. 66) the length
of which should be twice the thickness of the boards. When top-nailed, two
brads are driven through each board to every joist which it covers, including
two nails at the ends. The brads are about r-in. from the edges, and after the
boards have been fixed, the heads of the brads are driven below the surface by
using a hammer and punch (see ro, Fig. 67). Tongued and grooved boards
(in addition to square and rebated boards) are usually top-nailed as shown by
broken lines at s, Fig. 34· Occasionally they are secretly nailed as shown in the
two positions at T, the higher position being the better of the two as the tongue
is 1ess likely to be damaged. The secret nailing of boards which are jointed as
shown at v and w has been mentioned on p. 64. The nails used for this purpose
are usually 2l-in. oval wire nails shown at A, Fig. 66, as they are less liable to
split the tongues. The .heads of these are also punched. In order that water
and gas pipes, electric cables, etc., which are frequently run below the floor
boards, may be readily accessible, the boards over them are not nailed but
are screwed.
In good work it is customary to fix a hardwood margin round all fireplace
hearths, as shown in the plan at A and the detail at J, Fig. 32. This ensures a
more accurate finish and a neater appearance than is presented if the ends of
the boards are stopped against the concrete or tiles. The floor boards are
rebated to receive the 2-in. by !-in. oak margin which has mitred angles ;
if ~-in. thick boards are used, the margin is of the same thickness and the ends
or edges of the boards are butted against it.
Double Boarded Floors.-Double ·flooring is sometimes required for buildings
of the factory type (where the floors are subjected to excessive wear) and
for domestic and other buildings which require good class floors. As is
implied, the floors are laid in two thicknesses. The first covering or sub-floor
(or counter-floor) usually consists of £-in. roughly sawn square edged boards
laid diagonally across the joists to avoid their joints coinciding with those of
the boards above. The upper boards may be of! to r-in. (nominal) hardwood
(usually oak or maple) which are fixed at right angles to the joists.
2. Wooo CovERED CoNCRETE FLOoRS.-Floors may consist of concrete which
are covered with either wood boards or blocks. Two examples of this type are
shown at W and x, Fig. 32.
Boards on Concrete (see w).-Wood fillets are partially embedded in the
concrete floor and the boards are fixed to them. Special precautions must be
6s
taken to prevent dry rot ; the concrete must be dry, the fillets should be well
seasoned, and the top of the concrete is sometimes given two coats of
bitumen.
The concrete floor is laid to the level of the unclenide of the fillets and the top
surface must be level throughout. The fillets are placed at I s-in. centres and kept
temporarily in position by nailing cross battens to them . More _concrete is then
placed in position to within !-in. of the top of the fillets. Both s1des of the fillets
may be splayed, although it is more economical if only one side is splayed (as shown
at w), when one pair of fillets may be obtained from a 4t-in. by 3-in. scantling.
Blocks on Concrete (see x).-The concrete floor is covered with wood blocks,
a bituminous material or mastic being used as an adhesive. The blocks may be
of well-seasoned softwoods (such as redwood, British Columbian Pine and
pitch pine) or hardwoods (such as oak, maple and teak). Their nominal sizes vary
from 9 to 12-in.long by 3-in. wide by r to rt-in. thick. Two of many types are
shown at Y and z, Fig. 32, the former being the simplest and is commonly used.
The blocks are fixed by dipping the lower portion into the hot bituminous mastic,
and then bedded on the concrete to which the mastic adheres. When they are
pressed down, the liquid mastic rises in the grooves, as shown by the blackened
portions in the illustrations. The thickness of the mastic is almost negligible.
The blocks are laid to various designs, those most common are of the herring-
bone and basket (shown at x) patterns. A simple border consisting of one or
two rows of blocks is placed next to each wall.
The concrete floor is finished with a floating coat, usually I -in. thick, consisting of
I part cement to 3 parts sand. It must be finished quite level and must be
absolutely dry before the blocks are fixed, otherwise the mastic wil! not adher~ to it.
The building must be thoroughly dry before such floors are la1d, otherwise the
seasoned blocks will absorb moisture and may swell to such an extent as to cause
the floors to rise in the centre.
CLEANING OFF AND PROTECTING FLOORS.-On completion, wood floors
should be traversed or " flogged." This consists of planing the boards to a
level and smooth surface either by hand or machine. Hardwood floors are
afterwards scraped (see scraper, p. 130), rubbed smooth with glass-paper (see
p. 130) and finally oiled or waxed and polished. Floors should be protected
against damage during subsequent building operations by liberally covering
them with sawdust. This prevents plaster, paint and dirt from soiling and
scratching the boards or blocks and the sawdust absorbs moisture.
UPPER FLOOR
The plan, section and various details of an upper floor of a room which
is of the same size as the ground floor already described are shown in Fig. 34·
The bridging joists are placed across the shortest span, and as there are no
intermediate supports (such as sleeper walls), their clear span is 12-ft. In
accordance with Table II. (see p. 6r) the size of these joists will be g-in. by
2-in. An alternative arrangement of joists which would be adopted if the
shortest span was in the other direction is shown at P, Fig. 33·
 66
TRIMMING.-Where fireplaces and openings (such as are required for stair-
cases) occur, the bridging joists cannot be supported at both ends by the walls,
and the introduction of additional wood members is necessary to receive the
ends of the joists which have to be cut. This operation is known as trimming.
The trimmed opening at the fireplace shown at A, Fig. 34, has a thick joist, called
a trimming joist, which is r-ft. 6-in. from the fireplace and spans the full width
of the room. This joist supports at one end two cross joists called trimmer joists,
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CARPENTRY
JOISt. The bevelled or slanting portion above the tenon, called the horn or
haunch, strengthens the tenon. The trimmer is brought tight up against the
trimming joist by driving a wood wedge down through a hole formed in the
tenon; the side of the hole (shown by a thick line in section J'J') should be
cut to the same angle as that of the tapered wedge and this hole must be long
enough to allow the trimmer to be forced in the direction of the arrow until the
joint is tight.
A modified form of tusk tenon, called a bevelled haunched joint, is sometimes

and the latter in turn support two pairs of short joists known as trimmed or tail
joists. At the alternative plan P, Fig. 33, the two trimming joists have one trimmer
framed to them which supports four trimmed joists. Thus a trimming joist is one
which has one or more trimmers connected to it, and a trimmer carries cut
bridging joists called trimmed joists. The arrangement of the timbers shown
in these two plans is in accordance with the bye-laws controlling the construction
of wood floors adjacent to fireplaces.
Trimming and trimmer joists should be thicker than bridging joists on
account of the greater weight which they have to support. Many bye-laws
state that the thickness of a trimming joist shall be r-in. greater than that of the
bridging joists and that a trimmer joist supporting not more than six bridging
joists shall equal the thickness of the trimming joists. As the bridging joists
are 2-in. thick, it will be necessary, in order to comply with these bye-laws, to
use 3-in. thick trimming and trimmer joists.
JOINTS.-The following joints used at trimmed openings are shown in Fig. 34:
Tusk tenon joint, dovetailed housed joint, bevelled housed joint, and square
housed joint.
Joints between joists at a trimmed opening should be well designed and con-
structed. On p. 20 reference is made to the behaviour of a loaded wood beam and
to the stresses of compression, tension and shear which are produced. If a portion
of a joist above the neutral axis is removed, the joist will be less effective in resisting
compression stresses, and if the lower portion is cut and partially removed the joist
is weakened to resist tension stresses. This must not be ignored when notches for
pipes are made in joists, as a careless workman when fixing water, etc., pipes under
floor boards may reduce the strength of joists enormously either by excessively
notching them or by indiscriminate notching. The aim therefore should be to
make the joints as secure as possible with a minimum removal of wood and
reduction in strength of the main members, i.e., the trimmers (to which the
trimmed joists are connected) and the trimming joists (to which the trimmers arc
joined).
Tusk Tenon Joint (see L, Fig. 34, and Q', Figs. 33 and 34).-This is the
strongest form of joint used in floor construction and for this reason it should
be adopted for the connection between the trimmer and trimming joists., The
tenon which is cut on the end of the trimmer (and passes through the mortice
formed in the trimming joist to some 4 to s-in. beyond it) is in the centre l
of the trimmer. The projecting piece or tusk provided below the tenon
transmits most of the weight and enters from .t to i into the trimming
1 Sometimes the underside of the tenon is made to coincide with the centre of the joist.
Although this forms a somewhat stronger joint, it is more difficult to make tight.
adopted between a trimmer and each of the trimmed joists (as at P, Fig. 33),
where it is not possible to have projecting tenons on account of the hearth.
This is similar to the tusk tenon joint, except that the tenon does not project,
but is cut flush with the outer side of the trimmer. When the tenon formed on
the trimmed joist has been inserted, the sides of the mortice in the trimmer
are slightly pared to receive two small wedges which are driven in to tighten
the tenon ; 6-in. wire nails are then hammered in from the top and sides of the
trimmer and through the tenon. A further modification consists of a shorter
tenon (with tusk) wh~ch enters a corresponding mortice in the trimmer. Long
nails driven in from the top of this joist make the joint secure.
Dovetailed Housed or Notched Joint (see M).-This is another good joint
which is used to connect trimmed joists to a trimmer joist. The end of
the trimmed joist is formed to correspond to the housing (one edge of which
is dovetailed as shown) made in the trimmer to receive it and is dropped
into the housing. Long nails are then driven in slantwise from the outer face
of the trimmer and through the end of the trimmed joist. Applications are
shown at R' in P, Fig. 33, and A, Fig. 34·
Bevelled Housed Joint (see N).-This is a cheaper but an effective alternative
to the dovetailed housed joint and is used for the same purpose. It is known
as a half-depth joint, as the depth of the housing equals half the depth of the
joist. The joint must be nailed securely. Note that the amount of timber
removed from the trimmer varies from nil at the top fibres (where the compression
stress is greatest) to a maximum at the neutral axis.
Square Housed Joint (see o).-This is another half-depth joint which may
be adopted for supporting short trimmed joists as at s' in A, Fig. 34·
STRUTTING.-Floors (excepting ballroom floors) should be as rigid as possible,
otherwise undue stress may be transmitted to the supporting walls and plastered
ceilings may be rendered defective on account of the vibration produced. Deep
joists have a tendency to twist or tilt sideways. It is necessary therefore to
stiffen the floor by providing cross bracing or strutting in continuous rows and
at intervals not exceeding 6-ft. apart. There are two forms of strutting, i.e.,
herring bone and solid.
Herring Bone Strutting (see A, B, and J, Fig. 34).-This is unquestionably the
best form, and comprises pairs of inclined pieces of timber which are tightly
fitted between the joists. The size of each piece varies from 2-in. by I;f-in. to
2-in. by 2-in., and these are secured to the sides of the joists by one 2~-m. nail
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SINGLE (FIRST) FLOOR

MORTICE

FIGUP-..E .34
 68 CARPENTRY
at each end. 1 Provided the walls are sufficiently strong, folding wedges are
driven in between the wall and the adjacent joist, and in line with the strutting,
as shown ; these are allowed to remain as they increase the efficiency of the
strutting. This form of strutting is still effective even if the joists shrink in the
direction of their depth and thickness, for the depth shrinkage especially tends
to reduce the inclination of the struts, with a corresponding increase in
compresswn.
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Solid Strutting (see P and s, Fig. 33).-The simplest form (and one which is
frequently adopted for cheap work) merely consists of nailing short lengths of
floor board in a continuous row between the joists. This is quite ineffecti've, and
it is practically a waste of material and labour forming it on account of the
shrinkage which occurs in the thickness of the joists and causes the struts to
become loose as their length is then less than the clear distance between the joists,
To make the strutting effective it is necessary to fix a long circular steel or
wrought iron rod (varying from t to 1-in. in diameter) through the whole of
the joists and near to the strutting, as shown. The rod is threaded through the
holes which have been augured through the neutral axis of the joists. The nut
is tightened after the struts have been fixed and again tightened by means of
a spanner before the floor boards are laid. This form of strutting (with rod)
is now seldom adopted.
HEARTHS.- Bye-laws stipulate that the hearth in front of a fireplace shall be
at least 1-ft. 4-in. wide, have a minimum thickness of 6-in. and shall extend at
least 6-in. beyond each side of the opening.
Two methods of forming hearths are shown in Fig. 34· That at F shows
a concrete hearth, and the hearth detailed at G is supported by a brick arch. 2
The section at F includes a 6-in. thick concrete hearth which is finished with
tiles to give an overall thickness of 7-in. The hearth is formed in situ (or
permanent position) and a temporary support must be provided for the front
hearth. This support is shown to consist of boards which are secured to two
2-in. by x! -in. bearers, one oi which is nailed to the trimming joist and the other
is plugged to the wall. These bearers are shown by broken lines in the plan at
A, Fig. 34· Sometimes large roofing slates are used instead of boards. The
concrete is then placed in position. T wo short joists are provided to afford a
support for the floor boards at the ends of the hearth, and between the fireplace
jamb and the trimming joist. One of these, called a cradling piece, is housed at
one end into the trimming joist, and the other end rests upon a short brick corbel
(as shown at P, Fig. 33), as it must not enter the wall owing to the proximity of
the flue from the ground floor fireplace. The second piece (z), to which the
ends of the floorboards are nailed, is housed into the trimmer and the cradling
piece. In the alternative plan at P, Fig. 33, a cradling piece only is required.
1 It is a common practice to make short saw ;:uts at the ends of the pieces to receive
the nails (see J) to avoid (so it is claimed) the nails splitting the timber. This should not
be done as the holding power of the nails is thus reduced.
2 Because of its relatively high cost, this trimmer arch construction is now practically
obsolete-see next column.
This may be a 2-in. by 2-in. fillet coinciding with the edge of the hearth and
supported by it, or it may be an independent short piece of 9-in. by 2-in. joist
supported by the trimmer and corbel as shown.
In districts where stone is readily available, a 3-in. thick stone flag is some-
times used instead of concrete to form the front hearth. This flag is supported
by a brick corbel cour('e along one edge (or it may be built into the brickwork),
and the other edge rests upon a wood fillet which is well nailed to the trimming
joist or trimmer as the case may be. Concrete is placed upon this stone to
bring the thickness up to that required by the bye-laws, and this is generally
covered with tiles. Concrete is used to form the back hearth which is brought
up to the level of the front hearth.
The hearth shown at G is now seldom used as the above types are more
readily formed. The trimmer arch is of the rough relieving arch type shown at
c, Fig. 15, and extends across the width of the fireplace opening to about 9-in.
beyond it at each side.
The splayed course of brickwork forms a skewback along one edge, and the other
edge abuts against the trimming joist and is further supported by a z-in. by 1 !-in.
fillet which is spiked to the joist. Concrete is used as shown to form the back hearth
and to level up the front hearth which may be finished with tiles. Two cradling
pieces, shaped on the underside to the back of the arch, rest upon the arch at 6-in.
fwm the fireplace opening to receive the floorboards, as already described.
CEILINGs.-Aithough 'plastering does not appear in the syllabus, short
reference may be made to plastered ceilings in order to make this section more
complete. Either wood laths (which are approximately i-in. wide, i-in. thick
and 3-ft. long) are nailed to the underside of the joists at !-in. apart, or metal
lathing (cut sheets of galvanised steel) may be fixed to the joists. Two or
three coats of plaster are then applied to give a finished thickness of about !-in.
A bearer must be provided next to the wall under the front hearth to provide a
means of fixing the ends of the laths. As shown at F, Fig. 34, the bearer used to
support the boarding for the concrete also serves this purpose, and at G a 3-in.
by 2-in. scantling is notched at each end over a small fillet which is nailed to
the side of each trimmer.
ROOFS
TERMS.-Most of the following terms used in connection with roof con-
struction are illustrated in Fig. 35 and subsequent drawings.
Covering.-The external material laid or fixed on a roof to protect the
building. The materials used for this purpose are : Slates and plain tiles (see
Chapter Five), pantiles (burnt slabs of clay, shaped to a flat S in cross-section,
14-in. by xo-in. by ! -in.), asphalt (as described on p. 17, laid on concrete in two
or three layers to a finished thickness of i or Ii-in.), asphalt felt (seep. 18 and
Q, Fig. 36), lead (see Chapter Six), zinc (thin sheets laid somewhat like lead to
form a cheaper and inferior covering), copper (an excellent but costly material
laid in sheets), corrugated sheets of asbestos-cement or galvanised wrought iron,
 ROOFS
stone slabs (similar to slates but from l to !-in. thick), shingles (slabs of cedar or Eaves means " edge," and the eaves of a roof is its lower edge. The eaves
oak which are from 12 to 24-in. long, from 2! to 6-in. wide and! to l-in. thick), may terminate flush with the outer face of the wall, when it is known as a flush
patent glazing (sheets of glass supported by lead covered wood, steel or reinforced eaves (see w, Fig. 36), or it may project as shown at x and Y, Fig. 36. When the
concrete bars) and thatch (bundles of straw or reeds laid to a thickness of feet of the spars are exposed as indicated at x they form an open ea·ves, when the
about 12-in.). feet are covered as shown at Y, a closed eaves results. A fascia board (or fascia)
Spars or Common Rafters.-Similar to joists but inclined. The distance apart is the thin piece of wood fixed to the feet of spars (see wand Y, Fig. 36). The
depends upon the covering material and is usually 15-in. centres for slates. under portion of an overhanging eaves is called the soffit. Soffit boards are shown
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The head of a spar is the upper end, and the foot is the lower end. at Y, Fig. 36, and D, Fig. 38, and the cross-pieces of wood illustrated in the
Span.-Usually taken to be the clear horizontal distance between the internal latter figure to which these boards are nailed are called soffit bearers. The
faces of the walls supporting the roof. The effective span is the horizontal
distance between the centre of the supports. The span of spars is the inclined
distance from support to support, thus in Fig. 37 the span is the distance from
ridge to purlin, purlin to purlin, and purlin to wall plate.
Rise.-The vertical height measured from the lowest to the highest points
(see B, Fig. 35). .
nse
Pitch.- The slope or inclination to the horizontal expressed either as - -
span
(see B, Fig. 35) or in degrees. It varies with the covering material in accordance
with Table III. which gives the minimum pitch :-
TABLE III
Rise
Covering material. (in 10-ft. run) Pitch. Angle.
(see B, Fig. 35).
Asphalt and copper
Lead and zinc. (excluding drips
every 1o-ft. run)
1! in.
I! ,
I
YUO
1
rtn::r
!0
!0 I A
Asphalt felt, corrugated asbestos 1 ft. o in. 1
~" 5t 0
and iron sheets
Sla~s, large . 4 " 0 " -l 2If 0
Slates, ordinary
Slates, small
5
6
, 0
" 8 "
" t
t
26! 0
33} 0
l-+ SHOWING
Pantiles 4 " 6 " "
40 240 ROOI= MEMBERS
Shingles, cedar 5 " 0 , t 26! 0
Shingles, oak 10 " 0 ,, t 45°
Patent glazing 5 " 0 " t 26! 0 lower portion of a roof is sometimes tilted so as to improve its appearance ;
Stone slabs 6 " 8 , t 33i 0
Plain tiles and thatch 10 " 0 " !- 45° this is accomplished by nailing short pieces of wood, called sprockets, to the spars
(see Figs. 37 and 38).
These angles .are often departed from, thus, although lead is commonly Ridge Piece or Ridge.-This is fixed at the highest point to receive the heads
used to cover flat roofs which have a minimum rise of rl-in. for a ro-ft. run, of the spars.
it is occasionally used to cover steeply pitched roofs. The angle of 45° should Hip is the line produced when two roof surfaces intersect to form an external
not be adopted as roofs with this pitch have not a satisfactory appearance- angle which exceeds r8o ·A hipped end is a portion of roof between two hips
0
•

compare the roof shown at v, Fig. 36 (which, has a slope of 45°), with that in
Fig. 37 (which has a 55° pitch). The ideal pitch is considered to be 54° 45'
and roofs pitched at any angle between 50° and 6o 0 look well.
Wall Plates.-These receive the feet of the spars. They vary in size up to
4~~in. by 3-in. and are bedded and jointed as described on p. 6r.
(see A, Fig. 35). The timber at the intersection is called a hip rafter, and the foot
of this rafter is usually fixed to a horizontal cross-member called a dragon beam
which is secured at one end to an angle tie (see Fig. 37). A hip rafter supports
the upper ends of short spars and it may be required to carry the ends of purlins
(seep. 70).
 70 CARPENTRY
Valley is formcJ by the intersection of two roof surfaces having an external The approximate depth of 2-in. thick spars spaced at rs-in. centres may be
angle which is less than 180° (see Fig. 35) and the wood member at the intersec- obtained from the following rule :-
tion is called a •valley rafter. The feet of short spars are nailed to a valley rafter.
Jack Rafters.-These are short spars which run from a hip to the eaves or Depth (in inches)= Span (in feet).
2
from a ridge to a valley (see Fig. 35).
Verge is the edge of a roof which runs from eaves to ridge at a gable (see Fig. 35). Thus for a span of 8-ft., the size of spar would be 4-in. by 2-in. The spars
Purlins are horizontal timbers which provide intermediate supports to spars, most commonly used are 2-in. thick and for average good class work they are
of redwood.
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and are supported by walls, hip and valley rafters, and roof trusses (see Figs.
(i) Flat Roof.-This is shown in Fig. 36 by the small-scale plan and section at
35, 37, 38 and 40).
F and A, and enlarged details at Q, R and s. The construction is similar to that
Roof Trusses are wood structures formed of members which are framed
together. They support purlins in the absence of cross-walls. The king post of a floor. The upper surface must be inclined sufficiently to thraw off the water,
roof truss is one form and is illustrated in Fig. 40. and, as felt is the covering material, the minimum inclination is r-ft. in ro-ft.
Boarding or Sarking consists of 1-in. (nominal thickness) boards which are run (seep. 6g). 1 If the under surface is not required to be level, the inclination
nailed to the backs (upper edges) of spars, and to which slates and other roofing is obtained by inclining the joists to the required fall towards the eaves. If a
materials are secured. level ceiling is required, the fall may be obtained by either tapering the joists
Battens are small pieces of wood to which slates, tiles, etc., are secured. with the top edge of each sloped to the required fall, or alternatively the joists
They are generally fixed by the slater or tiler and are referred to in Chapter Five. may be fixed level and. a small tapered piece of wood nailed on top of each.
CLASSIFICATION OF RooFS.-This is similar to the classification of boarded The latter method is usually applied as it is effective and comparatively cheap.
and joisted floors set out on p. 59, i.e. : The tapered pieces are called firring pieces or firrings. As shown at R, they are
the same width as the joists, and the depth varies from a maximum of 2-in.
(a) Single Roofs consist only of spars which are secured at the ridge and at s (which is a detail of c) to l-in. at Q (a detail of B). Tongued and grooved
wall plates. The various forms of this type are : (i) flat, (ii) lean-to, boards are nailed on top of the firrings, and this boarding should be dressed
(iii) double lean-to, (iv) couple, (v) close couple and (vi) collar roofs. smooth in order to remove any sharp edges which may cause damage to the
(b) Double or Furlin Roofs.-In this type additional members, called purlins, covering material. A fascia board is nailed to the ends of the joists to provide
are introduced to support the spars. a suitable finish. The herring bone strutting is necessary if the ceiling is to
(c) Triple or Framed Roofs consist of three sets of members, i.e., spars that be plastered, otherwise it may be dispensed with.
are partially supported by purlins, which in tum are carried by trusses. Bituminous felt and lead are the most common covering materials employed
(a) SINGLE RooFs.- The various forms of this class are illustrated in Fig. for this class of roof. Lead flats are detailed in Chapter Six. That shown in
36. Before considering each in detail it should be explained that the sizes of Fig. 36 is coYered with felt, of which there are many varieties.
the spars specified on the drawings must not be taken to be the economical sizes In the example, three layers of the felt are used, with a coat of bituminous solution
in all cases, for, in addition to the span, these sizes depend upo~ the weight of between and on top. The felt (which may be similar to that described on p. 18) is
the covering material, the distance centre and centre, and the wood employed. in 3-ft. wide rolls. The first layer is laid direct upon the boarding, lapped 3-in.
at the joints with solution between and nailed along the joints at 3-in. intervals.
The following table gn·es the approximate average weights 'of various Hot solution is now applied over this first layer and a second layer of felt is laid with
covering materials :- 3-in. joints (not nailed). This is brushed over with solution and a third layer of felt
is laid as described and given a coat of the hot mastic. Grit (or slate granules) is now
TABLE IV rolled into the solution to protect the felt from the action of the sun. The inter-
.. section between the flat and the wall is made watertight by continuing the layers of
Weight Weight felt over the triangular fillet fixed in the angle. The upturned edges of the felt are
Material. (lb. per Material. (lb. per covered with a lead cover flashing as described on p. 143. Roofs of temporary
sq. ft.) . sq. ft .). buildings are usually covered with one layer of felt.
I Zinc and copper 1
~- Lead (including rolls ) 7 Lead Covered Flat.- The lead details of the flat shown in Fig. 72 are de-
Asphalt felt ;!.
4 Thatch I 7 scribed in Chapter Six, and reference is there made to the groundwork, i.e.,
2t l'
II
Corrugated iron Asphalt, i-in. thick 9
Hoarding, 1-in. thick Slates the timber construction. The flat is divided into two by a drip and each half
3 9
Shingles, cedar r! Pantiles . 10 is subdivided by two rolls. The boarding is given a fall towards the gutter,
Corrugated asbestos-cement Plain tiles 13
I ·-
3~ 1 As three layers of felt h<m: been used, the minimum inclination may be reduced to
Patent glazing 6 Stone slabs 18
I - - -! tbat for lead, i.e., 1),-in. in Io-ft. run.
 SINGLE ROOFS
SCALE FOil- A.E.F, ~.l-.M .O b V SCALE FOp._ DETA.IL.S
eECI:I:I j I I I I I I I I I j I I I I I FEET EE:E_!~~':"Ef~EE'!=======~ r EET
0 ~ ~ ~ ~ 9 6 3 0 I

M
DOUBLt LEAN-TO
ROO~
A·
N
B
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.3 LAYEIIS OF FELT~ .3 LAYERS

OF MASTIC. GRJT FINISHED
._.AI.F-JI.DUND CA5T
G<JTTEII-

Df:TAILS a: DOVf:TAIL
H-ALVED JOINT AT U
FLUSH- EAVE.5 OPEN EAVE5 J:IGU~ .36
 CARPENTRY
and as this boarding should be laid in the direction of the grain of the timber
to ensure satisfactory drainage, the joists supporting it are laid across the shortest
span. The fall is obtained by fixing rectangular (not tapered in section) firrings
to the tops of the joists. These firrings increase in depth from a minimum
of ! -in. at the lower joist to a maximum at the upper end (see A, P and T, Fig. 72) ;
deep firrings are avoided at the upper half of the flat by using deeper joists as
shown. The wood construction of the drips and rolls are detailed in Fig. 72,
and will be more readily understood if consideration of this flat is deferred
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until the subject of leadwork is studied. The gutter is constructed of
2-in. by I l-in. gutter bearers at I 5-in. centres, which are fixed at different levels
to give the necessary fall to the boarding. These bearers are supported by the
wall at one end and by a 1! -in. thick longitudinal fillet or bearer nailed to the
side of the lower joist (see P, Fig. 72). The construction of the cesspool is
similar to that described on p. 145·
Flat roofs are suitable for sculleries, garages, tool-houses, bay windows,
corridors, etc. 1
(ii) Lean-to Roof (see H, Fig. 36).-This is the simplest form of pitched roof
and consists of spars inclined at 30° 2 against a wall. An enlarged detail of J
is shown at c, where the wall plate is supported by two brick corbel courses.
Alternatively metal corbel brackets as shown at T, Fig. 32, may be adopted. A
cheaper method consists of nailing the upper ends of the spars to a continuous
3-in. by . 2-in. wall piece or pitch plate which is plugged with its 3-in. face next
to the wall. Plugging consists of driving wood wedges (see F, Fig. 51) called
plugs at intervals into the joints of the brickwork. The ends of the plugs are
cut flush with the face of the wall and the wall piece is nailed to them. The
construction at the eaves is similar to that at x, except that there is no hori-
zontal tie. The spars are V-shaped notched at both ends and fitted to the
wall plate ; this is one form of a birdsmouth joint. Another form is shown at
K, Fig. 37· The depth of the notch should not exceed one-third that of the spar.
Notching the spars counteracts the tendency for them to slide downwards. The
eaves detail is referred to on p. 74· The roof may be boarded as shown at x
OF battened as shown at Y.
This type of roof is adopted for similar buildings to those described for flat
roofs.
(iii) Double Lean-to, Pent or V-Roof (see M and o, Fig. 36).--Pent means
penned or closed in, and this form consists of two lean-to roofs which are enclosed
by and sloped from the two outer parapet walls to a party or division wall over
which a gutter is formed. Sometimes the lower ends of the spars are secured
to a beam which runs parallel to the main walls, and, if necessary, is supported at
intervals by brick, wood or steel pillars. A detail of the gutter is shown at T and
a description of the slating and plumbing work is given in Chapters Five and Six.
1 Flat roofs are now extensively adopted for factories, commercial buildings, etc.
Such roofs are generally of reinforced concrete covered with asphalt.
2 This slope is suitable if slating is thl" covering material.
This is a type of roof which is not now often adopted as it is expensive on
account of the extra walling required and because the gutter is a potential source
of weakness.
(iv) Couple or Span Roof (see E and F, Fig. 36).-It is so called as each pair or
couple of rafters is pitched against each other and supported at the upper ends
at the ridge, as detailed at P. A detail of the eaves at D is shown at w and
described on p. 74· It should not be used for buildings having a greater span
than 12-ft. unless the walls are exceptionally thick. The roof is of bad design
as it has a tendency to spread at the feet (as shown by the thick arrows) and
thrust out the walls. It is not recommended.
(v) Close Couple Roof (see L, Fig. 36).-This is a vastly better form than the
last described, for each couple of rafters is closed by a horizontal tie-hence the
name. This tie is connected to the feet of the spars and prevents them spreading
outwards. The best form of connection between the ties and the feet of the spars
is the dcvetail halved joint (detailed at z and described on p. 73) but in cheaper
work the ties are just spiked to the spars. A plastered ceiling is often formed
on the underside of the ties, they are then called ceiling joists. Such joists,
when they exceed 12-ft. in length, should have 2-in. by It-in. vertical hangers
nailed to every third or fourth spar and to a horizontal 3-in. by 2-in. runner
which is nailed to the joists (see Fig. 38 and p. 74) ; this prevents the sagging of
the ceiling joists and cracking of the plaster. The span of this roof should be
restricted to I6-ft. unless the size of the ties is increased or they are supported
by hangers, when the span may be increased to 2o-ft. According to some
bye-laws, the following sizes of ties (redwood) must be complied with:-
TABLE v
·---
Maximum span. Size. Maximum span. Size.
8ft. 4 in. by 2 in. 14ft. 7 in. by 2 in.
IO , 5 , by 2 , r6 , 8 , by 2 ,
12 , 6 , by 2 , r8 , 9 , by 2 ,
If hangers or struts are used for spans of 12-ft. and upwards, the depth of
the ties may be halved.
The detail of the open eaves K is shown at X and an alternative closed eaves
is illustrat~d at Y. These are described on p. 74·
This roof conforms with sound principles of construction.
(vi) Collar Roof (see v, Fig. 36).-This is similar to the close couple roof,
except that the horizontal ties are now placed higher up the roof, and are called
collars. The latter may be placed at any height between the wall plates and half-
way up the roof, the broken lines indicating the position when at the maximum
height. Obviously the lower the collar the more effective it becomes in
preventing the rafters from spreading and causing damage to the walls. It
 DOUBLE ROOFS
follows therefore that the close couple roof is stronger than the collar roof, but
the latter has one advantage over the former in that it permits of an increase in
the height of the room below. Thus, as shown at v, the plastered ceiling may
be formed on the underside of the collars and the lower portion of the spars.
This effects an economy in walling, for, if the same height of room was required
and a close couple roof employed, the two walls would have to be increased in
height to the level of the collar.
The dovetail halved joint at u is detailed at z. A l-in.l sinking is formed
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73
the spars are cut short (when they are called jack rafters) and the heads are
fitted and spiked to the hip rafters.
Purlins are supported by cross division walls of bedrooms, etc. (which arc
carried up to the underside of the purlins), and at the ends by the hip rafters
to which they are shaped and well spiked or bolted. The ends may be fixed
to valley rafters in a similar manner. The purlins may be placed normal (right
angles) to the spars as shown at E, or they may be fixed vertically as shown at
N and o, Fig. 37, and in Fig. 38. A secure bearing on the walls is provided

on the side of the spar and the upper edge is dovetailed. The end of the collar
is checked out t-in., and the remainder of the thickness of the collar is dovetailed
along the upper edge as shown so that when the collar is fitted to the spar it
will be housed to the extent of t-in. (see section B'B'). The collar is then well
spiked to the spars, or a ~-in. diameter bolt may be used at each end for the same
purpose.
This joint is effective in resisting both tension and compression stresses. Thus
any tendency for the spars to spread (when the collar would be in tension) is counter-
acted by the top shoulder (edge) of the collar bearing on the upper edge of the
dovetailed notch formed on the spar, and the spars are prevented from sagging (to
produce a compression stress in the collar) by the inclined abutment of the collar
which is fitted tightly against the underside of the spar near each end.
The sizes of collars should conform with the sizes of ties given on the previous
page (the " maximum span " being the length of collar). It is not economical
to adopt the collar type of single roof for spans exceeding 16-ft.
(b) DoUBLE OR PURLIN RooFs (see Figs. 37 and 38).-Purlins are introduced
in this class of roof to provide intermediate supports to the common rafters.
Purlins are necessary for roofs with spans of 18-ft. and upwards, otherwise the
spars would need to be increased to an uneconomical size. The maximum span
(inclined) of spars is 8-ft. and this should be reduced to 6-ft. when the roofs
have a small pitch and are covered with heavy material. The introduction of
sufficient purlins permits the use of comparatively small (and therefore light)
spars which are readily handled.
All the single roofs shown in Fig. 36 may be altered to double roofs by the addition
of one or more sets of purlins.
Fig. 37 shows the plan F of a portion of a double roof of the collar type,
when the purlins are vertical, and in good work stone pads are introduced at
the supports to effectively distribute the weight on to the wall (see broken lines
at N). Joints in long lengths of purlins are best arranged to coincide with and
lap at the wall supports (see N and o ).
Jointing known as scarfing or splicing is resorted to when a purlin is required
to be increased in length. The best form for purlins is the splayed or raking
scarfed joint shown at R where the length of joint is from two to two and a half
times the depth of the purlin. Right angled cuts are made at the ends of the
splayed portion as shown. Three or four -1-in. diameter bolts, tightened by nuts,
make the joint rigid. A mild steel or wrought iron strap should be fixed at the
underside of the joint (see sketch). This joint is also used for lengthening a
ridge where the length need only be one and a half times the depth ; a metal
strap is not required and long nails are used instead of bolts. It is also the usual
form of joint for lengthening tie beams (seep. 81).
Fishing is an alternative form to scarfing. A fished joint is formed by butting
the two squared ends of the timber together and connecting them by means of
two metal (or wood) plates (one top and bottom) and bolting them as for a
scarfed joint. The length of the plates equals four times the depth of the jointed
member, and if wood plates are used their thickness should equal one-quarter
the depth. This is a suitable joint for struts which are subjected to com-
pressional stresses.
The following table gives the sizes of purlins which comply with most
bye-laws:-
TABLE VI
~------------------------------------------------- ·-

together with a section at E. A hipped end has been introduced so as to illus- Maximum inclined distance apart.
Span.
trate the application of hip rafters and the construction involved. The spars
are inclined at 55° (see p. 69) and two purlins ·are provided at each side to support 6-Ft. 7-Ft. 6-In. 9-Ft.
the spars which have a clear span of 5-ft. 6-in. The spars are nailed to the wall-
6ft. 41 in. by 3 in. 5 in. by 3 in. 6 in. by 3 in.
plate, purlins and ridge, and to reduce any tendency for the rafters to slide 8 " 6 " by 3 " 7 " by 3 " 7 " by 4 "
downwards they are cogged (see p. 61) 1-in. over the purlins, 2 in addition to 10 ,
7 " by 3 " 7 " by 4 " 8 " by 4 "

I
birdsmouthing their lower ends to the wall plates (see K) . At the hipped end 12 " 7 " by 6 " 8 " by 6 " 9 " by 5 "
14 , 9 " by 5 " IO , by 4·! , I I , by 4 ,
16 " I I , by 4 , II , by 5 , I I , by 6 ,
1 Alternatively, the depth of the notch in the side of the spar is increased to r-in. and
the end of the collar is checked out by a similar amount so that when assembled both sides
of the collar are flush with those of the spar. Purl ins exceedin~ I 6-ft. in length are not economical. In the absence of cross- walls
2 Cogging is omitted in cheap work. or partitions, trusses are provided to limit the unsupported length of purlins to I 6-ft.
 74
The collars are usually fixed to the spars immediately below the lower set
of purlins, as shown in section AB. These collars are dovetail halved jointed to
the spars as shown at z, Fig. 36. As the span of the collars is approximately
14-ft., their size is 7-in. by 2-in. (see Table V. on p. 72). A plastered ceiling
could be formed by nailing the laths to the underside of the collars and the
l0wer portions of the spars (see broken lines).
Hip rafters usually support comparatively heavy loads from the purlins.
They must be of sufficient strength to prevent sagging and must be fixed securely.
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CARPENTRY
It is important that the lower ends of the hangers are not secured to the runners
until after the slates or other covering material have been fixed, otherwise the weight
of this material may cause the spars to sag slightly, which in turn would depress
the ceiling joists through the hangers. It is the practice therefore for the carpenter
to nail the runners to the ceiling joists and the upper ends of the hangers to the
spars or purlins, and to defer nailing the lower ends of the hangers until the slater or
tiler has completed his work.
Trimming is required at chimney stacks, dormers, skylights, etc., and the

The head of each rafter is nailed to the ridge, and in order that the load from
the rafters shall be adequately distributed on to the walls, it is necessary to
employ a special form of construction to receive the feet of the rafters and to
make the angle of the roof secure. If the feet of the hip rafters were, like the
spars, simply birdsmouthed and spiked to the wall plates, the concentrated
inclined thrust may be sufficient to push out the quoins of the building. This
construction is shown atE and F, Fig. 37, and in the details at G, H and J. 1
An angle tie or brace, placed diagonally across the corner, is notched to the wall
plates, and to counteract the thrust, these notches should be dovetailed as shown by
the broken lines in the plan H . The wall plates are half-lapped for the same reason,
and as shown their ends project some 3-in. This angle tie carries one end of a beam,
called a dragon (or dragging) beam, which is the chief support for the hip rafter.
This beam is tusk tenoned to the angle tie and single cogged over the wall plates.
The foot of the hip rafter is connected to the dragon beam by means of an oblique tenon
joint and bolt as shown, or by a bridle joint as illustrated at E and J, Fig. 40; these
joints are described on p . 78. After the hip rafter has been fixed, the whole of the
framing is made rigid by tightly driving down the wedge of the tusk tenon. For
lowly pitched roofs, and where the eaves is not sprocketed, the foot of the hip rafter
is sometimes projected beyond the outer face of the wall to the line of the projecting
feet of the spars. In this case the rafter is notched over and is tenoned nearer to the
outer end of the dragon beam.
The lower ends of jack rafters are fitted and spiked to the vertical faces of
valley rafters (see P and Q, Fig. 73).
The eaves details are described on p.·76.
This type of roof in which purlins and collars are employed is often adopted
(especially for houses) on account of its sound and economical construction.
It is particularly suited for spans which do not exceed 24-ft.
Fig. 38 shows another type of double roof. It is similar to the close couple
type described on p. 72 with the addition of purlins. The 4-in. by 2-in. spars
are pitched at 30° (depending upon the covering material and required design),
birdsmouthed to the wall plates, notched over one pair of purlins (which are
placed vertically as an alternative to those shown in Fig. 37) and spiked to the
ridge. The ceiling joists or ties are secured to the wall plates and the feet of
the spars as already described, and as they are supported by two sets of hangers
and runners, the size of these joists need only be 4-in. by 2-in. or s-in. by 2-in.,
depending upon the weight of the roof covering. The hangers and runners
have been described on p. 72. Sometimes the runners are notched over the
ceiling joists to afford additional rigidity to the latter.
1 Consideration of this construction may be deferred to the second year of the Course.
construction is much about the same as that for floors (see p. 66). The names
of the various spars concerned are similar to those applied to floor trimming,
i.e., trimming spars (or rafters), trimmer spars and trimmed spars (see A and c,
Fig. 38). The joint between the trimmer and trimming spars may be either a
tusk tenon (see L, Fig. 34) or a similar joint without the tusk, called a pinned
tenon joint (see A and c, Fig. 38). That between the trimmed and trimmer spars
should be either a dovetailed housed joint (seeM, Fig. 34) or a bevelled haunched
joint described on p. 66. 1 The trimming of a roof round a chimney stack which
penetrates a roof midway between the eaves and ridge is detailed at E,
Fig. 73 ·
EAVES DETAILS. 2-It is important that the eaves of a roof should be carefully
designed. It is a common mistake to use an excessively deep fascia, and the
clumsy effect which this produces is shown at M, Fig. 37· An excessive pro-
jection of the eaves in proportion to the size of the building is another error.
As a general rule overhanging eaves should be of minimum depth. Over-
elaboration should be avoided, the simpler the detail the better.
Flush, open projecting and closed projecting eaves have been referred to
on p. 6g.
Flush Eaves.- Two examples of this type are shown at Q and w, Fig. 36.
The fascia is only sufficiently deep to cover the ends of the joists or spars, to
which it is either nailed or screwed. In the latter detail the fascia projects slightly
above the boarding in order to tilt the slates (see Chapter Five). The thickness
of the fascia need not exceed 1-in. (nominal), and, if preferred, one or more
fillets may be formed as shown.
Open Projecting Eaves (see x, Fig. 36).-The feet of the spars project 6-in.
and are shaped as shown or as indicated at J and L, Fig. 6g. It is not necessary
to provide a fascia to an open eaves. A simple open projecting eaves is shown
at c, Fig. 70.
Closed Projecting Eaves.-There are two forms of closed eaves, i.e., those
with sprockets ·and those without.
An example of the latter is shown at Y, Fig. 36. The ends of the rafters are
sawn to the shape as shown, the soffit board is nailed to the spars, and the fascia
is finally fixed with the edge of the soffit board engaging in the groove prepared
to receive it. It will be observed that the brickwork is set back 4!-in., and that
1 In cheap work the trimmed spars are simply butt-jointed and nailed to the trimmers.
2 Students should defer consideration of the slating details until Chapter Five is
reached.
 G
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W~T TO AVOID

PUR.LIN
JOINTS

SPL.A.YED
SCARJ:ED
.JOINT~
PUR.L1"15

FIGU~E.31
 CARPENTRY
if the soffit board shrinks in width no unsightly gap appears along its length
between it and the wall. The fascia projects above the backs of the spars as
shown in order to tilt the bottom course of slates. Another example of this
type is shown at o, Fig. 69. As a fillet is used to tilt the slates, the depth of the
fascia is reduced to 4-in. The projecting feet of the spars are covered with
6-in. by !-in. soffit boarding which is nailed to 2-in. by 1!-in. soffit bearers
secured to the ends of the spars. The small quadrant mould covers any gap
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which may be caused if the boarding shrinks.
A sprocketed eaves may be formed by (a) fixing the sprockets on the backs
of the spars or (b) nailing them to the sides of the rafters.
An example of the former is shown in Fig. 38. The construction is made
clear in the enlarged detail a:t o and the isometric drawing A, the latter showing
one end of a spar cut, the next spar is shown with the sprocket fixed, and the
next with the sprocket and bearer fixed. The soffit boards are tongued, grooved
and V-jointed, and at hipped ends, etc., the ends of the boards should be carefully
mitred (see s, Fig. 37). The bedmould should be scribed to the wall (" scribe "
means to mark for accurate fitting, and in this case scribing is necessary to
ensure that the back of the mould shall fit the more or less irregular surface of
the brickwork). A brick-on-end course, projecting !-in. as shown, provides a
simple and effective finish and also forms a flat arch for the window.
The sprockets shown at K and L, Fig. 37 give a graceful sweep to the lower
portion of the roof. Here they are fixed to the sides of the spars and the wall
plate. They are inclined at an angle which equals the difference between a
right angle and the pitch of the roof (e.g.), 90° - 55° = 35°). Sprockets should not
be given an inadequate slope such as is shown at M, for, besides detracting from
the appearance, it makes it difficult for the slater or tiler to negotiate the angle
at the intersection between the sprockets and spars unless a triangular fillet
(shown by broken lines) is fixed. A roof with a flat slope is also difficult to
make watertight at the eaves. The construction of the eaves is similar to that
already described, but attention is drawn to the alternative methods of supporting
the soffit bearers. That at K shows one end of each bearer nailed to a fillet which
is plugged to the wall, the other end being nailed to the side of the spar. The
bearers at L are let into the wall at one end (pockets or holes being left by the
bricklayer for this purpose) and these ends are tightly wedged. The sprockets
are shown in the plan F. Those nailed at each side of the hip rafters are
necessary to provide a means of fixing the upper ends of the two short sprockets
at each corner and the bearers to which the fascia (mitred at the angle) and the
mitred ends of the soffit boards are nailed. One of these bearers is shown at T
but has been omitted at s in order to show the mitre between the soffit boards.
A detail of a similar eaves is shown at H, Fig. 69.
Beamfilling or Windfilling .- This is the brickwork which is continued up
between and to the back of the spars after the latter have been fixed. This is
shown in all of the eaves details (sometimes by broken lines), and, for obvious
reasons, it is especially necessary when the roofs have open eaves.
It is not necessary to take the brickwork up above the top of the wall pl ates, and
the practice which is sometimes carried out of beamfilling on top of the wall plates
cannot be too strongly condemned. Cases of dry rot in roofs have been attributed
to beamfilling which has been continued for the full thickness of the walls to the
backs of the spars and sprockets. Any defective slates or other roof covering at this
point allow water to enter, and owing to the wood members being confined by brick-
work (or masonry) they become saturated and remain so, resulting in defective timber.
Adequate ventilation is just as essential for roof timbers as it is for floor members
(see p. 6 I) if dry rot is to be prevented.
(c) TRIPLE OR FRAMED RooFs.-The unsupported length of purlins should
not exceed 16-ft. (see p. 73) if extravagant sizes are to be avoided, and if there
are no cross division walls available to provide supports which would limit the
purlins to this span then roof trusses (sometimes called principals) are necessary.
Hence a framed roof consists of three sets of members, i.e., spars which dis-
tribute the weight of the roof covering, snow, and wind pressure to the purlins
which transmit this load to the trusses, and these in turn transfer the weight to
the walls. The outline of tl}e truss must conform to the shape of the roof,
which in the case of the king post roof truss is a triangle. A triangle is the
strongest form of framed structure for it cannot be deformed if its members
are sufficiently strong and properly connected together.
King Post Roof Truss.-An outline elevation of a king post roof truss, which
is one of the simplest forms of trusses, is shown at c, Fig. 39· The two longer
inclined members are atlled principal rafters (as distinct from common rafters
or spars), the horizontal member is the tie beam, the vertical member is the
king post, and the two shorter inclined members are struts.
The student in the class in Building Science will have probably carried out the
following simple experiment in connection with the solution of framed structures
when loaded : A vertical load is applied at the apex of two inclined members which
are hinged at the top (representing a couple of spars). They will at once spread if the
feet are not restrained and the unsatisfactory couple roof (see E, Fig. 36) would act
in this manner if the walls were not sufficiently strong. A horizontal member is
now connected to the feet to produce a structure resembling a close couple roof (see
L, Fig. 36 ). Whilst this prevents the spreading of the inclined members, it is apparent
that the tie is pulling on the two lower joints and each of the sloping members is
pushing on the joint at the apex and that at the foot. If these results are applied
to the king post roof truss it follows that the tie beam is in tension (indicated by the
arrows on the line representing this beam at c, Fig. 39, and which point away from
the joints) and each of the principal rafters is in compression (as shown by the
arrows pointing in the direction of the thrust towards the joints). The tie beam has
a tendency to bend downwards (sag) on account of its own weight (an IIcin. by 4-in.
by 22-ft. long redwood tie beam weighs approximately 2!-cwt.) and this in turn
tends to pull the feet of the rafters inwards and cause the apex to rise. This is pre-
vented by the king post, which is connected at its upper end to the head of the
principal rafters and at its foot to the tie beam. The king post is therefore in tension
and arrows are accordingly shown on the line representing this post at c pointing
in the direction of the pull and away from the joints. Each purlin is supported by
the principal rafter at mid-span, and if the joints are secure these rafters would tend
to sag under these concentrated loads but are prevented from doing so by the
provision of the short inclined struts. The struts, being in compression, are shown
with the arrows pointing towards the joints. Their lower ends must not abut on the
tie beam otherwise the latter would tend to be forced away from the king post and
they are therefore connected to the lower end of the king post.
 DOUBLE PLAN SHOWING
TR.IMMING TO -
~OOF 'CI-4-IMNEY STACK

I:SOMETR...IC VIEW
OF WOJ= SOOWN
IN SECTION B - - -
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I
I
I
I
I
_y~" PLMTER_
I
I
I
• I" I'A.SCIA- I
.3" •.3" e>EDMOULO I
e>R..ICK..-ON-END COUR.SE
~----~----1'- 0"
I
DETAIL 01= EAVES I
I
D I
I
I----------~

---rWINDOW FRAME
I
I
I I
U"t---~-j
SECTION ~IGUR..E ..38
 CARPENTRY
King post roof trusses are suitable for spans varying from 16 to 30-ft.
Details of such a truss, having a clear span of 22-ft., are shown in Figs. 40 and
41. The distance apart of the trusses varies from 8 to 12-ft. centres, and in the
outline plan at D, Fig. 39, they are shown at 1o-ft. centres.
DIAGRAM SHOWING STRESSES IN MEMBE~ 0!= A
KING POST ROOF TR!JSS WIT. METI-400 OF SETTING OOT
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the struts being not less than 30 and usually equals that of the roof, and (4) the
intersection between the centre lines of the strut and princiJ?al rafter coincides
with the centre line of the purlin: This principle should, as far as possible,
be applied to all roof trusses, as it results in the loads being effectively trans-
mitted to the various members. It also assists the student in setting out the
truss.
In the plan, Fig. 39, the walls are shown to be strengthened by the provision of
attached piers to take and distribute the concentrated loads from the trusses, and as

shown at A and B (Fig. 40), these trusses are provided with sound bearings in the form
c~~ of stone pads or templates.
~ The following table gives the scantlings of the members comprising king
post roof trusses {of redwood) which are at 1o-ft. centres:-
TABLE VII

Span. Principal
Tie Beam. Rafter. King Posts. Struts.
------
~----------------------2~'-9"----------------------~
I8 ft. 7 in. by 3 in. 4~ in. by 3 in. 4~ in. by 3 in. 4 in. by 3 in.
SECTION A6 20 9 by 4 4 by 4 6 by 4 4 by 3
22 " 9 " by 4 " 6 " by 4 " 6 " by 4 " 4 " by 4 "
24 " " by 4 " " by " " by4 " 4 " by 4 "
26 "
II
" by 4 "
..
6
" by
4
"
6
" by 4 .. +·",, by 4 "
....
... ..
"

... .... .... ..

II 6 4 6
28 " " by 6 " " by " " by 6
..
II 6 6 6 4 by 4
30 II by 6 6 by 6 7 by 6 6 by 4
I
---- --- ~ -- -- . --·- - - -- -- -
"
- ·- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- I
Some of these sizes exceed those given by certain empirical rules, as it is
A B important that a tie beam, principal rafters and king post of a truss should be of
the same thickness to simplify the connections. This table has been complied
with in the details of the truss shown in Fig. 40, except that the tie beam has
been increased to a depth of I 1 -in. as it supports a ceiling.
JoiNTS AND FASTENINGS.-The following is a description of the connections
between (a) the principal rafters and tie beam, (b) the principal rafters and
king post, (c) the king post and tie beam, and (d) those at the head and feet of
the struts.
(a) Joint between Principal Rafters and Tie Beam.--One form of joint, called
a bridle joint, is shown atE and J, Fig. 40. A central tenon is formed on the tie
beam by cutting notches at the sides, and the foot of the rafter is shaped with
a corresponding mortice provided to enable the rafter to be bridled over the

SCAL£*'1, I. I ! I
PLAN
JfEEr 0 FIGUR..E .39
tenon ; this prevents side movement and a suitable abutment is provided. The
width of the tenon should not exceed one-third of the beam, otherwise the cheeks
of the bridle will be unduly weakened. The cuts of the notches extend to the
The method of setting out the truss is shown at c, Fig. 39, and A, Fig. 40. centre line of the rafter and are normal to the back of the rafter to form a large
Note: (1) the intersection between the centreJines of the principal rafter and bearing surface at right angles to the thrust. The usual method of making the
tie beam coincides with the centre of bearing on the wall, (2) the centre line joint secure is to employ a !-in. diameter bolt at right angles to the slope as shown.
of the truss coincides with the intersection of the centre lines of the principal A notch is formed at the underside of the beam and a washer is placed between
rafters, (3) the intersection between the centre lines of the struts and king post the timber and the head of the bolt. Another washer is placed between the
varies from 9..in. to 1-ft. above the centre line of the beam, the inclination of nut and the back of the rafter. These washers prevent injury to the fibres of
 Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

~··11!4' l=ILL£T
II' •4' TIE BEAM-
K.ING POST R_OOF
 So CARPENTRY
the wood and provide a hard bearing surface for the nut when it is tightened
by means of a spanner.
Another form of oblique tenon housed joint, secured by a i-in. diameter bolt,
is shown at K. This joint is effective and is easily made.
Two alternative methods of fastening at the foot of a principal rafter are shown
at A and G, Fig. 41, but neither of them are much used. That at A shows a bridle
joint secured by means of a metal heel strap and bolt (see B). It is not a good form
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
(although expensive to make) as no provision is made for tightening the strap against
the back of the rafter unless a metal wedge is driven in where shown. This fastening
is practically obsolete. The oblique tenon joint at G is secured by a metal strap
(see H) over which is passed a plate which serves the same purpose as washers.
This is an excellent joint and is much stronger than the bolt connection shown in
Fig. 40, but it is seldom adopted on account of its expense.
(b) Joint between Principal Rafters and King Post (seeD and H, Fig. 40).-The
top edge of the tenon (and corresponding mortice) has a horizontal cut, whilst its

ALTEf(NATIVE f=ASTENINGS FO~ A

KING POST R.OOF TF(USS
NOTE. TI-+ESE FASTENINGS AR..E SELDOM ADODTED
uJ

SECTION DE 0
BRJDLE JOINT WITI-t- :5TI~UP :>TRAP WITI+ GIBS 0 COTTE~ OBLIQUE TENON .JOINT
WITH- J"x'4• STIRRUP STRAP
j'l'l TI' 1'£'1'1'1'1'1'£
.::2""~' ~EEL STI<.AP
Q
SCALE FEET FIGUR.~41
 ROOFS
lower edge is parallel to the slope of the rafter. The tenon should not
exceed 1!-in. in depth otherwise the strength of the post will be impaired.
The joint is reinforced by two wrought iron or mild steel straps (see o),
one being fixed at each side as shown at B by means of seven l -in. diameter
bolts, 6-in. long, secured by nuts. This is sometimes known as a single
abutment tenon joint ; a double abutment joint may be used as an alternative
(see below).
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(c) Joint between King Post and Tie Beam.-This joint may consist of an
ordinary shouldered mortice and tenon as shown at c and G, Fig. 40, or the
width of the tenon may be reduced to form a stump or stub tenon (see c, Fig. 41).
A !-in. diameter bolt is the most common form of fastening (see c, Fig. 40), a
hole being formed through the tie beam and foot of the post to receive it and a
hole being cut at the side of the post to permit of the insertion of the nut and
washer (see G).
An alternative to the bolt and a stronger but more complicated fastening is shown
at c and F, Fig. 4r. This consists of a mild steel or wrought iron stirrup strap with
steel gibs and cotters (wedges). The gibs and cotters are passed -through the slots in
the strap and mortice formed in the king post (see section DE). The joint is tightened
by driving in the cotters which bear upon the gibs to force the strap (with the tie
beam) upwards. This movement is only possible if three clearances are provided,
i.e., a space between the top surface of the upper gib and the top of the mortice, a
space between the bottom surface of the lower gib (which bears on the bottom of
the mortice) and the lower edge of each slot in the strap, and a space between
the shoulders of the king post and the tie beam. These three clearances are shown
in the section. This joint is used occasionally, but it is questionable if the cost is
worth while.
(d) Joints at the Head and Feet of Struts.- The joint at the head of each
strut has an oblique tenon which is housed into the rafter to form a vertical
abutment (see F and L, Fig. 40).
The foot of each strut is connected to the king post as shown at c and G,
Fig. 40. It is a single abutment tenon joint and is similar to the joint between
each rafter and the post, the latter being shaped to form a good abutment, and the
lower edge of the tenon has a horizontal cut. Another form of this joint is
shown in the elevation at c, Fig. 41. The post is splayed to form a square
abutment for the lower half of the strut, and as the upper half has a vertical
abutment, the joint is called a double abutment tenon joint to distinguish it from
the type at c, Fig. 40. As stated in paragraph (b) above, the joint between
the head of each rafter and the king post may have a double abutment.
This is similar to that at c, Fig. 41, the square abutment being provided by
the post for the upper half of the rafter and a vertical abutment for the lower
half.
The portion of the king post which has been reduced in width between
its head and foot is called the shank. The square head is grooved as
shown at H, Fig. 40, to receive the ridge, any scarfed joint to lengthen the
ridge (see p. 73) being formed over the head of the post. The tie beam
81
shown in the example will be in one length. For larger sparis the beam
may be in two pieces when a scarfed joint similar to that at R, Fig. 37, would
be employed.
Pur/in Details (see F and L, Fig. 40 ).-The purlins are cogged for a depth
of 1-in. over the backs of the principal rafters (see L). The shaped blocks,
called cleats, are securely spiked to the rafters to prevent th.e purlins from tilting ;
in good work they are tongued and grooved as shown.
GuTTERS.-ln Fig. 40 the walls terminate as parapets and gutters are
therefore required. There are two forms, i.e., (a) parallel or box gutters and
(b) tapered gutters.
(a) Parallel Gutter.-An application of this type is shown at A, Fig. 40.
The feet of the spars are birdsmouthed to a horizontal beam, called a pole plate,
which is notched out and spiked to the principal rafter. The gutter consists of
1-in. boarding laid to falls and supported by 3-in. by 2-in. gutter bearers at
15-in. centres which at one end are tongued and nailed to the pole plate and
at the other end they are notched over and nailed to a gutter plate which is
spiked to the tie beam. The section at B and plan at c, Fig. 71, should be
carefully studied. Note how the bearers are fixed at varying levels to give the
requisite fall to the boarding. An enlargement of the cross section through the
gutter is shown at A, Fig. 71, and indicates the ~~vels of the necessary roll, drip,
etc. The timber details should be further considered when the subject of
Plumbing (Chapter Six) is being dealt with.
(b) Tapered Gutter (see J, K and N, Fig. 71).-This is so called because of
its shape on plan. The boarding is supported by 2-in. by 1l-in. bearers which
are nailed at varying levels to the sides of the spars and 2-in. by r! -in. uprights
which are half-lapped to the bearers. This construction will be better under-
stood when the lead details in Chapter Six are studied.
CEILING JorsTs.-If a plastered ceiling is required, the ceiling joists would
be secured as shown at A and B, Fig. 40, where a 2-in. by r!-in. fillet is securely
nailed at each side of the tic beam and the ends of the joists slotted or notched
over them.
Construction of Truss.-The various m embers are usually morticed and tenoned
at the shop and these are assembled on the job. The tic beam should be slightly
cambered (the ends being lower than the centre) to ensure that it will not sag when
the covering material is fixed or the joints become loose owing to shrinkage of the
timber. This is accomplished by cutting the king post short b y an amount equal
to J-in. for every xo-ft. of span (or approximately 1-in. for the roof shown in Fig. 40).
After the members have been assembled, the truss is hoisted into position by a
" block and tackle " or other means. The fastenings should not be tight during this
operation, otherwise the m embers may be strained and the joints damaged. The
trusses are fixed temporarily by cross stays until the ridge, purlins, pole plates, etc.,
are fixed. It will be found that the weight of the covering material will cause a slight
settlement which will result in the joints closing up. The fastenings are now finally
tightened up, the tic beam being brought closely against the shoulders of the king
post either by tightening the nut on the bolt or by driving in the cotters, depending
upon the type of fastening adopted. This makes the truss rigid, causing the ends of
the members to fit closely against the abutments as the feet of the rafters are drawn
slightly nearer together.
 82
TEMPORARY TIMBERING
Certain forms of timber construction are only required as temporary supports
of work carried out during preliminary building operations or in the erection
of permanent structures, aft~r which they ;Jre removed. Timbering to support
the sides of trenches which are to receive wall foundations, drains, etc., and
that known as centering which is required to support arches during their con-
struction are examples of this type of construction.
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TIMBERING TO SHALLOW TRENCHES
The timbering of these excavations is done by the labourers as the work
proceeds. The sizes and arrangement of the various timbers are influenced by
the nature of the soil and the depth of the cutting. There are many different
kinds of soil, but for convenience they may be divided into: (1) Hard (in-
cluding rock and exceptionally hard chalk), (2) Firm (including hard chalk
and dense gravel), (3) Moderately Firm (including soft chalk, loose gravel and
compact clay), (4) Loose (including dry sand, soft clay, ordinary loamy soil
and made-up ground), and (5) Loose and Waterlogged loamy soil and sand. 1
TERMS.-The following are the various members which are used in
timbering and are illustrated in Fig. 42 :-
Poling Boards.-Members placed vertically next to the sides of the excava-
tion or sheeting (see below); sizes vary from 7-in. by 1!-in. to 9-in. by 1t-in.
and are from 2 to 4-ft. long.
1 This division is purely arbitrary ; some authorities have subdivided both sand and
clay i_nto a score or more different kinds for the purpose of assessing their bearing
capacity.
TIMBERJNG TO TRENCHES
/'
NOTE : THE SIZES OF' THE TIMBERS VAII..Y; ANY SOUND MEMEIER-5 A.PPRDXIM.A.TELY
CARPENTRY
Walings, Wales, Waling Pieces or Plan!?s.-Members placed horizontally
next to the earth or poling boards; various scantlings are 4-in. by 3-in.,
4-in. by 4-in., 6-in. by 4-in., 7-in. by 2-in., 9-in. by 2-in. and 9-in. by 3-in.,
and from 8 to 14-ft. lengths.
Sheeting.-Members placed horizontally ; of similar scantlings to poling
boards and from 8 to 14-ft. long.
Struts.-Short lengths of timber driven down between poling boards or
walings at a minimum distance of 6-ft. centres ; are from 3 to 4-in. square,
or they may be short ends of scaffold poles which are from 3 to s-in. diameter.
Whilst spruce is often used for rough work of this nature, in practice old
putlogs (horizontal members of scaffolding), scaffold poles, floor joists and wood
which is unsuitable for better work is adopted.
A F-irst Year Syllabus is limited to the disposition of the timbering of
trenches which are approximately 3-ft. deep and which are known as shallow
trenches. The following description may be applied to a trench, excavated in
various soils, to receive the foundation shown at G, Fig. 10, and which is 4-ft.
wide and 3-ft. 3-in. deep.
I. Hard Ground.-No timbering would be required (unless there were
pockets of loose soil) for the ·sides of the. trench would be self-supporting.
2. Firm Grnund (see A, Fig. 42).-Whilst there would be little likelihood of
the sides of a shallow trench caving in if left unsupported for a short time
(hard chalk will retain a vertical face, ro-ft. high, until weather conditions begin
to disintegrate it), it is sometimes necessary to provide a light support in the
form of a pair of poling boards strutted apart at a minimum distance of 6-ft.
centres. This distance is necessary to allow sufficient working space for the
men engaged in constructing the foundation. Usually it is sufficient to use one
0~ THE SCANTLIN9S GIVEN MAY 6E USED
 TEMPORARY TIMBERING-CENT ERING
central strut to each pair of boards (as shown at B) but occasionally it is
advisable to use two struts (see c).
The struts are slightly longer than the horizontal distance between the boards and
they are driven down until they are tight and more or· less horizontal. The sides of
the trench are given a slight batter from the top inwards to facilitate this operation
and to reduce the tendency for the members to become loose as the earth shrinks, as it
does on the removal of moisture. Care should be taken not to over drive the struts
and disturb the earth behind the boards.
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3· Moderately Firm Ground.-Where the soil is firm, except where it is
inclined to be loose in patches, the timbering may consist of the simple arrange-
ment shown at D-otherwise the trench may require a temporary support as
illustrated at E.
The wide walings at D provide a continuous support, three struts being used
per 14-ft. length of waling.
The arrangement at E shows poling boards held in position by walings which
are strutted. The poling boards are placed at a distance apart varying with
circumstances; in the figure they are shown at 18-in. centres, but this distance
may be reduced to 1-ft. or increased to 3-ft. The timbering is done in easy
stages for it is not advisable in this kind of soil to defer it until a length of trench
is excavated equal to that of the walings, as a section of the unsupported
excavation may collapse.
The following is the procedure adopted : A short length is excavated sufficient
to enable the labourer to insert and temporarily strut a pair of poling boards (thus
resembling A). This is repeated until sufficient poling boards have been placed which
could be spanned by the walings. A stiff waling is then placed along each side and
strutted against the boards as shown, after which the temporary struts can be removed.
T emporary strutting is shown by broken lines at F.
It is often necessary to drive wedges down between the waling and boards which
have become loose or have been strutted a greater distance apart than usual. An
example of this is shown at E.
4· Loose Earth.- The arrangement of the timbers is similar to that shown
at G (excepting that sometimes the sheets are placed about 1-in. apart) and is
described below.
5· Loose and Waterlogged Ground (see G).-Horizontal sheeting is necessary,
for unlike the soils referred to in the first three classes, it is not possible to
excavate in loose soil for several feet in depth before resorting to timbering.
The sides of the trenches dug in this soil begin to fall before 1-ft. depth has
been reached, and hence the need for horizontal boards or sheets. The following
is the sequence of operations : The excavation is made to a depth slightly in
excess of the width of the sheeting to be used, when a board is placed against
each side and two or more temporary struts are driven between. The excavation
is continued for 9-in. depth or so and a second pair of boards is placed tight
up against the bottom edge of the first set and strutted. The condition at the
end of a section at this stage is shown at H. This operation is repeated until
four sets of boards have been temporarily strutted or the required depth has been
reached, when poling boards are placed at a m1mmum distance apart of 6-ft.
centres and strutted as shown at G, and the temporary struts removed.
When the foundations have been completed and the walls built to a height
of two or three courses above the ground level, the timbering is removed and
earth is returned on both sides of the wall and rammed solid.
The examples illustrated in Fig. 42 should only be taken as t ypical. The nature
of the soil and the general conditions are so variable that the spacing and arrangement
of the timbers can only be decided upon the site. Very often the general system of
timbering on work in progress has to be departed from on account of the local varia-
tions-in the character of the soil. It is perhaps unnecessary to add that m any buildings
are erected with foundations of such little depth that the shallow trenches formed to
receive them do not require any timbering.
CENTERING
A centre is a wood member or frame which is used as a temporary support
for an arch during its construction. The removal of this support, known as
" striking the centre," does not take place before the mortar between the voussoirs
of the arch has set, and often it is left in position uritil the door or window frame
is required to be fixed. A centre must of course be sufficiently rigid to support
the weight of the brickwork or masonry to be constructed on it, and, in·addition,
provision must be made to permit of " easing the centre," .a term which is
applied to the operation of slightly lowering the centre before the mortar has
set. A centre is supported on vertical posts or props, and the introduction of
folding wedges between the heads of the posts and the centre permits of its
easement and also the adjustment of the centre to the required height to receive
the arch. The term centering includes the centre, together with the wedges,
props, etc., complete.
The shape and details of a centre are dependent upon the type, span and
width of the arch to be supported. In practice any suitable timber which is
readily available is converted to the required shape, and thus there is a big
variation in the sizes and arrangement of the members. The following illus-
trated examples should therefore be considered as typical :-
Turning Pieces.- The simplest form of centre is that required for flat arches
and those having a small rise and width. Such are called turning pieces, and,
as shown at A, B and n, Fig. 43, they consist of solid pieces of timber each of
which has its upper surface shaped to conform with the soffit of the arch to be
supported. The flat arch at A is that shown at A, Fig. 15, which has a 4!-in.
soffit and a t-in. rise. It is advisable to set the turning piece slightly back
from the front face of the wall in order that it will not interfere with the brick-
layers' line and plumb-rule. The turning piece rests at each end upon a pair
of folding wedges, 1 and these are supported by props which rest upon a sleeper
1 Students often make the mistake in examinations of showing the wedges with their
length parallel to the length of the turning piece. It is obvious that when in this position
the wedges cannot be adjusted because of the brick jambs.
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CENTRE J:OR..
CAMBER. A-R...CHES
SECTION PP

SCALE I'Ofl... D,E,F.G,J ,I<.,M,N <- 0 . ~EET

FIGUR...E 43 llfl1fl'l!l'l~l'l$ ,j :ll SKETCH OF

CENTR-E M
PA~T
 CENTERING
or sill placed on the brick window sill which it serves to protect. These props
are strutted apart as shown.
Reference is made on p. 24 to the method which is adopted to ensure that
the arch joints radiate to a common point. A nail is driven into the strut at
this point and a cord (or " line ") is fastened to it. The line is shown in the
illustration as coinciding with one of the voussoir joints.
A turning piece suitable for an arch with a 2!-in. camber is shown at D,
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Fig. 43·
Turning pieces for relieving arches rest upon folding wedges supported
directly by the wood lintels and they are therefore cambered so as to finish with
fine edges at the ends in order that all but the two end voussoirs may be con-
structed on the turning piece.
Centres.-Arches which have wider soffits than 4i-in. are " turned " upon
centres which are constructed of ribs and laggings. Such a centre with a similar
camber to that at D is shown atE, Fig. 43· The laggings or narrow battens are
nailed across two 4l-in. by 1-in. ribs which have a 2l-in. camber. The centre
is comple'Wd by nailing a 3-in. by 1-in. cross-member, called a bearer or bearing
piece, to the underside of the ribs at each end. The sizes of the members vary
according to the timber available, thus the thickness of the ribs is sometimes
Il-in. and the laggings vary from 3-in. by ~-in. to 2-in. by 1-in. Both open
and close lagging are shown at E. The former is suitable for axed and rough
arches, and close lagging is adopted for gauged arches. The distance apart of
the laggings when open varies from ! to 1-in., except when the centres are
required for masonry arches, when the spacing is increased (see M, Fig. 43).
A suitable centre for a segmental arch is shown at F and G, Fig. 43· This
arch is similar to that shown at D, Fig. 15. Both close and open laggings are
shown.
A suitably designed centre for a semicircular arch (such as that at K, Fig. 15)
is shown at J and K, Fig. 43· As it is not economical to use timber which exceeds
11-in. in width, it is necessary to construct the ribs as shown with upper and
lower ties nailed to them. Narrow laggings should be used in order that they
will conform to the curve of the arch. The 3-in. by 1-in. brace to which the
upper ends of the ribs are notched serves as a support for the tiled key (which
projects below the soffit) and also assists in stiffening the centre. Each support
consists of two posts or props to which is nailed or dogged a 3-in. by 2-in. bearer
at the top and a similar sleeper plate at the bottom.
A centre suitable for a semicircular arch having a span of 6-ft. is shown at
M, Nand o, Fig. 43· Each of the two ribs is made of two thicknesses of 9-in. by
1-in. pieces, spiked together, which overlap and have joints normal to the curve.
Such are called built-up ribs. Each rib has double 7-in. by 1-in. or Il-in. ties
and three 4-in. by 1-in. struts, indicated by s and R, the latter being necessary to
prevent the centre being deformed by the weight of the arch. The cross bracing
provided by the 4-in. by 1-in. inclined brace Q and the horizontal brace T increases
the rigidity. The laggings, which must be at least 1-in. thick, may be either
open or close, depending upon the type of arch to be supported.
For masonry arches the laggings may be spaced to allow two per voussoir,
as shown at the right half of the elevation M, or alternatively small setting wedges
as shown on the left of the elevation may be preferred. The arch in the
example is that of the main entrance shown in Fig. 24, and for each of the large
voussoirs four sets of wedges would be used, two on each built-up rib. The
wedges over the props are inserted between two stout bearers, and to facilitate
the easing of the centre these wedges are sometimes greased. The props
may be braced by an inclined member as shown by broken lines in the section
PP. A trammel rod (referred to on p. 24) is cut to the net length of the radius
of the arch. A block is nailed to the underside and at the centre of the ties, and
the lower end of the rod is screwed sufficiently tightly at the centre of the
semicircle to permit the rod to traverse the soffit of each voussoir as it is being
wedged and bedded. This assures an accurately curved soffit. The sketch at
o may assist in making the construction clear. A centre of similar construction
may be used for segmental arches of this span.
 CHAPTER
JOINERY
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Syllabus.-Doors, including !edged and battened, !edged braced and battened, framed !edged and battened, framed !edged braced and battened, panelled ; frames
and casings ; methods of fixing frames, casings and doors ; hardware. Windows ,_ including solid frames with vertically hung sashes opening outwards, fixed
sashes, boxed frame with sliding sashes, pivoted sashes, horizontal sliding sashes ; hardware. A£chitraves, skirtings, picture rails and angle beads. Nails, screws
and fasteners. Description and uses of tools.
JOINERY includes the setting out, preparation, framing and fixing of woodwork
which is chiefly used as internal fittings and finishings. There are several
broad differences between the crafts of the carpenter and joiner, although they
are usually grouped together under "Carpentry and Joinery." These dis-
tinctions are : Carpentry is essentially structural, the timbers are left rough
from the saw, the labour expended is small compared with the amount of
material used, and most of the work is done on the building site. Primarily,
joinery increases the habitability and appearance of a building and any ·stresses
to which it is sqbjected are incidental, the wood is dressed, the labour is a large
item compared with the volume of the timber employed, and most of this labour
is carried out in the workshop. Joinery comprises the construction and fixing
of doors and windows with their frames or linings, architraves, skirtings, stairs,
panelling, cupboards and floor boards. The latter, for convenience, have been
included in carpentry and some of the other items are described in this chapter.
DOORS
External doors are secured or " hung " by metal hinges to solid wood frames,
and internal doors are usually hung to wood linings or casings.
FRAMES.-A door frame consists of three members, i.e., two uprights or
posts which are secured at the top to a cross-piece called a head. The nominal
sizes of these members vary but 4-in. by 3-in. and 4l -in. by 3-in. are common,
The head usually projects from 2 to 4-in. beyond the posts, and these projections,
called horns, assist in making the frame secure when it is built into the wall.
These horns may be splayed (see s and the thick broken lines in the isometric
detail atE, Fig. 44) and covered with splayed bricks to preserve the face appearance
of the brickwork. A l to ~-in. deep recess or rebate is formed round the frame
to receive the door. An alternative but less satisfactory check for the door is
formed by planting (nailing) a t-in. thick bead or stop on both posts and head,
the beads being mitred at the angles (see K, Fig. 44).
Joints.-The head and posts of a frame are morticed and tenoned together,
variations of the joints being: (a) closed mortice and tenon, (b) haunched mortice
and tenon, (c) draw pinned slot mortice and tenon, and (d) double tenon.
86
FOUR
(a) Closed Mortice and Tenon Joint (see E).-The head is morticed to receive
the tenon on the post. The mortice and tenon must be correctly proportioned
if failure of the joint is to be avoided, and the following are accepted rules :-
I. Thickness of tenon should equal one-third that of member.
2. Width of tenon should not exceed five times this thickness or a maximum
of s-in., whichever is the less. (Thus the maximum width of a i-in.
thick tenon would be s by t-in. equals 2!-in., and the maximum
width of a It-in. thick tenon WOUld be S-in. and not S by I!-in.
equals 6!-in.)
The " thickness " and " width " of a tenon are indicated at E, and the
" width " and " length " of a mortice are shown at F.
Wide tenons should be avoided as they (I) may shrink excessively, causing
them to leave the wedges (see below), which thus become loose, (2) tend to
bend when the joint is wedged, resulting in the splitting of the morticed members,
and (3) require long mortices which tend to weaken the members.
These joints are glued and wedged, glue 1 being applied to the tenon and
shoulders (see below) and the tenon is inserted into the mortice. Wedges, as
shown, are dipped into the glue and driven in between the edges of the tenon
and the mortice to secure the joint. Notice that the mortice is slightly enlarged
and bevelled to receive the wedges. Oak pins or dowels, i to !-in. diameter,
are sometimes used in addition to wedges. This is called a pinned joint, and
examples of it are shown in Fig. 46. A hole is first bored through the head
and tenon, and the pin is driven in after it has been dipped in glue.
(b) Haunched Mortice and Tenon Joint (see F, Fig. 44).- This joint is adopted
when the frame is not built in as the work proceeds. Horns are not required,
and therefore the width of the tenon is reduced, except for about t -in. from the
shoulders (or abutments at the bottom or root of the tenon), otherwise. wedging
would not be possible. This .abbreviated portion or stump is called the haunch
1 Glue is made from the hooves and sinews of cattle and horses. The glue is broken up,
allowed to soak for several hours, placed in the container of the " pot," sufficient water
is added to cover the glue which is then boiled for about twenty minutes, when it is ready
I for use. " Cold glues," prepared ready for use, are now available.
 DOORS
or haunchion, and its object is to increase the strength of the tenon at its root
and prevent twisting of the post. The stub mortice made to receive the haunch
is called the haunching. Note, the horns are not removed until the wedging has
been completed, otherwise the driving in of the wedges would split the narrow
portion of the head above the haunch.
(c) Draw Pinned Slot Mortice and Tenon Joint (see K, Fig. 44).-This joint
is sometimes used for large frames. The mortice is continued to the end of
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the head. A hole is bored through the cheeks (sides) of the mortice, the tenon
of the post is inserted, a point J on a 45° line from the centre of the hole is
pricked on the tenon, the post is removed, with J as centre a hole is bored through
the tenon, the latter is again placed in correct position between the cheeks, and
finally the dowel is glued and driven into the holes to draw the shoulders of the
joint together and the side of the tenon against the inner end of the mortice.
This is a good joint for external work for the following reason : Glue may soften
if water gains access to it, 1 and in order to make the joints of external framing water-
tight and durable it is customary to use paint composed of a mixture of red lead,
white lead and boiled linseed oil as a jointing material instead of glue. As wedges
set in paint are apt to become loose and fall out, they are sometimes dispensed with
and the draw pinned joint adopted.
(d) Double Tenon Joint (see K, Fig. 46).- This joint, which consists of
double tenons, is usefully employed between members of large size, it being
more effective than a single tenon in bringing the shoulders of the tenon tight
up against the adjacent member. The combined thickness of a pair of single
tenons should equal that of a single tenon.
A temporary piece of wood is nailed across the lower ends of the posts to
prevent distortion of the frame before it has been finally fixed in position.
METHODS OF FIXING FRAMES.-A door frame may be fixed in position either
(a) during the construction of the walling, or (b) after the walling has been
completed.
(a) Such frames are said to be built-in. When the brickwork (or masonry)
has been built to ground-floor level, the door is placed in position according to
the plan, plumbed, and maintained temporarily in this position by an inclined
strut (nailed to a joist and to the head). The brickwork is now proceeded with,
the jambs being constructed close to the posts of the frame. Creosoted wood
slips or pallets (see H and Q, Fig. 44) are built in dry at the bed joints of each
jamb at about 2-ft. intervals with one near the foot and one near the head. The
weight of the brickwork makes these pallets secure. Nails are driven through
the posts into the pallets after the heads (which may have splayed horns) have
been bonded in and there is no likelihood of disturbing the newly built walling.
Wrought iron straps (see P) are occasionally used instead of pallets ; these
straps are screwed to the posts in positions which will coincide with the bed
joints of the brickwork, when they are well bedded in mortar.
This is a common method of fixing frames. It is not adopted in first class
work as the frame is liable to be damaged during building operations and lime,
1 This does not apply to" waterproof glue," which is now available.
etc. is apt to stain it. The arrises of the frame may be protected by lightly
nailing wood strips to it. Frames are bedded in mortar as the jambs are being
constructed and afterwards pointed in mastic (a mixture of red lead and linseed
oil) to exclude rain and draughts.
External woodwork should be primed before being fixed. Priming is the
first coat of paint which is applied to the timber.
(b) The second method of fixing frames, and one which is adopted in better-
class work, consists of plugging (see p. 72) the bed joints of the brick or stone
jambs after the whole of the brickwork has thoroughly set. The 3 or 4-in. deep
holes to receive the plugs are formed with the plugging chisel (see 38, Fig. 67)
and hammer at2-ft. intervals (see above), the hardwood plugs (see F, Fig. SI)
are driven in with their projecting edges cut off to a vertical plane (a plumb-line
being used for this purpose) so that the clear distance between the plugs in
opposite jambs equals the overall width of the frame. The frame is then placed
in position and securely nailed to the plugs and to the lintel. The fixing of the
frames is deferred until the building is nearing completion in order to minimise
the risk of damage to the woodwork. They are well bedded in mortar and pointed
in mastic as before described.
Additional rigidity is given to the frame if a ! or 1-in. square or t-in.
diameter round galvanised wrought iron dowel, 2 to 3-in. long, is partly driven
into the bottom end of each post before fixing. The projecting ends are inserted
in mortices cut in the step and secured with red lead mastic or grouted cement
(see A and R, Fig. 44). Alternatively, hollow cast iron shoes may be adopted
(see L, Fig. 46 and p. 92).
CLASSIFICATION OF DOORS.-The following types of doors will be described :
(a) !edged and battened, (b) !edged, braced and battened, (c) framed, !edged
and battened, (d) framed, !edged, braced and battened, and (e) panelled.
Sizes.- The sizes of doors vary considerably, the following standard sizes
being in greatest demand : 6-ft. by 2-ft., 6-ft. 4-in. by 2-ft. 4-in., 6-ft. 6-in.
by 2-ft. 4-in., 6-ft. 6-in. by 2-ft. 6-in., 6-ft. 6-in. by 2-ft. 8-in., 6-ft. 8-in. by
2-ft. 8-in., 6-ft. Io-in. by 2-ft. Io-in. and 7-ft. by 3-ft.
In accordance with tradition, the proportions of an internal door of a house are
based upon the height of the room, the height of the door being equal to one quarter
the height of the room plus 4!-ft. and the width being equal to the height of the door
less 4-ft. A satisfactory size of door for the modern drawing or dining room is
6-ft. 8-in. by z-ft. 8-in., and that for bedrooms, box-rooms, larders, water-closets,
etc., is 6-ft. 6-in. by z-ft. 6-in. External doors should be larger than internal doors
in order that they may conform with the scale of the building, and those of a house
are often 7-ft. by 3-ft.
(a) LEDGED AND BATTENED DooR (see A, B and c, Fig. 44).-This consists
of vertical boards or battens which are secured to horizontal pieces called ledges.
The boards vary from 4 to 7-in. (nominal) wide and ! to 1!-in. thick. Those in
" narrow widths " give a more satisfactory appearance if the door is small, and
the shrinkage which occurs is correspondingly reduced. Four forms of joints
between boards (known as match-boarding) which are adopted are shown at
 88 JOINERY
L, M, N and o. The "V-jointed" type is formed by chamfering both edges of
each board, and the " beaded " joint shows the bead worked on the tongued
edge. These joints are effective in making the appearance of the door less
objectionable when shrinkage takes place and the joints open. They are some-
times only tongued and grooved, occasionally they are ploughed and tongued,
and in cheap work they are butt or square jointed (seeR, x and P, Fig. 34). Two
other forms of beaded joints are shown at s and T, Fig. 46; the latter shows
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hardwood tongues or feathers which are sometimes employed when thick battens
are used. The thickness of the ledges is usually 1-l-in. (nominal), and the middle
and bottom ledges are wider than the top ledge, i.e., 7 or 9-in. When employed
for external doors, the top edges should be bevelled as shown at B, to prevent
water lodging on them.
This is the sim;>lest form of door and is frequently used for narrow openings
and in positions where the appearance is not material, as for temporary sheds,
coal-houses, external water-closets, etc. It is relatively cheap and is apt to sag,
on account of its weight, towards the bottom of the free edge. This defect may
not become so pronounced if the end and central battens are screwed and not
nailed to the ledges. It also has a tendency to twist, especially if the timber is
not of good quality and thin ledges are used.
Preparation of Door.- The !edged and battened door is made in the
following manner: The planing (on both sides), grooving, tonguing, thick-
nessing, etc., machine operations of the tongued and grooved battens are as
described on p. 62 for floor boards. The battens are fitted together on
the joiners' bench and pencil lines are drawn across them to indicate the
position of each ledge. A cramp (see Fig. 55) is applied near to one of
the. ledge positions and this ledge is lightly and temporarily nailed to the
battens. The second ledge is then lightly nailed after the cramp has been
applied near to it. The door is turned over on the bench, two rough
pieces of wood are placed under the ledges, and wrought iron nails are driven
through the battens and ledges. The nails are of sufficient length to project
beyond the ledges when driven in, and as they pierce the rough pieces, the
ledges are not damaged by splintering as the nails protrude. The door is
finally reversed and the nails clinched or clenched, i.e., the points are bent over
and by means of a punch (see 10, Fig. 67) and hammer are driven below the
face of each ledge. The battens are cut and dressed off level at the top and
bottom. The edges of the battens should be painted before cramping as this
prevents water from getting into the joints and setting up rot. If this is not
done an unsightly appearance results when shrinkage occurs, due to the opening
of the joints which exposes light unpainted margins . The backs of the ledges
should also be painted prior to fixing.
Hanging and Fastening of Door.-The door is fitted between the rebates of
the frame, a clearance of 1\ 1 -in. (or " the thiclmess of a penny ") being allowed
between the edges of the door and the frame for the thickness of the
paint which is applied subsequently, and also for expansion. The width of the
opening (below the head and also near the feet of the posts as the frame may not
be absolutely square) is measured and transferred to the door. After allowing
for the clearance, the door is placed lengthwise on edge on the floor, propped
between the notch on the joiners' stool or trestle, and the uppermost edge is
planed down (or " shot ") to the mark made during measurements. The bottom
is also planed to allow i-in. clearance between the door when hung and the step
or floor. The door is placed in position between the frame, a wedge is inserted
between the floor and the door and forced in until the door is brought square
with the frame. If the door does not fit correctly, any irregularities are noted
and the door taken down and planed where necessary.
The door is now ready to receive the hinges. The form of fastening usually
provided for this type of door is the T-hinge or cross-garnet (see A, Figs. 44 and
45). This is a wrought iron strap pivoted to a metal plate. The lmuckle of the
hinge is a pin round which two sections of the plate and the end of the strap
are bent (see x, Fig. 45). The thickness of the strap varies from ;:~ to t-in., and
its length increases in multiples of 2-in. from 10 to 24-in., measured from the
centre of the pin. Two straps are secured either against the face of the battens
(see A and G, Fig. 44) or screwed direct to the ledges (see H, Fig. 44). The
plates of the hinges are screwed to the door posts. Those shown in the eleva-
tions in Figs. 44 and 45 are called Scotch T-hinges and are of l-in. thick
galvanised wrought iron. Thicker hinges are only used for heavy doors. Other
hinges are shown at w and x, Fig. 45, and P, Fig. 46.
HARDWARE OR lRONMONGERY includes hinges and fittings such as bolts and
locks; it also includes door knobs and handles (sometimes referred to as door
furniture).
All that may be necessary for the !edged and braced door is a thumb latch.
If additional means of security is required, either a padlock or one or two barrel
bolts may be used. The former is an external fitting (as for an external tool-
house door) whereas the bolts would be used to secure the door from the inside.
Alternatively, a rim dead lock may be used in lieu of a padlock or barrel bolt,
or a rim lock may be used instead of a thumb latch and rim dead lock. The
following is a brief description of this hardware :-
Thumb Latch (see o, Fig. 45).-It is sometimes called a Norfolk or
Suffolk latch and consists of : ( 1) a back plate with handle and pivoted snecl?,
(2) a keeper through which a (3) beam or fall bar passes to engage in a
(4) stop. The usual length of beam is 7 or 8-in. and that of the back plate
is about 9-in. Another type of thumb latch with two handles, each having
a sneck which passes under the beam, is shown at A, B and c, Fig. 46.
A complete fitting is usually of malleable iron, although for better-class work
it is of bronze.
In fixing a thumb latch, a hole is made in the door through which the sneck
is passed and the back plate is screwed to one face of the door. The keeper and
plate to which the beam is pivoted are screwed to the opposite face of the door, the
keeper (which limits the movement of the beam) being fixed near to the edge of the
door. The plate to which the stop is attached is screwed to the inside face of the post.
 LEDGED 6 BATTENED DOO~ 0 FR.AME
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ELEVATION

CLOSED MOO.TICJ E T.ENCIL R.C<INDED

b TENON ..JOINT PLAN OF POST

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JOINTS FOR, BATTENS

L.: T.G.E.V-JOI'-JTED ON ONE SIDE '
M: T. G. E. V-JOINTED ON &OTH SIDES

O:T. G.~ &EADED

N: T. G.~ BEADED ON ON Iii SIDE
ON 60TH SIDES

METHODS 01=
SECURING ~
STEP FRAME~
1~11 JCY8''0R~~
W.I.STR.AP___...

PL.A.N SHOWING BATTENS FL~

WITH FACE OF FUME

PLAN SHOWING LEDGES FLUSH-

WITI+ !=ACE OF I=RAME H- OR. 3' X "4' X ¥4'

INCHES I. DOWEL.
FIGCJFJ:
 go
An alternative and less conspicuous form of keeper is shown at N, and this is fixed
to the edge of the door. A similar stop fittin g may be fixed to the edge or jamb of
the post.
Padlock with Hasp and Staple (see A, Fig. 44, and P, Fig. 45).-The hasp
and staple are usually of iron and the padlock is of galvanised iron, brass or
bronze. The staple is screwed to the door post and the hasp is secured by two
small bolts to the door. When the door is closed, the slotted hinged end of the
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hasp is passed over the staple, and the hinged ring of the padlock (after being
passed through the eye of the staple) is " pressed home " to lock it.
Barrel Bolt (see A and Q, Fig. 45).- It is made of iron, brass or bronze.
The length varies from 3 to IS-in., a 6-in. bolt being sufficient for a !edged and
battened door. The plate is screwed to the inside of the door and the bolt
engages or " shoots " in a metal socket or staple fixed on the door frame. Some-
times two bolts are fixed horizontally as shown at A, or they may be fixed
vertically when one socket is let into the head of the frame and the other
(similar to s') is let into the stone or concrete step.
Rim Dead Lock (see R, Fig. 45).-This consists of a steel case (containing a
brass bolt, spring, etc.) which is screwed to the face of the door, and a staple
which is screwed to the frame to receive the bolt when the door is locked. The
key required to operate the bolt is comparatively long as it is needed to actuate
the lock from both sides of -the door. The lock may be obtained with one or
two levers (see below). An escutcheon (seeR') or holed metal plate is sometimes
fixed on the face of the door opposite to that to which the lock is attached to
prevent the " keyhole " from becoming enlarged and damaged by continued
action of the key. A plate lock or stock lock may be used for an external door
of this type ; this is similar to the above lock but the metal case is inserted in
a wood block.
(b) LEDGED, BRACED AND BATTENED DooR (see A, Band c, Fig. 45).-This is
a !edged and battened door to which inclined struts or braces have been added.
These braces increase the rigidity of the door and prevent it drooping at the
" nose," a defect which is common to the !edged and battened door. These
braces must incline upwards from the hanging edge, otherwise they would be
useless in counteracting the tendency for the door to droop out of square.
The position of the ·m iddle ledge should be such as to allow the braces to have
the same inclination, otherwise the appearance is not satisfactory ; the appear-
ance resulting when the braces are lined straight through is sometimes preferred
(see E, Fig. 45). The width of the braces varies from 4 to 7-in., and they are
usually out of Ii-in. stuff; they are housed and not tenoned into the ledges
(see detail. G, Fig. 45).
An alternative · !edged, braced and battened door, suitable for a cottage
where a simple type of door is required, is shown at E. It consists of alternate
wide and narrow battens which are I and I!-in. thick respectively. See the
detail plan at F which shows the battens tongued and grooved and v~jointed,
and the T-hinges (similar to that at x) which pass through the thicker batten.
JOINERY
The !edged, braced and battened door is used for similar purposes as
described for the !edged and battened door, but on account of its greater strength
it may be selected for larger openings. It is made as described on p. 88, the
battens being nailed to the ledges and the braces afterwards fitted to the ledges
and clinch-nailed to the battens.
HARDWARE.-This door is generally hung with T-hinges; those shown at
A are 22-in. Scotch T-hinges, and another form is shown at x. The furniture
may consist of a thumb latch and a dead lock as already described. Alternatively,
a rim lock or a rim latch may be used instead of a thumb latch and a dead lock.
Barrel bolts may be used in addition, as shown at A.
There are many variations of latches and locks, the broad difference between
each being:
A rim latch is fixed to the face of a door and consists of a casing which contains
one bevelled bolt or latch (which is operated by a handle attached to a spindle) and
a small locking bolt (see u) .
A rim dead lock has one bolt only which is actuated by a key (see ·R).
A rim lock has two bolts, one controlled by a handle and the other by a key (see T);
it is fixed to the face of the door.
A mortice latch has only one latch (or bevelled bolt) and the case is fitted within
the thickness of the door and is only visible on the edge of the door.
A mortice lock is similar to the rim lock in that it has two bolts, but the case is
only seen on the edge of the door as it is fixed in a mortice formed in the door
(see H).
The rim latch shown at u is a steel case about s-in. fong which contains a
brass bolt and a spring which acts upon the bolt to maintain it in the staple
when the door is closed. The mechanism is similar to that of the latch bolt
of the mortice lock described below. The small locking bolt is used when
required to prevent the door from being opened by the knob from the outside.
A rim lock is obtained in standard sizes varying from 5 to 8-in. long by 3 to
4-in. deep. A typical example is shown at T, Fig. 45 · It has two bolts, i.e.,
a " dead " bolt operated by a key and a bevelled or latch bolt operated by the
handle and (when the door is being closed) by the action of the bevelled end
sliding over the edge of the staple.
Mechanism of Rim and Mortice Lock.- The internal construction of a rim lock is
similar to that of a mortice lock. An interior of a mortice lock 1 is shown at J, and the
following description refers to (1) the lock bolt mechanism and (2) the latch bolt
m echanism. .
(1) The lock bolt is of brass or phosphor bronze or gunmetal and has a pin or
bolt stump attached to it to form a pivot for the three thin brass levers (hence this
would be described as a " three lever lock ") which are fitted over it ; each lever has
two recesses; K and L, with a narrow connecting slot through which a small lever
stump (connected to the bolt) passes when the bolt is operated ; attached to each
lever is a fine metal spring. When the door is unlocked, the lever stump occupies
the upper portion of recess K. To lock the door, the key is inserted in the keyhole
formed in the phosphor-bronze bush which has three thin raised rings called wards,
the key (see sketch) being shaped to fit these w ards. When the key is turned, it causes
the bolt to move outwards and the pivoted levers to swing upwards until the siot
between the recesses is opposite to the lever stump. After the key (indicated by
broken lines) has been rotated until it is free of the lower edge of the bolt, the
lever sprin gs shoot the bolt into the staple (in the case of the rim lock) or striking
1 l\1anufactured by Messrs J. Gibbons, Wolverhampton.
 T-")-
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p ~JURING
STAPLE
PADLOCK..:

WROUGH-T IR.ON TEE HINGE SK.EW BUTT HINGE

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0 FIGU~ 45
 JOINERY
plate (when the lock is of the mortice type--sec H), and the lever stump now occupies
the upper portion of the recess L when the levers have rotated downwards. To
unlock the door, the operations are reversed, the key forces the levers upwards and
the bolt into the lock in the direction of arrow" 1," whilst the lever stump passes
from recess L to the upper portion of recess K after the levers have dropped.
(2) The latch bolt is operated either by the handle or by the action of the bevelled
end of the bolt upon the staple or bent " lug " of the striking plate (see H) when the
door is being closed. The handles usually consist of two knobs, one of which is
permanently fixed to one end of a steel slotted spindle and the other is loose. The
spindle is passed through a rose plate (which is screwed to the face of the door) and
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through the bush and follower of . the lock (see x'). There are various devices for
securing the opposite or " loose " knob, an effective one being shown at J' and x'
and consists of a small metal key which is pivoted by a countersunk screw let into
the end of the loose knob ; the second rose plate is passed over the projecting end
of the spindle, the loose knob is fitted over·it and pressed against the rose plate until
the latter is brought tightly up against the face of the door, when the key is then
dropped into one of the slots in the spindle ; each rose plate is now screwed to the
door to make the handles secure. Observe at J that one of the feather springs acts
upon one end of the latch bolt and this causes the opposite end· to protrude. The
follower acts upon the crank roller ; the latter is fitted to the crank which is pivoted
at the crank stump at one end and the other end bears upon a projection on the end
of the latch bolt. To open the door when the lock bolt is disengaged, the handle is
turned to cause the follower to bear upon the crank roller which in turn causes the
crank to rotate and operate upon the latch bolt and move it horizontally in the direction
of arrow " 2 " until it is clear of the striking plate. When the knob is released the
feather springs force the crank and bolt to assume their original positions.
A further reference to mortice locks is made on p. 103.
(c) FRAMED, LEDGED AND BATTENED DooR.-This is similar to type (d),
described below, with the exception that the braces are omitted. The door
tends to become distorted because of the absence of the braces, and it is in
little demand for this reason.
(d) FRAMED, LEDGED, BRACED AND BATTENED DooR (see A, B, c and n),
Fig. 46. This is superior to any of the foregoing types and consists of a framing
(which must not be confused with the door frame) strengthened by ledges,
braces and battens. The framework consists of a top rail which is morticed
and tenoned into two vertical members call~d stiles or styles. The middle and
bottom rails or ledges are morticed and tenoned into the stiles and the braces
are either housed into the rails at about rt-in. from the stiles (see B) or are taken
into the corners and tenoned into the stiles (see A). The former is the stronger
construction, although the method shown at A is often adopted because of its
better appearance. These braces must incline upwards from the hanging post
(see p. 90). The battens may be jointed asexplained on p. 88, where referenae
is made to the joints shown at sand T, Fig. 46. The JJpper ends of the battens
are let into the top rail (see section vv at M), the side battens are tongued into
the stiles (see s and T) arid the lower ends of the battens completely cover the
bottom rail 1 as shown at A, B and c.
Details of the various joints are shown in Fig. 46. That at K shows the
joint between the post and head of the large (s-in. by 4-in.) frame. It is
1 The practice, sometimes adopted, of making the bottom rail the same thickness as
the framing and letting the lower ends of the battens into it is unso1..md for water will
lodge on the rail and rot both it and the bottom of the battens. ' its width.
double-tenoned to ensure a tight fit at the shoulders (see p. 87). M shows
the haunched tenon joint between the top rail and the stile, and the housing of
the brace as indicated at G.
The middle rail has a pair of single tenons 1 and is notched to receive the
lower end of the top brace (see N) and the top end of the lower brace. As the
rail is comparatively thin, it is not advisable to form these tenons as previously
described, but rather to make them flush with one face, when they are called
barefaced tenons.
The bottom rail has also a pair of single barefaced tenons (see o). The lower
tenon may be haunched like that shown at M.
The tenons are dowelled or pinned, in addition to being wedged. These
dowels are of hardwood and are from ~ to t -in. diameter (seeM, Nand o). One
is inserted through each tenon and at a distance from the shoulders of at least
twice the diameter of the dowel to prevent the wood from splitting when the
pin is driven in.
The framed, !edged, braced and battened door is a very suitable type for
external use and it is particulaJ,"ly suited for factories, warehouses, farm buildings
and buildings in which the doors are subjected to rough treatment. That shown
in Fig. 46 is typical of the type used for farms. The figure also includes a portion
of the roof details.
Preparation ojDoor.--The sequence of operations in framing this door are
briefly : The rails are fitted loosely into the stiles, the braces are placed in
P<?sition, the battens are accurately fitted and slipped into the grooves of the
stiles and top rail, the tenons are wedged and pinned (a cramp being used as
described on p. ro6 to tighten up the joints), and the battens are nailed to the
rails and braces.
The door frame should be securely fixed as explained on p. 87. The feet
are shown secured by dowels. Alternatively the door posts may be fitted with
cast iron shoes (see L). These provide a good method of fixing and also protect
the lower ends of the posts from damage such as may be caused in factories,
farmsteads and similar buildings. The ends of the posts are shaped, painted
and fitted tightly into the shoes which are then screwed to the posts. The frame
is now fixed with the dowels let into the mortices previously formed in the step
and run in with lead or cement.
Hanging and Fastening of Door.-Heavy wrought iron Scotch T-hinges are
sometimes used for hanging this type of door (see p. 88). Alternatively, ;l-in.
thick wrought iron strap hinges or bands and gudgeon hooks are used for this
purpose, especially for large doors (see P, Fig. 46). One end of the strap is
bent to form an eye. Two straps are required and are secured by i or t-in.
diameter bolts which are passed through the rails and sattens. The door is
1 These are sometimes called " double tenons,'' although this description is not quite
correct. A .d ouble tenon joint (as showp. at K , Fig. 46) has both tenons in the thickness of
the member, whilst a member having a pair of single tenons has both tenons formed in
 FRAMED LEDGED B~ACED 0 BATTENED DOOR-
10" TO :14"
&.•1"4'YI.I.B.O.CI<.PLA.TE 'h" 01)1,., --~·

p .,Q
HOOK. GUDGEON HOOK. .- -.,.;:-
WRO<.JGHT IRON _ ,
STRAP HINGE
W.I.LUG

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DETAIL OF JOINT AT '!J'

 94
hung by passing the eyes of the straps over the pins or gudgeons which are
welded to back plates bolted to the frame. Sometimes doors are not provided
with frames and are hung by engaging the eyes of the straps in gudgeon hooks
smithed to wrought iron lugs (see Q). The lugs are secured to the stonework,
mortices being cut to receive them. After insertion, the lugs are well caulked
with lead and the reason for the dovetail shape and ragged surface is to give
a greater key for the lead and increase its holding power. The heavy cast iron
hinge (see w, Fig. 45) is another type of fastening used for very large doors.
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
JOINERY
at A is called a laminated flush door and consists of a core of strips of wood glued
together under great pressure and faced on each side by a sheet of three thin
layers or veneers of wood, called plywood (see p. 95), which is also glued under
pressure to the core. Sheets of plywood can be obtained up to 8-ft. in width,
and therefore a flush door has the appearance of a single panel. As shown at E,
the core consists of xi-in . wide softwood strips or ~-in. wide hardwood strips.
These strips are arranged with the grain alternating, as shown ; this reduces

A pair of these hinges are bolted to the door and the pins on them engage in
sockets fixed to the frame.
Butt hinges (see Y, Fig. 45) are aften used for hanging this type of door.
The flanges or wings of the hinges are made of either cast iron, malleable iron
or steel, and they increase in t-in. units from 1 to 6-in. long. The knucMe consists
of a central pin which passes through alternate eyes of each wing to form five
segments. The wings have countersunk holes to receive the heads of the
screws used to secure the wings to the door and frame.
The door is hung by butt hinges in the following manner : It is fitted into the
frame and trimmed so as to leave a uniform clearance of y-,r-in. (see p . 88). The
door is removed and one wing of each hinge is screwed to the edge of the hanging
stile. This is done by forming slight housings in correct position on the stile to receive
a wing of each hinge which is screwed to the door. The door is again placed into
the opening, wedged temporarily (p. 88), and brought to the required position.
The housings for the free wings are marked on the post, the door is removed and the
housings are formed. The door is placed finally in position and the wings of the hinges
are screwed to the post (see K, Fig. 52). In order that the door shall swing freely,
the centre of the pin of the top hinge should be fe--in. beyond the face of the door and
that of the bottom hinge should be :f-in. clear.
A description of the skew butt hinge shown at z, Fig. 45, and its application
is given on p. 103.
Hardware.- That for this door may be as previously described. If provision
is required (for purposes of ventilation, etc.) to enable the door to be kept slightly
open and yet secure from unauthorized entry from the outside, then a door
chain as shown at v, Fig. 45, may be fixed on the inside. This fitting may be
either of malleable iron, brass or bronze. The plate to which the slotted shoot SCALE I=Ott.. At., B
~-----=>1
is attached is screwed in a horizontal position to the inside face of the door, and SCALE FOtt.. E t., F INC»ES
the staple to which the chain is fastened is screwed to the post. The free end of
the chain is in the form of a stud which may be inserted in the slot at the end shrinkage and distortion. A hardwood edging is fixed to cover the core and
farthest from the staple only when the door is closed. The door may be opened the edges of the plywood ; this prevents the latter from being damaged, par-
to a maximum of 4 or s-in., when the stud is passed along the slot, and the stud ticularly at the striking edge. A lamir..ated flush door is heavy and requires
cannot be removed from the outside. much material, and another type, called a framed flush door (see B, Fig. 47), has
(e) PANELLED DooR (see Figs. 48, so, 51, 52 and 54).-A panelled door been evolved and is extensively used. It consists of a wood frame comprising
consists of a framing or rim which is grooved on the inside edges to receive one stiles, top and bottom rails, and thin intermediate rails, and this frame is covered
or more panels. on both sides by sheets of plywood. The 3-in. deep top and bottom rails are
Within recent years a new type of door has been developed called the flush tenoned to the stiles, and the thin (x-in.) intermediate rails are stub-tenoned to
door.l Two of the many varieties of flush door are shown in Fig. 47· That the stiles. The joints of the framing are glued and cramped, and the plywood
1 An extended description is given on pp. 68, 70 and 71. Vol. III. sheets :1re glued to the framing under great pressure. Lock blocks are provided
 PANELLED DOORS
as shown at B for the insertion of a mortice lock. An alternative form of
hardwood edging to that at E is shown in the detail F. The finished thickness
of both types of door is 1~-in.
TYPES OF PANELLED DooRs.-Several designs of panelled doors are shown
at A to H (inclusive), Fig. 48. The members of the frame not already mentioned
include the muntin, which, at c, is the short vertical piece between the botto111
and middle rails. Note in every case : ( r) the stiles are continuous from top
to bottom, (2) the top, bottom, middle and intermediate rails are joined to the
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
stiles and (3) the muntins are joined to the rails (see later).
The nominal thickness of the framing may be rt, rt, r£ or 2-in., depending
upon (r) the size of door, (2) the situation (external doors are usually thicker
than those fixed internally), (3) the type of lock to be used (a minimum thickness
of 1 ~-in. is necessary for mortice locks), (4) the thickness of the panels and (5)
the size of the panel mouldings .
The panels may be solid (as shown at J, R and v, Fig. 48) or they may
consist of laminated wood 1 such as plywood and laminboard (see N and
A', Fig. 48). The minimum thickness of solid panels is ~-in. (nominal);
whereas that of plywood consisting of three veneers (termed " 3-ply ") is
from -1\ - to !-in.
Treatment of Panels.- The finishes which may be applied to panels are many
and varied. The panels may be finished with simple or intricate _mouldings,
or they may be left plain without mouldings. Elaborate mouldings may harbour
dust and are difficult to keep clean. They may be expensive to produce, especially
if mitred by hand (see later). As will be explained, most doors are now machine-
made, and in their manufacture it is the aim to eliminate as far as possible labours
performed by hand.
The following are the various panel finishes :-
Square.-No mouldings are provided, the edges of the framing next to the
panels being left square (see J and K, Fig. 48, and o, Fig. 54) ; J shows the
corner slightly rounded by sand-papering and is called " pencil-rounded." The
panels are known as square sunk or flat (see E, F and H, Fig. 48). Chamfered
edges, as shown at L and M, are an alternative. These finishes are much in
evidence, and, provided the panels are well proportioned, such simple treatment
has much to commend it.
Solid or Stuck Moulding.-The mouldings are" stuck" (meaning" worked")
on the edges of the framing. Various examples are shown at L toY (inclusive),
Fig. 48. Note that in most cases the width of each mould is equal to the depth
1 A detailed description of the manufacture and uses of plywood and similar veneered
products is given in Vol. III. Briefly, plywood consists of three or more thin sheets of
wood which have been carefully dried, glued, pressed and trimmed off. Columbian
pine, birch, oak and maple are some of the timbers used. Round logs are cut into from
5 to 8-ft. lengths, steamed, and subsequently each is placed hori:wntally into a machine
called a rotary veneer cutter which grips it at the ends. The machine rotates the log
against the edge of a long knife which extends the full width of the machine and cuts
the timber into a continuous sheet.
95
of the groove prepared to receive the panel (see the broken lines at R, s and Y) ;
the operations of moulding and framing by machinery are simplified when this
is observed.
The joints at the angles of solid mouldings are scribed to give 45 ° mitres or
intersections. Scribi11g is the shaping of a moulding which is required to fit
against a similar but continuous moulding. This is illustrated at c and o,
Fig. 49, which shows a bottom (or intermediate) rail scribed to a stile. The
latter has an ovalo (or quadrant) mould worked on it for its entire length and
the shoulders of the rail are hollowed out to fit accurately over the ovalo mould
on the stile. This is shown clearly on the plan at c which indicates the shaped
end of the rail separated from the stile ; this results in a 45° mitre as shown at
D and E. This mould and the solid mouldings shown at L to u (inclusive),
Fig. 48, can be machine-scribed and are therefore comparatively inexpensive ;
whereas those at v toY (inclusive) can only be mitred by hand and are accordingly
expensive.
Planted Moulding.-These are separate mouldings which are " planted "
round the panels adjacent to the framing. Examples of these are shown at
A', B', c' and o', Fig. 48. The mouldings are nailed to the framing and the
nails must not pass through the panels, otherwise the panels will crack owing to
the internal stresses set up when the timber shrinks. It is important to allow
for the free movement of the panels (when the wood shrinks or expands) and
there should be a space of from 11ii to g-in. between each edge of the panel and
the groove; the clearance in each of the examples shown in Fig. 48 is -11t,-in.
"Panel pins" (see F, Fig. 66) are used for fixing these moulds, as the small heads
are inconspicuous and cause the minimum damage to the mouldings.
Planted moulds are formed with mitred joints at the angles (see A and B,
Fig. 49), each adjacent end of the moulding being cut at an angle of 45°.
Planted mouldings which finish level with the face of the framing are called
flush mouldings (see L, Fig. sr). Those which project beyond the face of the
framing are called bolection mouldings (see F', c' and n', Fig. 48, P, Fig. so, and
K, Fig. 52) ; these are usually rebated over the edges of the framing to cover
any shrinkage which may take place.
Occasionally the panels are made with one face flush with the framing ;
these are termed flush panels (see c, Fig. 48). A bead (see E') is usually formed
on the vertical edges of the panel to render less conspicuous any openings which
may occur if the panels shrink ; these are called bead butt panels (c). If in
addition a similar bead is worked on the horizontal edges of the panel, such are
called bead flush panels.
Raised Panels.- The central portion of the panel is thicker than the edges or
margin. That at n', Fig. 48, shows the panel chamfered from the edge of the
moulding to leave a fiat or " fielded " central portion ; such is called a raised
and flat or raised and fielded panel. . That at P, Fig. so, is known as a raised,
sunk and fielded panel. Sometimes the edges of the sinking next to the central
fiat portion is moulded, when the panel is said to be raised, sunk and moulded.
 TYPES OF DOORS 6 PANEL MOULDINGS r----::>:- 8"-------l

c
TOP PJ..IL- TOP AAIL

H tJ-
TOP RAIL- TOP RA-IL TOP RAIL- TOP R"IL

E F
A B FLUSrt FL"T

r;r
PANH...._ / /
PLA-NTED PANEL)
/MOULD- INTE?.MEDIATE
5EAD BUTT....-
RAIL~
BOLECTIO
MOULD-

{'
v M!DDLE RAIL! MIDDLE RAIV / MIDDLE RAIL)

D
co 3
TIL ee,..J; } TILE «>
~JV..!!:C
~ I ~
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

I I
lb AAISED
I/ I/ J ~
iO
PANE/
II I II
Mufri1 MIJNTINS FLAT PANELS MUNTINS
II /
/
BOTTOM AAIY BOTTOMAA17 80TTOMAAIL BOTTOM RAIL BOTTOMAAIL BOTTOM RAIL BOTTOM IW~ 60TTOMIW~

SINGLE PANEL TWO PANEL THREE PANEL FOUR PANEL FOUR PANeL FIVE PANEL SIX PANEL SIX PANEL

f - - - - - - - - - - - MOULDS CAN BE M!ICHINE SCRIBED ----------1

f------------ S 0 L I D OR.
NOTE: MINIMUM CLE ....JV.NCE 8ETWIOEN GROOVE ~ EDGE OF PANEL IS V16~
WIDTH OF SOLID MOULDINO J;QUALS PEPTii OF GRO.OVE- SEE &ROJ<.EN LINES ..._T R, S e, '/.

1------:liQ" - - - - - l
1------B 0 L E C T I 0 N

_E'I"1'4 ~I :~I
SC}ILE FOil. J;LEV....TIONS
J I' II" 1" 1"1
SCJo.LE FOP, DETJo.ILS
:~I FIGU~ 48
INCHES
 SINGLE PANELLED DOOR
A raised and chamfered panel, when square, is chamfered from a central point
down to each edge of the moulding ; when the panel is oblong, the chamfered
margins meet to form a ridge.
Sunk Moulding.- This is formed below the surface ; the sinking is usually
continued to form a sunh panel and the portion of panel enclosed by the moulding
may be below or flush with the outer margin. The panel is thus formed out of
the solid.
Examples of panels and mouldings are shown in the elevations in Fig. 48.
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
97
pp. 86-87. The outside edges of this frame may be pencil rounded by sand-
papering them, or they may be ovolo or ogee moulded and thus rendered less
liable to damage than if left square.
External doors are usually prepared with 2-in. (nominal) 1 thick framing,
especially if they are fitted with mortice locks, although there is no constructional
reason why such doors of average size should exceed It-in. in thickness if they
are fitted with rim locks. In the illustrated example the door is 2-in. thick on
account of the thick panel which is necessary because of its large size. Full

Students are advised to cultivate the habit of drawing details involving mouldings
to full size scale rather than make sketch details which are very frequently far too
small. They should realize that it is not always necessary to show mouldings con-
sisting of many small members and fillets, for very often the simpler the mouldings
the better. In this connection it should be pointed out that whilst mouldings of
hardwoods may have small members, those of softwoods should not, for they are
difficult and expensive to make and disappear when two or three coats of paint are
applied.
The construction of panelled doors will now be considered.
size details must be drawn to the finished sizes. In accordance with the footnote
stated below the usual total allowance for painted work is equivalent to -P6 -in.,
when both faces are dressed and sand papered. If great care is exercised in
dressing expensive hardwoods, the total loss when dressing both sides may be
reduced to l-in., and this allowance has been made in the details shown in
Fig. so.
1 As previously mentioned, an allowance from the nominal sizes for dressed (finished

SINGLE PANELLED DooR (see Fig. so).- This is suitable for the main entrance
or net or wrought) work must be made. The usual allowance for work which is given a
smooth finish (as for painted work) is ,i--in. for each dressed surface plus 5\ -in. for san<;!
to a house. The construction ef the joints of the frame has been described on papering each surface (see pp. 6z and r 13).

fv~ITRED 6 SCRIBED JOINTS

FOR PANE
0 ~
I" I I I I " I II l - - - - - 1 f - - - - - - j
SCALE OF INCI;iES

,.,____
A
~·~

ELEVATION

BOTTOM RAIL______-
£DETACHED ~ROM THE
'STILE TO SHOW ITS
SHAPED Ofl. SCRIBED EDG
WHICH CON~ORMS WITH
THE CONTINUOUS SOLID
MOULD ON THE STILE.)

PLAN MITRED JOINT SCRIBED JOINT PLAN FIGURE 49 .·

 JOINERY
The joints of the framing of the door may be either (a) morticed and tenoned
or (b) dowelled.
(a) Morticed and Tenoned Joints.-These are similar to the joints of the
framed, !edged, braced and battened door shown in Fig. 46, and are illustrated
at ·H and L, Fig. so. The width of each tenon is zt-in. The grooves formed
along the inner edges 6f the framing to receive the panel are shown. The depth
of the grooves is usually made equal to the thickness of the panel, although it
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should not be less than ~-in. (see P, Fig. so, and the details in Fig. 48). A
clearance of k-in. is shown at P to allow for the free movement of the panel
(see p. 95).
(b) Dowelled Joints.-Typical dowelled joints are shown at J and M, Fig. 50 ;
that at J shows two dowels used to connect the top rail to the stile, and the detail
M shows the connection between the bottom rail and the stile where four dowels
are used. The dowels, which are machine-made, are of hardwood. Their
diameter should not be less than about one-third the thickness of the framing,
and a common size is s-in. by ~-in. (see o) ; they are placed at about 2-in. centres
(see M). The ends of the rails are bored, glue is applied to the edges of the
rails and the inside of the holes, and the glued dowels are inserted ; the stiles
are bored, the holes are glued, and the projecting portions of the rail dowels
are inserted. The dowels are grooved (see o) to increase the holding power of
the glue. Only well seasoned timber sl:ould be used if the joints are to be
do·welled, othenvise the shrinking and warping of unseasoned timber may cause
the dowels to snap, followed by the destruction of the joints.
This method of jointing is almost universally adopted for doors made by machinery
as it is a cheaper form than the mortice and tenon joint on account of the saving of
timber and labour which results. Whilst there is still much prejudice against the
dowelled joint it is being increasingly recognized that modern methods of production
have evolved a door, having dowelled joints, which is eminently satisfactory consider-
ing its relative low cost. Drastic changes have taken place in the making of doors ;
most imported doors and thousands of doors made daily by mass production methods
in this country have dowelled and not morticed and tenoned joints.
The door shown in Fig. sohas a i-in. (finished) thick raised, sunk and
fielded panel with bolection mouldings on hoth sides (see P) ; alternative
mouldings may be selected from Fig. 48. Whilst certain timbers, such as
mahogany, can be obtained of sufficient width to enable this wide panel to be
formed in one piece, it may be formed in two or three pieces carefully jointed
together. This jointing is done by shooting the edges of each piece to a true
plane so that the adjacent edges will make a good fit throughout the length of
each piece ; the edges are glued, fitted together, securely cramped until the
glue has set, when the panel is planed over to a smooth finish ; this is called
jointing. Any panel exceeding II-in. in width for an average good quality
internal door should be jointed in this manner.
Attention is drawn to the construction at the bottom of the door to prevent
the access of water (see Q). An oak (or similar hard wearing timber) sill or
threshold extends the full width of the door opening, well screwed to the floor
and bedded on mastic. The larger groove on the inside serves to catch any
water which may have penetrated and which escapes down the two boreholes.
The top of this threshold is approximately on a level with that of a door mat
(assuming that a "mat well "-which is not recommended as it is difficult to
keep clean-has not been provided). There is therefore little danger of
anyone tripping over the threshold. Incidentally, small sills or projecting
weather-bars are more dangerous in this respect than are deeper and wider sills.
An alternative method of weather exclusion is shown at R, Fig. so, the wrought-
iron weather-bar being let into the dovetailed sinking and secured with molten
lead, run in hot and afterwards well caulked (consolidated with a blunt chisel) ;
this lead is covered flush with the top of the step with cement mortar so as to
exclude rain-water which may otherwise cause discoloration. The moulded
weather-board is tongued into the bottom rail as shown and should fit as tightly
as practicable between the door posts; this throws rain clear of the threshold.
HARDWARE.-The door would be hung with three 4-in. butt hinges as
described on p. 94· It would be fitted with a 3-in. four-lever upright mortice
lock with striking plate (see s, Fig. so). This type of lock is necessary, for, owing
to the absence of a middle rail, the usual type of mortice lock (see H, Fig. 45)
would be too long, and the two handles shoulq be of the lever type as shown, for
if knobs were used (as illustrated at x', Fig. 45), injury to the hand may be caused
owing to their close proximity to the door post. The striking plate serves a
similar purpose for a mortice lock as does a staple for a rim lock, and is housed
and screwed to the rebate of the post after two small mortices to receive the
ends of the bolts have been cut in the post. The projecting lug on the plate is
slightly bent so that, when the bevelled latch bolt strikes it as the door is being
closed, the bolt will be gradually pressed in. This furniture may be obtained
in bronze, brass, chromium plated or oxidized silver metal, bakelite, etc.
A Cylinder Rim Night Latch with staple (seeM, N, o, P and Q, Fig. 54) would
be required in addition to the above lock. This is one of many patent locks
which are on the market and the complete latch consists of a bronze cylinder
fitting N, the latch o, and the staple P ; Q shows a section through the latch
attached to the door. _The fitting N comprises a separate circular rim with its
inner edge rebated to receive the circular face plate which is cast on the case
(see N and Q) ; the case contains the cylinder to which the spindle is attached
and this cylinder is caused to rotate within the case by the action of a key. The
latch bolt may be operated from the outside by the key which is inserted in the
cylinder to rotate both it and the spindle for the latter to cause the bolt mechanism
to function, or the bolt may be shot back from the staple by turning the knob
of the latch from the inside. The locking arm (see o) is used when required
to permanently fix the bolt so that it cannot be operated by either the key or
the knob, and thus the bolt may be fixed in the staple to afford greater security
or it may be fixed when it is clear of the staple.
The directions for fixing this cylinder latch are as follows : A 1!-in. diameter hole
is bored through the door, the centre of the hole being zi-in. from the edge of the door;
 Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

DOO~
SINGLE PANELLED

FEET
LL

I' TH-ICK. IV.15ED

e-FIELD7

!=IGUR.E 50
 IOO JOINERY
the cylinder fitting N is passed through the hole from the outside ; the back plate
(see Q) is screwed to the back of the door ; two long screws are then passed through
holes in the back plate to secure the lug attached to the case ; the end of the spindle
is passed through the bush of the latch o, and the latter is screwed to the back of the
door. The staple is screwed to the edge of the door.
One pair of antique bronze flush bolts may also be provided (see s, Fig. 45).
These are not so conspicuous as the barrel bolt type, as the back plate is screwed
through the stile in a housing formed to bring the plate flush with the face of
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the stile. The end of the bottom bolt slides into a metal socket (s') let into the
floor or s.tep, and the top bolt engages in a socket fitted into the head of the
frame.
Sometimes a letter plate, preferably of antique bronze, is required (see K
and L, Fig. 54). The flap opens inwards and is suspended on a horizontal rod
round one end of which is coiled a spring which forces the flap tightly against
the back of the plate. A mortice, approximately 6-in. long and 2-in. deep, is
made in the door with the horizontal edges splayed downwards (see L), and the
fitting, which entirely covers the hole, is secured to the door by means of two
screws which are threaded to stumps.
A door chain as described on p. 94 may be fixed.
DooR CASINGS OR LININGs.- Whilst external doors are hung to solid frames,
it is customary to fix internal doors to casings or linings which provide a suitable
finish to the openings. Casings are fixed to either (a) pallets, (b) plugs or (c)
grounds.
(a) Pallet pieces or slips, !-in. thick, are built into the bed joints at the jambs
of the openings as shown at Q, Fig. 44, and n, Fig. 5I, and at intervals as described
on p. 87. This method of fixing is very general.
(b) A cheaper and less satisfactory method is to plug the jambs. Wood
plugs (which should be of hardwood but are often made from pieces of floor
boards), shaped as shown at F, Fig. 5I, are driven into holes formed in the mortar
joints ; they are driven tightly up to their shoulders and would take the place
of the pallets shown at n, Fig. 51. The plug!? indicated at n would be used for
th€ fixing of architraves (seep. 122).
(c) Grounds.-As implied, the purpose of these is to provide a groundwork
for the casings and architraves. This method of fixing is now only adopted in
the best practice. The simplest form consists of £-in. thick pieces of undressed
timber (when they are called roughgrounds), 1 and are usually 3-in. wide, although
this depends upon the size of the architraves. They provide a continuous means
of fixing ior the casings such as is not afforded by -plugs or pallets. One edge
is sometimes splayed to afford a key for the plaster (see A, E, J, K, L and N,
Fig. 51). The jamb grounds are fixed in true alignment on each face of the
walls to plugs at intervals, and the head or soffitgrounds are nailed to the lintel
(see A). They project about £-in. beyond the jambs, depending upon the size
of the brick or stone opening and that of the door. In good work, the head
1 These are distinct from wrought grounds which are used in conjunction with
architraves (sec M, Fig. 5 I).
grounds are haunched tenoned and wedged to the jamb grounds (see P and E).
This preparation is all that is necessary for 4!-in. walls ; for thicker walls, how-
ever, 2-in. wide by ! or r-in. thick short horizontal bacl?ing pieces are fixed to
the edges of the grounds (see A, c, K, Land N). These cross pieces provide extra
means of fixing the wider casings and, if the ends are dovetailed and fitted into
notches formed in the grounds (see A and E), they are 'effective in preventing the
grounds from expanding and twisting when they absorb moisture from the
plaster, which is applied subsequently to the walls. The backings are fixe!"f
near to the top and bottom of the jambs and at about 2-ft. intervals.
There are three types of casings, i.e., {I) plain, (z) skeleton and (3) framed.
(r) Plain Casings .-These are usually prepared from rt-in. thick boards
and are suitable for openings in walls which do not exceed 9-in. thick. They
may be either single rebated (see D, G and H, Fig. 5I, and H and K, Fig. 52)
or double rebated (see A and K, Fig. 51, and B, c and n, Fig. 54). Alternatively,
in cheap work, a t or ~-in. thick stop is nailed to the casing, when the thickness
of the latter may then be reduced to I-in. (see], Fig. 51). Double rebating a
wide iining gives it a balanced appearance which is noticeable when the door is
open. The soffit casing is grooved or trenched to\ receive the to~gues formed on
the jamb linings (see G, Fig. 51). This groove extends to the outer edge when
softwood is to be used and which would be painted, but if the linings are of
hardwood and subsequently polished the groove in the soffit does not extend
right across but is stopped to house the abbreviated tongueas shown by thick
broken lines at o, Fig. 51.
(z) Skeleton Casings (see Band L, Fig. 51).-This type consists of a skeleton
jamb and soffit framing comprising 3-in. by r!--in. stuff to which tor ~-in. thick
boards or stops are nailed to give the appearance of a double rebated lining.
The short rails of the framing are tenoned to the long members, and the latter
of the soffit framing are tenoned to the jamb framing (see B). The short rails
should coincide with the backings and be nailed to them after the long members
have been secured to the rough grounds ; the stops are then nailed to the
framing. An alternative detail is shown at M to introduce a dressed or wrought
ground which requires only a small architrave. Skeleton linings for thick walls
are cheap and effective, although there is a danger of the wide stops splitting if
they shrink excessively, as movement is restricted when they are securely fixed
at their edges.
(3) Framed Casings (see c and N, Fig. 51).-This is the best form of lining
for openings in thick walls. It consists of panelled jamb and soffit frames, and
the construction conforms to the principles of panelled door construct~on.
The treatment of the panels should be in keeping with the design of the door.
This casing is fixed to the grounds and backings as described for a skeleton
lining.
Casings secured to grounds are less liable to damage during the subsequent
building operations than those fixed to plugs or pallets, as they are not fixed to
the grounds until after the plastering has been completed.
 DOOR CASINGS 6 METHODS OF FIXING PLANS SHOWINO JAM~ CASINGS

SKETCH SHOWING
GROUNDS t.- DOUBLE
REBATED Pl... IN
C...SINO - SEE ' K'

• 11 A~CHITR.IWE
~"PLASTER ><I" PL ... IN CASING
WITH
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j ra<l~-'~ 1 "Y.:!" STOP

STILE

•1'14" ... RCHITRAVE .

DEEP RE&ATE
;2Hx.J14• B...CKINO
lf.l"><IV::l" PLAIN CASING
(DOUJLE RE&...TEO)
FII.J.MED
JAMB '----U~I-­
CMINO

SKETCH /
SHOWING
FRAMED CASING-
ll••~'ollt. 'b' STOP SEE 1 N 1

~·PL ...

N
(SEE •c•)

SHOUL~

F~~ ,.
. PLUG
C
CAA:SING

OINT BETWEEN JAMB f,

DETAIL AT •p• T CASING

HET
;5h3.(t• SPLAYED ROUGH
JAMB GROUND FIGUR-E 51
 31/e'><l!4l"
ARCHITRAVE

f-~ ~"TI+ICK PANEL/

4''6UTT I+INGE-
:

-_. i~·-~~~~~~~~~E_ R~L=- ro,.

-~ 11 Tl-fiCK P..... NEL

~
UPI1.1GI+T
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

MORTICE
LOCK (<'0~
THICK OOCR.
OR
V : RJM LOCK.
(~OR 1'/:~Y
Tf<ICK DOORS)
'
''

NOTE I !·I
B''I'BOLECTION Moul6"
NOMINAL SIZoS ARE I
~IGU RED UPON SMALL
5CArLE DETAl LS. ''
~INIS ...oD SIZES ARE '
I=IUURED UPON LAR.Gf
SCALE DETA i lS. 4" •112" STILE
~· T ... ICK. PANEL"

1"""'---tt~-
A
!!:>" TI+ICK PANEL

B F
II
4 11 BUTT i+JNGE

r~
l 31/e' "13/B' TOP RAIL H
D E T A I L "E"

111&' •ll,ol::.;
BOLECTION

M'l"lN_G~~~~~~~------+t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~777?~~ INCHES
•F"
DETAIL
K FEE~ !=IGU ~E .5J
 TWO PANELLED DOOR
Although internal doors are generally fixed to casings, there are certain
exceptions. Thus, heavy internal doors (such as the framed, !edged, braced
and battened type), as used for warehouses, etc., are sometimes hung with
straps and gudgeon hooks fixed in jamb stones (see p. 94), and the casings
are then dispensed with. Another exception is shown at F, Fig. 4'5, where a
frame and not a casing is used. Internal coal-house, etc., doors are often fixed
to frames instead of casings.
Two PANELLED DooR (see B, Fig. 48, and Fig. 52).-,-The construction of the
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
103
butt hinges) instead of the ordinary butt hinges (see z, Fig. 45). These lifting
hinges cause the door to rise !-in. (and thus clear a mat or carpet) on heing
opened on account of the helical knuckle joint. The top edge of the door and
the rebate on the soffit of the casing must be splayed to permit of this vertical
movement. . These hinges are very conspicuous and are objected to for this
reason, although their appearance is somewhat improved if the knuckles are
provided with moulded ends.
A door stop is often used to prevent a door handle or projecting key from

framing is similar to that described for the single panelled door with the damaging the plaster or a piece of furniture situated near to a door. This stop
exception that provision has to be made for the middle or lock rail, so called as
the lock is usually secured to it. The height of this rail depends of course upon DETAIL OF TWIN TENON JOINT
the design, and whilst it was the invariable practice to make it at a convenient
height for the door handle (which is approximately 2-ft. g-in. to the centre of the
rail), this height is now often departed from . The position of the middle rail in
the door shown at B, Fig. 48, is such as to give two panels of equal height, whilst
the centre of the lock rail of the door in Fig. 52 is 4-ft. 8-in. from the floor.
It will be observed that, whilst the appearance of this latter door is satisfactory,
the position of the lock is not conveniently accessible for small children. If
this door is to be fitted with a rim lock, the middle rail will be formed with a
single tenon at each end when the rail is only 4-in. deep as shown, and with a
pair of single tenons at each end when the rail is 7-in. or wider. If, however,
a mortice lock is to be used, the door is often 2-in. thick, and the ends of the
lock rail will be prepared as follows : If it is a narrow rail, the end to be fitted
into the " hanging " stile will be prepared with a single tenon and the opposite
end will have two tenons (to form what is called a twin tenon) which are equal in
width to that of the rail less the depth of the panel grooves and with a space NOTE: COM&INED THICKNESS
between them equal to the thickness of the lock ; for a wider rail, the end secured OF TWIN T.J:NONS EQUA.l
V3 THICKNESS OF R.O.IL
to the hanging stile will have a pair of single tenons (as shown at A, Fig. 54) SECTION AA
whilst the opposite or " striking " end may have four tenons, usually called a
pair of twin tenons (see Fig. 53), in order that the preparation for the lock will
not weaken the joint. This latter figure shows the mortice lock in position. Note
that the combined thickness of the twin tenons equals one-third that of the rail. FIGURE 53
SCALE 0~ INCiiES
Mortice locks are now available which are only iu--in. thick and they obviate
the necessity for using twin tenons unless, for some special reason, a large lock is may be entirely of rubber or a rubber pad in a bronze fitting (see R, Fig. 54),
required. Another type of lock is triangular or wedge-shaped and necessitates for and it is screwed to the floor 1n such a position as to restrict the swing of
its accommodation the removal of only a small portion of the tenon.
the door.
A mortice lock is illustrated at Hand J, Fig. 45, and its mechanism is described FouR PANELLED DooR (seeD, Fig. 48, and Fig. 54).-This introduces two
on p. go. Note that the steel case is fixed to a steel fore-end to which is secured central members of the framing called muntins. Note that the stiles are con-
a brass face plate by two set-screws. tinuous for the full height of the door, the rails are tenoned into the stiles, and
It is necessary to keep the bottom of the door at least !-in. clear of the floor the muntins are stub tenoned into the rails for about 2-ip.. (see A and F, Fig. 54).
to enable it to pass a carpet with underfelt. It is advisable to screw to the The general construction follows very closely that already described. One
floor a i-in. thick hardwood slip with splayed or rounded edges in order to special advantage of this door is the narrow panels which are employed. These
minimise draughts (see J, Fig. 52). Alternatively the door may be hung with can be obtained in one width, and therefore jointing (described on p. g8) is
a pair of 4:~in. polished brass skew butt hinges (sometimes called lifting or rising eliminated.
 104 JOINERY
Whilst a rim lock is shown at A and B, Fig. 54, the less conspicuous mortice
lock with knob or lever handle furniture may be preferred.
Finger Plates were often fixed to both sides of the stile of a panelled door
just above (and sometimes below) the lock, but these are not now in much demand
unless there is a likelihood of damage being caused to the paint or varnish by
finger marks. These can be obtained in various sizes in bronze, oxidised silver,
etc. (see J, Fig. 54).
DooRs SHOWN AT c, E, F, G and H, Fig. 48.-A detailed description of these
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doors is not necessary for their construction will be readily understood on
reference to the details shown in respect to the single, two and four panelled
doors. In every case the stiles are continuous. the rails are either tenoned or
dowelled to them and the muntins are similarly secured to .the rails.
MANUFACTURE OF PANELLED DOORS.-Doors are either (a) manufactured by
machinery or (b) prepared principally by hand.
(a) MACHINE-MADE Doors.- Reference has been made on p. 98 to the
remarkable change in door-making which has taken place in recent years and
to the enormous number of doors which are machine made. Mass production
methods have been responsible for a large reduction in the cost of such doors
and this supplies the chief reason for the very big demand for them. In the
manufacture of what is termed a " standard " door the whole of the operations
of planing the timber, reducing it to the correct widths for the various members,
forming the joints, gluing and finally cramping the members together to form
both the frame and the door are done by machinery. Machinery is also em-
ployed to trim the door to the size of the frame, form the mortices for the locks
(including the keyhole and hole for the spindle) and screwing the hinges to the
door and frame.
Most of these doors are dowel jointed, as shown at J and M, Fig. so, and the
following is a brief description of the operations involved in the manufacture of
such doors : The timber is sawn to suitable scantlings, artificially seasoned
(which occupies from three to four days), taken to the planing machine where
it is surfaced on both sides and edges, sawing machines cut the door panels,
stiles and rails into correct widths, rails are bored, glued and dowelled by a
machine in one operation, stiles are bored by a machine, glue is applied
(" squirted ") into the dowel holes in the stiles, rails with their projecting dowels
are fitted into the holes in the stiles after the panels have been slipped into the
grooves and, finally, the assembled members are cramped together to complete
the door.
The better grade doors are used for good class work, but the majority of
the cheaper doors are used for the more lowly priced houses.
(b) HAND-MADE DooRs.- Whilst machinery has eliminated most of the
operations which were formerly performed by hand, there is still a demand for
doors and similar framework which require a certain amount of hand preparation.
This applies particularly to the highest quality framed and panelled doors and
those which are not of standard size. The operations involved are : . (I) setting
out, (2) forming mortices and tenons, (3) gluing and wedging up and (4) clean-
ing off.
(I) Setting Out.-This is the reproduction on a board (called a setting out
rod) of the full size details of the door such as may have been prepared by the
architect. This rod is usually of yellow pine or similar soft straight grained
timber which is free from knots and is from 8 to ro-ft. long, 7 to II-in. wide
and i to !-in. thick ; both edges are planed straight and parallel, and both
sides, after being planed and smooth finished with fine glass paper, are either
chalked or brushed over with a mixture of whiting ·and thin glue.
For a framed piece, such as a door, the rod would be set out as shown at A,
Fig. 55, which indicates full size vertical and horizontal sections of the four-
panelled door, casing, etc. illustrated in Fig. 54· Alternatively, the vertical
section, called the height rod, is set out on one face of the board, and the horizontal
section, called the width rod, is detailed on the reverse. The reference number of
the contract, number of doors required, etc. are indicated on the rod.
The pieces of timber to be used for the various members should be carefully
selected to obviate waste during conversion. If machinery is not available,
each piece is cut down by means of a rip saw (seep. 127) and across the grain
by a panel saw (seep. 127). The stuff is then trued up. This is done by first
testing for" winding" or" twist." A pair of winding strips (pieces of carefully
dressed mahogany, 14-in. by 2-in. by t-in., with parallel edges) is used for this
purpose, one being placed at each end on top and at right angles to the length
of the timber when lying flat on the joiners' bench. If these strips are not
parallel when sighting along their upper edges a jack plane (see 21, Fig. 67) is
applied to the stuff until the highest parts are removed and the surface is perfectly
true as proved by the strips and a straight edge. A trying plane (see 26, Fig. 67)
is then used to give a smooth finish. The joiner pencils his characteristic mark,
called a face side mark (see E and G, Fig. ss), on the face and this should always
point towards the best edge. This edge, called the face edge, is then dressed by
a jack plane and subsequently by a trying plane until it is straight, smooth and
at right angles to the dressed face, a try square {E, Fig. 55) being used to test for
squareness. He pencils his face edge mark on this edge and this may be a single
stroke as a continuation of the face side mark (see F). Both face side and face
edge must be perfectly true as all subsequent gauging and setting out operations
are referred to them. A marking gauge (see 4, Fig. 67) is now used to mark off
the width of the member, this mark being continuous from end to end and
parallel to the face edge. A plane is applied to dress down to the gauge mark to
form the back edge. The piece is gauged to the required thickness and the
back face is then planed to remove any excess of wood down to the gauge mark.
The whole of the members having been dressed in this manner are marked,
the position of the rails, depth of grooves, etc., being transferred to them from the
setting out rod A. Thus, commencing with the stiles, one is placed on the
height rod and the positions of the rails and t-in. depth of panel grooves are
pricked on its face edge (see F, Fig. 55, which shows the lines transferred from
 9" ><.3" LINTEL
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FIGURE 54
 106 JOINERY
the rod). The mortices for the rail tenons are then set out on the face edge of the
stile. This and the second stile, together with the muntins, are placed as shown
atE, and, aided by the try square, the shoulders (see J) are squared down. The
muntins are removed and squared all round for the shoulders which are to fit
against the .edges of the rails. The mortice lines are set out on the face edge of
the second stile as shown at F, and as indicated, some joiners emphasize the
mortices by drawing blue pencil lines between the mortice lines. The mortice
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lines are squared over to the back edge of each stile (see broken lines at F) and
the positions of the l-in. thick wedges are .marked on the back edge (see G).
Note that the length of the stiles exceeds slightly that shown on the rod.
The setting out of the rails from the width rod (see A) is similar to that
described for stiles. The setting out for muntins, shoulders and haunches (or
haunchings) on the top rail is shown at K, and the middle rail is shown set out
at L-the latter indicating the names applied to the various lines.
(2) Forming Mortices and Tenons.-The stiles are now morticed. If a
mortising machine is not available, the mortices are made ~ith a mortise chisel
(see p. 128) and mallet (see 23, Fig. 67). A mortise gauge (9, Fig. 67) is used
to scribe or mark the mortices on each edge of the stile, the points of the gauge
being set to the width of the chisel which should equal one-third the thickness
of the stuff. These mortices are always gauged from the face side of each stile.
Each mortice is cut half-way through, commencing at the centre of the back
edge and removing the core by small cuts, and then the mortice is completed
from the face edge in a similar manner. A core-driver (a piece of hardwood the
size of the mortice) is punched through from the face edge to the back edge
to " clean " each mortice and a paring chisel (35, Fig. 67) is used to finish off.
The 2-in. deep stpb mortices are formed on the rails to receive the tenons at
the ends of the muntins.
The ends of the rails are gauged from the face side as shown at B, Fig. 55·
The " mortice lines " are rip sawn down to the " haunch lines," the " waste "
is removed, and the "gauge lines "are sawn down to the" shoulder lines "(see
c). Both ends of each rail are treated in this manner. The panel groove is
then formed by means of a plough (31, Fig. 67) on the face edge from end to
end of each stile, the top or face edge of the bottom rail, both edges of the
middle rail, the bottom or face edge of the top rail and both edges of each muntin ;
the plough iron must be of the proper size, be set at the correct depth (!-in.
in this case), and the plough must always be worked from the face side of each
member. The tenon cheeks (outer portions) are now removed by using the
tenon saw (13, Fig. 67) to carefully cut down the centre of the shoulder lines to
complete the end as shown at D, Fig. 55· The tenons on the muntins are formed
in a similar manner.
Mter the corners of the tenons have been chiselled off so that they may readily
engage in the mortices, the whole of the members are assembled temporarily
to see if the joints fit accurately, and the framing is put aside pending the
preparation of the panels.
The panels are then made. The dimensions are taken from the rod or
framing, one face and edge are planed with the trying plane, and the face and
edge marks are put on these. A panel gauge (see p. 127) is used to mark the
required width, the panel is cut along this line, and the ends are squared and
cut off to the exact size. The panel is now mulleted or gauged; the mullet-
a piece of wood grooved to the required size (see H, Fig. 55)-is slipped along
the edges of the panel to indicate any excessively thick places which are eased
by planing. The four panels are made in this manner, the sides are smoothed
by a smoothing plane (see p. 128), glass paper is rubbed across the grain, and
the panels are inserted temporarily in the framing by removing one stile at a
time.
(3) Gluing and Wedging Up.-Two pieces of scantling are placed on the
bench as shown at J, Fig. 55· A cramp is necessary to ensure that the shoulders
of the various members fit tightly.
One form of cramp, called a T-cramp, is shown at J. It consists of a steel bar of
T-section which is from If to z!-in. deep, ! to 1-in. at its flange or widest part, and
from 2 to 7ft. long ; it has a series of !-in. diameter holes along its length into which
a 3-in. by t-in. round steel taper peg is inserted ; this peg is attached by a chain to
a shoe, the jaws of which pass over the flange of the bar to enable the shoe to slide
along it ; at the other end of the bar there is a metal head which is threaded to allow
the working of a screw which has a rectangular plate at one end having jaws which
slide along the bar flange when the metal rod handle is rotated. An extension bar
may be fitted to the cramp in order that it may be used for large framings.
A joiner and an apprentice generally work together when gluing up a door.
The door is taken to pieces and both sides of the tenons and the insides of the
mortices are glued ; it is at once reassembled ; the cramp is then used. Com-
mencing at the middle rail, the cramp is fixed in the position as shown at J ;
the shoe is slid along to the required position, the peg is inserted in the appropriate
hole, small protecting blocks of wood are placed between the stiles and the shoe
and screw cheeks, and the cramp is then screwed up tightly to bring the shoulders
right up. The wedges are dipped into the glue-pot and tightly driven in at each
end. The cramp is moved to the bottom rail (shown by broken lines at J),
tightened up and wedged as before described, the bottom wedge being driven
first so as to bring the shoulders of the bottom muntin tight up against the
rails. The cramp is finally moved to the third position along the top rail, glued
wedges are inserted and driven home, the top wedge at each end being fixed
first so as to move the top rail to close the joints between the top muntin and
rails. The cramp is removed and the projecting ends of the rails are sawn off.
(4) Cleaning Off.-Any superfluous glue is removed by a chisel from the
joints, commencing on the face side of the door. The trying plane is applied
on the muntins to bring them level with the rails and the latter are levelled to
the face of the stiles, any inequalities at the shoulders being removed. A
smoothing plane is then used, and if necessary the surfaces are scraped before
being glass papered. The other side is treated similarly. The outer edges of
the door are not planed, nor are the horns removed, until the door is being hung
in position.
 ~ cr
SETTING OUT 6 HAND PREPARATION OF DOORS
D
'&' SHOWS END OF !tAIL M.a.RKED.
•C• SI+OWS WMTE REMOVED.
'D" SHOWS COMPLETED
TENON~.
DOORS-WIN DOWS
If the door is moulded, the hand operations vary with the type of mould.
Thus, if the panels are to have solid mouldings, the face edges of the stiles, rails
and muntins will be moulded to the required shape by means of the appropriate
FACE -SII)6-fiU.Illl(;;('/
moulding plane (see p. 129) before they are assembled. The moulded edges of
the stiles will be continuous, those on the rails will be scribed to them (see
Fig. 49) and those on the muntins will be scribed to the rail mouldings. If
t{,REPARATION OF TENONS
FOR BOTTOM AAIL planted mouldings are required, they are formed by moulding planes to the
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required section shown on the rod. Mouldings are planted in the following
manner: The ends of each piece are cut to a 45° mitre-a mitre block (see 51,
Fig. 67) being used for this purpose; the two short lengths are placed in position
and the two longer pieces are " sprung " into place ; the mouldings are nailed
to the framing and the nail heads are punched. Each panel is treated in this
manner.1
The operations involved in framing the casing will be understood from the
foregoing description.
Cutting lists are prepared which give the reference number of the job,
together with the number, lengths and nominal and finished widths of the stiles,
rails, etc., comprising the door. These lists are available for the workmen
responsible for setting out and preparing the various members.

WINDOWS
A window includes the frame and one or more sashes which ,ate glazed.
The frame may have solid wood members or it may be constructed of com-
paratively thin pieces to form what is called a cased or boxed frame. The sashes
may be fixed or made to open. The latter, when associated with a solid frame,
may be attached by hinges to enable the sash to open either outwards or inwards
like a door, or it may be hinged at the lower edge to open inwards, or it may be
hung at the top edge to open outwards. Another type of sash is pivoted at the
centre to open with the upper half swinging inwards, and another form consists
of one or more sashes which slide horizontally. Sashes when made to open in a
cased frame slide vertically.
1 As previously mentioned, the extensive use of woodworking machinery has eliminated
most of the labours formerly done by hand, and even if standard machine-made doors
as described on p. 104 are not required, many of the operations detailed on pp. 104-107
would be performed by machines. Thus the stiles, rails and muntins would be cut into
lengths and widths by the circular saw ; they would be faced and edged on a surface planer
and taken to a uniform width and thickness on a thicknessing machine ; the tenons
would be formed by a tenoning machine and the mortices by a mortising machine ; if
required, they would be solid moulded on the spindle moulding machine. Many of these
operations can be done by a combined machine called a general joiner. The panels would
be finished by a panel planer. Planted mouldings could be prepared on the spindle
moulder. After being assembled and cramped, the door would be given a smooth finish
by a sand papering machine. .
Whilst some of these larger and more expensive machines are not available in the smaller
shops, there are comparatively few firms who have not a circular saw and mortising and
tenoning machines, and are thereby enabled to reduce some of the relatively costly hand
labours.
FIGU~ SS Va.r ious woodworking machines are described in ChapterTwelve, Vol. III
SCALf FEET
 I08 JOINERY
According to the Model Bye-iaws, I937, the minimum area of a window or
windows shall be one-tenth of the floor area of the room, and at least half of this
area shall be made to open for ventilation. Actually, the window area is fre-
quently at least equal to one-quarter the floor area and most, if not all, of the
sashes are made to open.
Those windows which are to receive extended treatment here are (a) solid
frames with vertically hung sashes which open outwards, and (b) cased frames
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with vertical sliding sashes.
(a) WINDOWS WITH SOLID FRAMES AND VERTICALLY HUNG SASHES OPENING
OuTWARDS (see Figs. s6, 57. s8 and 59).-Sashes which are made to open like
a door are called casements, and the window is usually specified as a casement
zoindow. It is adopted extensively. 1
FRAME.-If the window has only one sash (see A, Fig. 56), the frame consists
of two vertical posts, stiles or jambs, a head and a wood sill. If it has two sashes
(see B, Fig. 56), the additional vertical member is called a mullion. If the frame
has a horizontal dividing member (called a transome) in addition to mullions,
the appearance resembles that shown in Fig. 22, except that the members
are of wood instead of stone.
Details A, B and c, Fig. s8, show typical joints of a window frame. Note
that the jamb is haunched tenoned at each end and the head and sill are morticed
to receive the tenons and wedges. The outer shoulder of the lower end of the
jamb is scribed to the sill (see Band Section EE at c). These joints are sometimes
pinned as described for door frames. The frames may be fixed as described
on p. 87, the horns being removed if the frames are fixed after the walling
has been completed. The bedding and pointing of the frames must receive
special attention if they are not to be built in recesses. The head and jambs
are rebated, t to ~-in. deep, to receive the sash. The inside edge of the frame
may be square, pencil rounded, chamfered, ovolo-moulded, etc., as shown.
The capillary grooves are referred to on p. I I I.
The sill is sunk-weathered to cast off rain-water. Special attention must be
paid to the bed joint between the wood sill and the stone or brick sill, as it is
particularly vulnerable. Precautions taken to prevent the access of rain at this
point include (ll) the provision of a metal water bar, (b) lead tucked into a groove
formed in the sill and continued as a covering to the brick sill, and (c) a mortar
tongue formed in the groove of the sill. ·with reference to :
(a), A groove is formed in the brick sill (see Q, Fig. 6o) or stone sill (see L
and o, Fig. 25, and Detail T, Fig. 56) and the I-in. by ±-in. galvanized wrought
iron water (or " weather ") bar, which is the full length of the sill, is partially
inserted and bedded in cement mortar. The groove in the wood sill is filled with
a mi xture of white lead ground in linseed oil and the frame is firmly bedded on
the mortar spread to receive it with the projecting bar engaging in the groove.
(b), The brick sill is covered with lead (weighing 4 or s-Ib. per sq. ft.) which
1 \Vimlows consisting of mild steel frames and casements {sometimes glazed with
"leaded lights") are very popular. Th,,se arc det,liled in Chapter Thirteen, Vol. III.
has been bossed (shapeJ) by the plumber and the frame is carefully placed in
position with the upturned portion of the lead fitting into the groove of the wood
sill (seeD and E, Figs. s8 and 59) ; the efficiency of this joint is increased if white
lead mastic is spread along the edge of the lead before the frame is fitted. The
lead projects ~--in. beyond the face of the wall and the outer edge is turned under
to give a double thickness which adds to its appearance, increases its stiffness
and makes it more effective in throwing the \Vater clear of the face of the wall.l
A water bar, as described above, is sometimes used in addition to the lead, the
upturned edge of the lead being dressed over the upper edge of the bar.
(c), This is adopted in cheap work and is not a reliable method (see o, Fig.
s6); the groove may be rounded (see A and B, Fig. I6).
In a mullioned and transomed window the transome is the continuous
member and is tenoned into the jambs ; the upper and lower mullions are
tenoned into the head and transome and the sill and transome respectively.
Scantlings of Frame.-Heads, jambs, mullions and transomes are generally
either 4-in. by 2l-in., 4-in. by 3-in. or 4! -in. by 3-in. ; sills vary from
4-in. by 2!-in., 4-in. by 3-in., 4~-in. by 3-in., 41-in. by 3l -in., s-in.
by 3-in. and 7-in. by 3-in. These sizes may be exceeded for large frames.
For ordinary good-class work it is usual to specify redwood for the head,
jambs, ·mullions and transomes, and either oak, teak or pitch pine for the sill ;
for first-class work the whole of the frame may be specified to be in oak or teak.
SASHES.-The members of a sash or. casement are similar to those of a door,
i.e., two vertical stiles, a top rail and a bottom rail. In addition, a sash may be
divided by both horizontal and vertical bars or horizontal bars only. These
are called glazing bars or sash bars or astragals.
The construction of the sashes is illustrated at H, J and K, Fig. 58, which
show the top and bottom rails tenoned and wedged to the stiles. The pro-
jecting ends of the tenons and wedges are of course removed before the sash is
fixed .
The joints between glazing bars are shown at M and N, Fig. s8. The scribed
joint at M shows the horizontal bar to be continuous and morticed to receive the
tenons formed on the ends of the vertical bars. The chamfered mould on the
latter is scribed to the moulding on the horizontal bar. This is the commonest
form of joint. The franked joint at N shows the continuous horizontal bar
morticed to receive the halved and haunched tenons worked on the vertical bars.
Another satisfactory method of jointing glazing bars is halving and this is shown
at M, Fig. 61. All of these joints are glued immediately before assembly.
In both the scribed and franked joints the continuous bars may b e eith er hori-
zontal or vertical, depending upon circumstances. For casements, greater stiffness
to the sash is obtained if the short horizontal bars are made continuous and the lengths
of vertical members t enoned into them ; for vertical sliding sashes {see later) it is
customary to m ake the vertical bars continuous ; in the halved joint both horizontal
and vertical bars are continuous.
1 If the frame is set back to form a 4i-in. outer reveal, the increased w idth of leaJ
should b e secured by a lead don·e/ formed in the middle of the brick or stone sill (see p . I so).
 ~
K
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11~11

u v
• 5"
F I 0

FRAMES TO BE REBATED
Y.l' DEEP FOR SASHES

H DETA I L "U" J DETAIL "V"

 IIO JOINERY
The ends of the bars are tenoned and scribed to the sash stiles or rails.
The sash is rebated for glazing ; these rebates are from i to ! -in. wide by
approximately !-in. deep. The glass is secured by either putty 1 (see Figs.
56 and 57· and D and F, Fig. 58) or small fillets called glazing beads (see E and G,
Fig. 58). Note that the rebates for the glass are on the outside when putty is
used and are on the inside when beads are adopted. The glass is usually sheet
glass 2 and is specified by its weight per superficial foot, i.e., r8, 24, 26 and 32-oz.,
which are respectively j~, 1J, ! and !-in. thick. The weight of glass for small
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panes is usually 18 or 24-oz. Polished plate glass 3 is sometimes used for glazing
windows in first class work. This is specified according to its thickness, the
usual thickness being -f\,-in., although !-in. plate glass is used for large sheets.
Small metal sprigs (which are without heads) are driven in as shown in the
A
various details to temporarily retain the glass in position until the putty is set.
Glazing beads should be secured by small screws-" cups and screws " (see ]'
and R, Fig. 6o, and o,. Fig. 66)-rather than nails to allow for ready removal
when broken panes have to be replaced. The glass should be well bedded
in putty before the beads are fixed to prevent the entrance of water.
Scantlings of Sashes.-These vary with the size of sash. Small sashes may
be r!-in. (nominal) thick, average sized sashes should be r!-in. thick and large
sashes may be 2-in. thick. The stiles and top rails are generally 2-in. wide with
deeper (2! to 3! -in.) bottom rails to give added strength and an improved
appearance. The glazing bars are equal to the thickness of the frame and are
out of 1 or r!-in . thick stuff, the latter being reduced to r-in. finished thickness
uriless the sheets of glass are large.
The bottom of the inside of the opening is shown finished with a 1 or r!-in.
(nominal) thick window board. This is tongued into the wood sill (to prevent
any open joint showing when the board shrinks). To prevent it casting or c
twisting, it is secured to plugs driven into the vertical joints of the wall or
nailed to rt-in. thick bearers plugged to the top of the wall. Tiles may be
used instead of a wood window board to form an internal sill ; these may be
white or coloured glazed tiles (about !-in. thick) or they may be square quarry
tiles (about 1-in. thick) bedded on cement. An example of the latter finish is
shown at F, Fig. r6, and A, Fig. 57· •13/4" STILE
The following items, not already referred to, should be considered in con-
nection with Figs. 56, 57 and 58. The panes of glass are comparatively small
and the design is particularly suited for houses as the small sheets conform in
scale. A satisfactory proportion of pane is obtained if its height approximates
to the length of the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle having both sides
1 Putty is whiting ground in raw linseed oil.
2 Briefly, sheet glass is produced by fusing a mixture of sand, silicates of soda and lime,
etc. A tall hollow cylindrical sheet of uniform thickness is y.'ithdrawn from the tank con-
taining thi~ molten glass, cut into lengths, divided longitudinally, flattened and annealed.
3 Polished plate glass is formed by casting the molten material
on to a metal table,
rolling it to a uniform thickness, and subsequently grinding and polishing it smooth by
machinery.

FIGUR.E 51
 CASEMENTS
equal to the width (see T, Fig. 6o). A reasonable size is II-in. high by 7! to
8-in. wide and has been adopted in the elevations A and B, Fig. 56. The vertical
bars may be omitted to emphasize the effect of horizontality. The windows
at A and B are not built into recesses such as are shown at E, Fig. 8. This is a
weakness for, unless great care is taken in the bedding and pointing of the
frame, water may gain entrance between it and the wall. The reason why the
frame is shown in a square jamb is on account of the improved appearance which
results when the maximum amount of the frame is exposed. Sounder con-
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struction is shown in Fig. 57 and also by broken lines at F, Fig. 8. The frame
is checked to receive the plaster (see F, Fig. 56, and c, Fig. 57) or a cover mould,
such as is shown at H, Fig. 56, may be provided to hide any unsightly crack
which appears when the frame shrinks.
Notice particularly the small grooves which are shown in the rebate of the
frame and in the rails and stiles. These are capable of arresting water which
would otherwise proceed by capillarity between the sash and the frame to the
inside ; these grooves are also effective in reducing draughts.
The frame shown at D and F, Fig. 58, is wider than those shown in Fig. 56,
and this makes it possible for the sash to be set farther back and the underside
of the head to be throated ; excepting in heavy storms, this throat is effective
in causing the rain.to drop clear of the top r::jil.
The alternative details shown at E and G, Fig. 58, have been proved to result
in an excellent weather resisting window. One of the disadvantages of case-
ment windows is the expansion of the wood which may take place to cause the
sashes to " jam " or " bind." When this occurs, the sashes are " eased "
(the edges being planed to remove the excess timber) and there is a likelihood
of rain and wind entering the enlarged clearance when the timber shrinks sub-
sequently. Details E and G obviate these defects ; the cover fillet which is
screwed to the sash overlaps the frame t-in. and enables a !-in. clearance to be
provided which is an adequate allowance for any expansion of the timber that
may occur ; in addition, the fillets are effective in excluding rain and wind.
The throated hood or drip fillet, tongued to the head, affords an additional
protection. The sashes may be made thicker and shaped to include the fillet,
and the head of the frame may be made larger so that the hood may be formed
out of the solid.
The details shown in Fig. 57 are also recommended for adoption in buildings
which are exposed to severe weather conditions. Those at A and B show a
rebated jamb which gives a It-in. cover to the frame and the hanging stile of
the sash is rebated and tongued, the tongue being splayed as shown to enable
it to clear the frame when the sash is opened. If it is desired to show the full
frame and retain the rebated jamb, the latter may be reversed as shown at c.
Some of the window boards are shown finished with bed moulds which
are returned at the ends. These moulds are usually nailed to plugs and to the
window boards after the latter have been secured. Large moulds are fixed to
splayed grounds which are plugged to the wall (see R, Fig. 6o). The internal
III
soffits and jambs of the openings are shown plastered. These are called plastered
linings, and as lime plaster is easily damaged at the edges a satisfactory finish is
provided when a comparatively hard material, such as Keene's cement, is used
to form the arrises. A Keene's cement arris is at least 2-in. wide in each direction,
and narrow linings may be entirely covered with this cement instead of lime
(see c, D and K, Fig. 56). Wood angle beads (see L and M, Fig. 64) are often
used instead of cement arrises.
The brick lintel is shown at B and N, Fig. 56 supported on a mild steel
angle. This is not often used for a single or double light window, where the
span is relatively small and the brick head is usually built directly on the head
of the frame, but such support (or the alternative forms shown in Fig. 12)
complies with the principles of sound construction and must always be applied
to wide windows.
The height of windows above floor level should be given consideration.
That shown in section c, Fig. 56, is satisfactory for a house. Upper-floor windows
of the cottage type should be as near to the eaves as possible, and a satisfactory
treatment at the head is shown at G and H, Fig. 69.
HARDWARE.-This for casements consists of hinges, fasteners and stays.
Fig. 59 shows the application of these.
Hinges.-Ordinary butt hinges (a pair to each sash) are used, but these are
not entirely satisfactory as they are apt to be wrenched off and, when fixed to
upper floor windows, difficulty is experienced in cleaning the external face of
the glass from the inside. A big improvement upon the butt hinge for hanging
casements is the extension or cleaning hinge which is illustrated in Fig. 59 ; the
upper fitting is shown at A and the lower hinge is shown at B ; the latter is also
shown at c, Fig. 57· As shown in the plan, the sash can be opened to give a
clearance of from 4 to s-in. between it and the frame, which is sufficient to
enable the outside of the window to be cleaned from the inside (see also isometric
sketch). The vertical edge of the free stile and the adjacent rebate on the
jamb should be slightly splayed to permit of the opening of the casement.
These hinges are made of steel or wrought iron which is sherardized, a process
of rendering the metal rust proof by the application of powdered zinc.
Casement Fastener (see c and sketch).-The plate to which the pivoted handle
is attached is screwed to the inside face of the free stile and the projecting point
of the handle (when the sash is closed) engages in a slotted plate which is screwed
to the frame near to the rebate. This type is also known as a cockspur fastener
and is obtained in sherardized iron and bronze.
Casement Stay (see D, plan and sketch).-This form is called a peg stay and
consists of a bar, holed at about 2-in. centres, which is pivoted to a small plate
that is screwed to the inside face of the bottom rail ; there is in addition a peg
or pin plate which is screwed to the top of the wood sill. As is implied, the
object of the stay is to maintain the sash when in the open position, and this it
does when the peg is engaged in one of the holes. This fitting is made of
sherardized iron, bronze, gunmetal, etc.
 CASEMENT WINDOW DETAILS H
::l.' •13/4' STILE OF SASH -+~-~~~~;:::::
MORTICE

SEE FIG . .56.

:1 1 •1"1.4' STILE OF SJo.St-t
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

'-.'0£~1---i>-1--jl- SPRIG ~~~"\.'\~IJ-c.l-L SCP.EW MORTICE

PUTTY GLASS
~=~=~::::::;;~~!;;~~~ V:>'•V3' GLAZING &EAD
:l" •13/4' TOP RAIL OF S.O.SH
ALTERN,A.TIVE E
:_:__-t-Jii--Jf~~ --l-H-- DE T A I L •s• -1--11--~-
see FIG. 56

ALTERNATIVE
---11++- D E T A I L 'T" :l" •13f411 STILE

SEE FIG. 56 r;-·li";:'/'::::";:;::::::ojl~~~~r-t--13/4'"3/8" COVER FILLET

~SECTION
~~:--,...,;;;;3t-+-V4' CLEJo.RANCE &ETWEEN
SASH e. SILL ~-
OF
:l"•J31.4" STILE K
B LE ... D COVERING t.
fLEV"-TION

CTING II':>' IIE'YOND __

,..q~ll!,---H===~:w:l 11 x l¥411
&RICK SILL BOTTOM RAIL

DETAILS OF CASEMENT

"E"-------

SC ... LE FOR A.&.C.i-+.J .L-,K INCHES

w lnlf,l'i "I " AI jl 6J .,I II il 119 >' lp J 'lA ,I
DETAILS OF WINDOW FRAME SCALE FOR DETAILS 11-JCHES FIGURE .58
 SHOWING THE
APPLICATION
OF A PAIR. OF
WINDOWS II3
EXTENSION FIXED SASHES OR DEAD LIGI!TS.~One of the sashes at D, Fig. s6, is specified
HINGES TOA to be fixed. Such sashes should be well bedded in lead mastic and screwed to
CASEMENT the frame.
WINDOW
It is a common practice in cheap work to dispense with a casement for a fixed
light and to fix the glass directly to the frame , the mullion, jamb, head and sill being
rebated for this purpose. This completely spoils the appearance of the window, as
the "sight lines " of the top and bottom rails of the casement do not " line through "
with the top and bottom sight lines of the fixed light, the upper and lower panes of the
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

fix ed lights are higher than the intermediates, and, in addition, the sheets arc wider
than those in the hinged sash.

WINDOWS WITH SOLID FRAMES AND CASEMENTS OPENING lNWARDS.~As it

is almost impossible to make this window weather proof, its adoption is not
recommended, and for this reason a detailed description of it is not given. The
frame is rebated on the inside to receive the sashes which swing inwards. The
interference with curtains, etc. caused when the sashes are open provides an
additional objection.
(b) .WINDOW WITH CASED OR BOXED FRAME AND VERTICAL SLIDING SASHES
(see Figs. 6o 1 and 6 r).~This window has a pair of sashes, both of which should
be made to open for the purposes of ventilation and to facilitate cleaning. The
sashes slide vertically within shallow recesses formed in the frame which is
built~up with comparatively thin members. A pair of metal weights contained
within the frame are connected to each sash by means of cords or chains after
being passed over pulleys fixed to the frame. Without the weights, the upper
sash when lowered and the bottom sash when raised would of course drop to
the bottom immediately the sashes were released. 2 A satisfactory appearance
is obtained if the sashes are divided into panes 3 of the proportion shown at T,
Fig. 6o, and if the window is three or four panes wide and four panes high
(see A). Both sashes are usually equal in size, although it is sometimes desirable
to increase the height of the window when the upper and lower sashes may be
two and three panes high respectively.
FRAME.~This consists of two vertical jambs, a head and a sill.
A jamb (see N and s, Fig. 6o) comprises an inner or inside lining, an outer
of outside lining, a pulley stile (so called because the pulleys are screwed to them),
and a back lining (often omitted in cheap work); in addition, a thin piece of
wood, called a parting SLIP or mid-feather, is used to separate the two weights,
a small parting BEAD is provided to separate the two sashes, and an inner bead
(sometimes called a staff bead, fixing bead or guard bead) is fixed to complete the
shallow recess for the inner or lower sash.
1 Fig. 6o is arranged to provide an example of a typical homework sh eet (sec p. 160).
The half full size detaib, before reproduction, were drawn to the finished sizes (see pp. 6z,
97, 109, nz, II3 and r6o).
2 A fitting consisting of a coiled spring and called a sash balance may be used instead
of the weights, cords and pulleys. A pair of balances would be used per sash (seep. 119).
3 Windows in large stone buildings of the commercial or factory t ype especially may
consist of sashes which are not divided by glazing bars into relatively small panes hut
each sash is glazed with a single sheet.
 JOINERY
The head (seeK and o) consists of an inner and an outer lining, a head or soffit
lining, an inner bead and a parting bead, although the latter is sometimes omitted.
The solid sill, with staff bead, completes the frame.
As shown at N and s, the inner and outer linings are each ploughed with a
~-in. square groove to receive the tongues formed on the pulley stile ; the outer
lining projects t to ~-in. beyond the face of the stile, and the edge of the inner
lining is flush with the face of the stile. The upper end of the pulley stile is
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
either housed or tongued to the soffit lining and its bottom end is housed and
wedged to the wood sill (see A, B, D, E and L, Fig. 6r). As shown at A and B,
the lower end of the stile is about l-in. below the outer edge of the weathering
of the sill, and as indicated at L, the wedge is driven in from the inside between
the stile and the vertical cut of the housing, and this wedge is securely nailed
to the stile. The inner and outer jamb linings extend the full height of the frame
(see B), the inner and outer head linings butt against the jamb linings at x andy
(see D), and as shown at B and E, the oak sill is cut back at each side to receive
the lower ends of the inner and outer jamb linings which are nailed to the sill,
pulley stile throughout its length, soffit linings along the tongued and grooved
joints and at the butt joints x and Y.
The parting slip extends to within 4-in. (approximately) of the top of the
sill and is suspended from the soffit lining. A slot is formed in the latter, the
slip is passed through it and either a nail or wood wedge is driven through it
as shown at K and o, Fig. 6o, and A, B and D, Fig. 6r. The centre line of the
parting slip coincides with that of the parting bead.
The back lining extends from the soffit lining to the upper surface of the
sill and is nailed to the j;:'Tib linings (see A and c, Fig. 6r, and N, Fig. 6o);
occasionally one edge is housed into the jamb lining as shown at s, Fig. 6o.
As shown at N, Fig. 6o, the clear space .between the pulley stile and the back
lining must be 2-in. as the diameter of the weights is usually rt-in.
As the equivalent to a back lining is not provided at the head, the necessary
stiffness is imparted by the use of 3 or 4-in. long triangular blocks spaced along
the internal angles between the soffit lining and the inner and outer linings at
intervals of from 3 to 6-in., with one placed across each butt joint between the
jamb and soffit linings (seeK and o , Fig. 6o, and A and D, Fig. 6r). These blocks
are glued to the linings.
The inner bead is fixed all round the frame. This bead coversi the joint
between the inner lining and pulley stile or soffit lining (seeK and N, Fig. 6o);
these beads are often rebated in good work as shown at o and s ; they are
moulded as required and the ends of each length are mitred. A slightly wider
and bevelled inner or staff bead is fixed to the si!l ; the bottom rail of the sash is
also bevelled to ensure a reasonably tight fit which prevents ,t he sashes from
rattling (see M). Alternatively, a deeper sill bead (see Q) is recommended.
This allows the lower sash to be raised several inches to permit air to enter between
the meeting rails of the sashes (see later) ; this incoming air is deflected upwards
to minimize draughts and the latter are not caused at sill level. This is sometimes
called a ventilating piece or draught bead. Inner beads should be fixed with
brass cups and screws (see o, Fig. 66) to permit of their ready removal when
required, although they are more often just bradded (nailed).
The parting bead is fitted tightly into a i-in. square groove ploughed in the
stile and nailed. The details show a similar bead at the soffit, although this is
often omitted in common work ; when provided, it assists in excluding rain and
draughts .
Access for Weights.-Provision must be made in each pulley stile for fixing
weights ; such is called a pocket and is situated just below the meeting rails
of the sashes and extends to about 6-in. above the sill. Two forms of pockets
are shown at A, B, E, F and K, Fig. 6r.
Side Pocket.- The sketch at F shows this type which is indicated at A and B.
The plan shows the width to extend from the back of the inner lining to the
groove for the parting bead which it includes ; it is about r-ft. 3-in. long for
average sized sashes and must be at least equal to the length of the weights ; the
bottom end of the pocket is bevelled at 6o 0 and the top end is V-shaped and
bevelled at 6o 0 in both directions. 1 The pocket-piece is secured to the stile by a
screw at the bottom end in addition to the parting bead which is fixed subse-
quently. The lower sash and parting bead completely cover this pocket and
therefore any damage caused when the piece is removed for sash cord renewals
is effectively concealed.
Central Pocket.-This is a less satisfactory form and is shown at K ; it has
a rebated joint at the bottom end and a rebated and bevelled joint at the top.
This is not such a good type as that shown at F as the outer vertical joint and
portions of the horizontal cuts are exposed and any damage caused to them on
removal is conspicuous.
Sills.- The several forms of sills should be noted ; that at Q, Fig. 6o is wider
than the sill at M to allow the cover mould to finish on it. The water bar at Q
is shown at the centre of the sill ; it is often fixed with the outside of the groove
in line with the back of the outer lining so that the bar will arrest ~ny water before
it. has travelled more than r-in.
Scantlings of Frame.-As the weight of the sashes is transmitted directly to
the pulley stiles, it is customary to prepare the stiles out of thicker stuff than
that for the linings. The nominal thickness of pulley stiles and soffit linings is
either r or rl-in., and that of inner and outer linings is either i or r-in. The
sizes of the various members are figured upon the drawings.
Atten tion is drawn to the note in Fig. 6o which states that the details have been
drawn to the finished dimensions, and that these are i'.-in. less than the nominal
sizes. It should be noted however that the members of the frame are often only
planed on their exposed faces and thus the Joss in dressing is reduced to !-in. ; the
back lining is usually just dressed along its edges.
1 The cuts made to form these bevels are made by the p ocket chisel (see p. 128) ; the
V-shaped top end is formed b y making a second cut, and the small triangular piece which
is removed is glued and nailed to the back of the stile (see Section xx) to form an abutment
(cleat) for the pocket-piece.
 MANCHESTER BUILDING
INDOW WITH CASED FRAM
6 SLIDING SASHES
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0
E L E V I'< T I ·o N

P LA N VERT I CA
SECTION
D' ALTERNATIVE TO 'J'
METHOD TO DETERMINE
PANES OF GLMS OF
"'[;] T
A' ll' EQUALS WIDTH B'C'
SHOWING SQUME JAM&S
WITH FRAME SUGHTLY SET
SATISFACTORY PROPORTION HEIGHT D'S' EQUALS A'C' BACI<. FROM EXTERNAL
FACE OF WALL
81 c
NOTE : IN THE H...LF FULL SitE DETAILS THE MEMBERS H...VE BEEN
DRAWN TO THE 'FINISHED' DIMENSIONS & THESE ME '3/ob' LESS PLAN--
THAN THE 'NOMINAL' SIZES. FULL SIZE DETAILS ARE DRAWN THUS ALTERNATIVE DETAIL M
J"'M8
THE SCALE MUST ALWAYS BE INDICATED ON THE DRAWING. THIS
Ml# BE SHOWN THUS:- \ - - - _ _

,et..c ~~
PLAN OR SCALES: ONE INCH TO ONE FOOT & HALF FULL S12E

T y c A H 0 M W 0 R K H T
 II6 JOINERY
SASHES.-It will be seen on reference to Figs. 6o and 61 that the upper sash
slides in the recess formed in the frame by the pulley stile, outer lining and
parting bead, and that the lower sash is accommodated in the recess formed by
the pulley stile, inner bead and parting bead. Each sash consists of two stiles,
a top rail and a bottom rail, but as the bottom rail of the upper sash meets the
top rail of the lower sash when the window is closed, these two members are
called meeting rails. A minimum clearance of :>1':-in. should be allowed all round
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
the sashes to permit of easy movement, and this is often increased to 1'.,-in. when
the window is to be painted.
Joint between Stile and Top Rail of Upper Sash (see H, Fig. sS, and R, Fig. 6!).
-The detail at H is usually adopted. The alternative detail at R shows the
top rail haunched tenoned (like a door) at each end and each stile suitably
morticed to receive the tenon and wedges. Glued wedges (waterproof glue
being used) and a hardwood pin or dowel complete the joint. The methods of
securing the sash cord are described on p. 119.
Joint between Stile and Meeting Rail of Upper Sash (see T, Fig. 61 ).-The
bottom of the meeting rail of the top sash and the top of the meeting rail of the
bottom sash are at least i-in. wider (assuming that the parting bead is ~-in. thick)
than the thickness of the stiles, otherwise a gap equal to the thickness of
the parting bead would be left (see L and P, Fig. 6o). The joint between the
meeting rails are either just bevelled, or, as shown, they are bevel rebated ; the
latter joint is preferred, for it assists in preventing the sashes from rattling,
effectively increases the difficulty of gaining access to the sash fastener (see o,
Fig. 61) from the outside, and enables the rails to separate easily when the sashes
are opened.
The stiles of the sashes may extend from 11 to 3-in. beyond the meeting rails
and these projections are shaped as required to form horns (or brackets or joggles),
but they are often omitted as they are considered to detract from the appearance.
The details at T and u show both types. The horned form at T shows a mortice
and tenon joint (called a fork tenon) with the bevelled portion passing over the
inner face of the stile, which latter is dovetailed to receive it (see section and the
isometric sketch) ; the central tongue is wedged ; it is usual to leave the upper
edge of the bevelled portion projecting slightly beyond the face of the stile,
and· this may be afterwards dressed down to the stile when the meeting rails
are fitted together. In the second or hornless type at u a dovetailed joint must
be adopted, otherwise the joint would readily become loosened when the sash
handles (see P, Fig. 61) are pulled downwards whilst the sash is being opened.
Note the shaped end in the isometric sketch and the broken lines in the
alternative section which indicate the dovetailed tongue and bevelled portion.
The joint is either screwed or dowelled as shown at T.
Joint between Stile and Meeting Rail of Lower Sash (see v, Fig. 61).-Like
the top sash, the stiles of the bottom sash may be provided with horns, but in
first class work these are omitted and a dovetailed joint between the meeting
rail and each stile is adopted as shown at v, which indicates the upper end of
the stile shaped to receive the dovetailed tenon and bevelled portion of the meet-
ing rail ; the latter portion passes over the outer face of the stile, and its lower
edge is usually left slightly projecting beyond this face until both meeting rails
are finally fitted together. 1 This joint is also pinned or screwed. A. groove is
formed down the edge of each stile to accommodate the sash cord ; this is
similar to that shown at Rands and is indicated by broken lines at v. Note the
provision made on this meeting rail to receive the glass ; as both meeting rails
are of the same depth, it is not possible to form the usual rebate on the lower
sash meeting rail and in lieu of it a groove is formed along the underside of the
rail.
The ends of the bevelled portions of the meeting rails must be cut away for
clearance round the projecting parting beads. The small piece so removed
from the bottom sash meeting rail is indicated by broken lines at v. The groove
for the cord, the clearance for the parting bead, and the dowel holes have been
omitted in the sketches so as to render the details less confusing.
Joint between Stile and Bottom Rail of Lower Sash (see w, Fig. 61).-This is
an ordinary pinned haunched tenoned joint. The bottom of the rail and the
end of each stile are shaped as required (examples at M and Q, Fig. 6o). The
joint shown at J, Fig. 58 is very often adopted.
Joint between Glazing Bars.-The scribed and franked joints between sash
bars are described on p. I08 and the halved joint is shown at M, Fig. 61. Glue
is applied to the joints before assembling and cramping each sash.
Scantlings of Sashes.-The usual nominal thickness of a sash of average size
is 1£-in., but the thickness may be increased to 2 or 21-in. for larger sashes, whilst
small sashes may only be rt-in. thick. The common scantlings are : stiles and
top rail, 2-in. by r£-in. thick ; meeting rails, 2-in. wide by 1 ~-in. ; bottom rail,
3 to 4-in. by r£-in. thick. Glazing bars may be out of 1£-in. by r-in. stuff but
a thickness of 1!-in reduced to 1-in. gives the better appearance.
TIMBER.-The timber employed in the construction of windows of this type
are redwood, pitch pine, teak and oak. The former is most used, although a
more durable wood such as oak, teak or pitch pine is specified for the sill. Oak
or teak are used throughout for first class work.
HARDWARE.-Although there are many patent devices on the market for use
on windows of this description, the following simple fittings have been proved
to be quite effective for their purpose. They include sash fasteners, sash lifts,
~ash handles and pulleys, together with the 'Yeights and sash cords or chains.
Sash Fastener (see o, Fig. 6r).-This affords an effective security, provided
it is of best quality. The fitting is of brass or bronze and comprises two castings,
one being screwed to the centre of the meeting rail of the top sash, and the second
(or lug) being screwed to the top of the meeting rail of the bottom sash; on
1 Students should be careful to show the joint between the meeting rails correctly.
Examination scripts and homework sheets frequently show details which indicate the
bevel running downwards from the inside to the outside. Movement of the sashes would
not, of course, be possible if the meeting rails were constructed to such details.
 s
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JOINT STILE 6 TOP RI>IL OF OP SI>SH

SHOWING METHODS OF SECURING SMH CORD
TO STILE OF SASH

5 E C T I 0 N 'HH'
C\ SECTION
~:!!!!!!~!!!!!!!""4--Ste'INNER P>E}<D
~=~==~+POCKET PIECE
PLAN
'J J.

SCALE FOil. A,8,C,O.E.F.K.LL 0 E T l"t 01= SASI+

0 A L S 0 F ~ A M E FEET Fl GU RE 61
 u8
the former casting there is a lever which is pivoted at one end and has a solid knob
at the other. When the lever is rotated, the pivoted end bears against the free
end of a strong and highly tempered steel spring which is riveted to a recessed
vertical portion of the casting, and the dovetailed notch on the lever engages in
the solid curved lug which is riveted to the second fitting. This brings both
meeting rails closely together and secures the window.
Sash Lift (see Q, Fig. 6I).-This is the hook lift type, other forms being ring
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
JOINERY
be sufficient to allow the weight to hang clear of the casing. Two pulleys per
sash are required.
Weights (seeN and s, Fig. 6o, and A, Band c, Fig. 6r).-These are cylindrical
cast iron weights, It-in. in diameter and of varying length in accordance with
their weight ; thus, a s-Ib. weight is about I2-in. long, whilst a 6!-lb. weight is
IS-in. long. The object of these weights is to counterbalance the weight of the
sash.es. The top of each weight is holed to receive the end of the cord. Lead sash

lifts, flush recessed lifts, knob lifts and hinged lifts. One pair of lifts is screwed
to the inside of the bottom rail of the lower sash and at about 6-in. from each
end. They are of course used to raise the bottom sash and are obtainable in
brass and bronze.
Sash Handle (see P, Fig. 6I).-When a sash is large (and especially when
there are no glazing bars to grip when drawing down the sash) a pair of these
may be fixed on the underside of the top sash meeting rail near to the stiles.
They are not very convenient, as the lower sash has to be raised before the
handles are accessible from the inside.
The following simple expedient is effective : A pulley is fi.xed to the soffit lining
of the frame immediately over each stile of the upper sash, and an eye or ring is
screwed into the inner face and near to the end of each stile of this sash ; a piece of
cord of a length equal to about one and a half times the height of the window is
passed through each eye and over each pulley ; each cord is knotted immediately
above and beloW the eye ; the ends of each double cord are equal and a handle is
fixed to each. To open the top sash, one end of each cord is pulled to draw the sash
downwards with the top knot bearing upon the eye. The sash is closed by pulling on
the other ends of the cords which brings the lower knots against the eyes to lift the
sash.
As mentioned on p. I I3, in order to conveniently slide the sashes and main-
tain them in any desired position when open, it is necessary to fix to them sash
cords which are fastened to weights situated in the casings after being passed
over pulleys fixed to the frame. . A stronger and more durable cord is that known as copper wire cord. It is
Sash Axle Pulleys (see A, B, D and N, Fig. 6I).-This type consists of a 2!-in.
diameter round grooved brass pulley (or sheave) having t-in. diameter steel axles
which revolve in brass or gunmetal bushes (i-in. thick annular bearings) mounted
on ·a metal (iron, gunmetal or rustless steel) case which is flanged and covered
with a brass or bronze plate ; the pulleys may be If, 2, 2!, 2t and 3-in. in dia-
meter. This hollow-rounded grooved type of pulley is suitable for flax cords,
copper cords and metal chains of the form shown at w'. Square grooved pulleys
are adopted for certain heavy chains. The cog wheel type of axle pulley (having
a fixed axle with a toothed portion which bears the chain and which revolves on
ball bearings) may be selected for extra heavy sashes.
The s-in. by I!-in. face plate of the pulley is screwed flush with the outer
face of a pulley stile with the top of the plate from It to 2t-in. down from the
head (see A and B); the mortice for the pulley case and the housing for the
flange and face plate are shown at D. The pulleys project about !-in. beyond
the outer external face of the pulley stile (see A), and the size of the pulley must
weights, square in section, are sometimes used for very heavy sashes, but these
must be specially made, whereas the ordinary sizes of cast iron weights can be
obtained from stock varying from 2 to 40-lb.
Opinions differ as to the weight required per sash, but satisfactory results are
obtained if each of the two weights for the top sash is from ! to 1-lb. heavier than half
the weight of the sash, and if each of the two bottom sash weights is from ! to 1-lb.
lighter than half the weight of this sash. The weight of e.ach sash is determined by
means of a spring balance, and due allowance should be made for the weight of the
glass to be used and that of the paint.
Sash Cords and Chains.-The weights are secured by either cords or chains
which are passed over the pulleys and attached to the sashes.
Best quality stout twisted or braided cotton cord is usually specified for
ordinary work. It is obtainable in knots of " roo-ft." or " 6o-yds." in length ;
its thickness varies from i\r to i-in., the former being suitable for weights of
less than s-Ib., and the latter for weights up to so-lb. The cheaper cord stretches
and, therefore, each length should be well stretched before being fixed, otherwise
it may elongate to such an extent as to limit the movement of the sashes, i.e.,
the weights of the bottom sash may reach the bottom of the casing before the
sash has travelled to its full height. Certain brands of the best quality are
greased and are guaranteed to be stretch proof and damp proof.
The defect of flax cord is that in course of time it frays and ultimately breaks.
sold by the roo-ft. and the size is specified according to the number; thus, a
"No. 3 " cord is !-in. in diameter and consists of thirty-six strands of copper
wire which are subdivided into six segments ; the strands in each segment are
intertwined and the segments in turn are intertwisted together.
Another form of sash cord consists of a steel wire centre which is covered
with cotton yarn ; the covering prevents the wire from coming into contact
with the metal pulley and thereby reduces the noise when the sashes are moved.
One form of sash chain is shown at w', Fig. 6r. This is called the three-
and-two link copper chain, as it comprises a series of three links or plates (each
!!\ -in. thick) which alternate with a pair of links; the overall thickness of the
five links is !-in. Each link has two holes and loose fitting pins or rivets pass
through the five links at each connection. The chain can be used in conjunction
with the ordinary axle pulley shown at N as it readily accommodates itself to
the sharpest curve. Special fittings are used for connecting the chain to the
weights and sashes. One form of connector to the weight consists of a hook
 WINDOWS
which is simply passed through the eye of the weight . The sash fitting com-
prises a plate which is screwed to the edge of the sash and a pin is passed through
the brackets on this plate and the holes of the chain links. The chain is an
improvement upon, but is more expensive than, the flax cord, and chains have
been known to last for more than thirty years before requiring attention. Chains
used in conjunction with the cog wheel type of pulley used for very heavy sashes
are of similar construction to the above, but the links are of rust proofed steel
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connected by means of phosphor-bronze rivets.
Fixing Cords to Sashes and Weights.-Both stiles of each sash have to be
prepared to receive the cords. Two methods of fixing the cords are shown at
R and s, ;.'ig. 61. That shown at s is the most common method, a t or ! -in.
groove being ploughed 9 to I2-in. down the back edge of each stile and the
cord being clout-nailed as indicated. A better method is shown at R where a
similar groove to the above is ploughed to a distance of from 6 to Io-in.
(depending upon the size of the sash) ; this is continued by a !-in. diameter
hole which is bored to a depth of about 4-in. and is terminated by a I-in.
diameter hole formed at the edge. The cord is secured by threading it
through the smaller hole, the end being knotted and hammered into the
bottom hole.
The sashes are hung in the following manner : Each cord is passed over
the pulley down the casing to the pocket, when it is attached to the weight and
cut to the proper length. The pocket pieces are fixed after the four weights have
been attached. The two cords fastened to the two outer weights are secured to
the top sash by either of the methods shown at R and s. The parting beads are
fixed into the grooves prepared in the pulley stiles and soffit lining. The remaining
two cords are fastened to the edges of the bottom sash as before described and
the inner beads are finally screwed to the frame.
Sash Balances.-This fitting, referred to in the footnote to p. I I3, dispenses
with weights, cords and pulleys. A cased frame is not necessary, but inner,
outer and parting beads must be fixed to the solid frame to form the necessary
recesses for the sashes. The balance very much resembles a steel tape used for
surveying purposes with a face-plate attached to the balance casing. The
balances are obtainable in various sizes to suit the weights of sashes. Mortices
are formed in the jambs just below the head to receive the casings of the
balances ; the face-plates are screwed to the jambs and the looped ends of the
metal tapes (coiled springs) are screwed to the edges of the sashes. When the
top sash is pulled down the tapes from the two balances are drawn out, and
when the lower sash is raised the tapes in the other two balances are coiled up.
MANUFACTURE OF WINDOWS.-The preparation of the frames and sashes is
done chiefly by machinery and comparatively few windows are now entirely
made by hand. Standard casement windows, complete with frames and sashes,
are stocked by manufacturers of mass produced windows. The various opera-
tions of setting out, preparing, assembling, gluing and wedging up, and cleaning
off in the making of the frame and sashes of a window may be readily understood
II9
from the description of somewhat similar operations concerned with the manu-
facture of doors detailed on pp. I04-I07·
GENERAL.- The window shown in Fig. 6o is shown fixed in a building which
is faced with 2-in. bricks having il-in. mortar joints and finished at the opening
with stone dressings, i.e., stone head, sill and jambs. Note that the inbands
and outbands of the latter course with the brickwork and that the vertical joints
between the stone and brickwork are irregular. If stone dressings are not desired,
the recesses may be 4!-in. deep as shown in Fig. 8, when the outer face of the
pulley stile conforms with the face of the outer reveal. Whilst this undoubtedly
ensures a weathertight joint between the frame and brickwork, the appearance
is not so satisfactory, as all but a narrow margin of the frame is concealed, hence
the openings are often provided with square jambs which permit of the whole
of the outer face of the frame being exposed (seeR and s, Fig. 6o). The defect
in this construction is referred to on p. I I I. One of several methods adopted to
prevent water gaining access between the frame and brickwork is shown at o
and s, where a narrow strip of lead (or felt) is fixed at the jambs and head.
The lead at the h ead is fixed between the arch and the reinforced concrete lintel
when the latter is being fixed , the final dressing over the frame being done at a later
stage. The lead lining at the jambs is fixed just prior to the fixing of the frame when
a vertical groove is formed in each jamb, the lead is tucked Into it and secured with
lead wedges (see o, Fig. 72) driven in at about rz-in . intervals. After the frame has
been fixed, the lead is dressed over it, and as shown, this lead is covered by the wood
mould.
Openings with reversed rebated jambs, similar to that shown in Fig. 57, are
sometimes adopted in connection with this type of window. This is a satis-
factory form of construction, for it is weather-resisting and the outer face of the
frame is fully exposed to give a satisfactory appearance.
Windows with cased frames and sliding sashes (often referred to as " double
hung sashed windows ") are most effective in excluding rain and draughts, apd
are superior to the ordinary casement windows for exposed positions.
WINDOWS WITH PIVOTED SASHES 1 (see Fig. 62).-This type consists of a solid
frame and a sash which is pivoted to allow it to open with the top rail swinging
inwards. The pivots (see later) are fixed slightly above (about I-in.) the hori-
zontal centre line of the sash so that the sash will tend to be self-closing. The
construction ·of the frame is similar to that of the casement window except
that it is not rebated. Both inner and outer beads are required (see details at
H, J and K) . As shown, the sash is in the middle of the frame with the upper
portion of the outer bead and the lower portion of the inner bead fixed to the
frame, and the upper half of the inner bead and the lower half of the outer bead
nailed or screwed to the sash. These beads should appear to be continuous
when the window is closed, and they should be cut correctly to enable the sash
to be freely opened and closed when required.
A method of setting out the splay-cuts for the beads is shown at J. As
1 Consideration of this type of window is sometimes deferred until the second year
of a Building Course.
 PSCJ\LE
11 " 1" 11 i .!-~ .
FOil. H,J,K,L,M.N,O.P,Q<.S INCHIIS.

m 1-t
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E L E V A T I 0 N

D E T A I L 1 F"

c
(IF PIVOT upu IS USED)

K
L
 WINDOWS
indicated, a vertical section of the complete window is set up. The sash is in-
clined to the required maximum opening position (this varies from I0° to ~0°
to the horizontal) and the inner and outer beads are drawn . A line (" 3 "} is
drawn through the centre of the pivot joining the points " I " and.'' 2," which
are t-in. above and below the beads, and two short lines are drawn at right
angles to it and across the width of the frame beads to give the cuts. With the
centre of the pivot as centre, the arcs indicated by broken lines are drawn to
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give the corresponding points for the splay-cuts on the sash beads. The t -in.
clearance between each of the points " I " and " 2 " and the sash beads periJilits
of the removal of the sash when required.
The underside of the head of the frame is slightly splayed (about !-in.), and
the top bead and the top of the sash are made to conform to it, to allow the sash
when opened to clear the frame.
HARDWARE.- The window fittings consist of pivots, eyelets, cleats, catches
and patent ventilating gearing.
Sash Pivots or Centres.-Of the various forms, that shown at M, Fig. 62,
consists of a brass, malleable iron or gunmetal pin or stub mounted on a plate,
screwed to the inner face of the sash, and this engages in a metal socket the plate
121
of which is screwed to the inner face of the frame . One pair of fittings is required
per sash.
The sash pivot shown at P consists of a pin or stub plate and a slotted plate
or socket. A pair of these fittings is fixed to the edges of the sash and frame.
The pin plate may be fixed either to the frame or the sash. If the former, each
socket plate must be screwed to the edge of the sash with the open end of the
slot _downwards (not as shown at P) and inwards; a groove for each fitting
must also be formed along each inner bead attached to the sash and continued
to the slot of the socket plate (see broken lines at J) ; when inserting the sash
from the inside, the ends of the pivots are engaged in the bottom of the grooves,
the sash is pushed downwards and outwards until the slots on the socket plates
have been reacherl. Alternately, each pin and socket·plate may be screwed to
the sash and frame respectively ; when this is done, the socket plate is fixed
with the open end of the slot uppermost (as shown at P),and the groove is formed
in the frame. These pivots are not so readily fixed as the type at M, and if the
sash is partially open, it can be easily removed from the outside.
The patent type shown at Q is an improvement on the above centres. This
consists of a gunmetal screw bolt or pivot with three plates T, u and v. A hole
WINDOW WITH HORlZONTAL
SLIDING SASH
SCALE FCX A. H. c
1SCALE
1•11"1" 7 "
FOil.
OET~ILS
J !=ICURE 63
 122 JOINERY
is bored through the middle of the sash and frame. As shown at R, plates T and
u are screwed to the edges of the stile and plate v is screwed to the frame. The
pin is then inserted by screwing it through the threaded block on plate T. This
is an effective fitting as it can be easily fixed, the sash can be readily removed
when required, and it is a secure method of hanging the sash as it cannot be
removed from the outside unless the bolts are withdrawn. The size of the bolts
varies from 3 to 4-in. long and from i to i-in. diameter. A pair of these fittings
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is required per sash.
Catches.-A simple form is shown at s, the latch fitting being fixed in the
middle of the inner face of the top rail of the sash and the striking plate being
screwed to the underside of the frame to receive the end of the latch ; a spring
retains the latch in the fixed position until the sash is required to be opened,
when the latch is released by depressing the ring.
Alternately, the sash may be secured by small barrel or flush bolts, as described
for doors.
Eyelets and Cleats.-A simple arrangement which permits of the opening
and closing of the sash consists of a length of cord which is attached at each end
to brass or bronze eyelets screwed to the inside face of the top and bottom rails.
The cord must be of sufficient length to belay it round a metal cleat fixed at a
convenient point on the jamb. One form of eyelet is shown at N, and a cleat
is shown at o. If the sash catch s is used, the top end of the cord is fastened
through the hole provided for it and therefore only the eyelet at the bottom rail
is required.
There are many patent devices for opening and closing pivoted sashes, one
of the simplest consisting of a vertical steel rod which has a hinged arm con-
nected near its upper end and its lower end passing through a gunmetal winding
box ; the. arm is secured to the bottom rail of the sash. The sash is opened
and closed as required by turning the handle of the winding box.
Pivoted sash windows are convenient for lighting and ventilating high rooms,
as they can be conveniently opened and closed from the floor level. They are
sometimes used for factories, warehouses, laundries, staircases, etc. A pivoted
sash is often used as a fanlight over a door.
WINDOWS WITH HoRIZONTAL SLIDING SASHES (see Fig. 63).-This type of
window is fairly common, especially in certain of the northern counties. It is
generally known as a Yorkshire Light, as such windows are a characteristic
feature of many of the older stone built houses in that county. Comparatively
few are now made as it is a type which has certain undesirable features, i.e.,
an unsatisfactory appearance and a tendency for the sliding sash to jam. As
shown in the elevation at A, the appearance is marred on account of the " sight
lines " not being continuous, as the top and bottom rails of the sliding sash are
not present in the fixed light ; this causes each pair of panes in the fixed light
to be of three different heights. These windows. are still specified for alterations
and extensions to buildings and for replacements.
The window is shown in a regular coursed rubble wall. It consists of a
fixed light and a sliding sash. Detail K shows the method adopted for per-
mitting movement of the sash. An oak bead (or runner), with rounded edge, is
inserted in the oak sill and extends for the full width between jambs (see c
and M) ; a corresponding but slightly wider groove is· formed on the lower edge
of the bottom rail of the sash. The head of the frame is rebated throughout its
length to receive the top rail of the sash (see J), and the sash is retained in position
· by an inner bead planted on the jambs and continued round the head and sill.
A T1.,-in. clearance should be provided all round the sash to permit of free move-
ment. Rain and draughts are excluded by letting a bead into the jamb which
engages in a groove in the stile (see L) and rebating the stiles of the fixed light
and sliding sash (seeM).
A barrel bolt is generally used to secure the sliding sash.
ARCHITRAVES, SKIRTINGS, PICTURE RAILS AND ANGLE BEADS
The fixing of certain joinery work can only be completed after the walls have
been plastered. Architraves, skirtings and picture rails are examples of such work.
ARCHITRAVES.-These are used for the concealment of the joints between
the casings with their grounds and the plaster at doors and occasionally windows,
and to provide an effective finish.
Casings or linings have been described on pp. IOO-I03 and various sections
of architraves are shown at H toN, Fig. SI ; architraves are also detailed in Figs.
sz, 54, 64 and 65.
An architrave consists of two vertical and one horizontal members with
mitred angles; they are nailed along both edges to the grounds (or plugs) and
edges of the casing. Usually the feet of the architrave are continued down to
the floor to which they are nailed, but in first class work they are often finished
with plinth or foot blocks (see Fig. 65). These blocks are slightly thicker and
wider than the architrave and higher than the skirting which is housed into them,
and their shape roughly conforms with that of the architrave. A tongue is
formed at the foot of the architrave and a mortice is made in the block to receive
it ; the tongue is glued and securely nailed or screwed to the block from the
back. Plinth blocks provide a suitable finish to the architrave and skirting and
serve as a protection to the moulded architrave.
The size and design of the architrave depend upon the size of the opening,
the quality of the timber and the general effect desired. A 4~in. (nominal)
wide architrave is usually sufficient for doors up to 3-ft. wide ; for large openings
the width should not exceed 6-in. if in one piece as it is liable to split when
shrinking. The plain architrave shown at N, Fig. 64, would be suitable if the
door has square or chamfered panels (see J and L, Fig. 48), but a more elaborate
architrave would be preferred if, for instance, the panel mouldings were of the
section shown at F', Fig. 48. Certain sections, such as those at L, Fig. 51, and
P, Fig. 64, should be avoided unless well seasoned good quality timber (pre-
ferably hardwood) is used, otherwise unequal shrinkage will occur, resulting
 A ARCHITRAVES. SKIRTINGS. PICTURE RAILS ~ ANGLE BEADS
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l
PLUG
:2• "3/4" ROUGH GROUND ~~v-~

PICTURE RAIL

l
:. PLUU

6 1~• "1~• -t-..Y.M

(AS APPLIED
IN Fl<i.l>5)

FlOOR SOARD I NCi PLANS OF .JOINTS BETWEEN SKIRTING AT ANGLES

"F" <:.. "G"
A R. C H I T R. A V E A T
11 0 11
.,,
(SEE ALSO FIGURES .51, .5j c .54) SCALE INCHES
NOTE: DETAILS ARE DRAWN TO THE FINISHED SIZES s G A T "E' FIGURE
 124
in the members curling or twisting on account of one-half of the section being
much thinner than the other. Simplicity in design is a characteristic of modern
construction (see alsop. 97).
SKIRTINGS OR PLINTHS are provided to protect the wall plaster and to cover
the joint between the floor boards and plaster. Several sections are shown in
Figs. 64 and 65 . The size varies, but the depth rarely exceeds 7-in. unless for
very large rooms.
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JOINERY
bottom edge to the bottom of the, moulding, the end of the adjacent piece is
tongued and the moulded portion is scribed to that of the first piece. A joint
used in very good work for both internal and external angles is shown at A' ; the
thin hardwood cross-tongue is glued and the joint is assembled before the pieces
are fixed to the grounds. The mitred and rebated joint at n' (also called a lipped
joint) is a good form for external angles; cross-bradding as shown is necessary.
As indicated irr Fig. 65, skirtings are housed into plinth blocks. If the latter

The best method Of securing skirtings is shown at Q, Fig. 64, and B and E,
Fig. 65, where horizontal rough grounds are plugged at about 27-in. intervals
DETAIL AT FOOT OF ARCHITRAVE
in the vertical joints of the brickwork. Skirtings which are 4-in. or less in depth
only require one set of grounds. When two rows of grounds are fixed, the space
+-~--~~~~--, B
between them is not always filled with plaster, and when it is, care should be A
taken by the plasterer to ensure that the face of the plaster does not project
beyond the grounds.
The cheaper and more usual method of securing skirtings is to fix them direct
to plugs which have been driven into the vertical joints of the wall at about
3-ft. intervals. For deep skirtings the plugs are staggered, with the plugs fixed
alternately near the floor and top of the plinths. The skirting at R, Fig. 64, is
shown plugged to the wall. /
SKIRTING
It is the general practice to fit or scribe the lower edge of the skirting to the
floor, which is more or less irregular. PLI NTH_H-1-+--+-
flLOC!<..
Scribing is done by placing the piece of skirting in position and packing or wedging
up the lower end until the top edge is level ; compasses (see 5, Fig. 67) are taken and, E L E
with the points apart equal to the height that the lowest portion of the floor is below
the bottom edge of the skirting, are drawn along the face of the skirting with the
points of the compass in a vertical plane ; as the lower point follows the irregularities
of the floor the other marks a parallel line on': the plinth; the lower edge of the skirting
is then sawn along this irregular line and thus a tight fit between the skirting and
floor is assured when the former is fixed.
SKETCH
SHOWING
A gap invariably appears between this bottom edge of the skirting and the ARCHITRAVE.
floor boards due to the combined shrinkage of the skirting and the floor joists. PLINTH 8LOCI<..
This allows both dust and curre.1ts of air to enter ground floor rooms from the 6 SKIRTING
space below. A small (i or t -in.) quadrant cover mould as shown at R, Fig. 64, FIGU~E 65
may be bradded to the floor to prevent this; alternately, the gap imay be filled
with a material called plastic wood which is pressed in whilst in a plastic condition, are not provided, the ends of the skirtings should be let into architraves, other-
smoothed over with a knife and sand-papered over when set to bring it flush wise cracks will show when shrinkage occurs.
with the face of the skirting. A better method (but one which is only adopted The designs of skirtings, architraves and panel mouldings when associated
in first class work on account of its expense) is shown at Q, Fig. 64, and E, Fig. 65 ; together should conform ; thus, the skirting at Q, Fig. 64 harmonizes with the
a tongue is formed on the lower edge of the skirting and this i,s fitted into a groove architrave K, Fig. 52 and the panel mouldings N or A', Fig. 48, and the skirting
formed in the flooring. moulding w, Fig. 64, architrave o, Fig. 64. and panel mouldings v or c', Fig. 48
Several joints between the ends of skirtings are shown in Fig. 64. The form an agreeable combination ; the chamfered or bevelled edge shown at
cheapest method is to mitre the ends at both external and internal angles as shown Rand s, Fig. 64 is preferred when a simple effect is desired. Alternative skirting
at Y. Another cheap internal joint consists of scribing one end to the face of the mouldings are shown at T, u and v, Fig. 64; the cavetto skirting at x, Fig. 64
other which has been tightly and squarely fitted into the angle. A better joint provides an effective sanitary finish, but the labour in forming the trenching in
for internal angles is shown at z ; one piece of the skirting is grooved from the the floor to receive it is costly.
 N A I LS, S C R E W S A N D FAST E N E R S
PICTURE RAILS.-These are often omitted in the modern house ; when fixed members, as after penetrating the material the point can be readily hammered
in rooms, especially in those which may be only 8-ft. high, they may have the into the wood or clenched (seep. 88). The sizes vary from I to 4-in.
effect of spoiling the proportions by breaking up the wall surfaces and " lowering SPIKES are used for securing large wood members ; wire nails which exceed
the ceilings " ; the use of hooks which are pinned behind the oictures now make 5-in. in length and wrought nails which are longer than 4-in. are classified as
unnecessary the provision of picture rails. spikes.
When they are required, a satisfactory finish is obtained if they are fixed
at the level of the top of the door architrave, as shown at A, Fig. 64. Alternative N A I L S, SCREWS ~ FAS T EN ERS
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sections through picture rails are given at H, J and K, and the plug and rough
ground (two forms) fixings are included ; plugs are generally used and are
driven into the vertical joints of the walling after the plastering has been
~b=====~::~~~3s·~(==~d
A tD :s~I\RATIONS SUM( r---~==~~~~~====iJ
r-n v
lllwll'":::r::77.:-:-===--:-:-::-:-:-"'--~~/tl
vJI-J.l..... 1111111 e B
completed. H&Ao OVAL WIRE NAIL SECTION CIRCULAR WIRE NAIL SECTION
ANGLE BEADS.-External angles of plastered walls have to be protected
against damage to the plaster arrises. Two methods of accomplishing this
are shown at L and M, Fig. 64. That at L is the cheapest and most general
method. Plugs are driven into the joints, the projecting ends are cut off in true
alignment, and t or !-in. wood beads are nailed to them. The plaster should G
be cut or quirked as shown, but this is often omitted. An application of
this form is shown in detail E, Fig. 63. The appearance is improved if the
bead with pencil-rounded arris shown at M is adopted. This is secured
to plugs.
The more costly Keene's or Parian cement arris has been referred to on p. I I I
(seeN, Fig. s6, and A, Fig. 57); if the plastered surfaces are not to be papered,
the arrises may be formed into a quirked bead or similar moulding as shown at
o, Fig. 6o.
N A I L S, S C R E W S A N D FAST E N E R S
Steel or wrought iron fastenings used in carpentry and joinery include oval
and circular wire nails, cut clasp nails, wrought nails, brads, flat and round-
headed screws, coach screws, corrugated fasteners and bolts. The latter is
detailed at J, Fig. 77, and the other fastenings are illustrated in Fig. 66.
WIRE NAILS.-These are either oval (see A) or circular (see B). Oval wire
nails are used for general purposes ; they are tough and are not liable to split
the wood when driven in ; the slight shallow grooves or serrations in the stem
BUTT JOINT
increase the " holding power " or ability to grip the fibres of the wood into which FIGURE 66. SCALE INCHES APPLICATION OF FASTENER
they are driven. They are obtainable in sizes varying from I to 6-in. and are
sold by weight; they are also known as American nails. The circular nail FLOOR BRADs (see E).-As is implied, these are used chiefly for securing
shown at B is not so extensively used by the joiner on account of its unsightly floor boards. The projecting head should be driven in the direction of the
flat circular head ; it is chiefly confined to temporary or unimportant work, grain of the timber. The length varies from I! to 3-in.
and in the making of boxes, packing cases, etc. ; these are sometimes called JOINERS' BRADs OR SPRIGS (see H).-These resemble floor brads, but the
French nails. sizes are from i to 2-in. ; they are made of steel, brass and copper.
CuT CLASP NAILS (see c).-The oval wire nail has practically ousted the PANEL PINS (see F).-These small nails, circular in section, are generally
cut clasp nail for general purposes. used for fixing hardwood members (usually mouldings) on account of the small
WROUGHT NAILS (see D).-This wrought iron nail, which is tapered in both holes which are left.
width and thickness to form a point, is usefully employed for fixing thin NEEDLE PoiNTS (see G).-These are steel pins used for fixing small mouldings,
 126
veneers, etc. ; they are driven in and snapped off flush with the surface ; they
are obtainable in six degrees of fineness.
It is difficult to drive small nails, pips, etc. into hardwood without bending unless
small holes have been bored to receive them. Driving is facilitated if the points are
dipped in grease.
ScREWS.-There are several forms of screws, but those chiefly used for
fixing woodwork are the flat-headed (see K) and round-headed (see L) types.
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JOINERY
CoACH ScREws (see M).- These are of similar construction to the wood
screw, except that the heads are square or hexagonal so that they can be
turned by a spanner; they are from ! to 8-in. long and from ;:,r to t-in. in
diameter, and are often used for connecting metal plates, straps and angles to
wood.
CoRRUGATED SAw EDGE FASTENERS (see P, Q and R).-These are corrugated
pieces of steel or brass which are shaped and sharpened along one edge to give
what are called " tack points " ; each succeeding point is sharpened on opposite

These are made of wrought iron, steel and brass, and as the thread is effective
in cutting into wood, they are sometimes called wood screws. Screws are fixed
by means of the screwdriver or brace and bit (see 40 and 45, Fig. 67), and
their advantages over nails are : (I) they can be easily removed when required,
(2) they can be fixed in positions where jarring has to be avoided, and (3) they
give a stronger job on account of their greater holding power.
Flat-headed or Countersunk Screws.-As shown at K, the circular flat
head (which is notched to receive the screwdriver) is tapered down .to a point;
the thread proceeds in a spiral form from the pointed end to midway along the
shank, and this threaded portion cuts into the timber as the screw is turned ;
the flat head can be brought flush with the timber ; it is obtainable in sizes
varying from i to 6-in. long and from T\r to t-in. in diameter. It is desirable
(and for hardwoods it is essential) to bore a hole of a smaller diameter than that
of the screw by one of the several boring tools illustrated in Fig. 67 prior to
inserting the screw.
Cups (see N).-These are of brass and are obtainable in various sizes to suit
the head of the screws which they are to receive. They should be used wherever
mouldings, beads, etc., are to be removed subsequently, otherwise the woodwork
will become damaged by the removal and reinsertion of the screws. A section
with a cup in position is shown at o, and examples of its use are shown at J and R,
Fig. 6o, in connection with the inner beads. A hole, slightly smaller than the
diameter of the top of the cup, is formed by a centre bit (see 46; Fig. 67) in the
required position, a little glue is placed round the hole and the cup is driven in.
Round-headed Screws (see L).-These are similar to those described above,
except that the head is almost hemis_pherical. They are generally used for
fixing metal to wood, e.g., locks and -similar hardware.
Concealment of Fastenings.-When nails and brads are driven into softwood their
heads are driven about t-in. below the surface by using a hammer on a steel punch
(see 10, Fig. 67) and the holes are filled or "stopped" with putty before the work is
painted. For hardwoods which are not to be painted, the heads are punched and the
holes are stopped with material which is coloured to conform with that of the wood ;
this stopping, which is melted and applied with a knife as a mastic, sets hard and is
then smoothed over to the surface of the wood to render the positions of the fixing
inconspicuous. Another method of concealing brads is shown at J ; a sharp chisel
is used to carefully cut and lift a small portion of the wood, the brad is punched below
the surface and the chip is glued down. . blades are 9, rot and 12-in. long.
Pelleting is resorted to for concealing the heads of screws ; this consists of sinking
the head below the surface by means of a centre bit and a cylindrical plug or pellet
of wood of similar grain to that of the member is glued, driven in and chiselled off
flush.
sides like a saw (seeR) ; they are made in depths varying from ito x-in. They
are being extensively used for making light framings, boxes and similar temporary
work, repairing cracked boards, etc. Two applications are shown at s and T,
the former showing a butt joint and the latter a mitred joint. These fasteners
are easily fixed by simply driving them in with a hammer, during which the
wood members are drawn together.
Wrought iron bolts and rivets are described on pp. xs8-I59·
TOOLS
Whilst machinery has very largely displaced hand labour, particularly in
shops where standardized units such as doors and windows are produced, the
joiner is called upon to perform many tasks which necessitate the use of hand
tools. The following are those which are in general use and are essential parts
of a kit:-
CLASSIFICATION.-Hand tools may be classified into those required fpr: (1) marking
and setting out, (2) cutting and shaving, (3) boring, (4) impelling, (5) abrading, (6) cramp-
ing and holding, and (7) miscellaneous. Most of these are shown in Fig. 67.
(1} MARKING AND SETTING OuT TooLs.-These include rules, marking knife, straight
edge, try square, mitre square, bevel, compasses, callipers and gauges.
Rules (see 1).-These are of boxwood ; there are several varieties, including the one-
foot four-fold, two-foot four-fold, etc.
Markitlg Awl and Cutting Knife (see 7).-Used for setting out accurate work (seep. 104),
the awl (or point) being used for pricking points from the rod and the sharp edge being
used to cut the shoulder, etc., lines.
Straight Edge is a 3 to 4-in. wide board, t-in. thick and 7 or 8-ft. long, carefully dressed
out of winding ; one edge must be perfectly square and the other is usually bevelled down
from the centre to distinguish it from the true edge ; used for testing surfaces, marking
lines, etc.
Try Square (see 2).-Used for setting out right angles and for testing square angles
during the planing up of stuff; is obtainable with 4!, 6, 7!, 9 and 12-in. long blades.
A larger square is also required ; consists of a mahogany blade which is usually
2!-in. by l-in. by 30-in. long tenoned to a 16-in. long stock.
All metal try squares are available and the blades of these are graduated like rules.
A Mitre Square or Fixed Bevel has a steel blade fixed at 45° to a wood stock ; this is a
useful tool for setting out 45° angles.
Bevel (see 3).-The slotted blade can be secured at any desired angle by tightening the
screw with the screwdriver ; used for setting out angles other than right angles ; the
Compasses (see s).-Used for marking parallel lines to irregular surfaces such as
scribing skirtings to floors (see p. 124) and mouldings to walls, and for describing circles
and setting off distances ; stocked in 6, 7, 8, 9 and Io-in. sizes.
A trammel is used for striking large arcs or circles ; consists of two metal heads, each
 JOINERY
having a 3 to s-in. point, which slide along a hardwood stick which may be 1!--in. by !-in. ;
the points can be fixed as desired to the stick and one of them may be replaced by a pencil
socket.
Callipers are used for measuring diameters of curved surfaces ; outside callipers, used
for external dimensions, consist of a pair of hinged steel curved legs which are shaped to
a fine point ; inside callipers, for inside measurements, have two hinged and tapered legs
which finish with points which turn outwards.
GAUGES are tools used to mark one or more lines on the wood which are parallel to the
edge ; the varieties include the marking gauge, cutting gauge, mortise gauge and panel
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gauge.
Marking Gauge (see 4).-The holed beech head receives the boxwood stem, near one
end of which is a sharp steel marking point (pin, spur or tooth) which projects r'lf-in.
below the lower surface ; the stem can be fixed to any desired position by means of the
thumbscrew ; after the stem has been set as required and the screw tightened, the face
of the head (that nearest the point) is placed against the edge of the timber, the point is
pressed down firmly and this scores a line on the surface as the head traverses the edge.
Cutting Gauge.-This is similar to the marking gauge except that it has a steel cutter
in place of the spur; the cutter is about Ii-in. long, 1-{l,r-in. wide and ,-\--in. thick,
sharpened to a point ; it is used for cutting parallel strips from thin stuff such as veneers
and for marking across the grain.
Mortise Gauge (see 9).-This has two marking points, that nearest the end of the stem
being fixed and the other being movable ; the movable pin is attached to one end of a
brass slide which is dovetailed into the stem and extends from the fixed pin to a collar
which is fitted over the brass screw at the opposite end ; this screw penetrates the stem,
and as it rotates it withdraws the slide (and the movable pin) to increase the distance
between the two pins ; this distance may be adjusted from -!- to 2-in. ; the head or stock is
fixed in the desired position to the stem by means of the brass thumbscrew shown at
the top of the head. The gauge thus enables two parallel lines to be marked and is em-
ployed for setting out mortises and tenons ; as mentioned on p. 106, the points of the
gauge are set to the width of the mortise and the head is then adjusted to the required
distance from the movable pin.
Panel Gauge.-This is larger than but resembles the marking gauge; it is usually
made by the joiner, the stem being !-in. by !-in. by about 28-in. long, and the head
being about 2!-in. wide, ·1-in. thick and about 8-in. long. The pin is fixed, and the head
is adjusted and fixed as described for the marking gauge ; it is used (as stated on p. 106)
in the construction of door panels.
(2) CuTTING AND PLANING TooLs.-These comprise saws, chisels, gouges, planes and
spokeshaves.
SAws.-The many varieties include the cross-cut saw, rip saw, tenon saw, dovetail saw,
compass saw, pad saw and bow saw. A saw has a spring steel blade with a wood (usually
beech or apple wood) handle securely riveted to it ; the lower edge or front of the blade
is divided into serrations or fine teeth ; this cutting edge is usually specified according to
the number of points (not teeth) to the inch; thus at A, c and D, Fig. 67, the number of
points per inch is six, four and ten respectively. The teeth are bent alternately to the right
and left of the blade to enable the blade to pass through the-cut being formed in the
timber with the minimum of friction as the sawing proceeds ; this bending of the teeth
is called setting (see B) and causes the teeth to form a slightly wider cut in the timber than
the thickness of the blade ; in addition, the blades of the larger saws are ground thinner
at the back (opposite edge to the teeth) than at the cutting edge. A saw should be as thin
as possible, otherwise waste of material would result because of the wider cut which would
be formed by the thicker blade.
Cross-cut Saw (see 12).-This is essentially used for cutting across the fibres of the
wood, but it is also used with the grain, and in carpentry for general sawing ; it is made
in sizes of 20 to 28-in. (length of blade), advancing by 2-in., a 26-in. blade being
standard ; the number of points is 5, s!, 6, 7 and 8 per inch ; the eight-point saw is
considered best for hardwoods, a seven-point saw for both hardwood and softwood, and
a five-point saw for rough carpentry ; the teeth are shaped as shown in the enlarged
sketch at A ; the hollow back improves the appearance.
Rip Saw.- This is rarely used, unless machinery is not available, when it is used for
127
cutting timber along the grain ; it resembles the cross-cut saw, is 28-in. long, and has
teeth shaped as shown at c with four points to the inch.
Panel Saw.-Is similar to the cross-cut saw, but the blade is finer and the teeth are
usually shaped as shown at A ; a 26-in. blade with ten or twelve points to the inch is
considered best ; is used in preference to the cross-cut saw for accurate work and instead
of the tenon saw (see below) for cutting panels and similar wide work.
Tenon Saw (see 13).-Used for finer work than both the cross-cut and panel saws; as
implied, is used for the cutting of shoulders to tenons and where a clean cut is necessary ;
made in 12, 14 and 16-in. sizes, the 14-in. blade being generally preferred; its very fine
blade is stiffened and increased in weight by the brass or iron back or bar which is tightly
pinched on the upper edge. It has ten or twelve points to the inch and the teeth (called
peg'teeth) are of equilateral triangular shape as shown at D ; is sometimes called a back saw.
Dovetail Saw (see 15).-This has an 8, 10 or 12-in. blade and an open handle; used
for very fine work, as for forming dovetail joints in drawers and for cutting shoulders
on narrow rails ; this fine blade has fourteen points to the inch.
Compass or Turning Saw (see 16 and 17).-Is used for cutting curves ; one type has
the blade riveted to the handle and another has one or more slotted blades (as shown)
which are fitted and screwed to the handle ; the latter is usually provided with three
blades of different sizes which are interchangeable ; the teeth are shaped as shown at c.
Pad or Keyhole Saw (see 18).-Is useful for forming keyholes and similar curved work;
it is the smallest saw, the blade tapering in width from i to a bare !-in. ; the pad or handle
is slotted so that the blade can be passed right through when not in use ; when required,
the blade is drawn out to the desired amount (see the broken lines) and tightened by two
screws; the teeth are similar to those of the compass saw.
Bow Saw (see 19).-Used for cutting curved work with sweeps which are too quick
to be negotiated by the compass saw ; the frame is made by the joiner and the blade
(t to !-in. wide) is fitted into the shafts of two boxwood handles ; about 10-ft. of strong
string is wound round the upper ends of the sides (of ash, beech, birch or mahogany)
and a short wood lever is passed between it ; the blade is tightened to the required tension
by twisting the string by means of the lever ; this shortens the string and the blade is
stretched as the upper ends of the sides are brought together ; the bar acts as a fulcrum
and restrains the lever to prevent the unwinding of the string.
Frame Saw.-Is similar but longer and stronger than the bow saw.
SETTING AND SHARPENING SAWS.-The setting or bending back of the teeth has been
already referred to. The points become worn as the saw is used and the amount of
set is reduced ; this decreases the width of the saw-cuts and freedom of the blade is
restricted as the clearance becomes less ; the teeth have then to be re-set and re-sharpened ;
the former operation is carried out before the teeth are sharpened, although it is usually
only necessary to set once to every third or fourth sharpening process.
The teeth should be of regular length ; if they are not, any correction is made before
the setting is commenced ; any irregularity can be seen by looking down the teeth from
the heel (see 12) and removed by drawing a flat file two or three times along them; this
is known as breasting.
The teeth are then set. The expert does this by holding the blade on a steel block
or set (which has a bevelled edge) and uniformly tapping alternate teeth in turn with
a special thin-edged hammer. Alternatively, a patent saw set (see 20) may be used; the
saw is gripped between the pad and set-screw, both of which are regulated to produce
the required set ; the handles are squeezed together and this causes the plunger to press
forward to pend each alternate tooth in turn ; the saw is reversed and the teeth on the
opposite side are set in a similar manner.
The saw is now ready for sharpening. It is fixed between the jaws of a saw vice (or
sharpening block or saw chops) with the edge of the saw horizontal and about 1-in. above
the jaws. A file (triangular in cross-section and of a size depending upon that of the
teeth) is used ; starting at one end, alternate teeth (those pointing away from the filer)
are filed with the same number of strokes of equal pressure and in a manner which varies
with the type of saw ; the saw is reversed in the vice and the remaining· teeth are filed
similarly to bring them to a fine point. Bright points indicate blunt points, and sharp
points are dull and difficult to see ; if therefore the teeth have been breasted, each point
will be bright owing to its blunt condition and the filing should be continued until this
brightness disappears.
 !28
CHISELS are tools with forged steel blades in wood (ash, boxwood or beech) handles;
each blade is bevelled on the back and has a fine cutting edge. They are used to remove
thin layers or shavings of wood in shaping surfaces, forming mortices, grooves, etc. The
finer the edge, the smoother the surface, and it is essential that the cutting edge be kept
sharpened by rubbing the back down on an oilstone. Various kinds include the paring,
firmer and mortise chisels and gouges.
Paring Chisel (see 35).-The tang (pointed end) of the thin blade is fitted into the
handle, and the brass ferrule prevents the tang from splitting the handle ; is used for
paring (shaving) plane surfaces both in the direction of the grain and on the end grain
of the wood ; the blade may be either square or bevelled, the latter type (shown in the
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TOOLS
is slightly curved back and reduced in thickness to a fine edge ; a brass nut is attached
to the iron and receives the screw which connects both plates together (see J); the distance
that the edge of the cutting iron projects beyond that of the back iron is called the set
of the iron, and this depends upon the character of the wood to be planed and the
thickness of the desired shaving ; the set is approximately i-in. for softwoods and .(.,-in.
for hardwoods ; the object of the back iron is to break the shaving and bend it as it
proceeds through the mouth.
The irons are secured in the stock by means of a wood wedge (see 2I and H) ; the wedge
is knocked down by a hammer when fitting the irons, and as it passes down the back iron
the fine tapered legs proceed down the two side grooves in the hole in the stock until

figure) being useful in forming grooves; obtainable in lengths varying from 9 to 2I-in.
and in widths of from ! to 2-in.
Firmer Chisel (see 36).-Is a stronger or " firmer" chisel than the last mentioned as
it has to withstand the mallet (see 23) which is used to propel the tool ; is useful for general
work and in removing wood in thin chips ; the length varies from 4-in. upwards and the
width from r'rr to 2-in.
Mortise Chisel.-Used for forming mortices, and is much stronger than the firmer
chisel as it has to withstand the action of the mallet and the strain resulting in loosening
the wood core when making the mortice ; that shown at 37 is known as a socket mortise
chisel because the wood handle is fitted into the socket of the cast steel blade ; the metal
ferrule protects the handle from damage by the mallet ; the ordinary mortise chisels are
! to !-in. wide and the maximum width of the socket type is I !-in
Plugging Chisel (see 38).-Made entirely of forged steel and used for preparing holes
in brickwork, etc., for wood plugs.
Pocket Chisel.-Is a very fine chisel, sharpened both sides, which is used for forming
pockets in boxed window frames (see p. I I4) and obtainable in widths varying from I!
to 2!-in.
GouGES are curved chisels which produce circular cuts. Paring, firmer, socket, etc.,
gouges are obtainable ; that shown at 39 is known as an outside ground gouge and is
useful for heavy work ; those ground on the inside are used for paring ; widths vary
from ! to I !-in.
PLANES are so called as they are chiefly used for shaving or smoothing plane surfaces
after the timber has been sawn; they are of (a) wood (beech) and (b) metal (cast steel,
gunmetal and malleable iron).
(a) WooD PLANES.-Of the many different sorts, the jack plane, trying plane and
smoothing plane (known as bench planes) are essential items of a kit; some of the other
planes are not so important and may only be used on rare occasions.
Jack Plane (see 2 I).-This is the first plane used on a piece of wood after it has left the
saw ; it eliminates .the saw marks and leaves the surface sufficiently smooth for the sub-
sequent finishing with the trying and smoothing phmes (see later) ; it is also useful for
quickly planing off large quantities of wood to reduce the scantlings. This plane consists
of a stock, double irons, wedge and handle.
The standard beechwood sto~k (or body} is I7-in. long by 3-in. by 3-in. ; it should
be carefully selected with the annual rings parallel with the face or sole (see sketch) other-
wise unequal shrinkage will take place, the face will wear unevenly and so affect its
accuracy ; the handle is glued into a slot and a hole is formed to receive the irons and
wedge ; the width of the mouth (see J) is about l-in. and a space is left between the irons
and the front of the mouth to allow the shavings to escape at the throat ; a !-in. hardwood
stud (or button} is fitted on top near to the front or nose of the plane and prevents dis-
figurement as it receives the blows from the hammer when the irons are being adjusted.
The irons consist of a cutting iron (E) and a back or top iron (F) which are made of crucible
cast steel; they are made in 2, 2!, 2!, 2f and 2!-in. widths, the 2!-in: size being popular.
The bottom edge of the cutting iron is rounded as it is required to remove shavings which
should be thickest in the.centre and finer at the edge; this edge is double-bevelled (see
enlarged section through the edge at G), the grinding bevel being slightly hollow ground and
approximately 25°, whilst the sharpening angle is about 3io; the thickness of the iron
increases from .(;r-in. at the top to about t-in. at the top of the grinding bevel; the iron
is slotted to allow movement of the screw which attaches it to the back iron. The back
iron (F) is of uniform thickness of about ! down to about !-in. from the bottom, when it
they are rigidly fixed.
Trying Plane (see 26).-This is used for precise work, such as removing irregularities
left on the surface of the wood by the jack plane ; it is also used for forming long straight
edges as for joints and nosings ; it is the largest bench plane (the sizes being 22, 24 and
26-in.) and closely resembles the jack plane but for the closed handle ; the set of the irons
is usually .(u--in. for softwoods an.d :r'rin. for hardwoods.
Smoothing Plane (see 29).-This is known as the finishing plane as it is used to smooth
the surface of the wood after the jack and trying planes have been operated ; the stock
is only 8-in. long and is provided with double irons set as for the trying plane.
Rebate Plane (see 28).-Used for forming rebates and has only a single iron ; this
cutting iron is fixed by a wedge and is the full width of the stock ; the iron, which varies
from ! to 2-in. in width, is placed either on the skew (" skew mouth ") or square (" square
mouth ''), the former being preferred as it is considered to work easier.
Hollow and Round Planes (see 30).-The hollow plane is used for producing convex
surfaces on the timber (see enlarged section through the sole at K) and the edge of the
single iron or cutter conforms to the curve ; concave surfaces on timber are formed by
the round plane (see enlarged section L).
Formerly, a joiner had as part of his kit at least a half set of" hollows and rounds,"
and many possessed complete sets consisting of eighteen pairs varying from i to I l-in.
in width for the purpose of making mouldings ; nowadays, most of this work is done by
machinery and these hand tools are used only on rare occasions.
Bead Plane (see 33).-This moulding plane is still required, and two or three of different
sizes should form part of a kit ; it is used for forming a half-round moulding with a
quirk (sinking) on edges of members ; the strip let into the sole of the stock is of boxwood
to resist wear ; a sketch showing the application is given at M.
Note.-A number of moulding planes, such as ogee, torus, reed, astragal, ovolo,
etc., have practically fallen into disuse, since mouldings can be produced much more
cheaply by machinery.
Plough Plane (see 3I) is used for forming grooves with the grain, varying in width
from l to {-in., and to arty depth up to about I l-in.; the single iron, secured by a wedge,
passes down to a narrow mouth formed in the metal runner or guide screwed to the stock ;
the depth of the groove is regulated by the metal thumb-screw which passes through the
stock and depresses or raises a metal solepiece (about !-in. wide) which operates between
the runner and wood fence ; the wood nuts which negotiate the wood screw bars arc
manipulated to adjust the width between the fence and the runner as required ; the
plough is provided with six or eight irons of different widths.
Router or Old Woman's Tooth (see 32).-This plane is used for increasing the depth
of grooves (an operation known as trenching) formed previously by another tool ; the strong
iron is from i to !-in. wide.
Spokeshave (see 34).-Used for planing circular work having quick curves; the iron
(see o) is fixed by passing the two tapered tongs through the stock and should be well
sharpened ; it is adjusted by lightly tapping either the projecting ends of the tongs or the
blade as required (see section at N).
Compass Plane.-This is a smoothing plane with a convex sole and 2-in. wide double
irons for planing curved surfaces ; it is not much used.
Moving and Sash Fillister Planes.-Both are used for forming rebates or grooves; the
moving or side fillister is a rebate plane with a movable fence, a single cutting iron and a
small. side iron for marking out the rebate ; is adopted for making rebates on the near
side of the stuff. The sash fillister resembles the plough and may be used for forming
sinkings on the back edge of the wood. These planes are now seldom used.
 JOINERY
Toothing Pla11e.-ls a useful tool for preparing surfaces of timber which arc to be glued
together, such as is required for veneering ; its 2-in. wide single iron has a serrated edge ;
the surface to be toothed is levelled by a jack plane, travers.ed with the toothing plane
diagonally in opposite directions and finally with the grain to give a fiat rough surface.
Tonguing and Grooving Planes (also known as matchi11g planes).-Used to form tongues
and grooves on the edges of boards required for match-boarding, battened doors, etc.
Although most of such work is done by machinery, these planes are occasionally required,
especially when preparing work during fixing.
(b) METAL PLANES.-Most of the wood planes described above are also obtainable in
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metal, such as cast steel, gunmetal, malleable iron or aluminium. Some of them are an
improvement upon the wood planes, but the wood jack plane especially is still considered
to be the best for its purpose. The metal planes are more fragile than those in wood,
and therefore the jack and trying planes are better able to withstand the somewhat rough
usage to which they are often subjected. Metal planes are also more expensive than wood
planes. Very accutate work, especially in hardwood, can be produced by metal planes,
and their various adjustments can be readily affected. The sole of a metal plane is not
subjected to the wearing action common to the wood plane.
Metal Smooth Plane (see 42).-This is a very useful tool; especially for smoothing the
surf&ces of hardwoods of best quality which have been previously dressed with the jack
and trying planes. The cap secures the two irons (called the cutter) by a screw which
passes through to the frog that supports them ; the cap is adjusted by the lever " x " ; .
the lever " y " adjusts the cutter sideways, the frog is adjusted either forward or backward
by an adjusting screw, and the large screw or milled nut behind the frog adjusts the edge
of the cutter to regulate the thickness of shaving. This tool is the Stanley " Bed Rock "
smoothing plane, nnd is obtainable in sizes varying from St to Io-in. in length of sole
with cutters which are from 1! to zi-in. wide; a somewhat similar tool, called the English
steel smoothing plane and having a width of iron up to 2!-in., is very satisfactory, although
it is not so readily adjusted as that described above.
Block Plane (see 44).-This is a very desirable tool, especially for small work which is
not readily accessible and for preparing mitres of hardwood mouldings ; it is well suited
for planing across the grain, and on account of its small size it can be easily gripped and
controlled with one hand ; it has only a single iron or cutter which is inclined at 12° to
20°-compared with the 45° pitch of the cutting iron of the wood jack, etc. planes (see J) ;
unlike the cuttinu iron of the wood bench plane, the bevel of the cutter of the block plane
is uppermost. The type .shown is a Stanley plane, and to assemble it, the iron (which
has a central slot) is placed over the small projecting lever cap screw, the cap (which has
a knuckle joint) is fitted over it, and when correctly placed, pressure on the cap springs
it into position ; the edge of the cutter is brought parallel with the mouth (barely !-in.
wide) by lateral movement of the lever and the distance between the edge of the cutter
and the front of the mouth is regulated as required by the milled screw or nut shown
below the lever. The width of the iron is 1!-in.
Other varieties of metal planes include the bullnose plane (the edge of the iron is close
up to the nose of the plane and is therefore useful for planing surfaces at the ends of rebates,
etc.) and the shoulder plane (which ie a form of rebate plane used for planing rebates in
hardwood and particularly the ends of members such as the shoulders of rails).
(3) BoRING Tom.s.-These include the b~ace and bits! auger, gimlet. an~ bradawl.
Brace and Bits (see 45 to so).-A brace IS a handle or stock to wh1ch 1s attached a
cutter or bit used for boring holes ; hand pressure on the head of the brace assists the
boring action of the bit whilst t?e brace (gripped by the. handle) is rc:volved; ihat shown
at 45 is of the ratchet type and IS the best, for when desued the turmng movement of the
handle may be restricted to a small arc to allow boring in confined positions ; when the
ratchet is suitably adjusted; the bit only bores into the wood when the brace is turned
clockwise through a part of a circle, and the bit remains stationary when the brace is turned
backwards ; the brace with the screwdriver bit attached is also employed to force in
screws when pressure on the ordinary screwdriver (see 40) . would be inadequate ; the
chuck contains steel spring jaws into which the shank of the bit is inserted and securely
gripped by rotation of the chuck ; the sweep of the brace is of steel, the head and handle
are of hardwood, and in the best tool the head, handle and ratchet head have ball bearings
providing easy action.
There arc many varieties and sizes of bits. The ceutre bit (46) is employed for boring;
the cutting edge P cuts out the circumference of the hole as the bit is rotated by the brace
and the turned bacf!: cutting edge Q removes the waste material from the h~lc ; its
diameter varies from l to I t -in. The shell bit resembles the gouge (compare 50 w1th 39),
the spoon bit (which resembles the gouge, but pointed), the nose bit (like the shell bit but
with a cutting edge at the point) and the screw bit or twist bit (which has a screw thread
at its point) are used for producing small holes from l to !-in. diameter. Auger or twist
bits produce holes which are cleaner and more accurate than those formed by the above
varieties; there are many patterns, e.g., Russell Jenning's (48), Gedge's and Irwin's (49);
these are in two lengths, the shorter being known as dowel bits, and the diameters increase
by 1\ 1 -in. from ! to 1!-in. The Forstner bit is unlike the twis~ed bits as th~ end has a
circular rim instead of a point, and the larger bits have only plam and not sp1ral shanks ;
it is useful for boring in any direction. The expansion bit is provided with adjustable
cutters of different sizes, thus in one range the cutter can be adjusted to bore holes varying
from ! to 1!-in. diameter. The screwdriver bit (45) is an important . tool and has already
been referred to. Countersink bits are used to prepare shallow smkmgs to receive heads
of countersunk screws (see K, Fig. 66), etc. ; the rose countersink bit (47) is suitable for
both hardwoods and ·metals, the snail countersink bit (similar to the rose but having a
sharper point and a grooved end) is used for wood on!y, and the fi.at countersink bit
(having a fiat end which is tapered to a point) is only suitable for bonn~ through metal.
Rimers are tapered bits which are used for either preparing tapered or comcal-shaped holes
or for increasing the size of holes. . .
Auger.-This has a steel stem, about 2-ft. long (although th1s may be ~xceedcd), .havmg
a round eye at one end to receive a wo_od cross ha~dle ;. the other end IS shaped hke the
bits of this name ; is used for deep bonngs up to 2-m . d!Bmeter. . . ..
Gimlet.-This small tool is useful for boring holes to mark the posltlon and fac1htate
the insertion of screws. The various patterns include the twist gimlet (8), shell gimlet
(resembles a gouge with a screw end) and the auger gimlet which has a~ augered shank:
Bradawl (see 22).-The small steel blade has a sharpened end; 1s used for makmg
small holes.
(4) IMPELLING TooLS include hammers, mallets, screwdrivers and nail punches.
Hammers.-That shown at I I is called the Warrington hammer; the head (usually of
cast steel with a tempered steel face and pene) is wedged to the shaped ash or hickory shaft ;
of the many sizes, that with the head w.eighing al?proximately_ I-.lb. is most used for
general purposes. The claw hammer (14) IS made w1th heads we1ghmg from 7 to 28-oz. ;
the claw is useful for levering back or withdrawing nails.
Mallet (see 23).-Used for driving chisels and knocking framing together; the tapered
mortice in the beech liead receives the slightly tapered ash or beech shaft.
Screwdrivers.-There are two··forms, i.e., the fixed-blade type and the ratchet driver
(40); the former is obtainable with the length of blade varying from .3 to 12-in.. an~ is
the firmer tool to employ for heavier framing ; the ratchet screwdnver, . by adJustmg
the slide, can be turned right or left without releasing the hand pressure ; 1t can also be
converted to the rigid type. .
Nail Punches (see 10).-These vary in size and shape and are used to punch the heads
of nails below the surface of the wood.
(5) ABRADING TooLS include scrapers and rasps.
Scraper (see 53).-The•two longer edges of ~his steel plate (wh!ch d~es. not exceed
,.'1r-in. in thickness) are turned over to form a shght burr on each s1de ;. 1t ts used on a
hardwood surface after the latter has been levelled and smoothed by planmg ; the scraper
is gripped by both hands and a burred edge is dr:'-wn or. pushed over the surface of the
wood in varying directions (finishing with the ~ram) until any defects left by the planes
have been scraped out.
Rasps.-Two grades of the steel half-round rasp shown at 43 are used to . remove
bumps on curved surfaces ; the coarse and fine files are about 10 and 8-m. long
respectively ; the fine file eliminates the marks left by the coarser file ; fiat rasps are also
obtainable.
Glass-papering also termed sand-papering, is the final process applied to good
hardwood surface~. Thus, after the surface has been planed by the jack, trying and
 130 TOOLS
smoothing planes and scraped, it is traversed (generally with the grain) by the
rubber. This is a piece of cork round which is wrapped a piece of glass-paper. This
abrading material is a strong paper, one side of which is coated with powdered glass,
glue being used as the adhesive ; it is obtainable in various grades and usually
application of two or three of the grades is necessary before the surface is completed.
Mahogany and certain other hardwoods should be "damped down" (i.e., the surface
is damped with a little hot water) and allowed to dry before the finer grade of glass-
paper is applied ; this is necessary to " raise the grain " which has been depressed
by the action of the coarser paper.
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Grindstone.-Plane irons, chisels, etc., have to be ground before being finally sharpened
on the oilstone. A hard grit stone or carborundum, etc. disc, which is caused to rotate
during the grinding operation, is generally provided in the shop for this purpose.
Oilstone and Box (see 25).-There are several natural and artificial oil-stones and these
vary considerably in degree of fineness ; well-known varieties are the Arkansas, Car-
borundum, India, Washita, and Turkey ; a good quality oil (preferably neatsfoot) should
only be used when sharpening the tools. The hardwood (mahogany) box to receive the
stone, and the lid should be made out of the solid.
Slip Stone (see 27).-These are of similar materials to oilstones and are used for
sharpening gouges ; sizes vary from 4 to 6-in. long, I to 2!-in. wide and i"o-i\r-in. to
i-i-in. thick.
(6) CRAMPING AND HOLDING APPLIANCES include T-cramps, G-cramps, bench
holdfasts and mitre blocks.
T-cramp.-This has been described on p . I06 and is shown at J, Fig. 55; it is used
to cramp up framings, etc., during the gluing and wedging process.
G-cramp (see 41).-This metal cramp is convenient for small work; the sizes vary
from 5 to 12-in. (distance between the end of the screw and the opposite leg); a lighter
but similar cramp with a thumb-screw instead of the lever handle and having a m aximum
clearance of 8-in. is also used.
Bench Holdfast or Clamp (see 6).-Is of wrought iron with a steel screw and malleable
arm and shoe; the arm varies from 10 to 14-in. long and from ! to ri-in. diameter;
its object is to grip the stuff on the joiners' bench during the process of working; the
bench top is holed to receive the bar, the work is gripped by the shoe, and the screw is
tightened to cause the bar to cant over and grip the sides of the hole ; this forces the
shoe down on the work and makes it rigid whilst the joiner is engaged in doing the necessary
labours. · emme~tly smted for mass produced work,. as it is capable of driving screws home at a
Handscrew (see 52).-This consists of two hornbeam, beech or metal screws with
two beech jaws ; it is one of the best appliances for cramping light stuff during the actual
hand operations and after the work has been glued, as the comparatively large jaws do not
damage the stuff.
Mitre Block (see 51).-Used in forming mitres on architrave and panel mouldings,
etc. ; it consists of two pieces of wood which have been carefully dressed and glued
together; two 45° inarks are accurately set out by using the bevel (see 3) and try;square
(2), and the two cuts or kerfs are carefully formed with a tenon saw (13); sometimes a
square cut is also formed for butt joints. In cutting the mitre, the length of moulding
is placed on the block with the moulded face outwards, the saw is placed in the cut, and
the moulding is sawn with. the kerf serving as a guide.
A mitre box (which is in the form of a channel and consists of two 1-in. vertical pieces
of wood secured to a wood bed piece) is sometimes used for large mouldings ; mitre cuts
are made down the two vertical pieces. The large moulded .piece is placed within the
box and made rigid by wedges ; the tenon saw is placed across the box ahd engaged in
the two short cuts, and the mitre is sawn down the moulding.
A mitre templet (used for trimming the mitres after being cut) and shooting and jointing
boards-used for planing mitres and edges with the trying plane (see 26)-are other forms
of equipment.
(7) MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT.-The following are necessary in a joiner's
tool chest : -
Cold Chisel.-This is a strong steel tool, about !-in. wide, which is used for the removal
of superfluous plaster, etc. prior to the fixing of architraves, skirtings, etc.
Pincers (see 24).-This illustrates the older type, and, as the claw is seldom used, the
newer form which is not provided with a claw and knob is sometimes preferred as it is
considered to give a better grip.
Axe.-This is useful for rough carpentry work.
. Plum~-bob (seep. 29).-A lead, brass or iron plumb-bob attached to a length of string
IS esse!l~1al for testing wor~ that is being fixed. ' '
.. Spmt Level (see 17, F1g. 19).-This is necessary when fixing certain carpentry and
Jomery work.
Oil Can.-The "non-leak" cone-shaped type is preferred.
PoRTABLE PoWER TooLs.-These small tools have been developed comparatively
recent!~ fo: use .by the woodworker. They are electrically operated, and therefore, if
electnc1ty 1s a~atlable these tools can be used on outside jobs besides in workshops.
Portable electnc t~ols a.re much speedier than hand tools and consequently they are
capable of substantially mcreasm g outJ?ut ; whilst somewhat heavier than ordinary hand
tools! power tools .are eas1ly handled w1th much less fatigue to the operator. Each power
tool I S prov1ded With a sw1tch, usually m the handle and therefore con veniently operated,
to wh1ch the cable from the m otor ts connected. Portable power tools chiefly used for
woodworkmg mclude saws, planes, screwdrivers, drills and sanders.
Portable Electric Saws.- These are provided with circular saw blades similar to those
described on pp. 24-27, Vol. III; the size varies from 6 to 12-in. diameter and the
c~rresponding cuts that can be formed are from If to 4!-in. deep. Each saw is provided
Wit~ two hand~es, one at th~ rear and one on top. The blade is provided with an auto-
matic telescopic guard wh1ch. covers the teeth, the lower half, being spring-hinged,
rotates backwards as the. tool IS operated and closes with a snap immediately the cut is
completed or the tool withdrawn ; the safety of the operator is thus assured. A small
fence is provided and this can be regulated to give the desired width of timber to be cut.
!he blade can be tilted to give bevel cuts up to 45°. Rip, cross-cut and special blades are
mt~rchangea~le, a~d hence the tool can be us~d for sawing with and across the grain as
desired. It IS claimed that a portable electnc saw can cut ten times faster than the
ordinary handsaw.
Porfable Electr.ic Plan~s.-These a~e n;tetal planes, one type having a sole which is
approxrmately 22-m. by 7-m. and a cuttmg uon or cutter blade of 4-in. width. It has two
handles, one near the heel and the other or pressure handle near and above the nose A
trigger switch is housed in the heel handle, and the blade is readily adjusted for depth of
cut by means of a thumb screw and fixed by a wing locking nut. This electric p.laner
planes ten times as fast as the jack plane described on p. 128.
. Electric Scrf!f!Jdrivers.-:-This power tool, pistol-like in appearance, has a trigger switch
m ~he handle. With an adJustable clutch at the opposite end which grips the blade. It is
ve~ h1g~ SJ?eed. The screwing operation is facilitated and the splitting of the timber
avo1ded 1f p1lot holes are first made by means of an electric drill (see below) to receive the
screws.
. Portable Electric. Drills.-These ar~ emJ?loyed for formin~ ho!es of varying diameters ;
hke the brace and b1t (p. I29) an electnc dnll has a chuck wh1ch t1ghtly grips the bit of size
and shape required, a secure grip being assured by rotating the chuck by means of a small
key. As mentioned above, the drill is used for boring small diameter pilot holes for
screws, but much lar/!l'er ~oles can be drilled and, by fixing a special attachment, the size of
hole can be up to 4-m. ~Iameter. The s~aller ~ype is one-handed, but larger drills have
end and s1de (or two s1de) handles and, m additiOn, the more powerful tool is suitably
dish-shaped on top to permit of breast-pressure.
Portable Electr!c Sanders.-The.se are used ~o produce a smooth finish to planed sur-
face.s. The labonous hand operatiOn of scrapmg and sand-papering described above is
obv1ated when the portable power sander is available. There are two classes of this
sander, i.e., the belt sander and the disc sander. The belt sander which is used for flat
surfaces, has an en~less belt (to which the sandpaper is attached) 'which passes over two
pulleys at ~ very h1gh speed ; belts from 2! to 4!-in. wide are easily interchangeable ·
the san~er 1s P.ressed .down on the timber during the sanding operation ; the better type of
san~er IS prov1ded with a vacuum dust collector or bag fixed at the rear to receive the dust
d~mng s.anding. The ?isc ~ander is useful fo': curved or irregular surfaces ; the size of
d1sc vanes from 5 to 9-m. d1ameter ; the abrasive .paper is fixed to the disc and the latter
rotates at a high speed as the tool is pressed against the work. The more powerful sand-
papering machines are described on p. 30, Vol. III.
Some of these portable electric tools can be used to eliminate hand labours on materials
othe.r than. wood. Thus, the saw can be provided with special blades or abrasive discs for
~uttmg bncks, stone and marble slabs, tiles, etc., electric drills are used for forming holes
m meta!, and sanders·with belts to which suitable abrasives are attached are employed for
smoothtngstone, etc. surfaces.
 6'
T 0 0 L s
STEEL 8LADE ~

TRY SQUM.E
I. MORTISE G}.UGE ,
& ~~
PENE~ IQ
l:::l" NAIL PUNCf-t/
II.
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WARRINGTON ttAMMER

Af--SIX POINTS PER INCtt--4

SET----

~-·CROSS-CUT SAW B PLAN

POINT
TEETH 16 .HEEr SHOWING SUCCESSIVE
TEETH ON OPPOSITE SlOES

BL~<Dg:?;/"~ e::1))
15. , n. ,0~MPASS SAW

DOVETAIL SAW ~ =;:::''SLAD;fxTENDED

5TRING
CUTTING IRON
_l

19.
~~IIM~~~~o~·~~~~~~~~lll~~~ P...D
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5ET SCREW
H!<NDLE 4!-'.:>'•:::lYs' SL!P STONE
:llL I ... 4??
 CHAPTER
SLATING
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Syllabus.-Brief description of the preparation and characteristics of slates ; sizes ; terms ; nails ; eaves, ridge, verge, hip and valley details.
FoRMATION.-Slate is a hard, fine-grained sedimentary argillaceous (clayey)
stone. Originally, the particles of clay were deposited by water and subjected
to vertical pressure which formed it into shale (intermediate between clay and
slate) ; this was subsequently changed into slate as a result of tremendous
lateral pressure and heat. It is owing to the latter action that the slate is
laminated, and because of its numerous parallel planes of cleavage, it is possible
to readily split a large block. into comparatively thin sheets or laminre which
are known as slates.
The cleavage planes are oblique to the original bedding or sedimentation
planes. Thus at the Honister and Yew Crag mines (Cumberland) the angle
of the bedding planes is about 35°, whereas that of the cleavage planes is
approximately 70° (see A, Fig. 68).
Slate is quarried in Wales (Penrhyn, Dinorwic, Bangor and Festiniog),
Cumberland and Westmorland (Honister, Buttermere, etc.), Lancashire
(Burlington) and Cornwall (Delabole). It is also quarried in Scotland (Aberdeen,
Argyle and Perth).
QuARRYING.-Slate is obtained from either open quarries or from mines.
Thus the Penrhyn, Dinoric (or Velinhelli) and Delabole slate is quarried, whilst
that from Festiniog and Honister is obtained from huge underground caverns
which are approached by galleries from the mountain-sides. Either gunpowder
or gelignite is used in blasting the rock and dislodging huge blocks of the slate.
Much useless rock must be removed in reaching the good beds, and it is esti-
mated that less than 10 per cent. of the material which is quarried is suitable
for the production of slates, the rest being waste.
CONVERSION.-After the blocks have been reduced in size by use of the mallet,
chisel, etc., to permit of their convenient removal from the mine or quarry,
they are transported to the sawmill, when the following operations are carried
out : sawing, splitting and dressing.
Sawing.-A diamond or circular saw (see p. 34) is used to divide each block
into sections which are from 18 to 24-in. wide and up to 14-in. thick. The
saw cuts an average rate (Westmorland slate) of 9 lineal in. per minute.
Splitting.-The sawn blocks are now reduced to slabs which are about 3-in.
thick, and each slab is divided by hand labour into thiu laminre or slates. A
I3Z
FIVE
" splitter," with the slab resting against the side of one of his legs, drives a chisel
into the slab at one of the sawn ends (see c, Fig. 68). The chisel used for
Welsh slates has a broad edge and is driven in with a wood mallet ; that used
for the tougher Westmorland slates is less broad (see B, Fig. 68) and a hammer
is used instead of a mallet. In splitting a slab, it is first divided into two or
three sections, each of which is carefully split to form slates of the required
thickness ; the chisel is driven firmly " down the grain " and prised after each
successive tap on it until the split is complete.
The thickness of the slates varies according to the quality and " order "
requirements. Welsh slates vary from i to !-in., and for best quality
Westmorland slates " five to the inch" (each being t-in. thick) is preferred.
Dressing is the final operation and may be done either by machinery or by
hand.
One type of machine, driven by electricity, consists of a cylindrical drum
having two diagonally fixed knives ; a measuring gauge (which resembles
the size stick shown at E, Fig. 68) sticks out horizontally from one side of the
machine : each slate is placed on the gauge in the notch which will give the
required size ; as the drum rotates, the superfluous slate is removed, leaving a
straight edge which is somewhat splayed and rough on the underside.
If dressed by hand (and at the larger sheds thousands of slates are dressed
in this manner) the " dresser," when in a sitting position, places each slate on
the traverse or brake (see G, Fig. 68) ; the slate is held with an irregular edge
overhanging the edge of the iron and a clean edge is formed as he makes two or
three downward blows with the whittle (see H, Fig. 68). He then uses the
gauge or size stick (see E); lengths varying from 6 to 12-in. (advancing by 1-in.)
and 12 to 24-in. (advancing by 2-in.) are measured; the metal point of the
stick marks a line on the slate as the stick is traversed with the required notch
held against the recently dressed edge (see F) ; the whittle is used to remove
the superfluous slate by making a cut along this line ; each edge is dressed in
this manner. Sometimes the two top corners are removed as shown at p ; this
enables the slates when fixed to lie closely on each other (especially if the beds
are not perfectly fiat) and reduces their weight. As a rule the holes are formed
either at the slater's yard or on the building site (seep. 134). The slate is dressed
 TOOLS & PREPARATION OF SLATES SLATING 1 33
to give its maximum size with the minimum waste, and the slates are afterwards
sorted into sizes.
SrzEs.-Slates are produced in a large number of sizes ; some of the larger
quarries supply over twenty sizes and the Bangor slates can be obtained in no
less than thirty-two standard sizes varying from 24-in. by 14-in. to 8-in. by 8-in.
Common sizes are 24-in. by 12-in., 2o-in. by 10-in., 18-in. by 9-in. and
16-in. by 8-in. ; larger and special sizes can be obtained at additional cost.
The Westmorland, Cumberland and North Lancashire slates are generally
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produced in what are termed " random sizes."

Random slates are from 12 to 24-in. long and are proportionate in width,
the average width being half its length ; these are " sized " after being dressed,
i.e., sorted into sizes 24 to 20-in., 20 to 18-in. and 18 to 12-in. long. These
slates are usually laid in regular diminishing courses (see p. 136) for which mixed
sizes are required.
Peggies are small-sized randoms ; they are 9 to 12-in. long (" best peggies ")
and 6 to 10-in. long (" second peggies "), with proportionate widths.
s z E S T c K In addition to classifying slates according to size, they are divided into three
or more grades known as " qualities," i.e., " firsts " (or " bests "), " seconds "
and " thirds." As a rule, these terms refer to thickness only and not to value,
for, in certain quarries, " best" slates are cheaper than " seconds." Each of
these qualities are divided into maximum and minimum thicknesses ; " seconds "
are thicker than" firsts," and "thirds" are thicker than" seconds."
Tally slates are Welsh slates which range in size from 24-in. by 14-in. to 12-in.
by 8-in. and are sold by "count," i.e., per thousand of x,ooo slates. Ton slates are
those which are sold by weight (per ton) and include 12-in. by 6-in., 1 1-in. by 7-in.
and xo-in . .by 8-in. Welsh slates, in addition to the whole of the •random slates
produced in Cumberland, Westmorland, Lancashire, Cornwall and certain of the
Welsh quarries . Queen slates are Welsh slates which are from 24 to 36-in. (increasing
by 2-in.) long and are sold by weight.l
CHARACTERISTics.-A good slate should be hard, tough and durable, of
rough texture, ring bell-like when struck, not split when holed or dressed,
practically non-absorbent and of a satisfactory colour. Those which feel greasy
are generally of inferior quality and any showing white patches or marcasite
(iron pyrites) decay readily, especially if subjected to a smoky atmosphere ;
patches of lime also adversely affect durability.
When left immersed in water to half its height for twelve hours, the water-
line on the slate should not be more than l-in. above the level of the water in
the vessel. In slates of poor quality, the water is readily absorbed and rises
101 several inches up the slate ; such slates are easily destroyed by frost action
(due to the absorbed water freezing and disintegrating the slate). If a dry slate
M
.:l.:l-.----v.·a
is kept in water which is kept boiling for forty-eight hours, its increase in weight
CUTTING IRON
should not exceed o·3 per cent., and if a specimen of slate is immersed for ten
£...._-=s____ 1 The
COURAGED
practice of using the following terms when specifying slates SHOULD BE DIS-
as, with few exceptions, they are not now used in the trade, i.e., " smalls "
(12-in. by 6-in.)," doubles" (13-in. by 7-in.), "ladies" (r6-in. by 8-in. or r6-in. by xo-in.),
RIPPER "countesses " (2o-in. by ro-in.), " duchesses " (24-in. by 12-in.), etc.
SCALES: VMIOUS · LE.t.OING DIMENSIONS GIVEN FIGURE 66
 1 34
days in· a solution of sulphuric acid it should not show any signs of flaking or
softening. 1
In general, Welsh slates are blue and Westmorland slates are green, but
there are certain exceptions to this. Thus Bangor (Carnarvon) slates vary
from blue, blue-purple and purple; Dinorwic or Velinhelli (Llanberis, North
Wales) slates vary from red (maroon), blue-grey, green and wrinkled (purple
with green markings and slightly furrowed surface) or mottled (blue-grey with
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rather indefinite green markings); Penrhyn (Bethesda, North Wales) slates,
similar to Dinorwic; Festiniog or Portmadoc (Wales) slates, uniform blue-grey ;
Vronlog (North Wales) slates, various shades of green and grey; Precelly
(South Wales) slates, green, grey and khaki. Westmorland slates include those
quarried in Cumberland ard North Lancashire as well as Westmorland; those
from Buttermere, Coniston, Elterwater, Kentmere and Tilberthwaite are of
various textures and many shades of green ; most are light green, others are a
darker green (olive) and at least one is grey-green; those from the Burlington
Quarries (Kirkby-in-Furness) are dark blue in colour; Cornish (Delabole)
slates are green, grey-green, green and rustic red. Some of the Welsh slates
are very durable, whilst the best Westmorland slates are practically indestructible ;
the attractive colours and coarse texture (with spalled edges) increase the artistic
merit of the latter slates.
PREPARATION OF SLATES ON SITE OR IN SLATER'S YARD.-This consists of
holing and cutting the slates to various shapes and sizes. With the exception
of small randoms (each of which may be securec,l at the head by one nail only),
each slate is fixed to the roof by two nails (seep. 135). This holing is done by the
slater either by (a) hand punching or (b) machine drilling.
(a) Hand Punching.-The position of the holes is marked on the slate by a
gauge stick or scantel ; this is a piece of lath through which two nails are driven
at a distance apart equal to that between the bottom or tail of the slate and the
centres of the nail holes ; one of these nails scores a line across the slate to
mark the position of the holes as the gauge is passed along with the second
nail traversing the bottom edge or tail. The axe, zax or chopper (see J, Fig. 68)
is used to punch each hole by striking the slate with the spike. The smooth or
bed surface of the slate is uppermost when it is being holed so that when the
spike penetrates the slate small pieces are burst off round the margin and on the
underside to form a rough irregular countersinking of the hole ; as the slates
are fixed on the roof with the surface having the rough, edges uppermost the
heads of the nails can be driven in flush with the surface because of this counter-
sinking ; otherwise the heads would project to cause " riding " of the slates
above them and this would admit rain or snow.
(b) Machine Drilling.- This is performed by the portable slate holing machine
shown at N, Fig. 68 which can be bolted to a bench or clamped to a plank.
The latter is at a convenient height, and after the machine has been damped a
1 The British Standard Specification for Welsh Roofing Slates (1936) gives full details
of these tests.
SLATING
brick is fixed on the plank on each side of the machine and at the correct
distance from it, the distance between the bricks being equal to the length of
the slate ; the slate is placed between the bricks, with the smooth surface
uppermost and one edge against the plate shown in the sketch and which is
1i-in. from the point of the drill ; the handle is given a partial turn, the drill
descends and punctures the slate, the point is withdrawn by reversing the
handle, the slate is removed and replaced with the ends reversed (but with
the smooth surface still uppermost) and the second hole is drilled. This is
a much quicker process than hand punching and is less liable to crack the
slates.
A cutting iron, dpg or dressing iron (seeM) is used when slates have to be cut
to certain sizes or shapes on the job ; it is often used on the roof, the slater
driving the pointed ends into a spar or other cof!venient member. After being
marked to the required shape, the slate is placed on the iron with the edge to
be cut projecting the required amount, and a few smart blows with the axe
neatly trim off the edge.
The hammer, pick or peck (see K) is used for driving the nails through the
slates, the claw at the side is useful for withdrawing nails and the point is used
for holing.
A lath hammer (see L) is used for fixing slate laths or battens ; laths are cut
to length by using the sharpened blade and nails may be withdrawn by means
of the notch in the blade.
. The ripper (see Q) is used for removing defective slates from a roof; the
blade is passed under the slate, and each nail is gripped and cut by the hooked
end as the ripper is given a sharp pull.
NAILS.-The quality of the nails used for securing slates is most important,
as the cost of maintenance of a roof depends very largely upon their durability.
Roofs quickly become defective if the nails corrode and heads disappear, the
loose slates being easily removed by the wind.
Copper nails (see o, Fig~ 68) or composition nails should always be used
for good work 1 ; the latter, also called " compo " or " yellow metal," are
made of antimony, lead and tin or copper and zinc, and are harder than
copper nails.
Galvanized wrought iron nails (see o) and zinc nails are often used for cheaper
work, but they are unsuitable for industrial and coastal districts. The former
are invariably used for good work for fixing laths to the spars as the zinc covering
offers a protection against corrosion.
Nails are specified according to length and weight, the size depending upon
the thickness of the slates, and the length should equal twice the thickness of
the slates plus 1-in. ; if too small, "tight nailing" results, and this may cause
1 Copper, galvanized wrought iron and zinc nails should not be used for roofs which
are in the vicinity of gas works or chemical works or where the slating is subjected to
strong acid fumes, as the gases may destroy them. Lead nails or chrome-iron nails should
be used for such roofs ; the former are about 4-in. long, the stems being passed through the
holes of the slates and bent round the steel purlins, etc., of the roof.
 SLATING 1 35
damage to the holes and ultimate cracking of the slates. The following gives pitch and degree qf exposure of the roof ; thus for roofs with 30° to 45° pitch,
suitable lengths and weights of nails :- the lap should be 3-in. ; for steeper pitches the lap may be reduced to 2!-in. ;
for flatter pitches than 30° the lap should be increased to 3! to 4-il).., and in
TABLE VIII exposed positions (such as on the coast) a lap of 6-in. may be necessary.
Gauge is the distance between the nails measured up the slope of the roof
Quality of Slates Copper or Zinc Composition Galvanized (which is the same as the distance between the tails of each successive course).
Length. Wrought Iron
(seep. 133). (per I,ooo), (per I,ooo). (Gauge). The gauge depends upon (I) the length of slate, (2) the amount of lap, and (3)
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

the method of nailing, i.e., centre nailing or head nailing.

Best or mediums 1!-in. s-Ib. 6!-lb. II'S
Seconds 9 ro's CENTRE-NAILED SLATES (see D and L, Fig. 69).-The gauge equals
I!- " 7 " "
Randoms z 10 IZ 9'S length of slate -lap
.... , t hus 10r
r a roo f covered w1t
· h I 8-m.
· by 9-m.
· s1ates an d 1a1'd
" "
J)

Sometimes It-in. nails weighing 4-lb. (copper) or s-Ib. (compo) per I,ooo · h a 3-m.
w1t · Iap, t h e gauge= IS- 3-in. 7l.2 -m.
· The pos1t10n
· · of t h e na1'I h o1es
2
are used for thin small slates.
.measured from the tail of the slate is shown at P, Fig. 68, and equals the gauge,
TERMS.-Various terms used in slating are:
plus the lap, plus a clearance of l-in. ; the clearance is- necessary to allow the
Back.-The upper and rough surface of a slate (see o, Fig. 68).
nails when being driven to clear the heads of the slates in the course below.
Bed.-The under and smooth surface.
HEAD-NAILED SLATES (see H, J and M, Fig. 69).-The holes are pierced I-in.
Head.- The upper edge (see o).
from the head (see o, Fig. 68) and, as mentioned above, the lap is measured from
Tail.- The lower edge (see o).
Course.-A row or layer of slates (see A, Fig. 69) ; the courses are equal the centre of the hole. Hence the gauge equals Jt!ngth of slate- (lap+ I-in.);
when the slates are of uniform size but vary from a maximum at the eaves to 2

a minimum at the ridge when randoms are used to form diminishing courses
(see p. I40, and M, Fig. 69).
Bond.-The arrangement of slates whereby the edge joints between the
slates in any one course are in or near to the centre of the slates immediately
above and below them. When the slates are of uniform size the edge joints
should run in straight lines from eaves to ridge-" keeping the perpends "-
(see A, Fig. 69). This is accomplished by using a wide slate, called a slate and a
half, or a half slate (in inferior work only) at the beginning of every alternate
course. But such mechanical neatness is not always desirable, especially if
Westmorland or Cornish rand oms or peggies are laid with diminishing courses,
when a slight deviation from straight lines results in a more pleasing appearance
(see G and M, Fig. 69).
Pitch has been referred to on p. 69, and the minimum pitch for "large,"
'' ordinary " and " small " sizes of slates is stated. Comparatively large slates
should be used on roofs of about 30° pitch. On steeply pitched roofs most of
the weight of the slates is carried by the nails and therefore the slates should be
small and these should be secured with stout nails. Hence the steeper the pitch
the smaller the slates.
Lap is the amount which the tail of one slate covers the head of that in the
course next but one to it; this applies to centre-nailed slates (see below). When
the slates are head-nailed (see below) the lap is measured from the centre of the
nail hole instead of the head. As shown in the various details in Fig. 69, there
are THREE thicknesses of slates at the lap. The amount of lap varies with the
r
t h us t h e gauge 10r I g·
-m. b y 9-m.
· sates
1 'h a 3-m.
w1t · Ia.p = rS-in.-(3+1-in.) = 7-m.
.
2
In both centre and head nailing the holes are approximately I t-in. from the
edges.
COMPARISON BETWEEN HEAD AND CENTRE NAILED SLATES.-Head-nailed
slates offer a better protection to the holes as there are two thicknesses of slates
over each. They are not readily damaged or strained when being nailed as
they have a solid bearing in the form of battens or boards. Their tails are more
readily lifted by a high wind owing to their big leverage ; this allows rain and
snow to blow between them and the excessive movement of the slates may
gradually damage and increase the size of the holes until the slates are ultimately
displaced and blown off ; hence large slates should not be head-nailed, especially
in exposed positions. More head-nailed slates are required to cover a roof on
account of the reduced gauge and therefore this method is more expensive than
centre nailing.
Centre-nailed slates are less likely to be stripped because of the reduced
leverage, and for the same reason, there is less likelihood of drifting snow and
rain finding access. Large slates should always be centre-nailed to give
greater rigidity. Less slates are required and the method is therefore more
economical than head nailing. Defective slates are more readily removed.
There is greater likelihood of rain entering the nail holes if any of the slates
above them are cracked and if the roof has a flat pitch, as there is only one thick-
ness of slates over the nail holes. There is a risk of the slates being strained and
 SLATING
sometimes cracked (which cracks may not open until later) by careless nailing,
owing to the space between the middle of centre-nailed slates and the battens
or boarding below, and especially over the intersection between sprockets and
spars (see L, Fig. 69). Centre nailing is more common than head nailing.
DIMINISHING CouRSED WoRJ<.-The roof consists of randoms which are laid
in diminishing courses from a maximum at the eaves to a minirimm at the ridge.
The slates are sorted to give carefully graded courses, those in each course being
of the same size ; thus a large roof may have 24-in. or longer slates at the eaves
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
and peggies at the ridge. The gauge varies with each course or every second
course, but the lap is umform throughout. A very pleasing appearance resul~,
and as shown at G, Fig. 69, the bond is irregular. The method of determining
the gauge is explained on p. 140 (see also M, Fig. 69).
Margin is the exposed portion of a slate and equals the gauge multiplied by
the width (see A and K, Fig. 69).
Boarding or Close Sheeting (see p. 70).-The usual thickness is r-in.
(nominal); it should be tongued and grooved although shot or butt jointing is
used for cheap speculative work. As described below, the boarding should be
covered with felt before the slates are fixed. Boarding is sometimes referred
to as sarking, although this term is more often applied to felting.
Slating Battens or Laths.-These should be of sound, sawn redwood and of
the following sizes: rt-in. by !-in. for small slates 16-in. long and downwards,
2-in. by !-in. for light slates r8-in. long and upwards, and 2-in. by 1-in. for heavy
slates r8-in. long and upwards. They are fixed to the boarding or directly to
the spars, to the required gauge apart by galvanized wrought iron nails which
are usually r£-in. long. They should be creosoted to preserve them. Counter-
battens as shown at u and K, Fig. 69 are also used ; these are generally
2-in. by !-in., spaced at 16-in. centres (or equal to the distance apart of the spars)
and secured with 1!-in. galvanized wrought iron nails.
Tilting Fillets or Springing Pieces.-These are triangular or tapered pieces of
wood, from 3 to 6-in. wide and up to 3-in. thick, used at the eaves (see Fig. 69)
to tilt the lower courses of slates in order to assist in excluding rain and snow
by .ensuring close joints at the tails. These are often dispensed with when
fascia boards are used (see Y, Fig. 36). They are also used at chimney stacks,
etc., which penetrate a roof, to cause water to fall away quickly from the vertical
surfaces.
DAMP PROOFING.-Provision must be made to exclude rain and snow which
may be blown up between the slates and to prevent the entrance of water by
capillary attraction. Such includes either (a) covering the boarding or spars
with felt or similar material, or (b) torching the underside of the slates.
(a) Roofing Felt.-This is similar to but thinner than the fibrous asphalt or
bituminous felt described on p. 18 and is obtainable in 32 or 36-in. wide rolls.
It is either laid upon the boarding with the joints running from eaves to ridge or
parallel to the ridge, or, for cheaper work, the boarding is omitted and the felt
(called untearable felt, because of its toughness, due to an extra layer of hessian
cloth being embodied in the material) is laid transversely over and fixed with
flat-headed 1-l-in. galvanized wrought iron nails (" clout nails ") direct to the
spars. The former is shown at K, Fig. 69, and the latter at D and E. The joints
are lapped 2 to 3-in. in each case, and, as shown at K, it should be lapped over
the ridge. The edge of the felt is clout-nailed to the boarding every 3-in. or
to each spar when laid directly over them.
(b) Torching or Pointing or Tiering.-Good lime mortar, to which clean long
ox-hair has been added to increase its adhesive quality, is applied to the under-
side of the slates along the upper edge of each cross batten ; this material should
be well pressed in between the slates and the mortar fillets splayed off (see n,
Fig. 38).
Comparing the two methods: Felting·allows air to enter and circulate under
the slates and round the battens, it reduces " heat losses " (the transmission of
heat and cold through the roof), it is easily fixed, but is more expensive than
torching. Torching prevents ventilation, and in prolonged -wet weather it
retains moisture which may !:>e transmitted to the adjacent battens and roof
members and set up decay ; in course of time inferior material deteriorates and
drops off leaving gaps through which rain and snow may enter ; if however
best materials and workmanship are applied, this method ensures a " drop-dry "
roof, as is evidenced by the thousands of roofs that have been dealt with in this
manner and have remained watertight and in good condition for a long period
of years.
Terms such as eaves, ridge, hip, valley and verge have been defined on
pp. 69-70.
SPECIAL SLATES.-Slates other than those of normal size and shape are
required in order to maintain correct bond and conform to shapes which are
more or less irregular. They include those necessary to form the bottom course
at the eaves, the top course at the ridge, verges, hips and valleys.
Double Eaves Course Slates (see Fig. 69).-A double course of slates is laid
at the eaves, otherwise rain would enter between the edge joints. The first layer
of slates (or " doubling course ") is comparatively short and equals in length to
the gauge plus lap (when centre-nailed-seen) and gauge plus lap plus 1-in. (when
head-nailed-see J). The practice which is sometimes adopted, of laying the
normal sized slates lengthwise to form this course, is not advocated as there is
a risk of some of the end joints coinciding with the edge joints of the course
above.
Top Ridge Course Slates.- These are about 2-in. longer than the bottom
doubling eaves course slates in order to leave a suitable margin below the wipg
of the ridge tile (see n, Fig. 69).
Verge Slates.-As mentioned on p. 135, either a special slate called a" slate
and a half " or a half slate is used at each alternate course in order to give correct
bond. A slate and a half, as is implied, is one and a half times the normal
width, thus its size will be 20-in. by 15-in. if 20-in. by 10-in. slates are being
used. A verge is a vulnerable part of a roof, and these wide slates, when each
 RIDGES-HIPS-VALLEYS
is secured with at least two nails, give a much stronger job than do half slates
each of which may be secured with one nail only. The application of these
wide slates is indicated at A and N, Fig. 69.
Hip and Valley Slates.-Extra wide slates are required for these positions
and each is usually formed from a slate and a half. Hip slates are shown at R,
Fig. 69, and valley slates are similar.
OPEN OR SPACED SLATING.-Roofs of temporary and certain farm buildings,
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etc., may be covered with slates which are laid with a .space of from 1! to 3-in.
between the sloping edges. Whilst this method results in an economy of
material, it does not give a " drop-dry " roof, and is now seldom used.
RIDGES.-Slated roofs are finished at the ridges with shaped pieces made
in slate, tile, stone and lead.
Slate Ridges (see M, Fig. 69) are formed in two pieces, each from i to !-in.
thick and up to about 18-in. long; one is a plain rectangular wing holed for
screws and the other is a 6 or 7-in. wide wing with a 2 to 2!-in. roll (birdsmouthed
beneath) worked on the top edge. As shown, the top edge of the wood ridge
is chamfered and is about 2-in. above the battens ; the plain wing is bedded
in mortar on the top course of slates and secured to the wood ridge by brass
or copper screws ; the rolled wing is bedded on the slates and over the top
edge of the plain wing ; in addition, the joint between each roll section is
secured with a copper or small slate dowel. The joints of the ridge should
" break joint " with the top course of slates. This ridge is not now much
used, chiefly on account of its indifferent appearance.
Tile Ridges are made of clay, moulded to a variety of patterns, and kiln-burnt.
The half-round ridge tile shown at D, Fig. 69, and the hog-back ridge illustrated
at H and K, Fig. 69 and B, Fig. 70 give a satisfactory finish, provided the colour
conforms with that of the slates; they are usually in 18-in. lengths, the width
varies from 9 to II-in. and the thickness from t to i-in. A V-ridge, having
a flanged or rebated joint, is shown at B, Fig. 69 ; this is i-in. thick and the
wings should not be less than 7-in. ; the angle between the wings varies to
suit the pitch of the roof. As shown, the ridges are bedded and pointed in
cement mortar which is preferably waterproofed, and the transverse joints are
formed of the same material or oil mastic.
It is not wise to bed the ridges solidly with mortar as this has been the cause of
wood ridges becoming defective on account of air being excluded. Whilst the
flanged joint at B is effective and is often used, ridges formed of these pieces are
unsightly and the simple butt joint is preferred. The latter gives a watertight job
if formed with good material and especially if a slate slip is inserted under each joint.
Alternatively, certain makes of ridge tile are obtainable having internal flanges, and
these provide a sound joint and a ridge with an uninterrupted outline. The appear-
ance of the ridge is improved if the end one or two pieces are given a slight tilt upwards
as shown at A and G, Fig. 69. These end pieces are" solid ended."
Ridge tiles can be obtained in several colours and they should therefore be
carefully selected to harmonize with the slating ; hence the common practice
(in- speculative work especially) of using a red-coloured ridge on a blue-slated
roof is inexcusable as it is execrable.
Stone Ridges (see c, Fig. 69) are sawn out of the solid. They are from
9 to 10-in. wide, about xt-in. thick, and from 1 to 3-ft. long. The joints are
rebated in good work (see sketch) and the pieces are bedded, jointed and pointed
in cement mortar. They provide an effective finish to a Westmorland slated
roof, and are commonly employed in Yorkshire and the Cotswold District
where comparatively thick slates from local stone form the covering material.
Lead Ridges are described on p. 148. These form a suitable finish if Welsh
slates are used, but the lead is apt to stain certain green slates.
HIPS are finished with either half-round or V-shaped tiles, sawn stone, lead,
or cut and mitred slates with lead soakers.
Tiled Hips (see o and P, Fig. 69) are commonly employed, and whilst they
provide a sound finish, the appearance is far from pleasing, especially if the roofs
are small. As shown at o, the top of the jack rafters finish level with the top of
the hip rafter, the ends of the battens are brought over it and the slates are
roughly mitred. A hip hook should be screwed to the back and at the foot of
the hip rafter to prevent the tiles from slipping (see P). Hip tiles, like those
for ridges, should be of a satisfactory colour.
Sawn Stone Hips are formed of pieces of similar section to that shown at c,
Fig. 69 ; the dihedral angle between the wings should conform with that of the
roof.
Lead Hips are described on p. 148.
Cut and Mitred Hips with Lead Soakers provide the best finish to a slated
roof; the method is sound, especially for pitches not less than 45°, and the
appearance is effective (see G, Fig. 69). The construction is shown in the
section at Q and the plan at R ; it is customary to provide two 4-in. wide hip
boards (which are mitred over the hip rafter) to form a good bearing for the
slates and a fixing for the soakers, against which the ends of the battens are
butt jointed ; alternatively, the top edge of the hip rafter may be bevelled and
finished level with the top of the battens which mitre against the rafter. Both
methods provide a true line up the hip rafter to which the edges of the slates
are cut. Wide slates (slate and a half) are used and these must be caretully
cut and mitred as shown. Lead soakers (see p. 143) are placed between the
slates; as shown at R, these soakers are square, measuring from 12 to 14-in.
across the diagonals (depending upon the size of the slates); each soaker is bent
over the upper edges of each pair of mitred slates and twice nailed to the hip
boards ; the soakers lap each other at each course. The mitred slates must be
securely nailed (especially in exposed positions) otherwise they are liable to be
stripped by strong winds.
VALLEYS.-lt is customary to form " open" valleys in slated roofs. These
are covered with lead and their construction is described on p. 148 and shown at
P, Fig. 73· An alternative and suitable finish is provided by cut and mitred
slates with soakers as described above. Another very effectiYe, but expensive,
finish is the " swept valley " ; the sharp angle at the valley is blocked out by
means of a 9 or 11-in. by 1-in. board which is fixed above the valley rafter,
 SLATING
and this makes it possible for each course of slates in the adjacent roof surfaces
to be uninterrupted at the valley, as the slates are continued round to form a
series of curved or swept courses. The slates forming the valley are cut and
packed underneath as required. As swept valleys are more often formed on
roofs which are covered with plain tiles, a full description of this finish is given
on pp. 1<>9 and I[IO; Vol. III.
VERGES.-One of several methods offinishing at verges is shown at A and N,
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
Fig. 69. For the reason stated on p. 136, a slate and a half should be used at
each alternate course. The slates project as shown, and in order to direct the
water from the edge and prevent it from running down the face of the gable
wall, the outer slates of each course are slightly tilted upwards. This tilt is
formed by bedding a course of butt-jointed slates (called an undercloak) on the
wall in cement mortar, and the ends of the battens are laid on this course. After
the slating has been completed, the open edge is well filled in with cement
mortar and neatly pointed, as shown. The undercloak may consist of a double
layer of slates.
PREPARATION OF ROOFS FOR SLATING.-The groundwork may consist of
either (a) horizontal slating battens only, (b) boarding and felting, (c) boarding,
felt ·and slating battens or (d) boarding, felt, counter-battens and slating battens.
(a) Horizontal Slating or Cross Battens (see D, Fig. 38, D and E, Fig. 69, and
Fig. 70).-This is the most common method as it is the cheapest. It is quite
satisfactory and a drop-dry roof is assured provided either felt or torching (as
described on p. 136) is applied to prevent the access of rain, snow, wind and
dust.
(b) Boarding and Felting (see wand x, Fig. 36, and J, Fig. 69).-Theboarding
(described on p. 136) is nailed to the spars and then covered with felt (seep. 136).
This provides a drop-dry and draught proof roof, although dampness has been
caused through the penetration of water through the nail holes. Heat is less
readily transmitted thro.,v.gh this roof than that described at (a) and therefore
rooms which are partly in such a roof are relatively warmer in winter and cooler
in summer.
(c) Boarding, Felt and Slating Battens (see L, Fig. 69).-The boarding is
fixed, felt is nailed to it, and the cross-battens are then fixed to the required
gauge to receive the slates. Although expensive it is not a satisfactory method,
as any; rain or snow blown up between the slates lodges on the upper edges of
the cross battens causing, in some cases, a rapid decay of the battens.
(d) Boarding, Felt, Counter-battens and Slating Battens.-This is undoubtedly
the best method and is adopted in first-class work (see H, F and K, Fig. 69).
After the boarding and felt have been fixed, 2-in. by !-in. counter-battens are
nailed running from eaves to ridge at the same distance apart as the spars ; the
slating battens are nailed to them at the gauge apart and the slates are secured
to them. Any driven rain and melted snow gaining access pass down between
the counter-battens to the free outlet at the eaves. Besides providing a perfectly
drop-dry roof, heat losses are reduced to a minimum and this construction
is therefore very suitable for open roofs such as are required for churches,
public halls, etc., in addition to domestic buildings where the expense if. not
prohibitive.
Certain of the details in Fig. 69 not already referred to are described below.
CENTRE-NAILED SLATING.-This is illustrated at D, E and L.
Detail D.-See p. 76 for the construction of the eaves and this page for the
groundwork. The top batten at the ridge is thicker (1!-in.) than the slating
battens (1-in.) so as to tilt the ridge course, otherwise the tails of the short slates
comprising the ridge course would ride on the course below ; see the two
alternatives at the ridge detail. Note that there are THREE thicknesses of slates
at each lap (see the enlarged sketch at E). Students in examinations frequently
make the mistake of 5howing only two thicknesses at the lap with one thickness
between laps ; this of course affords no protection at the edge joints. The
double eaves course projects 1t to 2-in. and the felt overlaps the edge of the
gutter.
Detail L.-The sprocketed eaves has been referred to on p. 76 and the
groundwork on this page. The distance between the slates at the junction
between the sprocket ·and spar is rather excessive ; this would be reduced if
smaller slates (say 16-in. by 8-in.) were used as the sweep would then be more
gradual.
HEAD-NAILED SLATING.-Examples are shown at Hand J, Fig. 69.
Detail H.-The sprocketed eaves is similar to that described on p. 76,
except that the inclination of the spars and sprockets are 50° and 30° re-
spectively and the projection is only 9-in. ; the groundwork is described on
this page. The space between the slates over the intersection of the spars and
sprockets, whilst excessive, is not so serious as the defect purposely shown at L
(already referred to), as the slates, being head-nailed, are not so liable to be
damaged _whilst being nailed ; this space would be reduced if the sprockets
were given a steeper pitch, and attention is drawn to the gradual sweep of the
portion of the roof shown at K, Fig. 37, which is produced when the ideal and
traditional pitch of the spars and sprockets of 55° and 35° respectively is adopted.
· Detail J.-The projecting ends of the spars are cut as shown and a wood
gutter is screwed to them. This gutter is shaped out of 6-in. by 4-in. redwood
which should be well seasoned and of best quality, otherwise the lengths of
gutter will cast and leaks at the joints will develop.
Any joints of the gutter are half lapped some 3 or 4-in. and, before assembly,
the adjacent parts of the joints should be well bedded in red or white lead oil mastic ;
they are then well screwed together. The joint is rendered watertight by paring a
slight It-in. wide housing all round on both sides of the joint, mastic is spread over
the housing and a 3-in. wide piece of lead is bedded in it and finally secured with
copper nails. The inside of the gutter should be given at least three good coats of
creosote and the outside is painted. Sometimes the whole of the gutter is lined with
s-Ib. lead. .
Wood eaves gutters are now rarely employed except for cheap work, where the
above precautions (which are costly) are not taken to make the joints watertight.
The close boarding and felt have been previously described.
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

5·~·
CENTRE-NAILED :lO"•JO• SL ....TES
LAID WITH .3' L....P- 8¥.1 1 GAUGE
FIGURE 69 L
 SLATING PLAIN TILING DETAILS
Other examples of head nailing are shown in Figs. 30, 37 and 38. The
detail D in the latter figure gives a good example of the lower courses of slates
having an inadequate fall due to the flat sprockets. Provided the window could
be kept lower, a sounder job would result if the feet of the spars were continued
and a small tilting fillet used instead of the sprockets.
DIMINISHING CouRSED WoRK (see G and M, Fig. 6g).-As explained on
pp. 133 and 136, the random slates are sorted and laid in graded courses
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diminishing from a maximum at the eaves to a minimum at the ridge. The

slates in each course are of the same length, but the width may vary (see G).
As the lap is the same throughout, it follows that the gauge decreases from the
eaves upwards. The gauge for head-nailed slates is found by the rule stated
.
at M, t.e.,
mean length of slate and slate above- (lap+ r-in.)
2
. An application A
is given in the section at M, which shows a uniform lap of 2i-in. (which is
adequate for a pitch of 50°) and the length of the successive upper courses to
be 18, 17, r6 and 15-in. ; the gauges of the 18 and 17-in. courses are 7 and 6!-in.
R I D G E
-r6"+rs"
- - -(2!" " +I) D E T A I L
respectively as shown, and that of the 16-in. course= "--~-
B
= 6".
2
The gauge for centre-nailed slates, as in ordinary slating, is t-in. more. Whilst
the above example is a simple illustration, it should be pointed out that the LEN<iTH OF TILE - L},P
GAUGE • :l
reduction in length is excessive and very large slates would be required at the
eaves of a large roof if . a more gradual reduction was not made ; sometimes
the courses are · diminished at every second course. Westmorland slates are
usually laid with graduated courses and a very attractive appearance results.
The slate ridge is described on p. 137 ; a sawn stone ridge or a hog-back IV:l••~• 6ATTfNS

c
tile ridge (provided it was of a suitable colour) would be more pleasing in
appearance.
PROCEDURE IN SLATING A RooF.- The following is the normal sequence of
operations in slating the roof of a building which is assumed to be detached and
has gabled walls :-
The metal eaves gutters are fixed immediately after the woodwork at the caves
has been completed ; the battens are fixed at the gauge apart, commencing from the
eaves ; stacks of slates having been placed at suitable intervals up the roof by the
labourer, the slater proceeds to fix them, commencing at one end of the eaves and
gradually spreading longitudinally and up the roof until the ridge is reached ; the
opposite slope is covered in a similar manner; the ridge tiles are bedded, jointed
and pointed horizontally and in true alignment, with exception of the end pieces and
those against chimney-stacks, which are given a slight tilt upwards, as previously
explained. If hips are required, the· specially cut hip slates will have been dressed
to the correct shape and size and these are the first to be fixed in each course ; if
the hips are to be cut and mitred, the lead soakers (prepared by the plumber) are
fixed by the slater as the slating proceeds ; if hip tiles are required, these are fixed E A V E 5
in correct alignment, commencing at the eaves and neatly mitring with the ridge
tiles. If the verges are as shown at N, Fig. 69,· the undercloaks are firmly bedded in
D E T A I L
cement mortar before the battens are fixed. Finally, the gutters are cleaned out and
the underside of the roof is torched. Of course, if untearable felt is to be fixed in
lieu of torching, this is done before the battens are fixed.
 PLAIN TILING
PLAIN TILINGt
Plain tiles are made of clay which is very finely ground, moulded into slab!!
and subsequently dried and burnt. Like bricks, both hand~made and machine-
made tiles are produced. Hand-made tiles have a sand-faced surface and are
obtainable in a variety of colours. They have a better texture, are tougher,
are less liable to lamination, and are more expensive than those which are
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machine-made. The latter are also made in a wide range of colours.
The size is usually rot-in. by 6t-in. by i to !-in. thick (see A, Fig. 70).
They have a slight camber or set (xo-ft. radius) in their length which ensures
that the tails will bed and not ride on the backs of those in the course below.
A tile has two (sometimes three) stubs or nibs which project on the bed or under-
side at the head in order that it may be hung from the batten, and each tile
has two holes formed at about 1-in. from the head and xt-in. from the edges.
Special tiles are also made, thus: eaves tiles (6t-in. by 6t-in.) and tile and a half
(rot-in. by 9!-in. or wider). The latter are used at alternate courses at verges
and swept valleys.
Terms, such as bond, gauge, margin, etc., used in slating are also applied
to tiling.
Plain tiles are laid in regular bond, and the preparation of a roof to receive
the tiles is similar to the methods described on p. 138 with exception of
" boarding and felting," as this is impracticable for tiling on account of the
nibs.
The nails used are similar to those described on p. 134, and xt-in. long
copper nails are used in most good work.
Unlike slating, every tile is not secured with nails unless for roofs in exposed
positions. It is usually specified that every tile in each fourth course shall be
twice nailed. The double eaves course tiles, ridge course tiles and all verge,
hip and valley tiles must also be nailed.
PITCH, LAP and GAUGE.-As a plain tile is a relatively small unit, a large lap
is not practicable, and therefore the usual lap employed is 2!-in. This
1 In some technical colleges, plain tiling is preferred to slating as a first year subject
of a Building Course and hence a brief mention of it is made here. Plain tiles and other
roofing materials are given more extended treatment in Chapter Fourteen, Vol. III.
necessitates an increase in the minimum pitch to 45°. For reasons previously
given, this angle should be a~oided, and a pitch of 50° to 55° adopted.
The gauge equals length -lap- = rot- 2! -in. 4-m. .
As in slating, there
2 2
must be THREE thicknesses of tiles at the lap.
Typical eaves and ridge details are shown in Fig. 70.
EAVES DETAIL (see c).-The spars forming the simple open eaves project
only 3-in., and a large tilting fillet is fixed to them to give the necessary tilt for
the lower courses and the doubling eaves tiles are hung from its upper edge.
RIDGE DETAIL (see B).- The top course, like that in slating, is tilted by using
a thicker batten at the ridge ; the length of this course should be such as to give
a 4-in. margin, and in the example it is 8!-in. Either the hog-back ridge tile
as shown, or a half-round ridge tile (as shown at D, Fig. 69) provides a suitable
finish, and these tiles should be bedded, jointed and pointed in cement mortar
or mastic as described for slating. This pointing material may be coloured to
conform with that of the tiles. The underside of the tiles is shown torched,
but untearable felt (fixed as described on p. 136) may be used if preferred. Lead-
.covered ridges should never be used for tiled roofs on account of the colour
which, as a rule, contrasts violently with that of the tiles.
Tiled verges may be constructed in a similar manner to that shown for slating
at N, Fig. 69.
Hips are often finished with similar tiles to those used for ridges, but such
are unsightly. The best treatment is that provided by bonnet hip tiles ; these
are curved and bond in with the adjacent tiling. Purpose-made V -shaped
hip tiles which course in with the plain tiles are also employed.
The best form of valley for a tiled roof is the swept valley where each course
of tiles in the adjacent sloped surfaces is swept round to a suitable curve j this
is constructed as briefly explained on p. 137· Another good form is the laced
valley where wide tiles are used at the intersection and each course is lifted to
give a laced effect. The most common method adopted, especially for specu-
lative work, consists of forming a lead valley as shown for slating in Fig. 73 ;
this is not desirable on account of its unsatisfactory appearance, for in general,
leadwork in a tiled roof should not be exposed to view as its colour clashes with
that of most tiles.
 CHAPTER
PLUMBING
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Syllabus.-Brief description of the manufacture of milled and cast sheet. lead; charact~ristics i weights of sheet lea~ used. for vario';ls purposes; . te~~· including
rolls, drips, flashings and soakers. Details of lead work at gutters, flats, chmmey stacks, ndges, h1ps and valleys. Cast Iron ram-water pipes. Lead p1pe Jomts.
LEAD is chiefly produced from an ore, called galena, which is a compound of
lead and sulphur. The principal sources of supply are the United States of
America, Spain, Australia, Canada, Germany and Mexico ; comparatively
little of the ore is now obtained from English mines. . than milled sheet-but it is relatively expensive. It is used for first-class work.1
MANUFACTURE OF LEAD.-One of several methods of abstracting the lead is
to smelt (roast) the ore in a furnace to remove certain impurities ; the metal is
run into pots, transferred to large copper pans, remelted to eliminate further
impurities, and the soft refined metal is finally cast into bars called pigs. These
pigs weigh from So to 120-lb. each and are used for the manufacture of sheets,
pipes, etc.
Sheet lead is used for covering roofs, gutters, ridges, etc. There are two
methods of manufacturing sheet lead, i.e., (a) milled or rolled sheet lead, and
(b) cast sheet lead.
(a) Milled or Rolled Sheet Lead.-The pigs of lead are melted and cast into
s
slabs which are from to 7-ft. long, 4 to 6-ft. wide, and approximately s-in.
thick. Each slab is passed to the mill, the bed of which consists of a series of
steel rollers, and situated in the middle and across the bed is a pair of heavy
rollers ; the bed rollers are caused to rotate, the slab is passed backwards and
forwards between the large rollers until its thickness is reduced to a sheet which
is approximately but uniformly 1-in. thick, IS to 40-ft. long and 7 to 9-ft. wide;
the sheets are cut into suitable sizes, each pi.ece is passed through the finishing
mill. to reduce it to a sheet of the required weight and thickness, and finally
the sheet is rolled into a coil for dispatch to the plumber. Most of the sheet
lead used at the present time is manufactured by this process.
(b) Cast Sheet Lead.-This is produced by melting the pigs and pouring it
over a bed of sand prepared on a casting bench, which is from 12 to IS-ft. long
and 4 to 6-ft. wide, and the height of the frame is about 2-ft. 3-in. from the
floor ; the sand bed is prepared, the levelled surface being slightly below the
edges of the bench, depending upon the required thickness of the lead. The
molten lead is poured into a trough, semicircular in section, which extends to
the full width of the bench to which it is hinged at one end ; the trough is rotated
to tip the lead on to the sand bed and the lead is pushed forward by means of
SIX
a strike or bar which runs on guides on the long edges of the frame at a height
corresponding to the required thickness of the lead. . .
Cast lead is considered to be the best form of sheet lead-it bemg tougher
Ornamental leadwork such as rain-water heads and coverings to architectural
features, is produced fro~ cast lead ; the sand bed on the casting bench is le~elle_d
off and a mould of the required shape and the reverse of the surface decoratiOn IS
impressed on the sand ; the molten lead is poured over this pr~pared surface, th~ upper
surface is levelled off by the strike, and the undersurface IS or~amented With the
decoration in relief ; each piece of lead is trimmed, cut to. the required length, shaped
as required, and finally jointed by lead-burning or soldermg.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEAD.-This is a heavy metal, weighing approximately
710-lb. per cub. ft. ; soft, very malleable, tough and flexible; easily wor~ed
and readily cut ; very durable (provided it is not subjected to certain acids
and not in contact with certain cements); is bluish grey in colour with a bright
metallic lustre when freshly cut, but this tarnishes when exposed to the air.
Lead has a high coefficient of linear expansion (it being o·oooo29 per oc., or
approximately two and a half times that of steel) and it therefore readily expands
and contracts when subjected to considerable variations of temperature. It is
because of this characteristic that very large sheets of lead must be avoided
(especially if used to cover vertical surfaces) and ample pro~isi~n made. to
permit of this movement. In this connection, defects such as wnnkhng, bulgmg
and cracking will be avoided if the area of each piece of sheet lead is limited to
24-sq. ft., and if only two of the adjacent sides of a rectangular sheet are fix.ed.
Attention is drawn to the various details shown in Figs. 71, 72 and 73, which
make provision for movement due to expansion and contraction.
WEIGHTS OF SHEET LEAD.-Lead is specified by weight in lb. per square
foot. The weights recommended for various purposes are :
Flats, pitched roofs and gutters 6, 7 or 8-lb. lead per sq. ft.
Hips and ridges 6 or 7-lb. lead per sq. ft.
Flashings s-Ib. lead per sq. ft.
Soakers . 3 or 4-lb. lead per sq. ft.
1 The roofs of the Manchester Central Reference Library and the Town Hall Extens!on,
Manchester (completed in 1938), are covered with 8-lb. cast sheet lead and the total weight
of lead used was approximately 6oo tons.
 PLUMBING
Lighter weights than the above are often adopted in che,ap work, and it is not
uncommon to find that for such work s-Ib. lead is employed for flats.
As lead weighs 710-lb. per cub. ft., it follows that the thickness of J-lb.
lead=_:~_:_= o·o17-in., and therefore the thickness of the above weights is the
710
following bracketed figures: 3-lb. (o·os1-in.), 4-lb. (o·o68-in.)? s-Ib. (o·o8s-in.),
6-lb. (o·1o2-in.), 7-lb. (o·I19-in.) and 8-lb. (0·136-in.).
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TERMS.-The following terms are used in plumbing :-
Bossing means " working up " and is applied, to the labour in dressing lead
to various shapes when forming rolls, drips, cesspools, etc., by means of the
bossing stick and other tools described on P· I s6. Care ' must be taken to
maintain a uniform thickness of lead when performing this operation.
Burning-in is the method which is sometimes adopted to secure the edges
of lead coverings of projecting stone members. A groove or raglet is formed
in the stonework (see A, Fig. 74), the edge of the lead is scraped clean and turned
into it, and secured by molten lead which is poured into the raglet and afterwards
consolidated or ·caulked by using the caulking tool shown at s, Fig. 76. The
lead is poured down grooves formed in a narrow board (which rests on edge
upon the cornice and is placed against the face of the parapet) and delivered into
the raglet ; the hot lead heats the turn-in of the covering and unites with it.
This method is not now commonly employed owing to the difficulty experienced
in raising the temperature of the edge of the lead covering to that required to
effect complete unity between it and the molten lead, and the method adopted for
fixing cover flashings to brickwork is often preferred, i.e., wedges are driven in
at about 1-ft. intervals and the joint is afterwards pointed with mastic or cement
mortar (see below and p. 146).
Solder is an alloy of lead and tin, and used by the plumber to joint pieces of
lead and form joints between lead pipes, etc. ; this operation is called soldering.
Coarse or plumbing solder is used for wiped joints (see p. IS2) and consists of
2 parts lead and 1 part tin; fine solder, used for finer work, is a mixture of 1
part lead and 2 parts tin ; ordinary solder is a mixture of lead and tin in equal
parts and is used for forming copper-bit joints (seep. IS3)· CoaJ,"se solder is either
heated in a melting or solder pot(u, Fig. 76) and -poured on the joint by means
of a ladle (M, Fig. 76), or it is cast into narrow strips which are about
1;2-in. by 1!-in. by 1-lb. and in this form the solder is applied to the joint by
using the blow-lamp (A', Fig. 76) to melt the strip.
Lead Burning or Welding.- This is the process of uniting by heat (fusing)
pieces of lead in which gases (such as oxy-acetylene, oxy-coal gas, etc.) are
utilized and special blow-lamps employed. It is a method which has been
developed in recent years and used for certain purposes as a substitute for
soldering.
Nails and Nailing.-The nails used for fixing leadwork to wood are of copper,
1 to 1!-in. long, with clout (flat) heads. The term close nailing is applied when
1 43
the nails are at from 1 to 3-in. intervals ; in open nailing the nails are spaced
at from 3 to 8-in. (sometimes 12-in.) apart.
Soakers are thin pieces of lead (not more than 4-lb.) which are placed between
slates. The size and shape varies, thus the soakers described on p. ISO (see
c and M, Fig. 73) are 7-in. wide, bent at right angles with an upturn of 3-in.
and a length which varies in accordance with the length of the slates, whilst
those described on p. 137 are square. They are either nailed to the boarding
(at their heads) or the tops are turned over the slates. Only light lead is used
for soakers to prevent the tilting or riding of the slates.
FLASI]INGS.-These are narrow pieces of lead which are required at the
intersection between vertical faces of walls or framing and pitched roofs, flats,
gutters, etc. They are classified into :
(I) Horizontal Cover Flashings, which are usecally 6-in. wide strips having
their upper edges turned 1-in. into the raked-out joint of the brickwork (or
raglet formed in the stonework) and the lower edges lapped over and covering
the upturn or upstand (vertical portion) of the lower pieces of lead (see Figs.
71 and 72, and p. 146).
(2) Apron Flashings, which are provided at the front of chimney-stacks,
dormers, etc., and are from 8 to 12-in. wide; the lower portion is dressed over
the slates and the upturn is let 1-in. into the raked-out joint or raglet (see A, B, L
and o, Fig. 73, and p. q8).
(3) Stepped Cover Flashings, which are from 6 to 8-in. wide and have their
upper edges cut into a series of steps ; the horizontal edge of each step is turned
1-in. into the raked joint. They are fixed at the sides of brick chimneys, gable
walls, etc. (see A, B, F, G and N, Fig. 73, and p. ISO).
(4) Raking Cover Flashings, which are used in lieu of (3) when the walls
are of stone. The upper edge of the flashing is let 1-in. into a raglet formed
parallel to the rake of the roof and this top edge is therefore not stepped
(see p. ISO).
Flashings are in lengths cut across the width of the roll and the maximum
length therefore varies from 7 to 9-ft. ; they are secured along their upper edges
by lead wedges.
Lead Wedges are tapered pieces of lead of the size and shape as shown at o,
·Fig. 72. They are made either (a) by running molten lead into a mould and
cutting the tapered strip into short pieces when cool (such are called cast lead
wedges) or (b) by folding pieces of scrap sheet lead and beating them into shape.
They are used to fix flashings and are driven in between the turn-in of the
flashing and the upper edge of the joint. In the case of horizontal and raking
cover flashings, the wedges are driven in at about 1-ft. intervals-18-in. maximum
(see B, o and Q, Fig. 71); one or two are provided at each step of a stepped
flashing (see A, B and F, Fig. 73). The raked-out joint between the wedges is
pointed with either cement mortar or mastic. The section at N, Fig. 72 shows
a wedge in position.
If used to secure flashings in stonework in lieu of burning-in (see above),
 144
the edge of the lead is bent and turned back to completely line the raglet, and the
wedges are driven into the folded edge.
Oak wedges are sometimes used in cheap work. These are apt to become
loose when they shrink.
Tacks, Tingles or Clips are strips of lead used to stiffen flashings and prevent
their free edges being lifted by a strong wind. They are from 2 to 3-in. wide
and are placed at a distance apart not exceeding 2-ft. 6-in. As shown at M,
Fig. 72, each tack is fixed in the joint, and it is sufficiently long to turn over and
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grip the free edge of the flashing by about I-in. Tacks are also required to
secure hollow rolls at 2-ft. intervals (L, Fig. 72), and welts and ridge coverings
at 2 to 4-ft. intervals (see B, R and s, Fig. 73), the fixed ends of the tacks being
clout-nailed to the boarding (or ridge) as shown. Copper tacks, being stiffer
than lead, are used for first-class work (see below.)
JoiNTS.-As already mentioned, provision must be made to allow lead to
expand and contract, and the joints between sheets must be formed so as to
permit of this movement. The various joints are: (I) laps, (2) rolls, (3) drips
and (4) welts.
(I) Lap Joints.-These occur at a maximum of 7 to 9-ft. apart (depending
upon the width of the roll) for flashings, upturns of gutters, ridges, hips, valleys
and lead coverings of pitched roofs. They are also called passings. The
amount of lap (distance that one piece covers the adjacent piece of lead) is usually
4-in. for cover flashings, upturns of gutters and aprons, and 6-in. for stepped and
raking flashings , ridges, hips and valleys.
The side laps of lead covering pitched roofs are in the form of rolls or welts
(see below) and the lower edge of each upper sheet laps the top edge of the sheet
below it to form a horizontal joint. The amount of lap at such horizontal joints
depends upon the pitch ; it is usually 6-in. when the pitch exceeds 45 °, "and
this may be increased to 9-in. for flatter pitches. Alternatively, horizontal
welts may be used instead of wide laps, but these may detract from the appearance
of the roof.
When the slope of a roof is less than I5°, the horizontal joints between the
sheets of lead are usually in the form of drips (see below).
(2) Rolls.-This form of joint is required on lead-covered flats, pitched roofs,
ridges, certain forms of hips and long gutters. They are placed at intervals
varying from I-ft. 6-in. to a maximum of 2-ft. 6-in. for flats and similar
construction.
There are three kinds of rolls, i.e., two forms of covering wood or solid
rolls and a hollow roll.
Solid Rolls.-One form is shown at P, Fig. 7I, and J, Fig. 72. 1 The wood
roll is shaped as shown and is nailed or screwed to the boarding. One edge
of a sheet is dressed into the angle between the roll and boarding and continued
beyond the crown as shown. This is called the imdercloak or undersheet. Its
edge is secured with I-in. copper nails at I to 6-in. apart (depending upon the
1 The space between the lead in these and similar details is exaggerated.
PLUMBING
-quality of the work) and the edge is rasped off. The edge of the adjacent sheet
is worked into the angle, passed over the undercloak and continued I to 2-in.
on to the flat of the roof or bed of the gutter. This is known as the overcloak
or oversheet.
The second form of solid roll is shown at K, Fig. 72. The undercloak is
dressed and secured as above described, but the overcloak is brought over to
within 1- to I-in. of the flat on the other side. This method was generally pre-
ferred in the North of England, but now both forms of solid rolls are adopted
equally there.
There is a difference of opinion as to which of the two methods shown at
J and K is the best. In the former, water may gain access between the sheets
by capillary attraction. Whilst this is avoided at K, this practice is not recom-
mended for exposed positions as the free edge of the overcloak, having an
inadequate grip, may be lifted by strong winds.
The treatment at the ends of solid rolls is referred to on p. I46.
Hollow Roll.-This type is adopted for best work in connection with lead-
covered pitched roofs, and especially if cast lead is to be used 1 ; it is also suitable
for curved surfaces, such as domes, where wood rolls could not be employed
economically. The roll is supported by" stout "(preferably from" 8-lb. lead ")
lead tacks or tingles which are 2-in. wide and 6 to 7-in. long ; these are placed
at 2-ft. apart, and one end of each is secured to the boarding by two copper
clout nails, the boarding having been slightly recessed to receive it. Copper
tacks, being stronger than lead, are used in superior work, each end being secured
by two brass screws. When turning a hollow roll, the edge of the undercloak
is upturned vertically, the tacks are fixed and their free ends are turned over
the undercloak, the edge of the overcloak is upturned and also turned over the
undercloak, and the whole is finally dressed to the form shown in the illustration.
Hollow rolls are not suitable for flat roofs as they are liable to be damaged if
trodden on.
Rolls are again referred to in the following pages.
(3) Drips or Steps are formed on flats and in gutters which exceed 8-ft. in·
width or length, and they are placed across the fall. They are generally 2-in.
and sometimes 3-in. deep.
Three forms of drips are shown at Q, Fig. 7I, and R, T, and u, Fig. 72. The
2-in. drips at Q and R show the upper edge of the lower sheet (called the under-
sheet) dressed into the angle, continued up the step or drip, and dressed into the
I t-in. wide shallow rebate formed along the edge of the boarding to which it is
close copper-nailed. The object of the rebate is to avoid a ridge in the lead.
The lower edge of the upper sheet (called the oversheet) is dressed over it, and
like the roll at J, is continued on the flat or bed for I to 2-in. The 3-in. drip at
T has the oversheet stopped short of the flat ; water cannot thereby gain access
1 Hollow rolls, 2!-in. diameter, are employed on the roof of the Library referred to
in the footnote on p. 142, and these are secured by 6-in. by 3-in. copper tacks at 2-ft.
intervals.
 LEAD GUTTERS
by capillary attraction, but like the roll of stmilar construction, the free edge
of the oversheet may be disturbed in a high gale. A second method of pre-
venting capillary attraction is sh{lwn at u, which illustrates a" capillary groove "
formed along the step and into which the undersheet is dressed ; whilst this
construction is excellent in theory, it is very rarely adopted in practice.
Drips are further considered later.
(4) Welts or Seams are often employed for jointing sheets of lead covering
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vertical and steeply pit~.:hed surfaces and for jointing lead and copper damp-
proof courses (see p. 18). A welt is illustrated at R, s and T, Fig. 73· Like
hollow rolls, the edges of the adjacent sheets are upturned with 2-in. wide lead
or copper tacks between, the tacks being fixed at from 2 to 4-ft. intervals ; after
being folded as shown at R, the upturns are dressed down as closely as possible
on to the flat. The spaces between the folds have been emphasized to show
the construction more clearly, and the finished appearance of a welt more closely
resembles the sketch at T. The width of the seam varies from 1t to 3-in.
Welted joints are not suitable for flats or low-pitched roofs, but like hollow
rolls, they are very effective for steep or curved surfaces. Detail n, Fig. 73
shows a section through a welt which may be employed at ridges in lieu of
6-in. laps.
The roof of the Manchester Town Hall building (see footnote on p . 142) has a
6o0 pitch, and the sheets of cast lead are joined at their sloping edges by welts which
are z!-in. wide ; the horizontal joints consist of 6!-in. wide laps and the sheets are
secured by turning the top edges over the boarding to which they are close copper-
nailed ; each board immediately above that to which the upper edge of the sheet
was nailed was removed (it being left loose for this purpose) and, after nailing the
sheet, this board was replaced and nailed.
GUTTERS.-There are three forms of lead-covered gutters, i.e., (a) parallel
parapet gutters, (b) tapered parapet gutters and (c) V-gutters.
(a) Parallel Parapet Gutters.-As is implied, this gutter is situated behind a
parapet wall and at the bottom of a flat or sloping roof ; it is also known as a
box or trough gutter. The gutter is of uniform width throughout and must be
at least 10-in. wide to afford adequate foot room. A long gutter is divided into
sections, having a roll at the highest point, and drips at intervals not exceeding
8-ft. apart; it is given a minimum fall of It-in. per Io-ft._ In Fig. 7I it receives
the drainage from a sloping roof, and in Fig. 72 it is associated with a lead flat.
The timber details of the gutter shown in Fig. 7I are referred to on p. 8r ;
a part plan is shown at c and a longitudinal section is shown at B ; a 2~in. roll
is placed at the highest point from which the gutter falls I in. to a 2-in. drip
and the lower portion falls r-in. to a cesspool.
A cesspool or drip-box is a lead-lined receptacle, situated at the lowest end
of a gutter, from which a lead outlet pipe, suitably bent, discharges the water
into a rain-water head where it is conveyed by a rain-water pipe to a gully and
drain. Rain-water heads and pipes are described on pp. 153-156. The
minimum depth of a cesspool should be 6-in. The wood framing, its support
and the chamfered hole are detailed at o, Fig. 71. The lead lining is in one
piece, two sides being turned up 12-in. against the walls, a third side being
turned up 6-in. and dressed 1!-in. into a shallow rebate formed along the lower
edge of the gutter boarding to which it is nailed, and the fourth side is 20-in.
long, 14-in. of which is turned up vertically with the remainder dressed over
the tilting fillet and roof boarding to which it is nailed. This lining is bossed
to the required shape from a rectangular piece of lead before it is placed in
position, and a skilled craftsman will do this without resorting to folded or
" dog-.eared " angles (see p. 146). It is holed and dressed over the chamfered
hole formed in the wood bottom, and the outlet pipe, 1 having been formed to a
swan-neck bend as described on p. 146, with its upper end enlarged by means
of a tanpin or turnpin (see E, Fig. 76), is either soldered as shown or lead-burned
to give a firm watertight joint. A galvanized wire or copper balloon or dome is
sometimes fixed into the top of the outlet pipe to prevent it from being choked
by leaves, etc. A small lead overflow or warning pipe should be provided as
shown to serve as a temporary outlet for the water in the event of the pipe be-
coming choked. As certain mortars act chemically upon and destroy lead, it is
advisable to cover the lead overflow pipe and the portion of the outlet pipe which
passes through the wall with tarred felt (see B and o) ; alternatively, these pipes
may be given a coating of bituminous paint.
The lower section of the gutter is covered with lead after the cesspool has
been lined, the covering consisting of the bed, a 5 or 6-in. upturn or upstand against
the wall, and an upturn against the pole plate which is continued over the tilting
fillet to about 6-in. on the slope of the roof where it is open copper-nailed to the
boarding along its edge. This lower end is dressed 4-in. down the cesspool, and
the upper end forms the undersheet of the drip which has been described on p. 144.
The next section of the gutter has a similar covering ; the lower end forms
the oversheet of the drip and the upper end is dressed over the roll to provide
the undercloak (seeP).
The cover flashing is fixed, commencing at the cesspool end, after the opposite
half of the gutter has been lined in a similar manner and finished with the upper
end of the top section forming the overcloak of the roll. Enlarged details
showing the laps, tacks and wedges are given at o, P and Q ; the detail at A
shows the relative heights of the roll, drip, etc.
It will be seen that each piece of lead forming a gutter (and cesspool) is
fixed along two adjacent edges only, the other two edges being free to allow the
lead to expand and contract.
Snow Boards should be provided to gutters in order that melted snow may have
a free passage to the outlets and to protect the lead against damage by traffic ; without
such boards, the snow on the gutter impedes the flow of water as the snow thaws on
the underside, and this m ay cause the water to rise above the lead covering and
penetrate the roof. ·A snow board may . consist of two 4-in. by z-in. longitudinal
bearers, extending the full length of the section, to the top of which are nailed
z-in. by !-in. transverse laths at about !-in. apart.
1 The size of the pipe may be determined by allowing r-sq. in. of pipe area to 75-sq. ft.
of roof surface.
 PLUMBING
Another example of a parallel gutter is shown in Fig. 72 and a further example
is shown at G, Fig. 24.
(b) Tapered Parapet Gutter (see J, K and N, Fig. 71).-The wood details of
this gutter are described on p. 81 (see also N). This gutter, tapered on plan,
is divided into sections by a roll and drips as described above. As shown on
the plan K, the lower edge of the slating has to be cut parallel to the tapered
side of the gutter. The section at N shows the width increases due to the fall
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
of each " bay " of the gutter and the drip. The shape of the gutter on plan is
developed by transferring to i{ from the section the various widths at the lower
and upper ends of each bay. The section also shows the lead turned up 6-in.
against the wall and about 9-in. up the slope. The tilting fillet is fixed with its
lower edge 3-in. above and parallel to the intersection between the gutter and roof
boarding. The details of the cesspool, drips, roll, flashings, etc., are similar to
those already described. Another example of a tapered gutter is shown by broken
lines in the elevation in Fig. 21 and the section at F, Fig. 24, the section being
taken through the gutter immediately above the cesspool.
(c) V-gutters.-This type is formed along the lower intersection between
two sloping roof surfaces. The groundwork may consist of bearers fixed to
the sides of the spars (at various heights to suit the fall of the gutter) as shown
at T, Fig. 36, when the construction resembles that of a tapered gutter, or the
lower ends of the spars of each slope may be birdsmouthed over a pole plate
as shown at A, Fig. 71, to form a parallel gutter. Long lengths of such gutters
must be divided by rolls and drips as above described.
Cast iron eaves gutters are described on Pl-'· 153-154
FLATS (see Fig. 72).-The wood construction has been described on p. 70.
It has been mentioned that the minimum fall is 1!-in. in 1o-ft. To prevent water
standing when the flat has been given such a small fall, it is necessary that pre-
cautions against warping should be taken and therefore narrow, well-seasoned
boards only should be used and these should be laid with their length in the
direction of the fall. The surface of the boarding should be " flogged " (i.e.,
dressed over with a plane or machine) to remove sharp edges and irregularities
which may damage the lead. Occasionally the boarding is covered with roofing
felt, laid with butt joints, and this assists in ensuring a uniform surface for the
lead.
The key plan at s and the sketch at A show the roof of a small building (an
adjunct to a larger building) which is divided into six bays and a parallel gutter.
The rolls have been shown purposely at maximum centres of 2-ft. 6-in. ; this
gives an economical roof if 7-ft. wide rolls are used which are cut up the centre
to give 3-ft. 6-in. widths, as the minimum waste of lead thereby results.
The construction of the rolls, drips, gutter and flashings has been already
described. The detail at R shows the drip, with the oversheet turned on to the
flat and over the bossed end of the roll. Note : (1) the firring piece which is
nailed on to the top of the joist to give the necessary fall to the boarding, (2) the
overcloak or oversheet of the drip is lapped 3-in. over the roll below and (3) the
end of the roll is slightly bevelled to facilitate the bossing of the lead. In forming
the bossed end, the undercloak is dressed round to partially cover the end, and
the overcloak is bossed to completely cover it and the roll below. In order to
minimize the risk of the overcloaks of rolls being lifted by the wind, they should
be dressed with their free edges least exposed to the prevailing wind. Note
that at A and Q the overcloak of the._ drip at the gutter is not continued on to the
bed, but is dressed just clear of it at the upper end. The overcloak at the bossed
end of each roll ai: the gutter is continued down the drip and secured by a small
clip or piece of read (which has been left on the undercloak when trimming it)
which is turned over it (see Q).
Forming Lead Flats.- The following is the order in which leadwork for the flat
at A would be executed : Cesspool with outlet pipe (although the fixing of the latter
may be deferred), gutter, lower side bay with undercloak, lower middle bay, lower
side bay with overcloak, upper side bay with undercloak, upper middle bay, and upper
side bay with overcloak. The cover flashing is then fixed in the mortar joints which
have been previously raked out for at least I in., preferably before the mortar has set ;
the first length of flashing to be fixed is that, over the upturn of the gutter, commencing
at the cesspool end, and after completing those at the sides, that along the top end is
fixed ; the flashings are wedged and the mortar joints are pointed with cement mortar
or oil mastic.
The following tools" (illustrated in Fig. 76) are used in carrying out the various
labours when ·covering this roof : The dresser (A) is employed for dressing the lead
on the boarding ; the overcloaks and undercloaks are formed with the bossing stick
(B) and setting-in stick (J), the sharp edge on the latter being useful for working the
lead well into the angles of the rolls and for forming the upturns of the sheets against
the walls, etc.; the bossing mallet (D) is employed for working the lead 'into corners.
The chase wedge (K) serves the same purpose as the setting-in stick for working the
angles of rolls, drips, etc., in gutters and where the space is restricted, the wedge
being driven by the mallet. The drip plate (L) is introduced when lead is dressed
over lead, as at the angles of overcloaks ; the plate is slipped between the lower sheet
(which has been worked) and the overcloak, and the latter can then be bossed into the
angle without disturbing the bottom sheet.
Forming a Cesspool.-A brief description of the formation of a cesspool is as
follows : A piece of lead is cut sufficiently large to form the base and sides and it is
set out by chalk-marking the lines along which will be formed the angles at the base
and sides. (NOTE.-Lead must never be marked or scored with a knife or similar sharp
object as this at once weakens it; chalk-line marking should only be adopted.)
Shallow grooves are formed along the base lines by placing the setting-in stick on
them and sharply striking it with the bossing mallet. The lead is turned with the
bottom upwards and gently tapped parallel to and about r-in. inside the base lines ;
this assists in stiffening the base and keeping it firm. The lead is turned over and
the sides are bent upwards on the grooves, the corners being left. Each corner is
then separately bossed up by using the mallet and bossing stick, the former being
held inside the " box" (cesspool) as the bossing stick is applied to work the surplus
lead gradually from the bottom upwards. Care must be taken not to drag the lead
from the corner or cause the base to lift ; if a crease appears, it must be at once
knocked out or the lead will pucker and split. As it is gradually bossed upwards,
some of the superfluous lead at the top should be cut off to enable the remainder to
boss up more easily. This process is repeated at all corners and the sides are cut
off to the required height. The cesspool is holed, dressed in position as required
and the outlet pipe connected to it as already described.
Bending Lead Pipes.-The following describes the bending of a lead pipe such as
that shown at Q, Fig. 72. : The pipe is slightly heated at the position where the bend
is to be formed ; it is then bent over the knee and this flattens the pipe at the throat ;
the long dummy (Y) is now used to approximately restore the pipe to a circular section
by inserting the "straight end" (head c') and working it up and down until the
 PARAPET GUTTERS
COVER FLASHING 6" WIDE
111 INTO JOINT OF BRICKWORk.

A
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I" T. b G. FRAMING
JOINT SOLDERED OR LEAD BURNED 6 LIS. LEAD OUTTER BED
- - l - · 3 • DIA.LEAD OUTLET PIPE I" BOARDING WITH 111 FALL IN 6'-4" (MINIMUM FALL,I'I.:~" IN 10'-01')

,,
~·•YBI~REU--~ §~~~==~~r:~~~~~~·

ET
Ff(jURE 11
 PLUMBING
throat is gradually brought out; the bending stick (c) is then applied to each side
of the pipe at the bend in turn, working from the throat to the heel until the circular
section has been roughly regained. The bobbin (F) and weight (se.e p. 157) are
inserted, the former being of the proper size to suit the pipe and the latter slightly
less ; a piece of rope is attached to the weight and passed through the bobbin and
pipe ; when the rope is given a series of sharp pulls, the weight gradually drives the
bobbin through the bend, and as it does so the interior is brought to a uniformly
circular bore. The pipe is again heated and the same operations are repeated, care being
taken in working the bend with the bending stick that a uniform thickness is main-
tained. As the radius of the bend increases, head o' of the dummy is used to bring
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the throat back. The lower bend is formed on the pipe in a similar manner. The
heel hand dummy (P) is useful for shaping the heels of large pipes and the hand
dummy (R) is used for small pipes. The end of the pipe is slightly enlarged by
driving the tan pin (E) partly into the mouth of the pipe. Finally the pipe is prepared
for soldering (or lead burning) it to the lead lining th«< hole formed in the base of
the cesspool.
RIDGES (see B, H and J, Fig. 73).-Lead-covered ridges are suitable for slated
roofs, although lead is apt to discolour green slates.
The detail at H shows one method. A 2-in. wood roll is nailed to the wood
ridge ; a pair of 2-in. wide lead tacks is nailed to the side of the ridge
(see B) at 2 to 4-ft. intervals; the lead covering consists of strips which are
from 18 to 20-in. wide and 7-ft. long; it is passed over the roll, well worked
into the angles, and dressed over the slates for 6 to 7-in. on each side ; the free
ends of the tacks are then turned over the edges of the lead for about 1-in. to
prevent the lead from being lifted by the wind. The horizontal joints are
generally lapped 6-in. (a pair of tacks being provided at each), although in best
work they may be welted as shown at D.
An alternative method i& shown at J where the tacks (which pass over the top
of the ridge) are nailed to the wood ridge before the wood roll is fixed. The
treatment at the end of the ridge abutting against the chimney stack is shown at
B and described on p. ISO·
HIPS.-Lead may be used at the hips in the following manner: (1) wood
roll with continuous lead covering as shown for ridges, (2) cut and mitred slates
with lead soakers, and (3) wood roll with lead soakers. · soaker is placed between the slates at each course. This gives a satisfactory
(1) Wood Roll with Continuous Lead Covering.-This is similar to the ridge
detail excepting that the dihedral angle is wider. The strips of lead are nailed
at the heads under .the laps and are also secured by the lead tacks.
(2) Cut and Mitred Slates with Lead Soakers.-There are two methods of
using soakers, i.e., (a) single-course soakers and (b) double-course soakers.
(a) This is the arrangement which is shown at Q and R, Fig. 69, and described
on p. 137. It provides an excellent finish to a slated roof and is adopted in the
best work.
(b) In this method, the length of the soakers is 1-in. longer than that of the
slates ; the horizontal width of each wing should be slightly more than the slate
below in order to cover the joint, and it tapers to about 2-in. at the head, which
is nailed. A soaker is placed at every alternate course, and therefore at every
other course the lower portion (margin) of each soaker is exposed to view. It
is not often adopted.
(3) Wood Roll with Lead Soakers.-Soakers are provided at every course,
and they are shaped to pass over the roll and between the slates at the wings.
The length of soaker equals the gauge plus lap plus 1-in. for centre-nailed slates
and 1-in. longer for head-nailed slates; the width is as stated at (b) above. They
are nailed at the head. This is a sound method and one which is suitable for
exposed roofs.
VALLEYS.-These include (1) open valley gutters, (2) secret valley gutters
and (3) cut and mitred slates with soakers.
(x) Open Valley Gutters (see P, Fig. 73).-This is generally employed and
provides a sound but unattractive looking finish. The lead is in 7-ft. lengths
with 6-in. laps, and the width is about 18-in., being dressed over the boarding
and tilting fillets as shown ; it is secured by close copper nailing up each side
along the edge, and the ends are left free. The clear width between the edges
of the slates (which are cut to the rake) should not be less than 8-in. to provide
adequate foot room, as a less width often results in the slates being damaged by
anyone proceeding up the valley when carrying out repairs, etc. If the roof
is battened and not boarded, it is necessary to fix a g-in. wide board (called a
lier board) on each side of the intersection, and for the full extent of the valley,
in order to receive the lead. The ends of the slating battens are cut to the edges
of these boards.
(2) Secret Valley Gutters (see Q).-The width of the 7-ft. strips of lead are
only about 10-in. as the cut edges of the slates are only about 1-in. apart. Whilst
the appearance is an improvement on the open valley gutter, it is objected to
for the reason that it is liable to become choked by leaves and rubbish which
may accumulate and choke the valley, causing water to back up and pass over
the lead.
(3) Cut and Mitred Slates with Soakers.- The construction somewhat
resembles that for cut and mitred hips with single-course soakers (described on
p. 137) in that wide slates (slate and a half) are cut and closely mitred and a
finish both in regard to soundness and appearance.
LEADWORK AT CHIMNEYs.-Details of the requisite leadwork to two chimney
stacks are shown in Fig. 73· One stack is shown intercepting one of the slopes
of a roof and the other penetrates at the ridge. Sketches of these are shown at
A and B in which 2-in. bricks are employed as these improve the appearance ;
for economy, the brickwork below the roof is constructed of 3-in. bricks (see
E, F and G). The lead details at (1) the front, (2) the sides and (3) the back are
explained belew.
(x) Front.- The lead at the front is in one piece (except as stated on p. I So);
this is the apron flashing (see p. 143) and is shown detached at L. It is bossed
(or lead-burned) to this shape from dimensions taken from the stack. As the
internal angles forming the returns of the upturn are being bossed, the lower
corners of the lead gradually work upwards to an irregular curve, and it is the
practice to neatly trim the ends as shown when the bossing has been completed.
 LEAD FLAT DETAILS
COVER FLASHING, 6" WIDE 6LB. LfAD
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DETAIL AT •e•
L.LL-c..L.,c:..LL SHOWING :l" DRIP

KEY PLAN OF LEAD FLAT

5

"-"-~~~FIRRING PIECE,:I'WI
DETAIL AT "F"
.:31 DRIP
.JLL.....~__L__L..UALTE~,a.TIVE TO 'R")

LEAD WEDGE

DETAIL AT
SHOWIN<i
•c• DETAIL AT
SHOWIN<i
•o- N SCALE FOil A.P <.GI

1"1"1"1'1 I ~
.21 D/!.IP WITH CAPILLARY GROOVE
(ALTERNATIVE TO 'T')

TACK,FLASttiNG,EK WEDGE. FLASHING i. UPTURN SCAlf FOil. DfTAJU INCIIES FIGURE 1~

 PLUMBING
The apron is secured by lead wedges (see A and B). Lead tacks are provided
as shown at A to secure the free edge, although these are not necessary if the
apron is short and especially if the ends are tailed down by slates as indicated
at B; the tacks may be continued vertically and let into the joint (as shown)
or they may be short and nailed at their upper ends to the top batten.
Long lengths may consist of two pieces, i.e., an apron with a 4-in. upturn
and 6-in. dressed .over the slates, and a 6-in. wide cover flashing similar to that
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shown at M, Fig. 72.
(2) Sides.-The leadwork at each side of the stack may consist of (a) soakers
with a continuous stepped cover flashing, (E) soakers with stepped cover flashing
in single steps or (c) a single continuous stepped flashing.
(a) Soakers with Continuous Stepped Flashing (see A, F, G and N).-Soakers
(see p. 143) are prepared by the plumber and placed in position by the slater;
they have a 2! to 3-in. upturn with 3! to 4-in. width between slates. Their length
equals the gauge plus lap plus 1-in. if the slates are head-nailed and 1-in. less
if the slates are centre-nailed; in addition, the length (excepting the upturned
portion) is increased by 1-in. for nailing to the roof boarding (see M) or for
hooking over the head of the slate when secured to a batten (see c). As shown
at A, F, N and o, each soaker laps that above or below it by an amount equal to
that of the slates. The stepped cover flashing is formed out of a 6 or 7-in.
wide strip to the shape shown at N; the 1-in. wide upper horizontal edges
being let into the mortar joints and each is secured with one or two wedges ;
the size of the steps depends upon the thickness of the bricks and the pitch of
the roof, but the distance from the" water line "(see F) to the lower edge should
not be less than 2-in. (at F and N, this is shown to be 2!-in.).
A raking cover flashing (see p. 143) is adopted for stone chimney-stacks as
the absence of horizontal joints at from 2 to 3-in. apart preclude the use of stepped
cover flashings.
The above continuous flashings are not so liable as those described below
(b) to be dislodged by the wind.
(b) Soakers with Stepped Flashing in Single Steps (see Band c).-The soakers
are as described above. The cover flashing is made of scrap pieces of lead to
the shape shown at c to give a 2 to 3-in. lap ; it is because of this lap that this
method is preferred to (a) above, as water does not readily find access between
the cut backs and the wall ; each step is secured with one or two wedges and
the joints which receive the turn-ins of the steps should be well pointed as
before described. Sometimes the pieces are shaped with vertical front edges
and not cut back as shown. These are not so attractive in appearance as those
shown.
(c) Single Continuous Stepped Flashing.-Soakers are not used, and in lieu
of them the stepped flashing is continued and dressed 6-in. over the slates.
In appearance, therefore, the lower portion resembles the apron at L, whilst
the upper portion is similar to the flashing at N. This method is not as sound
as either (a) or (b), as water may be blown between the slates and wings of the
flashing or it may enter by capillary attraction, and it does not look well. Its
use is on the decrease, except where pantiles or similar interlocking tiles are
used as .a roof covering.
(3) Back.-The leadwork here consists of a gutter and cover flashing. As
shown at E, the angle at the intersection is blocked by a triangular piece of wood
which is shaped and given a slight fall in both directions from the centre (see
o and the broken line at G). A tilting fillet should also be provided (although
this is often omitted) and this should be tapered as indicated at o and K in order
to prevent the slates immediately above the ends of the gutter from riding.
The sketch at K shows the piece of lead which has been bossed (or lead-burned)
to the requi,red shape before fixing. The 6-in. wide cover flashing is shown
atE and the ends are returned (see A and F).
Finish at Ridge (see B).- The end piece of lead ridge covering is turned
2-in. up the wall and the central piece of cover flashing-called a saddle-piece-
is 'turned over the ridge to form a cap.
GENERAL.-A roof is made watertight at the intersection between its slope
and brickwork or stonework (as at J and M, Fig. 36) by using an apron flashing
with cover flashing. Similarly, any of the three types of flashings (a), (b) and
(c) is used to exclude water at the intersection between roofs and gable walls
(such as that shown in Fig. 21). In inferior work, cement mortar fillets are
used instead of leadwork at such intersections ; these are triangular fillets
formed on the slates and against the brickwork or stonework ; this is a very
unsound substitute, as sooner or later the fillets crack (and sometimes fall away),
causing the roof to leak.
PROTECTION OF STONE CORNICES AND STRING CouRsEs.-It is especially
necessary to protect the upper projecting courses of stonework against the
action of rain-water which is converted to diluted acid in polluted atmospheres.
The two materials generally used for this purpose are (a) lead and (b) asphalt.
(a) A lead-covered cornice is shown at A and c, Fig. 74, 5 or 6-lb. lead being
used. A raglet, about l-in. wide and·!-in. deep, is cut along the face of the
stone parapet to receive the edge of the upturn which is secured either by
burning-in or wedges (see pp. 143 and 144). If the parapet is of brickwork,
the upturn IS secured by wedges in the usual way. Exceptionally wide cornices
should have free upturns which are protected by cover flashings. The lower
edge of the lead is doubled and dressed over the fillet or nosing to project about
t-in. to allow water to drip clear of the moulded stonework (similar to that at B).
The transverse joints between pieces of the lead (which are 7 to 9-ft. long) are
welts similar to that shown at D, Fig. 73· Lead dots (also known as dowels,
rivets or buttons) are used to secure the covering against the action of the wind ;
dovetailed square or circular holes are formed in the cornice at about 3-ft.
centres (see .c); the lead after being bossed is holed, with the edge of each hole
turned up slightly, and a metal dot mould (see B', Fig. 76) is then used to form
the dot by pouring molten lead through the small hole in the mould (see A and c) ;
sometimes the " cup " of the mould is semispherical to form dots having curved
 LEADWORK
CHIMNEYS,
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E
RID<JE
BATTENS
--7""""4"• :l• SPAIU AT 15" C.ENT~S -"~­
SECTION THROUGH ~lOGE
AT 1 8" SHOWING LEAD COVERING
b PAl~ OF LEAD TACKS NAILED TO
SPAll.. SIDES OF WOOD RIDGE
HIPS MAY 6E COVERED WITH LEAD AS SHOWN FOR. f!JDUES

FEET

6 1 WIDE
DRESSED
OVER. SLATES
AP~ON FLASHING E A M
AT "A"
FJGU~E 13
 PLUMBING
tops. These dots may be formed by lead burning (seep. 143) ; the edge of the
lead at the hole is turned down slightly and the hole in the cornice is filled with
molten lead from a strip of lead held over it and reduced to a molten condition by
the flame of the lead burner ; the molten lead is finished flush with the covering,
and the dot is made inconspicuous by lightly hammering it and cleaning it off.
(b) Asphalt is often used in modern construction as a covering material.
In the example shown at n a small channel is formed at the back and the top
surface of the cornice is given a slight fall towards it ; the channel falls slightly
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towards one end and delivers into a rain-water pipe. A I-in. deep dovetail
groove is formed along the full length of the cornice and about 3-in. from the
front edge (see B) and a 1-in. square raglet is made along the bottom of the
parapet (or each stone is formed with a rebated joint before being fixed) . The
5 or 6-lb. lead flashing is bossed as shown at B and the hot asphalt is applied,
finished smooth to a thickness of i-in., well tucked into both grooves and rounded
off at the outer edge.
LEAD PIPE JOINTS
The various joints formed between lead pipes include the wiped joint, taft
joint, block joint and Staern joint. The following is a description of two of
these joints.
PROTECTION OF CORNICES
LEAD
COVER-ED CORNICE
SCALE FOR A
I· ''l'''
II I I
1111
SCALE FOR
WIPED }OINT (see A', Fig. 75).-This is generally considered to be the strongest
joint for lead pipes and is therefore employed in first-class work and especially
for water pipes which have to withstand high pressures. Solder (seep. 143) con-
sisting of 2 parts by weight of pig lead and I part pure tin is the jointing material.
The joint is made as follows : The end of each pipe is prepared as shown in the
half-section, that of the upper pipe (when it is in a vertical position) being rasped
down on the outside to leave a sharp edge, and the end of the lower pipe being
slightly filed on the outside and then opened by hammering a tan-pin (E, Fig. 76)
into it. Each end is painted with soil (a black powder consisting of lampblack, size
and whiting, well mixed with hot water) for at least 3-in., depending upon the size
of the joint. When this is dry, each end is scraped with the shave hook (G, Fig. 76)
for a distance of 1!-in. or more (according to the length of the joint) so as to present
a clean bright surface which is essential for the thorough adhesion of the solder.
The appearance of the finished joint is improved if prior to shaving, a ring is carefully
chalk-marked round and at the proper distance from the end of the pipe, and the
shaving is performed by a series of scrapings working from the mark towards the
open end. Care should be observed in not removing more of the lead than is necessary
at each shaving, otherwise the joint will be weakened. As there is a danger of
weakening the joint by cutting the shave hook into the pipe along the marked ring,
some plumbers shave each end (and leave an irregular boundary) for a length slightly
in excess of that required before the soil is applied, and the latter is then brushed on
to form a band with a regular boundary and overlapping the irregular shaved boundary.
As solder will not adhere to soil (hence the reason for " soiling ") it follows that if
the ·ring is carefully marked, the edge of the solder (see later) will be sharp and
uniform. The inside of the lower opened end l:lhould also be shaved. Immediately
6 L8. LEAD STRIP
E T A L D
0 F
L E A 0 ASPHALT
D 0 T COVE~ED CORNICE
A T "A"
t- 0 FEET
OHAILS
'I
31
INCHES
FIGUF-.E 14
 RAIN-WATER GOODS
after shaving, the bright ends are smeared with grease or tallow to prevent them
re-tamishing and to act as a flux (to assist fusion between the solder and lead). The
pipes are now ready for soldering. The solder is applied either by pouring or
splashing it on from the ladle (M, Fig. 76) or by using the blowlamp (A , Fig. 76)
and a strip of solder (see p. 143). The former method is only adopted in certain
districts for joints made on the bench and the latter for joints made on the job.
Incidentally, the City and Guilds of London Institute do not permit the use of the
blowlamp in connection with their practical examinations in Plumbing. When the
"ladle" method is adopted, the solder is melted in the pot (u, Fig. 76) to the required
temperature (denoted when the solder ignites a piece of paper), and after the pipes
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have been accurately adjusted the solder is poured from the ladle on to the prepared
ends until the temperature of the pipes at the ends is approximately that of the
solder; the latter is then wiped round the joint with a wiping cloth (z, Fig. 76),
the surface of which has been greased to prevent the solder adhering to it ; additional
solder is splashed on and quickly worked with the cloth until the desired shap¢ is
obtained, when the joint is left undisturbed and allowed to .cool. On large joit;~ts,
and especially if awkwardly placed, the blowlamp may be used to heat the solder if
this has partially set before the joint has been completed. When the " blowlamp "
method is adopted, the prepared ends of the pipes are fitted together and heated by
the flame of the lamp ; solder is applied by melting one end of a strip, and is
gradually brought to the required shape by use of the cloth ; during the wiping
operation, the heat .is applied intermittently until sufficient of the plastic solder is
being manipulated, when a final sweep is made with the cloth and the joint is left
to cool.
Proportions of a Soldered Joint.- The thickness of the solder at the widest
part of the joint need not exceed one and a half times the thickness of the pipe
(see A'). An excess of solder, besides being uneconomical, does not necessarily
increase the strength of the joint, and a short bulging joint does not look well.
The length of the joint varies with the size of the pipe and the following is
considered to be satisfactory : 3-in. long for pipes up to !-in. internal diameter,
3!--in. long for I to. I!-in . .diameter, 3!-in. long for 2 to 3-in. diameter and 3!-in.
long for. pipes up to 4-in. diameter.
TAFT OR CoPPER-BIT }OINT (see B', Fig. 75).-This is only used for inferior
work and where the pipes are not required to withstand much pressure, as for
overflow and gas pipes.
The preparation of the ends of the pipes is similar to that for wiped joints, except
that the lower pipe is opened wider, the amount of shaving is reduced and the soil
is often omitted. A little powdered resin is applied to the scraped surfaces after
the ends are. fitted together, and this acts as a flux for the "ordinary" solder (con-
sisting of equal parts of lead and tin) which is in the form of a thin narrow strip.
The solder is melted by the heated copper-bit (N, Fig. 76) or other means until
sufficient is run to fill the space between the two pipes, as shown. Alternatively,
the solder may be melted by a small blowlamp (the flame of which is blown on to the
solder held over the joint by the plumber applying his mouth to a small tube the
open end of which terminates at the flame) or the type of blowlamp illustrated at A',
Fig. 76, the latter being especially useful for larger pipes ; the joint is then known as
a blown joint.
RAIN-WATER GOODS
Rain-water goods include eaves gutters (or spouts) and rain-water pipes
(or down-pipes, fall-pipes, down-comers, down-spouts or stack-pipes). They
are made of cast iron, lead, asbestos-cement and enamelled iron.
Details of cast iron gutters and pipes are shown in Fig. 75 and an application
is shown in the perspective sketch.
1 53
EAVES GUTTERS
Eaves gutters are provided with a socket (or faucet or flange) which
receives the spigot end of the adjacent length. These are generally " outside "
sockets (see A, B, D and v), although " inside " sockets are also provided
(see Y). As shown at B, the maximum length is 6-ft., excluding the flange
which is from rf to 2-in. wide; shorter lengths can be obtained, and where
necessary pipes are reduced in length by means of the saw. They are made
of various shaped sections, i.e., half-round, deep half-round, ogee, etc. A
deep half-round gutter is shown in section at E and in oblique projection at
A,. B and D ; this is a very good form, being simple and of satisfactory appearance,
and it can be readily painted both inside and out and so preserved ; it is some-
times provided with a bead along its outer edge similar to that shown in the
middle section at H. Other moulded forms are shown at H ; the disadvantage
of these is the backs are inaccessible for painting if and after they have been fixed
to the wood fascia boards. They are moulded in numerous stock sizes, thus
the half-round gutter is obtainable in sizes varying from 4-in. by 2-in. to 12-in.
by 6-in. Note that these sizes are external sizes (see E and H). The thickness
is !-in. (" extra heavy grade"), !t-in. (" heavy grade "),.:j~ -in. ("medium grade ")
and -§-in. (" ordinary " or " light castings ") ; the latter is used for cheap work,
the medium grade is used for average good work, and the two heavier castings
are only specified for sp·ecial work.
SPECIAL FITTINGS.-These include external and internal angles (see A),
stop ends for sockets (c), stop ends for spigots, outlets with nozzles or
drops cast on (n) and union clips (a), the latter being used to connect two
, spigot ends.
SuPPORTS.-Eaves gutters are supported by wrought iron brackets, generally
two being required per 6-ft. length. That shown at M, Fig. 75, is twice screwed
or nailed to the backs of spars (see also wand Y, Fig. 36, A and n, Fig. 38, and
D and H, Fig. 69). That at o, Fig. 75, is twice screwed to the sides of spars
(suitable for the type of eaves shown at x, Fig. 36). The two shown at N, Fig. 75,
are screwed to wood fascias and are called " fascia brackets " (see Q, Fig. 36,
and L, Fig. 69), and that shown at Q, Fig. 75, is suitable for fixing direct to stone
walls where the pointed end of the bar is driven into the bed joint and the curved
bracket is adjusted to the required height by means of the nut and back or
lock-nut which are screwed to the rod fixed to the bracket. Whilst these are
suitable for half-round sections, similar brackets curved to the sections shown at
Hare also obtainable.
JoiNTs.-A section through an outside joint is shown at Y, Fig. 75· The
jointing material is red lead mastic or putty (powered red lead mixed with
linseed oil) and is applied to the inside of the socket after the gutter is placed in
position on the brackets ; the spigot end of the adjacent pipe is placed into the
socket, the wrought iron gutter bolt is inserted and the nut is tightened by applying
a screwdriver at the countersunk head of the bolt until the head is flush with
the inside of the gutter ; this squeezes out any excess of mastic and this excess is
 1 54 PLUMBING
wiped off. Gutter bolts vary in size from !-in. by !-in., r-in. by l 6 -in. and
r!-in. by -:lt'i-in.
Whilst the above is the commonest form of joint, some gutters are specified
to have inside sockets ; these are necessary if the exterior of the gutter is not
to be interrupted by the sockets, as is sometimes advisuble for moulded gutters.
An inside joint is also indicated in section at Y.
TROUGH GuTTERS.-These are larg~ cast iron gutters which are used,
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especially for factories and similar buildings, instead of lead parapet and
V-gutters.
DOWN-PIPES
The size of down-pipes varies from 2 to 12-in. internal diameter, those
specified for houses being generally 2! or 3-in., and are in 6-ft. lengths including
the sockets (see J). Short lengths are also obtainable. The thickness is similar
to that of eaves gutters.
SPECIAL FITTINGS.-These include swan-neck bends, rain-water heads,
offset bends, shoes, and single, double and Y-branches.
Swan-neck Bend (see F and perspective sketch).-This is necessary to connect
the nozzle-piece or outlet (seen) of a gutter which is fixed to an overhanging eaves
and the top length of a down-pipe.
Rain-water Head (see P).- These are obtainable in many stock sizes and
designs; they are used to receive water from parapet gutters (see B and c,
Fig. 71), waste-pipes from lavatory basins and baths, and as ornamental
features they are fixed at the top of down-pipe stacks to receive water delivered
from swan-necks.
Offset Bends (see x and sketch).-These are similar to swan-necks and are
required to negotiate plinths, etc. Double offset bends, called pass-over offsets,
are obtainable to clear string courses.
Obtuse bends, long bends, quarter-curved bends; etc., are also available for
special purposes.
Shoes.-These are fixed to the lower ends of rain-water pipes and discharge
over gullies-traps connected to drains (see perspective sketch). That shown
at w is the standard type and is satisfactory for fall-pipes which discharge rain-
water only. If the pipes deliver waste-water from baths, etc., a nuisance may be
caused by the water splashing over the gullies ; such is prevented if anti-splash
shoes· (see v) are used, the projecting plate (see section) breaking up the flow.
Boots are similar to shoes but have legs up to 12-in. long.
Single, Double and )-Branches are used for connecting two or three branch
pipes to a common down-pipe ; a single branch is shown at o.
The above bends and shoes may be obtained with or without lugs cast on
(see below). Cast iron pipes are also made of rectangular and square sections
in sizes varying from 3-in. by 2-in. to 8-in. by 8-in. Holderbats (see later) are
made to match.
SuPPORTS.-Rain-water pipes are supported by means of (a) spikes which
arc driven through ears or lugs, or (b) by holderbats.
(a) Down-pipes can be obtained with or without lugs cast on. Those with
lugs cast on (see K) are used for ordinary work. All cast iron pipes should be
fixed at a distance of 2-in. from the face of the wall to allow the backs of the
pipes to be painted, otherwise the metal will corrode and rain-water will escape
through the holes or cracks which eventually form to cause disfigurement and
dampness. The pipes are maintained at this distance by the use of either cast-
iron bobbins (see T) or hardwood bobbins; two of these are required at each
lug and the pipes are secured by driving stout spikes (see u) through the holes
in the ears and bobbins into wood plugs which have been fixed in the wall (see
K and x).
(b) One form of holderbat is shown at s. These are cast iron supports
which are suitable for fixing into joints of brickwork ; similar supports for
fixing to stonework have dovetail lugs (shown by broken lines) which are let
into holes formed to receive them, and secured by molten lead which is caulked.
The lugs project 2 in. from the wall. Each length of pipe is secured by slipping
the triangular pocket which is cast on the lower bead of the socket over the
triangular pin which is -cast on the holderbat. This provides a neat and effective
support and is used in good work.
Alternatively, rain-water pipes without ears (as shown at J) may be fixed by
clips (seeR) ; the wrought iron band or clip is secured by a screw and nut to a
pair of lugs after it is passed round the socket of the pipe.
}OINTS.-It is a common practice to fix down-pipes with dry joints (no
jointing material being used), and the lengths of the pipes are made rigid by
lead or wrought iron wedges which are driven down between the spigots and
sockets. Wood wedges should not be used as they are apt to expand and split
the sockets.
The section at L shows a joint with red lead putty ; a short piece of yarn
gasket (rope) is wrapped two or three times round the spigot and tightly packed
to prevent any mastic from entering the body of the pipe, and the putty is neatly
finished off with a fillet.
The joints between heavy cast iron pipes (such as soil-pipes 1 ) may consist
of (a) molten lead, (b) lead wool and (c) lead wool and molten lead. Two of
these joints are shown at z, Fig. 75·
(a) Molten pig lead is run between the spigot and socket, and then caulked
to consolidate the material ; a piece of yarn gasket is tightly packed before the
joint is made (see right of section).
(b) Lead wool (fine strands of lead, twisted to form a rope) is packed into
the joint and well caulked. This forms an excellent joint and the material is
convenient to handle.
(c) The lower half of the joint is caulked with lead wool to within r! -in.
from the top and the remaining space is filled with molten pig lead which is
subsequently caulked (see z).
LEAD EAVES GuTTERS, DowN-PIPES, HEADs, ETC., arc used for high-class
1 The subject of drainage, which includes soil-pipes, is treated in Chapter Nine, Vol. II.
 N W A T E R p p E s
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ANGLE rop. 4!b'"3" DEEP HALF-ROUND CAST IWN EAVES GUTIE~

SOIL
FIGUR~ 15
 PLUMBING
work on account of their durability and excellent appearance. They are made
of cast lead (usually from 8-lb. lead) and are often ornamented. Joints are usually
made by lead-burning.
AsBESTOS-CEMENT RAIN-WATER Goons.-Eaves gutters, down-pipes, etc., of
this material are of comparatively recent manufacture. They are strong, durable
and light, and it is claimed that they do not require painting. The jointing
material is a special composition provided by the manufacturers._
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TOOLS
The following is a brief description of some of the tools used by the plumber,
some of which have been referred to, and are illustrated in Fig. 76.
Dresser, Beater or Bat {A).-Used for dressing fiat portions of lead.
Bossing Stick (B).-Used principally for working lead round rolls, etc.
Setting-in Stick (J).-Used for forming upturns of flashings, working lead into angles
of rolls, etc.

ENAMELLED IRON RAIN-WATER Goons .- These metal eaves gutters and down-
pipes (" Vitrifiex ") are comparatively new. They are enamelled both inside
and out and therefore painting is eliminated. These pipes are obtainable in
eight standard colours (black, brown, green, etc.). A bituminous compound is
the jointing material.
Bossing Mallet (o).-Used for striking the above tools and for working lead into corners
direct.
Chase Wedge (K).-Of various shapes and sizes ; also called drifts; employed for
working angles of rolls, ·drips, etc. in gutters where space is restricted ; driven by the
wedge mallet, a similar tool to the bossing-mallet.
Drip Plate (L).-Is inserted between two sheets of lead to prevent movement of the
lower sheet while the top sheet is being worked ; examples, overcloaks of rolls and drips ;

0 L s
'\i:l
A~~
BOXWOOO~ _r
_ _.......
::;_ !.If
I
SECTION~\
0

D ~ E s s E k. B BO

D
S S I N G MA L L E
T A N P D G E

0
n
I

u
T
L D
FIGURE 16
 TOOLS
the curved projecting piece is provided to facilitate the insertion and withdrawal of the
pfate.
Bending Stick (c).-Used for bending pipes.
Bobbins.-Sizes from 1 to 4t-in. ; used in conjunction with the metal weight or follower
for bending pipes.
Long Dummy (Y), hand dummy (R) and heel dummy (P) are used for bendin,; pipes.
The above tools have been referred to on p. 146.
Tanpin or Turnpin (E).-Sizes from 1 to 4!-in. diameter at the head ; used for opening
ends of pipes (see p. 152).
Mandril (T).-Used for similar purpose as bobbins for removing bulges in long pipes.
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1 57
A bent metal rod, called a quench hook, is hooked on to the handle of the pot when the latter
oontaining the hot solder has to be liftt'd. The solder in the pot is heated by a gas burner
, (on the bench) or the plumber's sto·ue or the fire-de'l.>il (a cage for the fuel supported on metal
legs).
Ladle (M).-Used to apply the solder obtained from the melting pot (seep. 153).
Wiping Cloth (z).-A pad of several folded layers of moleskin in various sizes and used
for wiping joints (seep. 153).
Caulking Tool (s).-Used for caulking lead and is made of cast steel (see pp. 143 and 154).
Dot Mould (B').-Used for forminq lead dots (see p. I so).
Drawing Knife (w).-Used for cutting sheet-lead ; a chipping kmfe, having a stronger

Shave Hooks or Scrapers (G and H).-Used to shave the ends of pipes prior to soldering
(see p. 152). · Bolt (x).-Used for opening holes in the sides of pipes to receive branch pipes.
Rasp (similar to that shown at 43, Fig. 67).-Used for filing ends of pipes to be soldere~,
etc. (seep. 152). ···
Blowlamp (A').-This is one of many designs in which either petrol, paraffin or benzoline
is used ; capacity for general use varies from ! to 2-pints ; used for heating solder, etc.
(see p. 153).
Soldering or Plumbing Iron (Q).-Used for heating solder (especially when jointing large
pipes); largely replaced by the blowlamp.
Copper Bit (N).~Used for forming soldered joints (see p. 153). Developments of
this bit are the gas-heated and electric soldering irons.
Hatchet Bit (v).-Used for a similar purpose as the copper bit, but generally for lapped
joints.
!'Y1elting or Solder Pot (u).-Sizes vary from 4 to 12-in. diameter; used to melt solder.
and parallel blade, is used for cutting lead as it is struck with the hammer.
Other equipment includes: Fixing points (steel bars, 12 to 18-in. long,
with pointed ends which are driven into brickwork, etc., for supporting pipes
which are tied to them during the process of jointing), hammers, pliers, screw-
drivers, screw-wrench (for turning · nuts, etc.), spanners, soil pot (containing
soil required for wiped joints-see p. IS2), two-foot rule, square; scribing plate
(for describing circles on pipes, etc.), copper tuhe benders and a complete outfit
for lead-burning-a process which is being applied by the plumber to an
increasing extent.
 CHAPTER SEVEN
MILD STEEL SECT I 0 N S,
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Syllabus.-Brief characteristics of mild steel ; various sections ; bolts and rivets ; applications.
MrLD steel is a very important building material used extensively in structural
engineering. It is manufactured from iron ore (mined or quarried in certain
parts of this country, Sweden, Spain, etc.) which is subjected to a very high
temperature in the blast furnace to produce pig iron, this is converted into steel
in the smelting furnace, re-heated and finally rolled to the required sections
such as plates, angles, tees, channels, beams, etc.
CHARACTERISTICS OF STEEL.-It is elastic, ductile (capable of being drawn
into wire), malleable (can be beaten out), weldable and can be tempered to
different degrees of hardness. Mild steel contains o·2 to 2 per cent. of carbon,
and its breaking strength in compression and tension is 28 to 33-tons per sq. in.
Some of the various standard sections into which mild steel are rolled are
illustrated in Fig. 77·
Flat Bars (A).-Obtainable in sizes varying from !-in. by 1-in. to 8o-in. by I -in.
or more, the wider sections being known as plates ; purposes for which flats
are used have been indicated in previous chapters'"(such as bars supporting lintels,
floor joists, straps, etc.), and they are still used (but not so extensively as formerly)
for tension members in steel roof trusses. Plates are used for connections in
steel roofs, base plates and caps of steel pillars, plate girders, etc.
Square Bars (B).-Sizes vary from -P6 to IZ-in. length of side; not much
used for building purposes.
Round or Circular Bars or Rods (c).-Diameters vary from T46 to I2-in.; used
in the construction of reinforced concrete floors, pillars, foundations, lintels, etc.
Angles (o and E).-The former, having equal arms, are called equal angles,
and the latter are known as unequal angles. They are specified according to
the overall dimensions, thickness and weight per lineal foot : thus o is a
2-in. by 2-in. by i-in. by 3·I9-lb. British Standard Equal Angle (abbreviated
to" B.S.E.A.)," and E is lJ. 3-in. by 2-in. by !-in. by 4·04-lb. British Standard
Unequal Angle (abbreviated to "B.S.U.A."); the sizes of the equal angles
vary from r!-in. by I!-in. by l-in. by I ·oi-lb. to 8-in. by 8-in. by 1-in. by 51 ·ox-
lb., and unequal angles from 2-in. by x!-in. by l-in. by I ·43-lb. to 8-in. by 4-in.
1 This is sometimes included in a first-year course in Building Construction to
familiarize students with the principal members used in structural details which are
included in subsequent years of the course.
BOLTS AND RIVETS
by !-in. by 33·u-lb. Angles are widely used in structural engineering, including
all members of a steel roof truss.
Tee Bars or Tees tF).-These consist of a flange and web, both of which are
slightly tapered; the size varies from x!-in. by xi-in. by -h-in. by I ·8x-lb. to 6-in.
by 6-in. by §-in. by 24·23-lb. B.S.T. (British Standard Tee). They are still used
in connection with the construction of steel roof trusses (such as for principal
rafters), but angles are now usually preferred.
Channels (c).-The flanges are thicker than the web; the sizes vary from
3-in. by x!-in. by 4·6o-lb. to I7-in. by 4-in. by 44·34-lb. B.S.C. (British Standard
Channel) ; the web is of uniform thickness and the flanges are tapered from the
root to the toe. They may be used as girders, pillars, roof purlins, etc.
Beams (H).-The web is of uniform thickness, that of the flanges tapers
uniformly as shown ; the radius of the toe curve is practically half that at the
root 1 ; the minimum size is 3-in. by xi-in. by 4-lb. and the maximum size
is 24-in. by 7!-in. by xoo-lb. B.S.B. (British Standard Beam). They are very
extensively employed in the construction of floors, pillars, lintels, etc. Beams
are popularly referred to as " R.S.J.'s " (rolled steel joists).
Bolts, Nuts and Washers (J).-Bolts and nuts are used for securing members
comprising wood and steel roof trusses and similar framed structures, built-up
wood lintels, steel beams, etc., in addition to securing cast iron eaves gutters,
straps, etc. When bolts are used to fasten wood members (as in trusses-see K,
Fig. 40), washers must be introduced between the timber and the heads and
nuts to prevent the latter from being forced into the timber as the nuts are
being tightened by a spanner. A bolt consists of a shank and head, and, as
shown, the proportions of the head and nut are related to the diameter of the
shank. The end of the shank is in the form of a screw having a pitch (distance
between threads) which varies according to the diameter of the bolt (which is
that of the shank) ; thus a !-in. diameter bolt has 20 threads to the inch, 1-in.
bolts have 8, and a !-in. bolt as shown has 10 threads to the inch. The depth of
the thread varies ; in the example it is approximately 1'rin. Bolts vary in size
1 Many students at examinations show carelessly drawn sections of beams, common
errors being : webs thicker than flanges and the latter either tapering to a point or provided
with bulbous toes.
 M I L D ST E E L S E C T I 0 N S, B 0 L T S A N D R I V E T S
from 1: to 6-in. diameter, but rarely is r! -in. exceeded in building construction,
and !-in. bolts are often employed for fixing steelwork ; the length (which
is that of tlie shank) also varies. The thickness and diameter of a washer depend
upon the size of the bolt; that shown at J is !-in. thick and the external
diameter is either r! or r£-in. Bolts, nuts and washers are made of mild steel,
wrought iron and brass, the former being used for steelwork. The head and
nut shown at J are hexagonal on plan, and this is the type in general use ;
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1 59
the shanks (which are slightly tapered) vary in diameter from i to r£-in., !-in.
rivets being in greatest demand. The shank before fixing (" riveting ") extends
to the length indicated by broken lines and this length depends upon the diameter
of the rivet, the method of riveting (machine or hand) and the amount of grip
(the overall thickness of the plates, angles, etc. which are connected together).
The second head is formed during riveting, the heated end of the shank being
forced in the process to a cup shape.

square-headed bolts (see T, Fig. 33) and nuts are also made but these are now
rarely used in building and structural engineering.
RIVETS are made of steel and are used at the connections of steel beams,
pillars, roof members, etc.
The snap-headed rivet shown at L is the usual type employed ; it is also known
as a cup-headed rivet. Note the proportion of the head in relation to the shank ;
Countersunk Rivets (M) are employed when the bottom head is required to
finish flush with the underside of the lower member being riveted, e.g., at the
connection between the foot of a principal rafter of a steel roof truss and the
plate which is supported by the wall and which should have a level bearing.
The proportions of this rivet as shown conform to the latest British Standard
Specification.

ST E EL FLAt SQUA~~ ROUND G TEE 6 A ll.. S, A N G L E S. C H A N N E L S, 6 E A M S, 6 0 L T S 6 ll.. I V E T S

A~~=:=2:-:l"..=:::::Jl ~ E Q UA L UNEQUAL ~
ANGLE ANGLE

jJI;
F LAT &ART
~· )C :l• Ill IJ.4• .3' • :l' • '14'
•3·19 U . PElt. LIN. FT. • 4·04 LB. PEP. UN. FT.

D E "l-=-----1-

ROOT
B
10 TH!!.EADS
PER INCJt "-._
WEB
SQUARE
"TOE

t, c ·.l3•

H H

ROUND BAR SltANt<.

CHANNEL HEAD
.3' • 11'.2' • 4 ·6 Lll. PLAN 'KK'
·& E A M
SC.O.LE INCHES b' • J ' • l.:l Lll. FIGURE 11
 CHAPTER EIGHT
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BRICKWORK
Syllabus. -Extended description of the manufacture and characteristics of bricks, cements and limes ; lime and cement mortars; concrete. Squint quoins and
junctions, and rebated and splayed jambs in English and Flemish bonds; piers ; cavity walls ; circular work; reinforced brickwork ; raking bonds; garden,
cross, Dutch, brick-on-edge and facing bonds ; recessed, elliptical, pointed and rere a rches. Damp proofing of basements ; dry areas. Stepped foundations.
Concrete floor construction. Decorated brickwork. Fireplaces, flues, chimney breasts and stacks ; bye-laws. Setting out.
MATERIALS 1
A BRIEF description of certain building materials is given in Vol. I. These will
now be considered in greater detail.
BRICKS
Bricks are chiefly made from clay and shale, and are moulded either by
hand or machinery. The principal elements of clay suitable for brick-making
are alumina and silica. Alumina renders the clay plastic, and thus facilitates
the moulding process ; if incorrectly proportioned it will cause the bricks to
crack, twist and shrink excessively when being burnt. The silica may be
combined with the alumina or it may be free in the form of sand ; if combined,
it has a tendency to produce shrinking and warping, but if free it counteracts
this tendency and assists in the production of hard, durable and uniformly
shaped bricks ; brittle bricks will result if the sand content is excessive.
Brick clays may also contain varying proportions of limestone, iron, magnesia,
salts such as magnesium sulphate, sodium sulphate, potassium sulphate and
calcium sulphate, in addition to organic matter and water.
Limestone or chalk has the effect of reducing shrinkage and acting as a
flux during the burning process, causing melting and binding of the mass. It
influences the colour of bricks. The limestone shoHld be present only in a
fine state of division (the size of the particles not exceeding " pin-heads "),
otherwise the pieces of quicklime (seep. 20) will slake and expand if th(Y<bricks
absbrb moisture. Such expansion will crack or shatter the bricks. Fine grind-
ing of the clay will prevent damage from this cause. An excess of chalk will
produce mis-shaped bricks when being burnt.
Iron oxides and magnesia also influence the colour of bricks (see p. 12). Salts
1 Consideration of much of this description of materials can be deferred until the
Third Year of the Course. It is given here in somewhat extended detail for the purpose of
reference.
160
may cause efflorescence (see p. 13). Organic matter, if in excessive quantity,
may contain compounds which discolour plaster. Certain salts, particularly
magnesium, may cause the bricks to decay.
Suitable clays for brick-making include " reds," " marls,"" gaults," " loams,"
"Knotts" and " ·plastics."
RED CLAYS are found in many parts of the country and are extensively used for
producing high-class bricks. As is implied, the co lour of these bricks is red in various
shades, depending upon the p roportion of iron oxide present. Red bricks which are
particularly noteworthy arc those from Berkshire, Durham, Hampshire, Lancashire,
Leicestt>r, Yorkshire and the vicinity of Peterborough.
MARLY Oil LIMY OH C ALCAHEOUS CLAYS have a large chalk or limestone content
and are commonly used. Sand is sometimes added to such clays to prevent the bricks
fusing during the burning process. Marly clays arc converted into malm by the
addition of chalk in correct proportion. In producing maim, the clay and chalk are
separately reduced to a slurry or slip in wash mills. The clay u·ash mill is a cylindrical
tank in which harrows of vertical metal teeth, attached to horizontal arm~ . are rotated
to cljurn up the contents. The mill is stopped at intervals to allow stones and larger
grains of sand to settle to the bottom, leaving the liquid with the clay in suspension.
The chalk is washed in a similar mill, but a spiked roller instead of the harrows i~
used to break up the lumps to a fine state of di vision. The washed clay and chalk
are now mixed together in exact proportions and passed through a screen to a tJJash-
bank or shallow settling tank when· the ~urplus water is run off, leaving the maim.
Marl and maim bricks are almost whit<' in colour. The approximate analysis of
marl includes 33 per cent. silica , 10 per cent. alumi na , 30 per cent. chalk and 5 per
cent. oxide of iron. Well-known white bricks arc obtainable from Cambridgeshire,
Lincolnshire and Suffolk.
GAULT CLAYS are heavy, tough and of a bluish colour, but with sufficient chalk
content to render the bricks of a pale yellow or white colour when burnt. Bricks,
called gaults, made from such clays are often perforated (see p. I 8) or have a large
frog to reduce the weight ; they are very satisfactory for general building purposes.
LOAMY on MILD CLAYS have a high silica content, and the addition of a flux,
such as chalk, is often necessary. Shrinkage of these clays during burning is relatively
small, and they produce bricks of excellent quality. Compared with marls, a loamy
clay may consist of approximately 65 per cent. sil ica, 27 per cent. alumina, o·s per
cent. chalk and 1 pe r cent. iron.
KNOTTS CLAY is found in deep seams in the neighbourhood of Peterborough,
and as it contains a relatively large proportion of finely distributed combustible matter,
an economy in fuel for burning results. Fletton bricks (see p . IO) are produced from
 161 BRICKWORK
this clay in enormous quantities. The approximate _composition is so per cent.
silica, 1s per cent. alumina, 10 per cent. lime, 7 per cent. tron, S per cent. carbonaceous
matter together with water and traces of magnesia, potash and soda.
PL~TIC OR STRONG CLAYS are composed chiefly of silica and alumina in combina-
tion, and chalk of a creamy consistency must be added to prevent distortion and
excessive shrinkage in drying and burning. London clay, from whtch the well-known
London stock bricks are made (seep. 11), is of this class.
CLAY SHALES, quarried in Durham, Lancashire and Yorkshire particularly,
produce excellent bricks. Shale is a hard, laminated rock which is reduced to a
plastic mass suitable for brick-making by weathering and the addition of water(see
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next column). It is found, often in the same quarry, with a varying content of oxides of
iron, etc., and the careful blending of these shales produces bricks, used for faced work,
of different shades. A typical shale may contain roughly 6o per cent. silica;2s per cent.
alumina, o·6 per cent. chalk, 7 per cent. oxides of iron, 2 per cent. magnesia and
traces of alkalis (potash and soda), organic matter and water.
FiaECLAY is quarried in Lancashire, Durham, Northumberland, Yorkshire,
Staffordshire and other parts of the country. It contains a large proportion of silica
(varying from so to 70 per cent.) and little, if any, lime and iron. Bricks made from
such clay are highly resistant to high temperature and are therefore suitable for the
lining of furnaces and fireplaces.
MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS
The various methods of production are determined very largely by the
nature of the clay or shale, and may be divided into the (a) semi-dry or
semi-plastic process, (h) stiff-plastic process and the (c) plastic process.
(a) Semi-dry or Semi-plastic Process.-The clay or shale is comparatively
dry. It is ground to a fine powder by heavy rollers, passed through a screen,
mixed to a uniform consistency, pressed and re-pressed in moulds by very
powerful machinery (see p. 3) and burnt. Sometimes the screened material
is damped by sprayed water. Because of the dryness of the material the bricks
are taken direct from the moulding machine to the kiln, the usual intermediate
drying stage being omitted. The process is relatively cheap. This process is
adopted for the production of Flettons, owing to the suitability of the Knotts
clay.
(b) Stiff-plastic Process.- This process, which is being adopted to an
increasing extent, is similar to the above, except that the water content of the
material is increased and therefore less powerful machinery is required to moulC:
the bricks (see p. 3). A separate drying plant is not always necessary. The
process is usually applied to hard, dry clays, such as marls, and certain shales ;
it may also be applied to wetter clays, provided they have been partially dried
before being crushed.
(c) Plastic Process.-The clay suitable for this process contains a large
proportion of moisture, and is used for making wire-cut and hand-made bricks
(see pp. 3 and 4). The bricks must be carefully dried before being burnt.
The various processes of (r) preparation of the clay or shale, (2) moulding 1
(3) drying and (4) burning are briefly described in Vol. I.
1. PREPARATION.-The top soil, or overburden or callow, is first removed.
Clay is dug either by hand or by mechanical excavators such as a steam-navvy,
which consists of a jib having a bucket with steel claws attached. The hucket
is pressed against the base of the quarry face, and as it ascends the claws remove
the clay which passes into the bucket ; the jib is swung round until the bucket
is over a wagon which receives the clay discharged from it. Shale is usually
loosened by blasting and then filled into wagons either by hand or by means
of the steam navvy.
Weathering.-ln the absence of crushing machinery, certain clays are subjected
in winter to exposure to the weather. This is usual in small works where moulding
and subsequent operations are only carried out during the spring and summer months
and the clay is dug in the autumn. The excavated clay is spread over the ground for
a slight depth (not more than 2-ft.) to allow the actiOn of the frost to break down
the clay into minute particles. Stones, roots, etc., are removed, whilst at least once
during the winter the clay is turned over to increase the exposure and improve tts
workability.
There are several methods of conveying the clay or shale from the quarry
or pit. One form consists of an " endless wire rope " to which the bogies or
wagons are attached ; the moving rope drags the full wagons (which run on
rails) up the incline to the mill as the empty wagons descend and return to the
pit. Alternatively a motor tractor may be used to haul the wagons.
Cleaning.-Some clays require to be "cleaned." Stones, coarse vegetable
matter, etc., may be removed either by hand picking, or the clay may be passed
through a wash mill.
Blending.-Clay or shale used for making common bricks is usually taken
as quarried direct to the crushing machinery. That for the more expensive
bricks, especially multi-coloured facings (see p. 13), often requires the material
from different strata to be mixed together as required. This important operation,
known as blending, includes the removal of any undesirable material. The
selection of the various clays or shales is made at the quarry-face and the blending
is performed by one or more mechanical mixers, in conjunction with the grinding
or crushing machine.
Reduction.-The machinery for reducing the clay or shale to a fine condition
depends a good deal upon the character. of the material. T~us, an edge-running
mill is suitable for hard, dry clays wh1ch have been prevwusly crushed by a
stone breaker, whereas crushing rolls are effectively employed for plastic clays.
One form of stone breaker or disintegrator consists of a rapidly rotating shaft
from which hammers are hung to break up the· m:~terial to a coarse powder.
There are three types of edge-runners or grinding mills, i.e. (1) dry or revolving
pans, (2) wet pans and (~) pan mills .. A dry pan consists of two heavy metal rollers
which rotate in a revolvmg pan havmg a perforated base ; the latter may be 10-ft.
in diameter and the size of the perforations varies from ,Jlf to t-in . ; water is added to
the clay or shale as required during the grinding operation, and the crushed material
passes throqgh the base to a pit or is conveyed by a belt to the moulding machine.
A wet pan or chase~ mill .has two rotating rollers or _runners w?ich revolve in a fixed
pan, the base of whtch is m the form of a gniltm_g havmg.! to i-m. slots thro';lgh whtch
the crushed material is forced ; the m at enal ts softened by water whtch ts sprayed
over it. A pan mill or tempering mill consists of a pair o~ runners and a solid rev?lving
pan which receives a measured charge of clay and a defimte amount of water ; grmdmg
proceeds for about twent~ minutes be_fore the ma~erial is remo.v ed. _A pu"f mill may
be used in lieu of a pan mtll, and conststs of a verttcal metal cylmder m whtch curved
 BRICKS
knives attached to a rotating shaft churn up the clay and force it downwards through
the outlet at the base.
Crushing rolls are .used for reducing clays of high plasticity. The rolls, driven
at a speed which varies from so to r6o or more revolutions per minute, are in pairs,
and are strong metal cylinders placed horizontally, side by side, with a space between ;
they arc from x! to 3-ft. diameter and 2 to 3-ft. long. The clay is fed between the
rollers from a hopper fixed above them. The surface of the rolls may be smooth or
they may be either toothed, spiked, corrugated, etc., when they are called kibblers.
The rolls may consist only of a single pair, or there may he two pairs with one pair
above the other. The space between a single pair should not be less than !-in. ;
if provided with a double pair of rolls , the upper pair are kibblers spaced up to 2-in.
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apart, and the lower pair of smooth rolls are closely spaced to a minimum of ,?1 -in.
The kibblers grip and crush the clay sufficiently for tine reduction by the lower rolls,
from which it passes in thin sheets.
Screening.-Clay or shale after being ground is generally passed through a
screen to ensure that only fine, well graded material is passed forward for
moulding. The coarse material retained on the sieve is returned for further
grinding.
De-airing.-As is implied, de-airing means extracting air, and is a process
which has been recently introduced into this country and applied to certain
clays and shales prior to the moulding operation. During the grinding and
pugging processes air is introduced between the fine particles. This entrapped
air reduces the plasticity of the clay, preventing the mass from becoming
thoroughly homogeneous, and causing defects such as blisters, laminations and
cracks (see p. 14). The removal of the air therefore increases the workability
of the clay and prevents the development of these defects. A de-airing machine
simply consists of a chamber to which a vacuum pump is connected. The
fine particles of clay or shale are forced into the chamber and the air is extracted
as the material proceeds to the moulding machine.
D e-airing has been particularly successful in connection with the manufacture of
wire-cut bricks (see below), where the complete plant may consist of a pug mill or
an auger machine with a shredding plate, a de-airing chamber, and a second auger
which conveys the clay from the chamber and forces it through the die to the wire-
cutting machine. An auger machine is a horizontal pug mill with a powerful metal
screw or worm instead of the shaft with blades. The extruded clay as it leaves the
die is in the form of a continuous band having smooth surfaces and sharp, well
defined arrises.
Grog, which is burnt waste bricks or burnt clay ground to a powder, is
sometimes added to the raw clay in the mill to reduce shrinkage of the bricks
during the drying and burning processes.
z. MouLDING.-The prepared clay or shale is machine-moulded by either
the (a) wire-cut or (b) pressure processes, or it may be moulded by hand.
(a) Wire-cut Process.-The clay or shale, in the form of a continuous plastic
band or column, is propelled from the pug mill or auger over oiled rollers to the
cutting table. The exit, called the die or mouthpiece, is lubricated with water,
steam or oil to reduce friction and ensure uniform movement of the column,
and is approximately 9!-in. by 4!-in. ; this size is variable, depending upon the
162
shrinkage of the material, which may be ! to 1-in. per ft. and which occurs
during the drying and burning processes.
The usual type of cutting table consists of a frame containing several
wires at a distance apart equal to the thickness of the bricks plus the shrinkage
allowance, and is shown in the sketch A, Fig. I . These wires are kept taut
by means of screws. As the end of the column reaches the stop, the frame
automatically moves forward and the wires cut the column transversely into
brick slabs ; these are pushed forward, placed on barrows and wheeled to the
drying floor. In other type of cutting table the frame is fixed and the column,
which has been cut to length, is pushed forward past the wires. The frame in
another type rotates and the wires divide the column by a downward cut. In
one of the latest machines two columns are extruded, and two cutting tables
can produce s,soo wire-cuts daily. As the column leaves the die a small roller
under it impresses the trade mark of the firm on the clay at brick thickness
centres.
(b) Pressure Process.- The prepared clay is automatically fed into rectangular
metal die-boxes or moulds which are the size of a brick plus shrinkage allowance.
Two of many machines used ft>r this purpose are shown diagrammatically at
B and c, Fig. 1. The horizontal rotary table of machine B contains a number of
moulds which are brought in turn under the plunger ; the latter charges the
moulds with clay and consolidates it under great pressure ; as the table rotates
the pressed brick slabs are automatically pushed upwards clear of the moulds
and removed. In the press c the clay in the mould or die-box is consolidated
as the plunger descends. Some bricks are passed through two presses, the
second press producing a better shape and further consolidation. After con-
solidation the slab is removed either by an upward movement of the base or
by the dropping of the sides, which in one type of mould are hinged at the bottom
and collapse outwards.
At one works, referred to on p. ro, the clay , after being ground and screened,
passes on to a moving steel belt which traverses a huge kiln and feeds the moulding
machine which presses four bricks at a time and is capable of moulding 2,6oo bricks
per hour. This machine travels on rails and is brought opposite the empty chambers
of the kiln in turn and into which the moulded bricks are passed direct.
Wire-cut bricks for facings are often re-pressed to consolidate them and render
their arrises sharp and square. Both types of presses, B and c, are suitable for
this purpose, that at B having moulds with collapsible sides which become vertical
as each box comes under the plunger. Spraying oil over the bricks facilitates
their removal.
Hand-moulding Processes.-Although bricks can be made more cheaply
and much more quickly when machine-made, hand-moulding is far from being
an obsolete process. On the contrary, the output of hand-moulded facings is_
increasing, as these are still considered to be best on account of their rich texture,
beautiful colouring and durability. Purpose-made bricks which depart from
standard sizes, and clay blocks of special shapes to meet specific requirements,
 BRICKWORK
SKETCHES 0 F B R I C K
MA C H I N E Ry
are hand-moulded. Except in certain districts, comparatively few common or
stock 1 bricks are now moulded by hand. M 0 U L D I N G
The clay or shale is prepared by any of the methods described on pp. 2 and 3·
In addition, souring or ageing the clay is sometimes resorted to. This merely
consists of storing the plastic clay, for a period varying from one day to several
weeks, in one or more cool chambers to ensure a uniform distribution of the
water throughout the mass and the decomposition of any organic matter.
This results in an increase in the plasticity and workability of the paste,
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and assists in preventing the development of cracks, blisters and other

defects.
There are two methods of shaping bricks by hand, namely, (a) sand-moulding
and (b) slop-moulding.
(a) Sand-moulding.- The wood-mould, shaped as shown at A, Fig. 2, has
neither top nor bottom and is usually lined with brass or iron ; its internal A
dimensions are those of the finished brick plus allowance for shrinkage (! to
CUTTING TABLE USED IN THE WIRE -CUT PROCESS
1-in.). This is called an open-mould or stock-mould, as distinct from a box-mould
which has a fixed bottom and is used for special bricks.
The moulding operations are done on a wood bench or moulding stool,
which is about 6-ft. long by 2-ft. wide by 3-ft. high. A " stock " of clay of the BELT PULLEY
correct consistency, flattened on top, and a heap of sand are placed conveniently
to hand on or near to the bench. The moulder sprinkles sand on a portion of
the table and the inside faces of the mould (hence the name applied to the
process) to prevent adhesion and facilitate the subsequent removal of ~he clay
slab. Meanwhile an assistant (known as the " clot-moulder ") cuts a portion of
clay from the stock and kneads it into a rectangular " clot " which is about
one-quarter larger than the mould. The moulder takes the clot, throws it into
the mould and completely fills it by pressing the clay down with his fingers.
The edge of a strike (a wood straight-edge which is dipped in water) is
drawn across the top to remove the superfluous clay and level the surface of
the slab. Finally, the moulder lifts the mould, and with a twist of the hand
turns the slab on to a flat piece of wood called a pallet board. The slab is removed
by a boy to the floor of the drying shed.
These bricks are often moulded on a piece of wood called a stockboard,
which is nailed to the top of the bench. It has a raised centre or kick. The
kick and stockboard are covered with brass as shown at B, Fig. 2. Four metal
pegs are driven into the table, one :at each corner of the stockboard, and the
mould is placed upon them as shown. The thickness of the brick is regulated
according to the extent to which the pegs are driven. The kick forms the
characteristic frog in the bricks.
Approximately 1,ooo bricks per day can be moulded by this method by a
moulder and assistants. ROTARY PMSS
Ornamental bricks and those of special shapes are sometimes moulded from BELT- DRIVEN PRESS
1 " Stock " is a term which originally denoted hand-made bricks moulded on a stock-
board (see Fig. 2). It is now loosely applied and generally indicates common wire-cuts. US ED I N THE PRESSURE. PROCESS
NOT TO SCALE FIGURE I
 BRICKS
I c u s ED
B
" u L0 T H E
~ M0 I N
0 c E s s
H A N D M 0 u L0 N G p ~
WOOD MOUlD WITH 6JI.A55 LINING
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SEC T I 0 N 0 F M0 U L D
WITH STOCK BOAf!..D
INCHES FIGURE 2
wire-cut and pressed green bricks which are used instead of clots to fill the
moulds.
(b) Slop-moulding.- This method is now rarely employed. The clay used in
this method is more plastic than that used for sand-moulding. Sand is sprinkled on
the prepared portion of the table or stockboard. The mould, entirely of wood, is
dipped into a trough of water (provided on the bench) and filled with a clot as above
described. As the bricks are not sufficiently stiff to permit of their immediate rt>moval
on a pallet, the full moulds are taken to the drying floor and there turned out.
3· DRYING.-With exception of common bricks made by the semi-dry
process (see p. 2) and certain pressed bricks moulded by the stiff-plastic process
(p. 2), bricks must be dried before being placed in the kiln. This applies
particularly to those made by the plastic process (p. 2), where the water content
may exceed 25 per cent. Drying is effected by (a) artificial and (b) natural
means.
(a) Artificial Drying.-The chief heating mediums are steam, direct heat
from fires, and waste heat from kilns and boilers. The dryers include ·the (i)
hot floor, (ii) shed, (iii) chamber and (iv) tunnel types.
(i) Hot Floor System.- This is commonly employed for drying plastic
(wire-cut) bricks. The floor is usually that of the building in which the bricks
are moulded and should be adjacent to the kilns. It consists of either steel
plates or concrete slabs which cover conduits in which the steam pipes are laid.
The steam is controlled by valves in order that the temperature may be
regulated to suit the bricks. The steam may be generated from the boiler
which provides the power for the crushers, grinding mills, etc.
When direct heat from coal or coke fires is the medium, a number of long flues
are constructed immediately under the floor. The flues are about 18-in. square
and are parallel to each other at about 8-ft. centres. Each flue is slightly inclined
upwards from a fireplace at one end, and the upper ends are connected to a transverse
flue which delivers into a chimney.
164
!f waste ~eat from the kilns is used, the flues under the drying floor are arranged
as last descnbed, except that their lower ends are connected by a transverse flue
which is connected to the kilns. The flow of gases from the kilns is controlled by a
fan at one end of the. upper transverse flue.
The bricks from the moulding machine or bench are preferably placed on
end on the hot floor, with a space between each, when the heat gradually dries
them from the bottom upwards. If the bricks are not stiff enough to permit
of this, they are placed on bed on the floor. The time taken to dry bricks varies.
Some bricks may be taken on barrows direct to the kiln after being left on the
hot floor for one day only, whilst others may require five days before they are
fit for removal to the kiln.
(ii) Shed or Room Dryers.-A shed is a 30 to 40-ft. wide single storey building
containing racks. A rack is approximately z-ft. wide and has ten or more shelves of
narrow battens upon each of which a row of moulded bricks is " finger-spaced "
on edge. The shed is heated by steam pipes, stoves or a hot floor. Drying is com-
paratively slow and somewhat irregular.
Sometimes the space above a continuous kiln (see p. 6) is partly utilized to store
bricks which are dried by heat from the kiln.
(iii) Chamber Dryers.-A shed is divided into several chambers, each about 4-ft.
wide, 8-ft. high and of variable length, with a door at each end. The bricks are placed,
with a space between each, on loose narrow shelves or on cars. One type of car consists
of a bogie (which runs on a track) having a metal frame or rack which supports loose
pallet boards that arc about 4-ft. long. Each board is loaded with a row of ten or
more bricks as they are moulded and placed on edge with a space between. Another
type consists of a bogie on the base of which is stacked stool pallets. The latter are
narrow wood shelves, with 8-in. high end supports, for receiving the moulded bric~s
which are placed on edge. When rack-cars are used, each drying chamber has lon~t­
tudinal bearers fixed to the side walls for their entire length and at about 12-tn.
intervals ; these support the loaded pallet boards as they are removed from the cars.
Stool pallets are stacked one above the other in each chamber. Loaded cars may be
wheeled into the chambers in which they remain until the bricks are dry. The heat
must be applied very gradually, otherwise the bricks will warp and crack. .
In some dryers the bricks are gradually heated in a saturated atmosphere unttl
they reach a temperature of about 90° F. The humidity is then reduced by the
admission of dry air, and the temperature is increased as required. This greatly
minimizes damage to the bricks.
(iv) Tunnel Dryers.-This type of dryer resembles the tunnel kiln shown in J:'ig..4
and described on pp. 10 and II. As the loaded cars traverse the tunnel, whtch ts
about roo-ft. long, hot air (steam or waste gases) enters at the unloading end, and the
current is caused to flow towards the loading end by means of a fan . The rat~ of
drying varies, but generally a car of dried bricks is removed and one .of green bncks
is added every hour. The tunnel dryer may be operated intermittently like a cham~er
dryer, it being filled with loaded cars of green bricks and the whole of them bemg
removed after the drying operation has been completed.
(b) Natural Drying.-Whilst artificial means of drying is now generally
adopted, bricks must be dried naturally if heat is not available. Natural drying
is usual where clamp-burning (see p . .u) is resorted to and in yards where the
output is small. A well ventilated shed may be used, in which the bricks are
stacked on racks and dried by the circulation of un-heated air.
Alternatively they are -hack-dried. A hack is simply a long double row of
green bricks which are stacked to a maximum height of approximately 3-ft.,
depending upon the. softness of the bricks.
 165 BRICKWORK
The hack-ground is level and well drained. There is a space of about 9-in. between
each line or blade of bricks forming a hack ; the bricks are placed on edge at l-in.
intervals to a height of from five to eight courSes, the bricks in one course bridging
the spaces between those in the course below. One course, which may be zoo-ft.
or more in length, is completed first to allow the bricks to stiffen before the next course
is laid. The hacks are spaced at about 3-yds. apart and should run in a north-south
direction so that both sides will be exposed to the sun. The bottom course is placed
on planks or hollow rectangular tiles or 2-in. thick layers of sand, breeze, etc. As a
temporary protection the top of each hack is covered with a series of portable light wood
" caps " which are about 6-ft. long with sloping sides in the form of a roof. The
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sides are also protected by hurdles or screens called too-boards; these are about 6-ft.
long and 3-ft. high. This temporary protection is removed during favourable weather,
but the hacks should be covered immediately when necessary , otherwise much ·damage
t~ the bricks. may b~ caused . The bricks are scintled when half dry, i.e., they are set
d1agonally w1th a 2-111. space between each and with alternate courses reversed.
As bricks containing moisture are readily damaged by frost, hack-drying can only
be carried out during six months of the year, from April to September inclusive.
The process is extremely slow, the bricks taking from three to six weeks to dry,
depending upon the weather and the nature of the clay.
4· BURNING.-This is the final process in brick manufacture. Permanent
kilns are chiefly used for burning bricks, although clamp-burning (see p. 1 1 )
is still adopted in certain parts of the country. Kilns may be classified into
(a) intermittent, (b) continuous and (c) tunnel.
(a) Intermittent, or Periodic or Single Kilns.- These are permanent structures
and may be divided into (i) down-draught, (ii) horizontal draught and (iii)
up-draught kilns, according to the direction of the fire.
(i) Down-draught Kiln.- This is the most efficient form of intermittent kiln,
and it is the only type adopted to any extent in this country. Even in works
having large outputs, it is not unusual to find that the common bricks and certain
facings are burnt in a continuous kiln (see next column), whilst best class sand
facings· and blue bricks are burnt in a down-draught kiln, as the heat which
influences the colour can be better controlled in the latter.
The section of a down-draught kiln is shown at T, Fig. 3· That adopted for
bricks is usually rectangular, although circular kilns for ware goods (<>ee
ChapterEight) are common. The capacity varies from 2o,ooo to 4o,ooo bricks.
The rectangular chamber has four walls and an arched top which incorporates a
heat-insulating ring composed of porous bricks (probably made of a fossil earth
known as kieselguhr) ; this reduces the amount of heat transmitted through
the structure and thus effects a saving in fuel. The kiln is lined with fire-
bricks. Fireboxes are formed at intervals, and a special feature is the continuous
screen wall, called a flash-wall or bag-wall, constructed parallel to and about
9-in. from the inside of each long wall. The heat from the fuel (which is
usually small coal called slack) thus passes upwards to the arch, which deflects
it down through the openly stacked green bricks (see p. 7), the gases escaping
through perforations in the floor to a horizontal flue connected to a tall chimney.
The screen walls are perforated at intervals near the bottom to allow sufficie~t
heat to pass direct to the lower portion of the stack during the drying process.
An opening or 1oicket is provided at one end through which the kiln is filled
and emptied. This is bricked up with a temporary wall after the green bricks
have been set, and the outside of this wall is luted with clay.
Glazed bricks and certain red bricks (in addition to terra-cotta, etc.) must not be
exposed to the direct flames from the fires , otherwise they would be damaged by the
gases, dust, etc. ::>uch bricks are heatt·d in muffie hilus. This type of kiln consists of
an outer rectangular chamber and an inner compartment. A simple form has a
fireplace at one end of the chamber and a horizontal main flue, extending the full
length, at the floor level. Cross walls at intervals are arched over this flue and these
support the inner shell comprising firebrick bottom , s ides, top and one end. There
is a space between the inner shell and outer structure so that hot gases from the fire
can completely traverse it before escaping through openings in the outer roof into
an upper horizontal flue extending the full length . The bricks are stacked in the
inner compartment and the open end is built-up and daubed with clay. Thus, these
bricks are heated entirely by the heat transmitted through and radiated from the
firebrick shell.
Sometimes six or more down-draught chambers are constructed to form what is
known as a semi-continuous kiln. This type provides for the waste h eat from one
chamber being utilized t o dry and heat the bricks in others. Thus, after chambers
I and 2 have been loaded and the fire in No. 1 lighted, the heat not required passes
through holes in the floor of No. 1 chamber, along a flue to an openin g (controlled
by a damper) in the division wall and over a flash wall into N o. 2 chamber, where it
circulates round the green bricks before enterin g the main flue to the chimney. The
fire in chamber 2 is m aintained, chamber 3 is loaded and the bricks in the latter·are
gradually heated by the waste gases from No. 2. Each chamber is progressively
heated in this mannt:r until the final one is reached. An economy in fuel thus results.
(ii) Horizontal Draught or Newcastle Ki/n.- Comparatively few of these are now
in operation, .it having been gradually replaced by the continuous type of kiln . It is
a rectangular building with an arched top, and is approximately Is-ft . wide and not
more than 30-ft. long. The fireplaces are arranged at one end, together with a
perforated flash-wall, and a chimney is provided at the opposite end. The gases
traverse horizontally and pass into the chimney at the floor level. A w icket in one
or both lon g walls is formed to permit of loading and unloading.
(iii) Up-draught or Scotch or Score Kiln.-This is the most primitive form and is
now almost obsolete. It is rectangular on plan, having three permanent brick walls
and a temporary end wall ; there is no roof, the top being open. The size is roughly
zs-ft. by 16-ft. by Io-ft. high. Fire-openings are provided at intervals in the side
walls at the ground level. Coal fires are gradually applied after the kiln has been
loaded, and when the bricks are dry the top is closely covered with old bricks; . these
and the temporary end wall are daubed with clay p aste. Hot fires are now main-
tained for two or three days, after which they are damped down and the bricks are
allowed to cool. The heat is irregular and consequently there is a large proportion
of over-burnt bricks at the bottom and under-fired bricks at tht· top.
Intermittent kilns are not economical, as the walls have to be heated up at
each setting of the kiln, and this results in a heavy fuel consumption.
(b) Continuous Kilns.--This type, evolved from the intermittent and semi-
continuous kilns, is most suitable for large and regular outputs. It is so called
because the operations are uninterrupted, each chamber in turn being loaded,
dried, burnt, cooled and emptied, and the waste heat is utilized to dry and
pre-heat the green bricks. The kiln is thus economical in fuel consumption.
The structure consists of walls of ordinary brickwork, lined with firebrid.s
jointed with refractory cement, the top is generally arched and lined with
purpose-made firebricks, and the floor is usually constructed of hard bricks
bedded on sand or concrete. The kiln is diYided into compartments or
 BRICKS
chambers. The divisions may be temporary (see c, Fig. 3) or permanent (see
M). The number of compartments varies ; twelve is considered to be a
mtmmum, fourteen and sixteen are common, whilst the largest kiln in this
country (see p. 10) has 22+ chambers. The length of a chamber is usually
from IZ to 16-fL, the width varies from 9 to Io-ft., and the height to the crown
rarely exceeds 9-ft. Best results are obtained if the total length of the chambers
is not less than zoo-ft. to permit of the efficient control of the various operations.
Each chamber has an opening (known as a wicket or door gap) in the external wall
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for loading or " setting " and emptying or " drawing " the bricks ; it has a
flue, controlled by a damper, to convey the used gases to the main flue and
thence to the chimney. In a more modern kiln, and especially those used for
producing facing bricks, each chamber is connected to a hot-air flue (see p. 8).
Small coal or slack is commonly used as fuel. This is fed through feed-holes
situated in the top of the kiln, and these are preferably of fireclay blocks covered
with movable metal airtight caps. The capacity of a chamber varies ; the
smallest will hold about S,ooo bricks, whilst a very large chamber will
accommodate 4o,ooo or more bricks. It is customary for one chamber to be
drawn and one to be filled daily. The rest of the kiln is divided into (I) drying,
(z) pre-heating, (3) firing and (4) cooling zones (see u, Fig. 3).
(I) Drying or Steaming or Water-smoking Zone.-A brick, even after being
treated in a dryer, has a comparatively large water content which often exceeds
one-sixth of its dry weight. The process of eliminating this water is an important
one, for, if not carried out gradually, the bricks will crack and their strength be
considerably reduced by the formation of steam within the small voids or pores
of the material. The bricks in the drying chambers of the kiln are gradually
heated to a temperature of I20° C. (250° F.) by the admission of hot air from
the pre-heating chambers. This hot air should be free from gases, such as
sulphur dioxide, otherwise the bricks will be discoloured by a deposition on
their exposed surfaces of a film called scum or kiln-white (see p. I4)· The waste
heat from the firing chambers should not be used for drying purposes in kilns
in which facings are produced, as this contains gases which cause discoloration
(see p. 8). Large volumes of steam are produced during the drying process,
and for the production of good coloured bricks this steam must be rapidly
removed through flues (see p. 14) to avoid condensation on the bricks. The
length of the drying zone depends on the length of the chambers and the draught
created by the chimney, hut in a fourteen chamber kiln the zone usually
comprises two chambers, and three will be required in a sixteen chamber kiln
(see u, Fig. 3).
(2) Pre-heating Zone.-The bricks in this zone are gradually brought to
a dark-red heat (6oo° C.), during which the chemically combined water is set
free and removed, and then the burning is carefully controlled until the
temperature is increased to approximately 950° C. During the latter stage the
iron and other compounds are oxidized and the colour of the bricks is influenced ;
the burning must therefore not be hurried, otherwise the bricks will be dis-
166
coloured and hearting (see p. I3) will result. The length of the pre-heating
zone is usually equivalent to four chambers (see u, Fig. 3).
(3) Firing Zone. -The bricks are vitrified during the final heating which
takes place in this zone in which the maximum temperature may reach I,IOo° C. 1
The number of chambers in this full-firing zone is two and three in a fourteen
and sixteen chamber kiln respectively (see u). Coal is added through the feed-
holes every quarter of an hour, and fuelling of the kiln is confined to them,
the chambers in the drying and pre-heating zones having been heated by waste
heat from the cooling zone. The stoking is generally done by hand, although
the employment of automatic feeders which discharge the required quantity
of coal at regular intervals is increasing. The durability of the bricks depends
upon the firing of the kiln at this stage ; excessive temperature will cause the
bricks to lose their shape, and under-burning will reduce their strength.
(4) Cooling Zone.-This usually consists of four chambers, as shown at u,
although in the larger kilns the length of the zone is increased and the risk of
damage, such as cracking, is correspondingly reduced. The temperature of the
bricks in the unloading chamber, which adjoins the cooling zone, should be
sufficiently low to enable them to be handled comfortably.
SETTING.-There are several different arrangements of setting the green bricks
in a kiln, much depending upon "the stiffness of the bricks and the type of kiln. One
form is to stack them on edge in a series of bolts or rows, 9-in. thick, alternately as
headers and stretchers and about !-in. apart. Another arrangement, suitable for a
continuous kiln, is shown in the section at A, Fig. 3· This shows three courses of
bricks (headers) on edge, " finger-space " (about ! -in.) apart. A course of stretchers
is placed upon these, followed by alternate double courses of headers and single
courses of stretchers. Vertical flues, called fire-columns, are formed in the stack under
the feed -holes. These extend from top to bottom, are about s-in. square and serve
as combustion spaces and for ashes.
The following is a description of some continuous kilns, including the
Manchester, Zigzag, Hoffman and Habla kilns.
MANCHESTE,R KILN 2 (see A, B and c, Fig. 3).-That shown is a simple form
of the Manchester kiln, and is suitable for the burning of common bricks. 3
It consists of two long compartments, separated by a longitudinal wall, and
whilst it has no permanent division walls, it is divided into chambers by paper
" partitions " (see p. 8), and it is therefore called a fourteen chamber kiln.
Each chamber accommodates 8,ooo bricks, and as one chamber of burnt bricks
is emptied per day, the weekly output is approximately so,ooo bricks, which is
considered to be the minimum for a continuous kiln. Whilst a smoke flue,
controlled by a damper, can be provided for each chamber, the plan shows
that one damper serves chambers r and I4, and similarly another damper is
1 This varies; thus, for Fletton bricks the maximum temperature may not exc.,ed
8soo C.
2 By courtesy of Messrs Dean, Hetherington & Co., Accrington. This is the small.,st
and simplest type of continuous kiln built by this firm. . .
3 The Manchester kiln , incorporating a hot air flue, is used for tht' production of facmg
bricks.
 BRICKWORK
common to both chambers 7 and 8 ; this is in order to simplify the kiln. The
chamber flues are connected to two main flues which lead to a chimney (4o-ft.
high and 4-ft. internal diameter) conveniently near.
To fire this kiln for the first time, six or seven chambers are set with green bricks
and each section is separated by being papered off. Thin brown paper, obtained in
rolls, is usually used for this purpose, and this is pasted over (liquid clay, called slip,
being used as an adhesive) the last completed end face of stacked bricks. The wickets
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
its travel, it pre-heats the bricks in chambers 10, II, 12 and I3, and dries and
steams those in chambers I4 and r before escaping down the branch flue No. 1.
This being a continuous process the operations are maintained in this
sequence, but are advanced by one chamber daily. Thus, on the following day
chamber 3 is filled and chamber 4 is emptied.
As the whole of the waste heat is utilized to drv the bricks in this kiln and
as that from the firing chambers may cause discol~ration (see p. 14), it ·foilows

in these chambers, 2 to 7 inclusive, are bricked up with temporary walls , and a small
fireplace is prepared in each. A temporary brick wall, shown at H on plan c, is built,
and this is prepared with four fireplaces. Fires are lit in these fireplaces and the heat
is steadily applied to the bricks in chamber 2. The damper controlling this section
is open to allow the steam and gases to escape. When the temporary wall at H gets
too hot to the hand, the paper partition separating chambers 2 and 3 will have burnt
away. No. 2 damper is then closed and No. 3 damper is opened, thus allowing the
heat to pass through chamber 2 to chamber 3 , and hence into the main flue to the
chimney. This is repeated until three or four chambers are red hot. Coal is then
passed through the feed-holes and down the s -in . square fire columns (see p. 7).
Meanwhile further chambers will have been set with green bricks until all of the
chambers, excepting No. 1, are filled. The open fires in the temporary wall at H and
those in the wickets are mainta ined until a sufficient body of heat has been built up
to light and support combustion of coal fed from the t op. The open fires are then
stopped in rotation, chamber 1 is set and papered over as described above, and the
bricks in chamber 2 are removed. The kiln is now prepared for normal working,
when one chamber is emptied a nd another is fill ed daily.
After the whole of the chambers have been fired, the following is a normal
daily schedule for this kiln, assuming that the direction of the fire is clockwise
as shown by the arrow, and that chamber 3 is being unloaded :- -
Chamber. Bricb . Chamber. Bricks.
--- - ------ -----~----------1
Temperature. T emperature. ,
I Drying 25 ' c. IO Heating ) 700 ., C
that the kiln is best suited for the manufacture of common bricks, for which
purpose it is most economical. The provision of hot air flues (see below) is
necessary for the production of good-coloured bricks.
During slack periods, when the output from half the kiln would be sufficient to
meet the demand , it may be used intermittently as follows : Four small fireplaces
are constructed in the external end wall of chamber I, the two openings between
chambers I and 14 and 7 and 8 are built up temporarily, and the chambers I to 7
inclusive are filled with green bricks. Fires in the end fireplaces are maintained until
there is sufficient heat to fire coal fed through the feed-holes . Top feeding of the
chambers is continued until the bricks are thoroughly burnt, when the half kiln is
emptied and re-set.
ZIGZAG KILN (see J, K , L and M, Fig. 3).-This is one type of Zigzag kiln 1 which
is divided by permanent walls into fourteen chambers. The fire is drawn in a zigzag
direction owing to the position of the openings in the division walls being staggered,
causing it to traverse each chamber diagonally.
Each chamber has a transverse riowni:ast flue under the floor which is connected
to the main or smoke flue and controlled by a damper from the outside. There is, in
addition, a hot air flue immediately over the main flue and extending the full length of
the kiln. When required, each chamber is connected to this hot air flue by raising
the damper controlled from the top of the kiln (see K and dampers I , I4, 2, etc.,
at M). As mentioned on pp. 7 and 14, hot gases from the firing chambers must
not be used to dry bricks if scumming is to be avoided, and only hot gases from the
! cooling chambers should be admitted for this purpose. Hence the n ecessity for this
hot air flue. In addition to the downcast flue and hot air flue dampers, each chamber
has a third or main flue damper immediately over the crown of the smoke flue and
controlled from the top of the kiln (see K and dampers IO, 5, 9, etc., at M). These,
I together with the downcast flue dampers, are opened wholly or partially as required

f
(min .) II Heating 0 '

in the drying chambers for the rapid removal of the steam.

2
3
Being set
Being
Cool
Cool or cold
I2
13
Heating
Heating
I2~~ C. ! The process is continuous, at least one chamber being loaded and one unloaded
daily. The daily schedule of the operations varies according to the nature of the
drawn 14 D rying I2o" C. clay, quality of bricks, draught (velocity of the air created by the chimney or fan),
l
4 Cooling soo c. (max.) length of fire circuit, etc.
5 C ooling to The Zigzag is exceptionally efficient for the following reasons : ( 1) It can be
6 Cooling Wickets 2 and 3 are open, remainder effectively controlled; (2) it produces bricks of first quality, comparatively free
7 Cooling J 1,ooo" C. arc built up. from undesirable discoloration and other imperfections enumerated on pp. 13 and 14;
8 Firing I,Ioo" C. Damper I is open, rest are closed. and (3) the fuel consumption is relatively low.
(max.) Paper partition pasted on bricks HABLA KILN.-This has several features which resemble the Zigzag kiln. ·The
9 Firing 700° c. stacked in chamber r on face i plan is similar in that the trace holes (openings in the partitions) are staggered, causing
(min.) adjoining chamber 2 . j the fire to take a zigzag course, but these partitions, instead of being permanent
. - -- - -·-·-- --- - - - .. - - - - - -- -- - ---------------- as in the Zigzag kiln, consist of dried bricks (without mortar) and are therefore
temporary.
For the production of common bricks the kiln has not a permanent top, and it
The cold air entering wickets 2 and 3, whilst cooling the bricks, gradually is therefore classified as of the " archless " type. After the loading chamber has been
increases in temperature, especially when it traverses those in chamber 7 which set, it is covered with either two courses of bricks laid close together with a layer of
had been subjected to the maximum temperature the previous day. This sand or ashes on top, or concrete slabs with metal trays containing kieselguhr, a highly
porous earth which serves as a heat insulating material. The kiln is fired by pulverized
supplies the primary heat to burn the coal, which is fed in small quantities every
fifteen minutes from the top of chambers 8 and 9· As the hot air proceeds on I From details sunplied by Messrs John Jones & Sons, Buckley, Chester.
 B R. c K K L N s
B
ECTION 'F F' S E C T 0 N
~ ,
~uurrntrt ~ wrrur
hr------;r, ~---~-~;j_,
tHff"'('U:J
riii-" • v " v_.. " " " , • " " " ".-~~~N
i" ~ 1 r--t-- ~
.· I I_ 9A'p01 '
A L F P L A N A T •E E'
s T E R K I L N
H A L P L A N A T ·~ R'' l F p l A N AT •s s•
Z I G Z A G K I L N
-FIPJNG Zot-
i
l iI B.
u
J
l.OADIN<i
PRE·H£ATING ZONE -----i
DOWN- DRAUGHT HOFFMAN KILN
KILN NOT TO ~CALl
SHOWING VAJIJOUS ZONES FIGURE 3
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 169 BRICKWORK
T u N N E L
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
E---+ ~+r--~r-~~---HHr--~r--+~~
N.B. THE I<.ILN MAY EXC
A IN LENGTH SAND
CAR TAACI\ FOR 6UP.NT BRICK5---
P A R. T P l A N
S E C T I 0 N
S~E FEET "D o•
coal passed through fe<·J-holcs prO\·ided in the temporary top. lt has main and hot
air flues. An arched permanent top is best if facings are to be produced.
The Habla kiln, like the Zigzag kiln shown in Fig. 3, has a long length of travel,
which facilitates the control of operations, and it is relatively cheap to construct.
HoFF~IA'< KIL:-.1.-This is probably the best known kiln of the continuous type.
The original kiln was circular on plan, the chambers (separated by paper partitions)
being placed round a central tall chimney. This kiln has been improved, and a plan
of the later type of Hoffman kiln is shown in the line diagram at u, Fig. 3· The
number of chambers varies, but the largest of this type, used for the burning of
Fletton bricks, has no less than 224 chambers.' .In addition to the main flue which
takes the products of combustion from each chamber, it has a central hot air flue
to which are connected branch flues from the chambers, so that hot air from the cooling
chambers may progressively be admitted to dry the bricks. Each chamber is further
provided with a flue in the top to allow the steam to escape during the preliminary
drying operation. One chamber is filled and another is emptied daily, as described
on p. 8. Common bricks, together with a proportion of selected facings, are produced
in this kiln.
1 This kiln is at the works of Messrs The Marston Valley Brick Co. Ltd. Its length
is J,zso-ft. Each chamber has a capacity of 33;ooo bricks. Fourteen chambers are
subjected at the same time to the maximum temperature with fifteen chambers between
each. Hence it is equivalent to fourteen r6-chamber kilns and the n•eekly output is
approximately Jt million bricks.
K I L N
c
S EC T 0 N "E E0
FIGURE 4
(c) Tunnel Kilns. 1 -This kiln, shown in Fig. 4, is a brick structure which is
traversed by cars or trucks upon which the bricks are stacked. The kiln may be fron.
300 to 450-ft. long, its internal width varies from 5 to 6-ft., and its height to the
crown of the arch is approximately ro-ft. The kiln has three zones, i.e., pre-heating,
firing and cooling, thus for a 300-ft. kiln these are approximately r 30-ft., roo-ft.
and 70-ft. long respectively. The firing zone and part of the cooling zone are lined
with firebrick, and the walls of the former are constructed with a 9-in. thick layer of
insulating material between the lining and the outer brickwork ; this insulation
protects the latter and conserves the heat. A metal door is provided at each end
of the kiln.
The metal cars are ro-ft. long, and their bases are protected by three or four
courses of firebricks. In a siding adjacent to the kiln each car is loaded in three
stacks with a space between each ; three seatings, each three courses high of fire-
bricks covered with a fireclay slab, are provided on the base to receive the bricks.
The approximate number of 3-in. bricks which a car will hold is 2,ooo. The kiln
and tracks for loading and unloading the cars are under cover.
Rows of feed-holes are provided at intervals in the roof of the firing zone, the
distance between each row being equal to that between the stacks of bricks. The
fuel is crushed coal, and this is fed from hoppers which are placed over mechanical
feeders fixed immediately over the feed -holes. Thus the coal dust is fired immediately
1 By courtesy of Messrs Gibbons Bros. Ltd., Dudley.
 BRICKS
it enters the kiln and the larger particles continue to burn as they pass down the spa~es
between the stacks to the base. The air for combustion, drawn in through the exit
by means of a fan, is pre-heated as it passes throug-h the cooling zone, and the tem-
perature, which increases as the draught of air proceeds through the firing zone, is
gradually reduced as it traverses over the bricks in the pre-heating zone. The com-
bustion is so complete that little smoke escapes at the fan outlet, and a chimney
stack is therefore not required. At the exit end of the cooling zone a vertical air
flue is provided which is connected to a horizontal flue that is continued over the
arch of the cooling zone, along each side of the firing zone (see s) and over the pre-
heating zone arch to a fan which delivers the hot air to the brick drier. Scumming
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of the bricks is avoided by the provision of a number of waste gas flues at the front
end of the pre- heating zor.e which are connected to a common flue controlled by an
extraction fan to withdraw the gases. A sand seal is provided at each side of the
kiln throughout its length ; these consist of m etal channels containing sand through
which pass the lower edges of the metal plates fixed at the sides of the cars. The
seals prevent loss of draught and protect the wheels and axles of the cars.
The cars are caused to travel on a track for the full length of the kiln by means
of a powerful hydraulic ram . The movement is intermittent, the cars being pushed
forward at regular intervals to the extent of one-third the length of the car or the
equivalent of a stack and one space. This distance is maintained uniformly so as to
ensure that the spaces (called combustion chambers) between the brick stacks are
immediately under the feed-holes. As these spaces extend the full width and height
of the stacks, a uniform temperature throughout is ensured and this results in the
bricks being uniformly burnt. It takes from two to three minutes to move the load,
and the interval between each movement varies from thirty to fifty minutes according
to the output required. The rate of travel varies, but for a 300-ft. kiln, the time taken
between a car entering and leaving the kiln is approximately three days and the
weekly output is about I6o,ooo bricks. The working of the kiln is very flexible as
it can be readily speeded up or slowed down as occasion demands by regulating the
rate of travel and the amount of coal supplied by the mechanical feeders. As each
car of finished bricks emerges from the kiln, another car of green bricks enters the
charging end.
The advantages claimed for the tunnel kiln are: (I) The bricks are evenly burnt,
and it is therefore particularly suited for the production of first;class facings ; (2)
the output is regular and onl y a small percentage of bricks are damaged in the process ;
(3) low maintenance costs ; (4) flexibility of working ; and (5) on account of the
complete combustion which results. there is no smoke nuisance and the conditions
of employment are improved, as the kiln is not entered to load and unload the bricks.
The disadvantages of this type of kiln are: (I) The relatively high initial cost,
and (2) the additional cost of providing power for the ram, fans, etc.
TEMPERATURE CoNTROL IN J<.IL:--IS.~The temperature in kilns in which first-class
facings are produced is sometimes controlled by the use of either Segar cones or a
pyrometer.
Segar cones are small L-shaped pieces made from special clays, having a flat
base with a vertical leg, and an' tested to bend at certain temperatures. Thus, a
" No. 022 cone " "·ill bend (i.e., the leg will gradually collapse until the top touches
the base) when subjected to a temperature of (;oo° C., whilst a "No. 10 cone" will
do lihwise at 1 ,300' C. Generally three cones of the desired "temperature
resistance " an· placed in different parts of the kiln, and in positions in which they
will he seen through spy-holes in the walls. Firing ceases when the required
temperature in the kiln has been reached, indicated by the bending of the cones.
Electric pyrometers are usuallv used in gas-fired kilns. Such consists of an
electrical conductor (containing a coil of platinum wound round a strip of mica)
which is exposed to the heat. This is connected by leads to an electrical system
which automatically records ·temperature movement on a chart, and the rate of firing
in th-, kiln is regulated according to the readings.
CLAMPs.~A clamp simply consists of a large mass of green bricks stacked,
with several intermediate lavers of breeze (cinders) as described below , upon a
170
foundation of old bricks. It has neither walls nor roof. Clamp-burning preceded
kiln-burning, and it is still adopted in certain parts of the country, particularly
in Kent and Essex, where London stocks are made. Clamps are also occasionally
used at works to provide temporary additional means of burning when the
output of the permanent kilns is insufficient to meet heavy demands. The
bricks are not uniformly burnt, and whilst a large proportion is satisfactory,
those on the outside are underburnt, and those near the live holes (see below)
and in the heart of the kiln are mis-shapen and cracked owing to the excessive
heat.
A clamp is constructed in the following manner : The ground, which should be
well drained, is paved with a layer of old bricks, _rlaced on ed~e. The si.zc of this
paving is from 40 to. so-ft. square, although th1s vanes. Th1s pavmg ls slightly
dished rising slightly from the centre to the edges, to prevent the stacked bncks
when being burnt from falling outwards. The clamp is built with a series of 3-brick
thick walls (called necks), and the construction may be commenced either (a) at one
end or (b) down the middle. . .
(a) End Clamping.~The end wall, ~own as the uprzght, extends t~e full wtdth
of the clamp. It is about 4-ft. 6-in. th1ck at the base, and 1s formed wtth a vertical
face internally and a battered face externally. The bottom course conststs of old
burnt bricks laid scintled (diagonally) on edge with 2-in. spaces between. The
second course is also formed of burnt bricks laid on edge, but these are spaced as
stretchers. Breeze and coal slack is placed in the spaces between the bricks, and the
top is covered with a 6 or 7-in. layer of breeze. The first course of green bricks is
laid as headers on top of this layer, the bricks being placed on edge and closely spaced.
This is covered with a 4-in. layer of breeze, followed by the second course of raw
bricks (stretchers) placed on edge, with a slight space between each. This course is
given a 2-in. covering of breeze. The remainder of the wall is formed of alternate
courses of headers and stretchers of raw bricks, placed on edge, slightly spaced and
with a thin sprinkling of breeze between each course. The number of courses of
green bricks is approximately thirty. A 3 to 6-in. layer of breeze is spread over the
top course of raw bricks, and this is covered by a course of old bricks, clost"ly set on
edge, with the joints luted with clay. . . . .
The rest of the clamp is constructed With a senes of parallel 3-bnck th1ck .walls
or " necks," extending its full width, unt.il the opposite end is reached , when an
" upright " is built similar to the first w1th an external batter. These necks are
formed exactly like the uprights, having alternate header and stretcher courses of
green bricks on a double course of old bricks at. the base, layers of breeze and a daubed
hard brick finish. The breeze layers are contmuous, and the bncks are so arranged
that a stretcher course in one neck is opposite header courses in adjacent necks.
In the middle of each end neck a continuous horizontal flue (called a li~·e hole)
is formed between the double course of burnt bricks forming the base. It is formed
by leaving a 9-in. wide space whilst constructing the base. Simila: flues (which arc
')-in. high) are constructed along the centre of every seventh or e1ghth neck. Dry
brushwood is placed in these flues and this is covered by the 6-in. layer of breeze.
(b) Middle Clamping.~ In this system the upright is constructed down the centre
to the full extent of the clamp. It is built in a similar manner to the end upnghts
described above, except that it has a batter on each face, and a 9-in. by 9-in. horizontal
flue is formed in the middle of the base for its entire length. The necks are formed
on either side of the upright and with the faces parallel to the batter. Three transverse
horizontal flues (one in the centre and one at about 7-ft. from each end) are formed
in the base whilst the necks are being built, and these are connected to the central
live hole. These cross flues are filled with brushwood.
It is usual to construct a wall of old bricks on each face of the clamp and extending
the full height. This is 9-in . . thick at the base and 3-in. at the top. These walls
are daubed over with clay, except where holes have been left for the adm1ss10n of atr.
The clamp is fired by lighting the brushwood in the flues. Gradually the breeze
 171
begins to burn, and the fire passes upwards until the whole clamp is burning. London
stocks and most of the bricks burnt by this primitive method are made of clay. to
which sifted breeze has been added; alternate layers of clay, breeze and washed chalk
are stacked and allowed to weather (see p . 2) ; this is subsequently mixed and the
breeze thoroughly incorporated. Such bricks therefore contain fuel, and the clamp
continues to burn for two and a half to six weeks until this breeze has been consumed.
Little attention is needed whilst the clamp is burning. If the fire is proceeding too
quickly, the air holes are stopped to reduce the draught. Protection is sometimes
afforded by boarded screens fixed on the windward sides.
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BRICKWORK
COLOUR OF BRICKS
There is a wide range of colours of bricks, such as white, grey, brown, red,
purple, blue and black, with intermediate shades. Bricks of varying shades,
called .multi-coloured, have within recent years been in big demand for faced
work. Some bricks are uniform in colour, whilst others are mottled or irregularly
shaded. The colour is influenced by : (a) Chemical constitution of the clay,
(b) temperature during burning, (c) atmospheric condition of kiln, (d) sand-

SIZES OF BRICKS.-The sizes of bricks have been stated in Vol. I moulding, and (e) staining.
(p. 3). According to the British Standard Specification, No. 6s7-1936, the
(a) CHEMICAL CoNSTITUTION OF CLAY OR SHALE.-lron oxides affect the colour
bricks laid dry shall measure as follows 1 : - considerably. Thus, clays which produce white bricks have little or no iron present,
whilst blue bricks contain at least 7 per cent. oxide of iron. Careful blending of the
(a) Eight bricks laid end to end, in contact, in a straight line shall have a clays and shales (see p. 2) is responsible for the production of many beautifully
maximum length of 71-in. and a minimum length of 69-in. colou~ed bricks, and such colours are permanent.
(b) TEMPERATURE DURING BURNING.-Light coloured bricks are often the result
(b) Eight bricks laid side by side, in contact, in a straight line shall have a of the temperature of the gases in the kiln being too low, or the dura_tion .of
maximum length of 34-in. and a minimum length of 33-in. the maximum temperature being too short, whilst, at the other end of the scale,
(c) Eight bricks laid on edge, in contact, in a straight line shall have a Staffordshire blue bricks require a temperature which may reach 1,200 ° C.
(c) ATMOSPHERIC CONDITION OF KILN.-Certain white bricks can only be pro-
Maximum length of r6!-in. ~ T duced if they are protected in the kiln from smoke, whilst dark brown and purple
coloured bricks are made by creating a smoky atmosphere in the kiln (see
Minimum length of rst~in . .1 ype r. below).
(d) SAND-MOULDING.-Sand-moulded hand-made bricks (see p . 4) and pressed
Maximum length of 21!-in.}T bricks which have sand sprinkled over their oiled surfaces whilst being moulded are
Minimum length of 20!-in. ype 2· richly coloured during the burning process. The nature of the sand used for this
purpose depends upon that of the clay or shale, and a good deal of experimental
Maximum length of 23!-in.}T work with different coloured sands is often necessary before the desired colour of
Minimum length of 22!-in. ype 3· the facing bricks is obtained.
(e) STAINING .-Surface colours may be obtained by adding certain metallic
Thus the standard dimensions of a brick are : oxides (such as manganese for browns, chromium for pinks, antimony for yellows,
copper for greens, cobalt for blues, cobalt and manganese for blacks, etc.) which are
crushed very finely and added to the sand sprinkled on the bricks prior to burning.
Sometimes water is added to the oxides and brushed on the surfaces. Such colours
Length (in Inches). Width (in Inches).
I unlike those produced by blending (see above), are rarely permanent. '
Mean. Max. Min . Tolerance. Mean. Max. Min. Tolerance. [ White bricks contain not more than a trace of iron and generally a-large proportion
I of lime.
Cream bricks contain traces of iron and a small proportion of chalk.
8f 8l 8i H 4!
I 41
I!
4'f"itT '
+_.,-n Grey bricks are either commons which have been discoloured by scumming
-- -- -- --- ----- ---- (see p. 14} or facings, such as silver-greys, which have been stained on the surface.
Buff bricks contain less than 2 per cent. of iron oxide.
Depth (in Inches). Yellow bricks contain magnesia or sulphur (when clamp-burnt).
Red bricks contain at least 3 per cent. of iron oxide.
Type 1. Type 2. Type 3- Brou·n and purple bricks may have a similar iron content to reds, but the difference
Toler- in the colour is due to smoking and special firing .
Mean. Max. Min . Mean. Max. Min. Mean. Max. a nee .
Min. Blue bricks contain 7 to ro per cent. of i-ron oxide. A blue surface colour is also
------ obtained by pouring coal-tar in the fireboxes of the down-draught kiln (or that of
the firing chamber of a continuous kiln) just before the burning process has been
2 2.,.11; 1+;-~- 2•
• zt-.~ 2-i'•: 2~ z+ -~- z+#- +'
-- Tlf
completed. This produces a dense smok y atmosphere. The damper is partiallv
I
closed. This is repeated three times at twenty-minute intervals, when the dampe-r
is closed and the chamber is left sealed for at least forty-eight hours. If salt is mixed
For snap headers the width and depth shall be as specified above and the with the tar the exposed surfaces of the stacked bricks will be glazed. Purple bricks
length shall be 4{,r-in.± 1\ --in. may be produced in a similar manner.
Black bricks contain a similar amount of iron to the blue clay, in addition to certain
For queen closers the length and depth shall be as specified above and the manganese oxides. This iron, etc., content is responsible for the colour produced
width shall be 2-in.±-i\,-in. (see u, Fig. 2, Vol. I). when the bricks are b1,1r_nt. Bl~ck colour IS afso produced as described for blues, except
that zinc and .n ot tar IS apphed to the fires, and twenty-four hours' sealing of the
1
Included by permission of the British St11nd11rds Institution. chamber is usually sufficient .
 BRICKS
Multi-coloured Bricks.-The diverse ran~e of colours of these bricks is very
largely due to (b) and (c~ee p. 12; the bncks are generally produced in a down-
draught kiln (p. 6), as the temperature and smoking are best controlled in this type.
The bncks are carefully stacked on bed to avoid damage, and so arranged that one end
and one face of each IS el{posed. The kiln is fired as already described until the bricks
have b~en subjected to the maximum temperature for a sufficient period, which varies
accordt~g to the nature of the clay or shale.. A reduc~ng atmosphere is then produced
tn the ktln by restnctmg the admtsswn of atr to the ktln and heavily charging it with
smoke. Thus the flue is partially closed by lowering the damper and dense smoke
is caused by charging the fireboxes with coal. Immediately the ~moke has abated
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more fuel is added to produce a dense smoky condition and, after these operation~
have been repeated over a period of approximately ten hours, the fireboxes and flue
are closed for about four hours. The flue is then opened and the bricks are allowed
to cool. Many variations in colour can be obtained in this manner, much depending
upon the skill of the operator.
TEXTURE OF BRICKS
There is considerable variation in the texture (or surface finish) of bricks.
Thus, machine-made commons and certain facings have smooth faces, whilst
hand-made facings cannot be equalled for the richness of their texture; many
machine-made bricks are characterized by roughened surfaces which have been
purposely exaggerated. The pleasing texture of hand-made bricks is produced
during the moulding operation, the hand-pressing of the clay or shale into the
mould and the sand from the sides of the mould, which is stamped into the
material, giving an irregular creasing or unevenness to the side and end surfaces.
The fine colouring of a mass of brickwork constructed of such bricks, particularly
after it has weathered for some time, is enhanced by the light and shade effect
produced by the uneven surfaces. Such bricks are expensive, and therefore
attempts have been made to imitate this texture and apply it to mechanically
made bricks. Some of these attempts have been quite successful, even if the
resulting texture is of less quality (chiefly because of the uniformity which results
when the depressions or roughness are similar on every brick) than that of
hand-made bricks.
The following are some of the means which are adapted to produce a m echanical
texture:-
Wir~-cut bricks are given a rou~hened appe~rance on three faces by a frame
contammg a honzontal and two vertical wtres whtch 1s fixed about 1-in. in front of
the mouthpiece of the auger (see p . 3). The horizontal wire is stretched across and
just slightly below the top of the opening, and the distance between the two taut
vertical wires is slightly less than the width of the die . These wires cut the band of
clay as it is extruded from the machine, leaving roughened surfaces on the top and
sides.
Rust!cation may also be obtained by plates containing fine projecting wires, one
plate bemg fixed above and two at the s1des of the clay column as it issues from
the mouthpiece. The points of these wires slightly penetrate at varying depths the
moving clay band and scratch the surfaces. Felt covered rollers partly smooth the
excessive roughness as the column proceeds to the cutting table.
Hand or mechanical stippling is resorted to as an alternative. This consists of
scrubbing or dabbing the top and sides of the clay band with brushes having metal
bristles. Some of the irregularities are smoothed down by rollers.
A rustic effect can also be produced by sand-blasting. Specially selected sand is
forced by compressed air through the nozzle of a pipe on to the top and sides of the
172
extruded clay. This produces small depressions on the surface. Rustic pressed
bricks can be treated in this manner.
. Press~d bricks . can ~e rusticated by using a mould or metal press-box having
h!nged stdes. Rehef (ratsed) patterns are engraved on the internal surfaces of these
stdes. Probably the most effective design is that resembling the bark of a tree. The
collapsible sides are necessary to permit of the removal of the brick after the plunger
has tmpressed the pattern on one or more faces as it consolidates the clay. The
appearance of a wall is made more effective if bricks of several selected textures are
built at random during its construction.
Rough sand-faced bricks, when wire-cut, are made by sprinkling sand (specially
selected) through a sanding machine on to the clay band as it is being extruded.
The sand is then pressed in by top and side rollers.
Pressed sand-faced bricks are made by sanding the internal faces of the mould
before being charged. Hand-made bricks are sand-faced during the normal process
(see p. 4).
DEFECTS IN BRICKS
The following are the principal defects to which bricks are subjected : -
Black Core or Hearting.-This is fairly common in bricks made of red clays
(p. 1) which have been heated too rapidly in the kiln, causing the surface to
vitrify and the interior to remain black.
Bloating or Swelling.-This is attributed to the presence in the clay of
an excess of carbonaceous matter and to bad burning.
Burring or Clinkering.-Clamp-burnt bricks, usually adjacent to the flues,
which have been fused together by excessive heat are called burrs or clinkers.
Such are only suitable for breaking up for coarse aggregate (see p. 28).
Chuffs or Shuffs.-These are badly cracked and mis-shapen bricks produced
by rain falling on them when hot. They are useless.
Crazing is a defect common in glazed bricks (seep. r6) characterized by fine
cracks. These are due to the glaze and the body (clay) not expanding and
shrinking to the same extent.
Crozzling.-Excessive heating in the kiln may produce mis-shapen bricks
known as crozzles. If not too badly shaped they may be used for brickwork
below ground level, otherwise they are only suitable for aggregates.
Eiflorescence.-Bricks made from clay containing a relatively large proportion
of soluble salts, particularly calcium sulphate, are liable to become discoloured
by the formation of a whitish deposit. Whilst this efflorescence or salting is
particularly common to new brickwork, it may also form on the faces of old
external walls which are subjected to excessive dampness. It is formed as
follows : The salts are dissolved when water is absorbed, and as the bricks
become dry the salt solution is brought to the surface by capillarity, evaporation
takes place and the salts remain on the face. In mild cases the efflorescence
gradually disappears as the brickwork is subjected to alternate wet and dry
periods, the rain removing the deposit until the salts are gradually eliminated.
If the bricks contain a high percentage of salts the efflorescence may persist
over a long period, and where dampness is caused from defective rain-water
pipes or the omission of a damp proof course, the unsightly appearance may
continue until the defect or omission has been remedied. Crystallization of the
 173 BRICKWORK
salt~ may not occur on the outer surface of the bricks during evaporation but
may tak~ place just below the surface. This is called crypto-florescence and
may result in the burs1ing off of the outer skin.
Portland cement mortar and certain lime mortars may cause efflorescence
and affect the brickwork ; soluble salts present in the soil, such as chlorides
and nitrates, may also produce this condition when the ground water is
absorbed.
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Grizzling.- Common bricks, though of good shape, which are underburnt
(indicated by a light colour and a dull sound when struck), and therefore weak,
are called grizzles ; only suitable for inferior internal partition walls when little
strength is required.
Iron Spots.-These are surface dark spots, due to the presence of iron sulphide
in the clay, which render the bricks unsuitable for facings.
J,aminations are generally caused by the air in the voids between the particles
of clay not being eliminated in the grinding, pugging, etc., processes, and
producing the formation of thin laminre on the faces of bricks which may scale
off on exposure to the weather (see" de-airing," p. 3).
Lime Nodules.··- Bricks containing pieces of limestone left uncrushed in the
clay during its preparation are quite unsuited for external walls or internal walls
which are to be plastered, as the lime will expand when water is absorbed,
causing cracking or disintegration (see p. 1 ).
Scumming or Kiln-white.- This is an unsightly discoloration of bricks,
particularly those containing lime and iron sulphide, which have been fired
in a continuous kiln. Several causes contribute to this condition, but it is
chiefly due to the hot gases from the firing chambers (which contain sulphur)
coming in contact with the damp bricks in the early drying chambers, and
producing a thin brownish-white or grey film (usually sulphate of lime) on the
surface. Such bricks are only suitable for commons. Scum is prevented if
provision is made for the escape of steam in the drying zone of the kiln (p. 7)
and if clean hot air is only used to dry the bricks. Barium carbonate powder
or barium hydroxide is sometimes mixed with the clay before moulding to
prevent scum formation . The carbonate in a fine powder form may be
added to the clay before it enters the auger or pug mill, or, as is usual, it
may be mixed with water and the solution thoroughly incorporated with
the clay._
Distortion may be produced by overburning. Badly worn auger mouth-
pieces and press moulds will cause the bricks to be badly shaped. Cracking
may be caused by drying and cooling the bricks too quickly in the kiln. Careless
handling of green bricks during manufacture will cause damage. Chipped,
cracked and broken bricks, especially if underburnt, are common results of
improper handling in course of transit. _
Terms which are gradually falling into disuse include place bricks (similar
to grizzles, see above) and shippers (sound but imperfectly shaped bricks used
a" ships' ballast).
CHARACTERISTICS OF BRICKS
These have been referred to in Vol. I , p. 2 . Good bricks should be
thoroughly burnt, as most well-burnt bricks are durable and capable of
withstanding relatively heavy loads. As adequate firing in the kiln tends to
eliminate any soluble salts in bricks, it follows that hard-fired bricks are relatively
free from defects such as efflorescence and crypto-ftorescence (see p. 13).
Conversely, underburnt bricks (usually denoted by an abnormal light colour
and a dull sound when struck together) are comparatively soft, easily broken,
are neither durable nor pressure-resistant (see p. 1 5), and are liable to defects
produced by salts.
Good bricks should be free from the defects enumerated above and, if used
as facings, should conform to one or other of the colours and textures mentioned
on pp. 12 and 13 . -- .
PERMEABILITY.-Bricks for external use must be capable of preventmg
rain-water from passing through them to the inside of walls of reasonable
thickness. In this connection the practice of specifying the maximum amount
of water a brick shall absorb (usually " one-seventh of its own weight of water
after twenty-four hours' immersion ") is not now considered desirable, fo~ it
does not follow that a brick is impermeable if it has a relatively small absorptiOn.
Much depends upon the character of the pores.
Som e pores are continuous from face to face, and the:efore rain_-water readily
passes through them to the inside, whilst other pores or cav1t1es a~e . not mterconnected
but are entirely enclosed by material, and do not affect permeab1hty. A _close-pore~
brick will freely absorb water which will not readily evaporate. But a bn~k wh1ch IS
more open-pored will absorb less moisture, which will ev_aporate ~ore eas1ly because
of the increased air circulation · it follows that such a bnck (prov1ded any connected
pores are not too large as to ~llow the water to be blown through them ) is more
successful in preventing dampness on the inside.' . . .
Further, it is difficult to lay certain dense and smooth-faced bncks owmf: to the1r
lack of "suction," which prevents a ready adherence of the mortar. Th1s l~c~ of
adhesion causes narrow fissures to appear between the bricks and the mortar Jomt_s.
The result is that water penetrates through these cracks,_ and much dampness m
solid brick walls is due to this cause, even though the bncks may be un_perm~ablc
(seep. 43). Hence, bricks should be porous to a certain extent, the pores bemg ne1ther
too fine nor too open , to permit strong adhe~ion of the mo~tar . Incidentally, even
if the joints are well filled with mortar, especially 1f _1t IS a n ch m1x (see p . 25), ~ne
hair-like cracks m ay develop, when the mortar shrmks on drymg, through whtch
water will readily pass to the inside. _ .
Permeability Test.-A simple apparatus used for measunng the r_a te of absorptiOn
of water consists of a flat pyramidally shaped brass cover whtch IS fitted over !he
brick (or other) specimen, which is usually 4-in. s9uare ; a short length of vertical
glass tubing, with its lower end fixed to the cover, 1s fitted ~o a fine bored gluss tube
(having a scale behind it) which is fixed horizontally at 8-u~ . _above the_ top surface
of the specimen ; a rubber pipe from a glass cylmd~r contammg water 1s connected
to the vertical tube ; the v ertical faces of the spec1men are waxed and thus made
1 Briefly the distinction between absorption, permeability and porosity is as follows :-
Absorption is the property of allowing water to enter a material. .
Permeability is the property of allowing water to p~ss through a matt>nal.
Porosity is the proportion of void space in a matenal.
 BRICKS
impermeablt·. Water from the cylinder is admitted to occupy the space between the
top of the specimen and the under side of the cover and to fill both vertical and
horizontal tubes : the water is then shut off. As the wat.-r passes through the
specimen, it Aows along the horizontal tube ; this rate of tlow is obtained by observing
the end (or meniscus) of the water and m easuring from the scale the distance this
travels in a given time. The 8-in. head of water gives a pressure in excess of that
caused by a very strong force 9f wind against a wall down which rain is pouring
(see also p . 99).
STRENGTH.-It is not necessary to specify the strength of bricks unless they
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are required for the construction of piers, etc., which have to support heavy
concentrated loads. The reason for this is that the compressive strength of
brickwork constructed of relatively inferior bricks will be quite adequate to
resist the normal weight which it will be required to support. Thus, whilst
the brickwork at the ground level of a two-storied house will not usually be
subjected to a greater load than I ±-tons per sq. ft., it would be a very poor brick
which had a crushing strength of less than 6o-tons per sq. ft. The average
crushing strength of bricks serv~s as an approximate index only of the com-
pressive strength of brickwork, as much depends upon workmanship, height
in relation to thickness, etc. A rough approximation of the strength of brickwork
built in cement mortar (r : 3) and good hydraulic lime mortar (r : 3) is
respectively one-third and one-fifth that of the individual bricks.
The crushing strength of bricks is determined in a compression machine such as
that shown at F., Fig. 9 (see p. 3z). A brick is usually t ested on bed and placed in
the machine between two pieces of plywood, any frogs being filled Aush with cement
mortar. The compressive strength varies enormously between batches from the
same kiln and even of individual bricks from the same burning. As an illustration
of this, tests carried out in the Building Laboratory of the Manchester College of
Technolo_gy {)n six bricks obtained from a kiln at the same time showed the crushing
strength to vary between I ,450 and 2,4Io-lb. per sq . in. This variation is partly due
to the different position of the bricks in the kiln. It is because of this variation that
at least six (preferably twelve) specimens of a brick should be tested and the mean
figure taken.
This variation is also shown by the following figures in brackets which indicate
the approximate crushing strengths of specimen wire-cut, pressed and hand-made
bricks (six of each type) from well known and reputable manufacturers: Wire-cut
commons and facings (r,8oo to s,ooo-lb. per sq. in.), pressed commons and facings
(z,soo to 6,ooo-lb. per sq. in.) and hand-made facings (z,ooo to s,ooo-lb. per sq. in.).
Engineering bricks (seep. I7) have crushing strengths varying from 8,ooo to r8,ooo-lb.
per sq . in.
FROST AcTION.-Ex:ternal wa1ls constructed of porous underburnt bricks
are particularly vulnerable to damage by the action of frost. Such damage
is due to the absorbed water expanding (to about one-eleventh of its volume)
as it freezes and exerting pressure on the pore walls which the comparatively
soft material is unable to resist. Disintegration thus results, and when this
is repeated during severe winters, disfigurement due to pitting and cracking of
the surface and damaged arrises may become very pronounced. Brickwork of
poor quality bricks with overhand struck joints (see p. 31, Vol. 1), that below
the ground level, and copings are particularly subject to damage by frost. It
does not affect brickwork of sound, hard-burnt bricks.
174
Frost Resistance Test.-A simple, but eff~ctive , apparatus in which bricks and othn
building materials may be tested for frost resistance is shown in Fig. 35 and describt<.l
on p. roo. This test can also be carried out in a watertight metal container which
is partly filled with a freezing mixture consisting of z parts icc and r part common
sal.t. The brick to be tested, after being immersed in water for twenty-four hours ,
is wrapped in a piece o(cloth, totally immersed in the 'mixturt', the lid is shut and the
container·is placed in a box so that it is encased by a 3-in. thickness of cork, sawdust
or similar insulating material. After being frozen at - 10 " C . for eighteen hours the
specimen is removed, thawed by running water, unwrapped and examined . The
freezing and thawing cycle. is repeated for at least ten times. .C ertain bricks, well
known for their durable qualities, are not affected e ven if subjected to fort y free;<ings,
whilst others, only suitable for internal work, will show serious disintegration after
ten freezings . This apparatus does not give such good results as tbat illustrated in
Fig..Js, as the immersion of the specimens in the freezing mixture appears to improve
their resistance to frost action on account of their impregnation with salt.
A good test, but one which does not give immediate results, consists of diggin g
a hole and placing in it two bricks on end, one above the other, with the upper brick
half exposed. These are left for a year. In a normal winter successiw frosts will
cause a poor brick to c.r ack across at ground level, whilst the lower one may show
signs of flaking. Sound bricks will not be affected.
Efflorescence Teu .-A brick is partially immersed on end in a dish of distilled water,
and the water absorbed ·is evaporated from its upper surfaces. An y salts liable to
form efflorescence are brought to the surface b y the water in its passage through the
brick.
CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS
Bricks may be classified according to ( r) quality and ( 2) usage.
I. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO QUALITY. -Bricks from a kiln are diYidcd
into three classes, namely : (a) firsts, which are best and are selected by hand ;
(b) seconds, which are selected bricks but are not equal to " firsts " on account
of some imperfection in regard to colour or shape or both ; (c) thirds, which
are the remainder of the kiln, the best being only suitable for interior work.
2. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO USAGE. -A conveniently broad division
of bricks is in accordance with their suitability for (a) interior purposes, (h)
exterior purposes, (c) pressure-resisting purposes and (d) fire-resisting purposes.
(a) Bricks for Interior Purposes.-Common bricks are invariably specified
for internal walls, as neither strength, durability nor appearance are important.
If the walls are to be plastered it is essential (especially if the b ricks haw a large
suction capacity) that the walls shall be copiously wate red before the first coat is
applied, otherwise an excessive amount of water will he absorbed from the plast er
and this may cause failure. lt is also important that the bricks sha ll not contain nodules
of lime (see pp. I and I4), as the water applied to walls prior to p lastering will be
absorbed, causing the lime to slake and the resultant expansion to crack o r splinter
the bricks.
It is essential that certain brick partitition walls , particularly those on upper
floors, shall be as light as possible, and perforated or hollow bricks or blocks
(see u, v, wand Y, Fig. s) are suitable for this purpose.
Sometimes facing bricks, arid not commons, are required for internal walls,
such as those for churches, corridors, class-rooms, etc. Light-coloured bricks,
such as "silver-greys" (p. 12) and sand-lime bricks (p. 17) are used for such
purposes on account of their satisfactory light-reflecting qualities. White, etc.,
 175 BRICKWORK
glazed bricks (see next column) are also used for internal walls of dairies,
factories, lavatories, etc.
(b) Bricks for Exterior Purposes.-The essential requirements of facing bricks
are durability colour texture and freedom from defects. Colour and texture
are not impo~;ant if the walls are to be rough-casted or plastered, good quality
commons being sufficient for this purpose. They should have sufficient suction
capacity to ensure the thorough adhesion of the mortar (seep. 14). The crushing
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strength is not material unless heavy loads have to be supported, as any durable
brick will safely support the load which has to be normally resisted. Bricks
to be used below the horizontal damp proof course should be carefully selected,
as these are subjected to the greatest frost action (p. 15), and absorption of
certain·salts from the soil may cause deterioration if the bricks are not durable.
(c) Bricks f or Pressure-resisting Purposes. -These are required for the
construction of piers, large-spanned arches, etc., where large stresses have to
be resisted. Strength is therefore the chief requirement, and engineering bricks
(p. 17) which are very strong and hard burnt are most suited for this purpose.
(d) Bricks ji1r Fire-resisting Purposes.--Those best suited to resist high
temperatures, as for lining furnaces, chimney stacks, boilers, etc., are fireclay,
silica, ganister, bauxite and magnesite bricks (see below).
The following is a summary of several types of bricks which have not been
already described :-
FIREBRICKS.- These are capable of resisting very high temperatures and are used
for lining fireplaces, tall chimneys, furnaces, gas retorts, etc. They are made from
(a) fireclay, (b) silica rocks and (c) silica rocks together with xam~~ta. .
{a) Fireclay Brirks. -Fireclays or refractor; clays are associated w1th coalfields,
and are usually obtained by mining as distinct from quarrymg. They are tound m
many parts of this country. The clay contains from 55 to 75 per cent. s1hca and
22 to 35 per cent. alumina.
The fireclay is crushed and finely ground. Grog (finely ground burnt fireclay)
is often mixed with the material to reduce shriflkage. The mixture 1s then soured to
increase its workability (p. 4), moulded (pressed), dried ar.d hard burnt for about
seven days. The maximum temperature for firing first-class bricks should not be
less than I,soo·· C. The bricks are of a cream or buff colour.
(h) Silica Bricks.-These contain 95 to 97 per cent. ofsilica and I to 2 per cent.
lime The rock is crushed bv heavv rollers then ground m a pan mill m w h1ch the
Jim!'. is added in correct proportion· and in liquid form ; the lime acts as a "binding
material. Powerful presses are used to mould the bricks and the burning takes place
in kilns of either the down-draught, chamber (similar to the zigzag) or tunnel type.
(;ood silica bricks should resist a minimum temperature of I ,J00° C. They are ~ery
brittle. Well-known silica bricks are produced in South Wales (from the Dmas
rock, quarried near Swansea) and they are particularly suited for t.he lining of
metallurgical furnaces and coke ovens. . .
(c) Canister Bricks.-Ganister is a dark-coloured sandstone wntam1':g up to
ro per cent. of clay. It is quarried in this count.ry ~S~effield bemg ar: :mportant
centre), Wales and Scotland. Their manufacture IS s1m1lar to that of silica bncks.
They are very refractory, as they are capable of withstanding a temperature of I ,8oo' C.,
and are therefore particularly suited for lining furnaces, etc.
BAl'XlTE BRICKS (made from an aluminous earth imported from France),
:\1AGNESITE BRICKS and CHROM!TE BRICKS (both also made from imported material)
are other highly refractory products. They are used for lining special furnaces, such
a~ ~tee! and blast furnaces and cement kilns, and are generally gas-fired.
RvlliiERS OR CuTTERS are soft red (chiefly), white or huff coloured bricks, consisting
of washed loamy clay containing a large proportion of sand, and are usually hand-mad<:
in a box-mould (p. 4) and baked (not burnt) in a kiln. The colour is u_nifom1
throughout, and owing to their softness and fine-gramed texture they are easily cut,
rubbed and carved. They are used principally fo r gauged arches, d ecorated quoms -
and jambs. . . .
GLAZED BRICKS.-Fireclavs or shales are best. for producmg glazed hncks. As
they are usually required to be built with joints not exceeding ~-in . thick, they must
be true to shape, with fine straight arri~es . They are there~Ort! care~ully pressed
and sometimes re-pre~sed , with the arnses hand-tnmmed w1th a stnke. Glazed
bricks are impervious and are of two kinds, namely : ( I) salt-glazed and (2) enamelled.
1. Salt-glazed Bricks ~re usually produced in a down-draught kiln. ' Salt is
thrown on to the fires of the kiln after the bricks have reached a temperature of about
I ,200° C . The heat vaporizes the salt and causes it to combine w ith the clay to form
a vitreous or glassy surface which cannot scale off. Usually two, and not more than
three, charges of salt are applied at about twenty-mmute mtervals when the bncks
have "reached the req uired temperature , a shovelful of salt bemg thrown on to each
fire. The colour of the glazed surfaces is a brown of various shades. Such bri~ks
are used for internal dadoes , lavatories, basements, areas, large bnck sewers, mspectiOn
chambers, etc. . . .
2 . Enamelled Bricks.- These are now obtamable m a large vanety of· colours.
There are two methods of producing these, namely : (a) dry-dipped and (b) wet-
dipped . _ . .
(a) Dry-dipped Process.- These enamelled bncks are calledobiscuzt~ware. Th~y a:e
moulded, dried, burnt to a temperature of approximately I ,200 C. (this IS called bzscuzt-
burning), cooled, prepared for glazing, coloured, glazed and re-burnt. The colounng,
glazing and preparation (called bodying) ~redone. on a bench in a shed. At least three
vessels containing liquid or slurn· of varymg consistency are placed on the bench. The
first vessel contains the slip or engobe or body, and is a mixture of china clay (which is
slightly plastic and found in Cornwall, Devon and Dorset), crushed burnt fl_ints,
ball clay (more plastic than china clay), etc., and water. The second tub contams a
similar mixture with the addition of metallic oxides (such as those stated on p . 12)
to give the required colour. The liquid in the third v~ssel ~s called_ the glaze, _and
this is a mixture of china clay, felspar (a s1hcate of alumma With varymg proportiOns
of sodium, potassium, etc.), whiting and water. . The proportions of the ingredients
vary considerably. More than one tuJ:l cont~mmg colourmg bod1es _are somet•.mes
required to give the desired colour, the mgred1ents and pr~portwns bemg determmed
as a result of experience and exhaustive tests. The bncks are first washed, one
stretcher or one header face (or both) being hand-brushed with water. Each brick
is then separately treated, the washed face(s) being hand-dipped into the slip, then
into the colouring solution and finally into the glaze. After . the edges have been
trimmed with a wire brush t o remove the surplus glaze, the bncks are very carefully
stacked in the kiln and burnt to fuse the glaze. Thus, these bricks are subjected to
two separate burnings. Coal and gas are the fuels used, gas kilns being most successful
for this class of bricks.
(b) Wet-dipped Process.- The slip, colouring solution and gl~ze a re applied direct
to the bricks immediately after they have been moulded and dned . They are after-
wards very carefully burnt. Whilst this is a cheaper method than (a), only_one burning
being required, the results are not so good and there 1s .a large propor~10n damaged
during the handling oper~.tions . Such bricks are only SUitable for mfenor work ..
Glazed bricks, especially biscuit-ware, are used for fit:St-class faced work as required
for factories, dairies , certain shops, abattOirs, corndors, dadoes of classrooms,
lavatories areas wells of large buildings, external facings, etc. The surfaces can
readily b~ wash~d down, and white glazed bricks are p~rtic~:~larly e!fective in areas of
buildings and in places where the maximum reflected hght IS required.
PERFORATED BRICKS.- Perforated bricks, such as is shown at u , Fig . 5, are made
by the wire-cut process (p. 3), the small holes of varying diame!er U. to i -in.) being
formed as the clay column is extruded thro~gh the mouthp!t:ce m wh1ch sh?rt
horizontal bars are fixed. The advantages claimed for these bncks are : A savmg
~ ·--------- --------------
' Tunnt'l kilns are also used for this purpose,
 BRICKS
in clay results, the drying and burning processes are facilitated, resulting in a reduction
of fuel, they are light to handle (the perforations reducing the weight by about one-
fifth) and because of this comparative lightness the cost of carriage is reduced.
Several forms of perforated bricks are used in reinforced brickwork (see p . 45).
Additional mortar may be required for the bed joints, especially if the holes are large .
Am BRICKS,- If of standard size, the green brick.s are machine-made in the usual
manner (pressed or wire-cut), otherwise they are hand-made in a box-mould (p. 4).
Each slab is then perforated thus : A templet of thin zinc, the size and shape of the
bed and perforated as required, is placed on top of the slab (which usually has an
oiled surface) laid on bed, fine sand is dusted over it, the templet is removed , leaving
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a light-coloured pattern of sandy squares on the surface. These serve as a guide
for the moulder who takes a hollow steel tool, square in section and having sharp
cutting edges, and presses it through the slab at each square of the pattern. The
tool is withdrawn, and the clay within is removed by passing a solid metal rod down
it. The section is similar to u, Fig. 32, Vol. I. Cheaper air bricks, having thin
perforated panels, are stamped by a press .
HOLLOW, CELLULAR OR CAVITY BRICKS (see V and W, Fig. 5).-The cellular type
has! to 1-in. thick" walls "or" skins "with two or more" webs "or" diaphragms."
They are light and are therefore suitable for partitions ; their cavities also reduce
the transmission of sound and heat. They are machine pressed, the plunger, having
solid metal cores, forming the cavities as they descend. These bricks are sometimes
glazed and are often made of fireclay .
HOLLOW BLOCKS (see Y, Fig. 5).-These are used in the construction of partitions.
Somewhat similar blocks are employed in the construction of fire-resisting floors .1
They are usually made of fireclays or shales by the wire-cut process (p. 3). The
shape of the blocks depends. upon the special provision made in the mouthpiece of
the auger, and there are several patent devices for forming the hollows. One of the
simplest consists of a strong thin metal frame which projects into the die from the
front and two solid horizontal metal cores or bars which are secured to it. As the
clay is pushed through the die, the cores produce two voids in the extruded column.
At the same time any grooves in the sides are formed by projecting ribs on the sides
of the die. The extruded column is passed to the cutting table, the frame being
pivoted to cause the wires to cut it into the required lengths by a downward movement.
Some hollow blocks are solid-ended . One device fixed in the die to produce
such blocks consists of a square shutter (the size of the cross-section of the void)
~hich is fitted to the top and caused to descend and rise automatically at required
mtervals. When the shutter is down it occupies a central position in the die, and
this produces the hollow portion ·of the column as it proceeds. When the shutter
rises clear of the die, the section of the moving clay band is solid. Thus a column is
produced which is hollow, having solid partitions at intervals, the thickness of the latter
being equal to twice the finished thickness of an end. The column is then cut at
the table, the wires being drawn centrally down through these solid portions.
Drying and burning complete the process.
PAVINGS are very hard-wearing bricks used, as implied, for paving roads and
pat.hs. They are sometimes salt-glazed, each with one face roughened or chequered
to mcrease the foothold. They are laid on edge on a concrete bed with a !-in. bed
joint of cement and sand (1 : 2) and the vertical joints, T':r-in . thick, are grouted with
cement and sand (1 : It). These bricks are now very rarely used.
ENGINEERING BRICKs.-These are exceptionally strong and durable, and are
used for piers, bridges, sewers and similar engineering purposes. Those most note-
worthy are Accringtons (pressed), Southwaters (pressed and wire-cuts), blue Stafford-
shires (wire-cuts and hand-made) and Hunzikers (made of crushed flint and lime).
SAND-LIME BRICKS.-These are of th_e same size as ordinary clay bricks and are
made of a mixture of sand, lime and water which is pressed into moulds and hardened .
Their colour is grey or a dull white, although oxide pigments may be added to give
other colours. The sand should be clean and well graded, and the normal proportion
used varies from 92 to 95 per cent. of the dry mix.. The 5 to 8 per cent. of lime which
is mixed with the sand may be of any class, provided it can be thoroughly well slaked.
1 Detailed in Vol. IV.
It must be properly burnt (see p. 19) as overburnt lime does not readilv slake and
underburnt lime has a high calcium carbonate content which is valueless. The slaking
or hydration must be complete before the mixture is pressed.
There are three stages in their production, namely : (a) mixing, (b) pressing and
(c) hardening.
(a) Mixing.-The burnt lime (quicklime) is finely ground in a ball mill (p. 22)
and passed through a sieve to eliminate coarse-grained particles. This is mixed
with sand in the correct proportion in an edge-runner (p. 2) and slightly more than
the required amount of water added to slake the lime. The mixture i5 passed to a
hopper or silo and left for a variable period (generally twenty-four hours) to ensure
thorough hydration.
(b) Pressing.-The rotary table type of press (p. 3) is generally used, a measured
quantity of the material being fed, pressed into a slab and removed. The pressure
varies with the water content and must be sufficient to enable the bricks to be handled
without damage.
(c) Hardening or Autoclaving.- A " kiln " in which the bricks are hardened is a
5! to 7-ft. diameter steel cylinder, varying from 30 to 70-ft. long, and is called an
autoclave. The pressed bricks are stacked on cars (similar to those used in tunnel
kilns, see p. 10), each truck taking up to 1,500 bricks. The loaded cars are run into
the autoclave, the tight-fitting doors are closed, steam is admitted and the pressure
gradually increased. The maximum steam pressure varies with the length of time at
which it is steadily maintained, the greater the pressure the shorter the time of auto-
claving; thus, if a steady pressure of 120-lb. per sq. in. is applied, the period varies
from eight to twelve hours, whilst this time may be halved if the pressure is increased
to zoo-lb. per sq. in. After steaming for the required period the supply of steam
is shut off and the bricks allowed to cool by opening a valve. The loaded cars are
then removed. ·
Sand-lime bricks are of uniform colour, texture, size and shape, with sharp square
arrises. Their fine texture renders them suitable for carving, and figures carved
in situ on the brickwork have successfully relieved the somewhat monotonous
appearance of large uniformly coloured surfaces .
Although these bricks have not been subjected to prolonged tests, it is considered
that those of best quality compare favourably with good quality common bricks as
regards compression strength and durability. They are only moderately resistant
to frost action and are therefore not suitable for brickwork below ground in water-
logged sites. They have been used successfully as a cheap substitute for white glazed
bricks in wells of buildings and similar positions where maximum light is required .
CEMENT AND CONCRETE BRICKS.-Port]and cement is used to a relatively small
extent in the making of bricks. Sand as a fine aggregate is added to the cement in
varying proportions, suitable mixes being 1 part cement to 6 or 8 parts graded sand.
The materials are well mixed in a machine, just sufficient water being added to ensure
adhesion. The mixture is then pressed in moulds or in a rotary table machine,
removed and dried slowly for at least a fortnight (preferably a month) before being
used . The bricks are covered with damp cloths during the maturing period. Rapid-
hardening cement (p. 24) in lieu of ordinarv Portland cement expedites the setting
~ri~. .
CoNCRETE BLOCKS of various sizes and mixes are also made, the aggregates being
sand, broken brick, broken stone, gravel, coke breeze, etc. (see p. 2H).
Cement and concrete bricks or blocks have not become popular in this country,
chiefly on account of their dull, uninteresting appearance, although concrete slabs
are often employed in the construction of internal partitions, (p. 45, Vol. I II).
BREEZE SLABS of various sizes (usually 2 to 2!-in. thicl}) and consisting of 1 part
cement to 6 or 8 parts powdered breeze have been extel'lsively used for partitions
in positions where loads have not to be supported (p. 15). These arc cast in wood
moulds. Cavity walls (p. 40) are sometimes constructed of breeze slabs which an·
approximately 3-ft. by 1-ft. by 2!-in. thick, placed on edge between reinforctcd
concrete pillars .
SPECIAL SHAPED BRICKS.-A selection of special shaped bricks, most of which
are standard, is shown in Fig. 5· They are kept in stock by the larger brick
 177 BRICKWORK
manufacturers, and arc chiefly made by machinery (pressed or wire-cut). This
s p E C A L B C K S
results in a reduction in cost, as non-standard bricks can only be purposely made
by hand in moulds which have to be constructed to the specified requirements.
The increased availability of standard specials has also resulted in a saving of
~~~RNAL CjSX~~~~
IYs' l
time of the bricklayer which was formerly occupied in cutting the bricks to shape.
OR
:~~· ;;J F
SQUINT BRICKS (see A. B, c and D, Fig. s).-These are used, in the con-
struction of acute and obtuse squint quoins (see p. 36).
E ""- /
BuLLNOSE BRICKS.-A double bullnose brick is shown at Q, Fig. 2, Vol. I.
SULLNO~SES
'\....
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/
.' 2Y4'
It is difficult to cut neatly a mitre at the intersection between two bullnose
arrises ; special returns containing mitres are therefore useful. That atE (opposite) G H
shows an internal return ; similar right and left handed returns on bed, edge and
COWNOSE
end are also available. An external return is shown at F. A stop is required to
provide a satisfactory finish when a bullnose edge is continued by a square arris,

~~IW
as at the base of a pier or jamb ; a double stop is shown at G ; single stops are
also made. 'fhat shown at H, sometimes called a cownose, is suitable for copings
and jambs of 4t-in. walls.
DoG-LEG OR ANGLE BRICKS (see J).-These are also used at squint quoins,
particularly of cavity walls (see E, Fig. 1 1).
BIRDSMOUTH BRICKS (see K, Fig. s).-These may be used at alternate
courses of internai squint quoins or for decorated serrated courses. BI~DSMOUTH CI~CULAI\
CIRCULAR ERICKS (see stretcher L and header M).-These are used for 3'01!.41/41
circular work as in the construction of bay windows (see Figs. 15 and 27), apsed
ends, staircase wells and tall chimneys. These are referred to on p. 44· >
COPING BRICKS.-A few standard shapes are shown at N, o and P. Bullnose
bricks are used for the same purpose.
PISTOL BRICKS (see Q).-These are used for forming circular or coved Q
angles between walls or between a wall and a floor. PISTOL
PLINTH BRICKs.-These are referred to on p. 29, Vol I. A dogleg internal
angle plinth is shown at R (opposite) and a stop is shown at s. Right and left handed
plinth internal returns, like the bullnose brick E, and external angles are also
obtainable from stock.
KEYED OR NICKED BRICKS.-The type shown at T, manufactured by the
London Brick Co. Ltd., has dovetailed grooves .formed on one stretcher and
one header face for the purpose of providing a mechanical bond with either PE~FOMTED
plaster or roughcast which may be applied to the brickwork. They are obtainable
as commons, as shown, or as cellulars (see v).
PERFORATED BRICKS (see u).-These have small holes (ito !-in. in diameter)
formed throughout their thickness, the object of which is to reduce their weight
[]I I I 1nrt•tt
$EC~TION SECTION ~ EVATION
(pp. 15 and r6).
ELEVATION
1
y
HOLLOW BRICKS.-These are made of clay formed with one or more cavities
which reduce their weight some 25 per cent. and increase insulation against v ~~ w~·
heat, sound and moisture (see p. 17). The cellular type v, made by the above
firm, has three cells separated by tapered webs; these cells are open to one
~"CELlUI.M." ~
'WOOl'
bed and extend to within about i-in. from that opposite. The " Webcel," HOLLOW BRICKS GLAS5 BI\ICK HOLLOW 8LOCK
FJ!j l .ti 14 1_j llli
SCALE OF INCH(l FIGURE .5
 LIME
type w, manufactured by the Marston Valley Brick Co. Ltd., has a single void,
shaped as shown. These bricks are laid with their solid beds uppermost and
are particularly effective in the construction of partition walls.
HoLLOW BLocKs.-One of several types of walling blocks is shown at Y.
The thickness varies from rt to 9-in. Some have only two cells, whilst another
· type having a central web has ten cells. They are used for partitions ; the fluted
sides and beds provide a good key for the plaster, and the cells reduce the trans-
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mission of sound and heat, besides decreasing their weight (p. 17).
GLASS BRICKS (see x).-There are two types, i.e., solid cast blocks of glass
and hollow glass blocks, the latter being made in two halves before being joined
and hermetically sealed. They are not capable of resisting heavy loads, but
they can be built into panels to any practical height, and are being used to form
semi-transparent walls and partitions to steel framed buildings, etc. (see p. 48,
Vol. III). The bricks are bedded and jointed with lime mortar like clay bricks ;
they are not usually bonded, the vertical joints being continuous. The mortar
recommended consists of 1 part lime, 1 part Portland cement and 4 parts sand.
Panels exceeding 6-ft. in width should be reinforced with hoop iron or expanded
metal (see p. 45) at every third to fifth course ; vertical rod reinforcement is
necessary if the panels exceed 2o-ft. in width. Provision must also be made for
expansion at the sides and tops of panels. The bricks are made in various sizes
and patterns, the largest size being 7!-in. by 7!:-in. by 3k-in . (See p. 48 and
Fig. 13, Vol. III)
LIME
MANUFACTURE.-Lime is produced by burning chalk or limestone in a kiln.
There are two types of kiln, i.e., (r) intermittent and (2) continuous.
(1.) Intermittent Kiln.- This is the simplest form of kiln and is one which is
in use in many parts of the country. That shown in Fig. 6 is one of several
kilns in which lime used extensively in the North of England is produced. The
L M E K L N
< kilns are economical in fuel consumption, and the lime which is withdrawn
C T I 0 N 'A A' E l E V A T I 0 N
FIGURE 6
kiln is situated at the side of a cutting (often the face of the quarry); the four
walls are tapered and are lined with firebrick ; it is open at the top. A loosely
built rough arch of pieces of the unburnt limestone is formed at the bottom,
and this supports alternate 18-in. thick layers of limestone and 9-in. thick layers
of fuel ( 1 to I l-in. coke nuts). Both the limestone and coke are charged into
the kiln from side-tipping tubs which operate on a track on each side and at the
top of the kiln. A coal fire is started in the fireplace below the arch and it
gradually extends to the layers of fuel and limestone until the whole mass is
brought to a bright red heat (900° C.). The period of burning is about four
days. The burnt lime is then removed through the eyes, after which the kiln
is again charged. The cover provided by the arched portion at the front of
the kiln affords an adequate protection to the freshly burnt lime as it is withdrawn,
and the top is generally protected by an open roof. The capacity of this kiln
is about 20-tons of limestone and 8-tons of coke.
Lime produced in this manner is used for mortar.
Sometimes this form of kiln is charged wholly with pieces of limestone, and the
fire is maintained at the bottom for a few days until the whole of the limestone
or chalk has been thoroughly burnt. This is commonly known as a flare kiln and
produces a white lime, free from discoloration and especially suitable for plastering.
2. Continuous Kiln_.- The simplest form of continuous kiln is the draw
or tunnel kiln. This is a brick structure, firebrick lined, in the form of an inverted
truncated cone, about 16-ft. high, 8-ft. diameter at the top and 4-ft. diameter
at the base, having a fireplace with grating at the bottom. It is charged with
alternate layers of limestone and coal or coke. The process is continuous, the
burnt lime being withdrawn at the base, and raw limestone and fuel added at
the top. Some tunnel kilns have the lower half below ground, from the draw
hole at the base of which is a{l inclined shaft or tunnel. Such are known as
sunk draw or tunnel kilns.
Another form of continuous kiln consists of a steel cylindrical shaft, firebrick
lined, some so-ft. high and 8-ft. diameter, with several furnaces at the base, and
so designed that only the hot gases come into contact with the limestone. Such
at suitable intervals is free from discoloration.
The Hoffman kiln, described on p. xo, is another form of continuous kiln
used for burning lime and is suitable for the production of large supplies. The
following is a brief description of such a kiln which has been in continuous
use for the past seventy years. 1
It has twenty-eight firebrick lined chambers, each having a wicket arid a damper
controlled flue which is connected to the main horizontal flue leading to a ceritral
chimney stack. The kiln has no permanent partitions.
Two sections of tht kiln, each of ten chambers, are drying, burning and cooling
at the same time, and there is a gap of four chambers between each section to permit
of stacking, unloading and the carrying out of repairs. A party of men is constantly
1 At the Buxton Limeworks of Messrs Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd.
 179 BRICKWORK
remo:-ring the _cool burnt lime from the front of each section, whilst another gang is
stackmg the limestone at the back of each section. Like the brick kiln of this type

C.Jci~ o•id.eoxide(C.O)(MgO).
Pure. Lean. Hydraulic. Magnesian.!
the sequence of operations is advanced by a chamber each day and thus as ther~
art· two sections, the equivalent to two chambers is being unloaded and ~o loaded
daily.. The limestone is stacked,_with horizontal flues parallel to the length of the
II Magnesium 93'0
0'4
82·o
o ·6
67·o
1'0
57' 22
J8•J8 !
.
k1ln tnrmed at the base, and vertical tlues formed under the feed-holes provided at Silica (Si02) • • 1'0 6·o 17'5 2'I9
~he top. Coal sl~ck is the fuel used, and this is fed to the lime which is being sub-
Jected to the max1mum temperature. The w1ckets to the drying and burning chambers
Alumina (AI20 3 ) •
' Iron oxide (Fe20 3 )
•
• } o ·6 3'7
I '7
7'0
2'5
o·69
o·68
are sealed with half-brick thick walls daubed over with grouted lime, and the face of I ·Carbon dioxide, water, etc. s ·o 6 ·o 5'0 o·84
the last stacked chamber in each section is covered with brown paper to exclude I
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

draught from the open wickets in front. Lightly burnt lime suitable for building
purposes (mortars and plasters) is obtained at normal temperatures of I I00° to
1 ,2oo'' C. in the firing chambers, but proximity to the flues and longer heating periods
produce a l?roportwn of more solidly burnt lime suitable for the preparation of caustic
s?da. Wh1lst unloading ~he burnt lime, it is hand-picked, selected and graded, the
hghtly burnt bemg wh1te Ill colour and the hard-fired or ovcrburnt being dark coloured.
SLAKING, SETTING AND HARDENING OF LIME.-Pure limestone or chalk is
composed of carbonate of lime (CaC0 3 ). When this is heated in a kiln it yields
calcium oxide (CaO) or quicklime and carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) which is driven off.
When the quicklime is slaked by the addition of water heat is evolved, and
the lime expands and falls to powder. If just sufficient water is added to accom-
plish this action, the powder is dry and is called hydrated lime (seep. 21). This
slaked or hydrated lime is calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2 ), the action of slaking
being expressed by the equation CaO + H 20 = Ca(OH) 2 • If more water is added
to the slaked lime it does not chemically combine with the lime but reduces
it to a paste known as lime putty.
On lime putty being exposed to the atmosphere, it begins to set and
gradually hardens to form carbonate of lime as the water evaporates and carbon
~ioxide is absorbed from the air. This is known as " carbonation," and is qn
tmportant property, as the hardness of certain lime mortars is dependent upon it.
The chemical action which takes place on carbonation is represented by the
equation Ca(OH)2 + C0 2 = CaC03 + H 20 (which is evaporated).
The slaking of hydraulic limes is referred to in the next column.
CLASSIFICATION.-The composition of various limestones differs considerably,
and thus there are a number of different kinds of limes each having characteristic
properties which influence the purposes for which they are used. This is one
of several classifications 1 of lime: {I) Pure, Fat, White or Rich; (2) Lean,
Poor, Grey Chalk or Stone ; (3) Hydraulic or Blue Lias ; and (4) Magnesian.
The schedule at the top of next column shows an approximate analysis of a
typical specimen of each of these vari·eties.
I. Pure, Fat, White or Rich Lime contains less than 5 per cent. of im-
purities such as silica and alumina (in the form of clay). In the analysis the
specimen is shown consisting almost entirely of calcium oxide. It slakes rapidly,
evolves much heat, and expands from two or three times its original bulk during
• 1 The latest classification appears in the British Standard Specification for Building
Limes,_ No. ~90~I940, which divides quicklime into two classes, i.e., Class A-Lime for
plastermg fi~1shmg coat, coarse stuff and building mortar, and Class B-Lime for coarse
stuff and buiidmg mortar only. It gives particulars of several tests.
I
I roo·o Ioo·o IOO 'O roo·oo I
I ·- - - -- __i_'
the process, has a high degree of plasticity (hence the name " fat "), is slow
setting and very slow in hardening. This stiffening up can only occur when
the lime is in contact with the air (see preceding column). Whilst pure lime,
which is white in colour, is extensively used for plastering, it is not so suitable
for lime mortar on account of its slow-hardening characteristic and lack of
strength (unless gauged with cement, seep. 27).
2 . Lean, Poor, Grey Chalk or Stone Lime contains more than 5 per cent.
of clayey impurities and is therefore less pure than fat lime. In the above
analysis the impurities of silica, alumina and iron oxide amount to over I I per
cent. The characteristics are somewhat similar to those of fat lime, but on
account of its impurities it slakes less rapidly (resulting in a diminution of heat
and volume) and its iron content is responsible for its grey colour. Like
fat lime, it sets and hardens slowly. It is used for both plaster and lime
mortar.
3· Hydr~ulic or Blue ~ias Lime.-.This_ class of lime is capable of setting
and hardenmg when not m contact w1th a1r and even if submerged in water
hence the name. Hydraulic lime is therefore unlike both pure and lean lime~
which, as already stated, will only stiffen when the water is evaporated from the
putty and carbonation takes place as the C0 2 is absorbed from the air.
I:imeston~~ from whic~ hy~raulic limes are prepared contain varying pro-
porttons of s1hca and alumma (m the form of clay), in addition to the calcium
oxide (see analysis). The clay and iron oxide play an important part in the
setting and hardening of such limes. Quicklime is formed when the carbon
dioxide is driven off the calcium carbonate as the limestone is burnt in the kiln.
This quicklime, having a strong affinity for the clay, combines with it to form
silicates and aluminates of lime.
Slaking.-If wat~r is· added to this burnt product after it has been finely
ground the mass begms to set and harden as the water combines with the various
products. As this action is not dependent upon the presence of carbon dioxide,
the hardening will continue even when air is absent. The setting and hardening
are therefore similar to the behaviour of Portland cem6nt, the composition of
which it closely resembles-compare the above analysis of hydraulic lime witk
that of Portland cement on p. 23.
These limes have been subdivided into (a) feebly hydraulic, (b) moderately
 Ll ME
hydraulic and (c) eminently hydraulic, according to the percentage of silica
and alumina present.
(a) Feebly Hydraulic Lime.-This contains less than I 5 per cent. of silica
and alumina. The rate of slaking is slow (varying from five to sixty minutes) and
the expansion on slaking is small. It produces a good mortar.
(b) Moderately Hydraulic Lime.-The silica and alumina content varies
from IS to 25 per cent. Slaking is very slow and the expansion is small. It
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makes an excellent mortar, is stronger than feebly hydraulic lime and is suitable
for good-class brickwork and masonry.
(c) Eminently or Very Hydraulic Lime.-This contains from 25 to 30 per
cent. of the important constituents of silica and alumina, and its chemical
composition is very similar to that of ordinary Portland cement (see p . 23).
It is also known as blue Lias lime, as it is found in the Lias formation which
extends throughout part of Yorkshire and the Midlands. This lime is similar
to, but stronger than, the moderately hydraulic variety. It must be very finely
ground and must be screened before use to eliminate coarse unslaked particles.
It closely resembles Portland cement (p. 22) and is used for similar purposes.
4· Magnesian or Dolomitic Lime.-The rocks from which such limes are
produced are known as magnesian limestones or dolomites, as they contain up
to 45 per cent. magnesium oxide. 1 The latter has similar characteristics to
calcium oxide although it slakes much more slowly. This is an excellent
lime and is generally used in the localities in which the magnesian limestones
are found.
AIR SLAKING.-The burnt lime should be slaked as soo11 as possible after
it arrives on the site, otherwise moisture and carbon dioxide from the atmos-
phere will, in course of time, reduce the lime to a powder, i.e., it will become
air slaked. This is undesirable, for, carbonation having taken place, the particles
of carbonate of lime are incapable of setting, and thus adulterate any mortar
with which they may be mixed. Hence the necessity of using only " freshly
burnt " lime.
HYDRATED LIME.-As explained on p. 20, hydrated lime is that produced
when just sufficient water is added to the burnt limestone to satisfy the chemical
action of slaking, and is in a dry powder form . The slaking process must be
thorough, as any unslaked particles may cause considerable damag~:.
In addition to ordinary quicklime, certain lime manufacturers now supply
lime in hydrated form. There is an increasing demand for this dry hydrated
lime on account of the saving of time and labour resulting to the builder or
plasterer. This lime is hydrated by a special plant at the lime-works and is
supplied in bags, ready for use, in the form of a dry, fine powder. This process
must be carefully controlled and the amount of water added must be just sufficient
for the purpose, as an inadequate supply would result in some of the lime being
nuslaked, whilst an excess of water would produce plastic lime or putty.
1 The B.S.S. No. 890-1940, states that a lime which contains more than 5 per cent.
of magnesium oxide shall be termed a magnesian lime.
180
At the Buxton works referred to on p. 19, h ydrated lime, called " Limbux, " is
produced by the plant shown diagrammatically in Fig. 7· The burnt lime from the
kiln is fed into the crusher A and reduced in size from 1-in. down , elevated to the
hopper B and passed into the hydrator c . The latter consists of six steel tubes, each
2-ft. 6-in. diameter and 12-ft. long. A carefully regulated supply of water required
to slake the lime enters the hydrator at D, the steam generated from the slaked lime
rising to heat the water. The lime is pushed forward by means of an auger and
traverses the hydrator as indicated by the arrows. It is now in the form of a powder
and proceeds to the separator E, where the fan F separates the fine light powdered
hydrated lime from the heavier coarser matter. The latter, consisting of clots of
hydrated lime and small nodules of unslaked lime, falls to the bottom and the clots
are broken up by the pulverizer G . Any unslaked particles of lime, because of their
density, fall to the bottom of the pulverizer and are rejected. The hydrated lime
extracted by the fan is blown to the cyclone Hand hence to the bunker J. The greater
part of the circulating air is returned by the pipe L to the separator system . The
increased air pressure in the bunker which is created by the fan is relieved by a tube
which is terminated by a canvas sieve called the " stockings " M . This allows the
air to escape, any of the fine powder drawn up with it being retained and returned
to the bunker by periodically striking the canvas on the outside. F inally, the hydrated
lime in the bunker, like Portland cement (see p. 22), flows into paper bags and is auto-
matically weighed. The usual size of bag contains s6-lh., but 1 and z-cwt. hags cHn
be obtained if required.
0 I A. G 1\. A. M 0 F L I M E
H y D R A T I N G p L A N T
THE IIU~T LIME IS C~USHED AT 'A~ flEVATED TO THE HOPPE~ '&' !. ADMITTED
TO THE HYDtv.TOI'. "C'. A IUGULATED SUPPLY OF WATEI\ ENTEI\l AT 'D' !. SJAI(U
THE LIME AS IT IS PIOCPELLED AlONG. THE li'fi)MTED LIM£ IS THEN PASSED TO THE
SEPAtv.T~ ' E' WHEIU THE FAN 'F' SEPAMTES THE FINE LIGHT POWDE~ED lJME FJCM
THE HEAVIE~ C~I\SER MATTEI'.. THE LATTER, CONSISTING OF CLOTS OF LIME !. SMAIL M
NODULES OF UNSLAKED UME, FALLS TO THE IOTTOM l. THE CLOTS AAE III\OflfN UP &Y
THE PULVEt!JSOII. 'G'. ALL THE LIGHT HYOMTED LIME IS EXTMCTED 8Y THE FAN ' F'!.
&&pWN TO THE CYCLONE 11H' t.. HENCE TO TH£ BUNKER •J• WHEN n IS MJTOMATICAU.Y
WEI<iHED A5 11 F_LOWS INTO PAPER aAGS AT THE MCK.ING MACHINE 'K'. THE STOCKING
01\. SIEVE" 'M~ 1\EUEVES THE AI~ PRESSUI\E IN THE BUNKE'- CkEATEO &Y TH! FAN AND
ALLOWS THE AIR TO ESCAPE &UT RETAINS THE POWDEIUD LIME. ANY UNSLAKED PI>J.·
STOCKINGS
TICL!S OF LIM! FALL TO THE &OTTOM OF THE PULVERISOR l. ARE REJECTED.
- HOPPE~
--::..:W~'A!;JE~ TUB£
,1+14-l-·.=
I===~
~ ( ~ ,HYDf\.ATOR
G===~
·
CONVEYO~
HOT TO SCALE FIGURE l
CEMENT
There are two groups of cement, i.e., twtural and artificial, but whilst the
latter is one of the most important building materials, comparatively little
natural cement is now produced. Natural cement is made from nodules con-
sisting of lime (approximately, 4o per cent.), day (50 per cent.) and oxides of
iron, etc. (roper cent.); these lumps are burnt and crushed to a powder, which
is a brown colour due to the iron content. Roman cement (produced near
 181 BRICKWORK
London) and Medina cement (Isle of Wight) are both quick-setting natural
cements.
The artificial cement group includes :
(i) Normal or ordinary.
( ) p 1 d C { (ii) Rapid-hardening.
a ort an ement (iii) White.
(iv) Blast-furnace.
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(b) High Alumina Cement.
(a) (i) Normal or Ordinary Portland Cement.-Chalk or limestone and clay
are the raw materials from which this cement is manufactured (p. 2, Vol. 1).
The cement works are generally situated near deposits of these raw materials.
A brief description of the manufacture and a diagram of a cement works are
given in Fig. 8. The processes include: (r) Excavation and preparation of the
materiais; (2) mixing and grinding; (3) burning; and (4-) grinding.
1. Excavation and Preparation.-The chalk is w.on from the limestone quarry by
blasting. Gelignite charges are tamped in 6-in. diameter holes drilled at about
15-ft. intervals and at a distance of 1s-ft. from the face (see sketch). On instantane-
ously firing these charges, huge masses of the limestone, amounting to several thousand
tons and varying in size from small fragments to large blocks, are dislodged. This
loose stone is discharged into wagons from a mechanical navvy (p . 2) and hauled
to the jaw crusher into which it is tipped and reduced by two powerful metal jaws
to a maximum size of 8-in. cubes. The crushed stone passes on to a moving belt
and is conveyed to the cone crusher which reduces it down to ;f-in. maximum. This is
delivered by a belt conveyor to the limestone silo.
The clay is excavated by mechanically dragging a scraper-bucket over the clay
field ; this is tipped into a wash mill (p. 1), and the washed clay, called slip, containing
about 6o per cent. of water, is pumped through metal pipes to the clay slip storage
tank.
2. Mixing and Grinding.-The chalk from the silo and the clay slip from the
tank enter the wet grinding mill at A in the correct proportions (approximately 78 per
cent. chalk and 22 per cent. clay). This is a cylindrical mill, 37-ft. long by 7 to 8t-ft.
diameter, having a chromium steel lining and divided into three compartments by two
slotted diaphragms. About 32 per cent. of the mill is occupied by steel balls graded
in diameter from 4 to 3-in. in the first compartment, 2! to It-in. in the m iddle
compartment and 1-in. in the last compartment. The mill is caused to rotate at about
20 revs. per min., and as it rotates, the abrasive act ion of the balls as they strike
against each other and against the metal casing grind the material as it comes between
them. Fine grinding and thorough mixing reduce the materials to a cream y con-
sistency, called slurry, the bulk of which, after leaving the mill , passes through a
fine sien~ (having a o·oo3s-in. mesh); that which fails to pass through the sieve is
returned to the mill and re-ground .
After screening, .the slurry is conveyed to the open slurry tank, which is 66-ft . in
diameter and 15-ft. deep, where it is kept agitated by compressed air delivered through
perforated pipes at the bottom of the tank. The slurry, now a uniform mixture,
is then pumped to the upper or feed end of the kiln.
J. Burning.-The kiln is of the rotary type. It is a steel cylinder lined with
firebrick, about 300-ft. long· and 10-ft. diameter, slightly inclined and m ounted on
roll ers ; it re volves slowly at about 1 rev. per min. The fuel is dry pulverized coal.
The raw coal is tipped from the railway trucks a t c, ele,·ated to the rm<· coal silo,
passed to the coal mill where it is finely ground and also dried by hot air conveyed
from the kiln by pipe D, eleYated to the puh•erized coal hopper and blown in at the
lower or firing end of the kiln--sec arrows. The temperature in the lower o r burning
zone is very intense (a white heat of approximately 2;8oo" F .) and gradually decreases
to 4S0°-S00° F. at the top end, where the gases escape up the chimney stack. . Thus
the cold slurry, which is fed automatically and continuously, is first dr~ed m _the
upper zone, and during its passage down the kiln is heated and finally partially fused
into clinker. The chalk constituent, as it is heated, is converted into quicklime by
the liberation of C0 2 and when subjected to the higher temperature the lime and
clay chemically unite to form hard balls (ito ;f-in. in size) of Portland cement, called
clinker, which is dark brown to black in colour. .
This clinker, which is white hot, is cooled as it passes from the kiln at the lower
end into drums or cylinders called coolers. There are twelve of these coolers, 4-ft.
in diameter and at least 2o-ft. long, parallel to and attached to the outside of the
kiln. A draught of cold air is passed through the cylinders as the clinker gradually
gravitates towards and emerges from the lower end on to a belt conveyor which
delivers it to the clinker storage bin or shed.
4· Grinding.-Ciinker is fed into the clinker hopper by means of an overhead
travelling crane grab; the latter is also used to mix the coarse with the finer clinker.
From the hopper the clinker passes to the combination grinding mill, ball mill or
dry mill; this is of the same size and is similar to the wet mill , it being divided
into three compartments which contain graded steel balls. These grind the
clinker to a powder which is so fine that at least 90 per cent. of it must pass
through a sieve of wire cloth having a mesh of o ·oo3s-in. square size of openmgs
(see below).
A small quantity, from 1 to 3 per cent., of gypsum (calcium sulphate) is added at
B from the gypsum hopper which adjoins the clinker hopper. This tends to lengthen
the setting time of the cement to suit practical conditions. .
The ground cement as it emerges from the dry mill is forced by compressed a1r
up a pipe to silos o r bins , each 20-ft. in diameter and about 70-ft. high, and havmg
a capacity of 1,soo tons.
Packing.-The cement from the silos is elevated to a hopper from which it flows
to the packing machine. The cement was formerly packed into jute bags, but strong
paper-valved bags of 1-.:wt. capacity are now chiefly used. Each bag is placed by
hand on the delivery nozzle of the machine, the cement is automatically weighed as 1t
flows into it, and the filled and sealed bag is discharged and either stacked or placed
direct into lorries or trucks . One machine can fill 1,200 bags per hour.
Testing.- The manufacture is closely controlled at each stage, and samples
of the clay slip and chalk before they enter the wet mill, slurry after leaving the
mill, clinker after leaving the kiln, and cement at the packing machine are taken
for laboratory examination.
The cement during and after manufacture is tested in accordance with the
British Standard Specification for Ordinary Portland and Rapid-hardening
Portland Cements, No. 12-1940.1 This specification includes the following
tests with which Portland ·c ement must comply : (a) Fineness, (b) chemical
composition, (c) strength, (d) setting time and (e) soundness. The following
are brief particulars of these :-
(a) Fineness.- This is estimated by sieving for fifteen minutes a sample (about
4-oz.) of the cement on a N o. " 170 "(o ·oo3s-in . mesh) British Standa rd sieve, when
the residue for ordinary Portland cement shall not exceed 10 per cent. As a general
rule the finer the cement the more rapid the strength development of the concrete.
(b) Chemical Composition.- This clause in the specification limits the p roportion
of lime to the silica, alumina and iron oxide, and the ratio of the percentage of iron
oxide to that of alumina. It also specifies the maximum percentage of insoluble
residue ( 1 per cent.), magnesia (4 per cent.) and sulphur (z ·75 per cent.), in addition
to limiting the loss on ignition to 3 p er cent.
1 Published by the British Standards Institution. 28 Victoria Street, L ondon, S.W.I,
at 2s. net.
 CEMENT 182

D A G R A M 0 F c E M E N T w 0 R K s
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Tht· tullo\nng may be considered as an approximate analysis of a typical· Portlatu..l remammg six at sev~n days . The an-rage minimum ttonsik hrc.tking strength of
cement:- ordinary Portland cement shall be 300-lb. per sq. in. at thrn· days and 3is-lb. pt·r sq.
Per Cent. in. at seven days after moulding.
Lime 64 One type of tensile testing machine is shown at A, Fig. 9· This has a p'a ir of jaws
Silica . 2j of standard size and shape in which the briqut>ttt· is placed. The lowt'r jaw is fixed
Alumina 5 and the upper jaw is suspended at K to a systt·m of levers consisting of lever R, pivoted
Iron oxide 3 on a knife-edge at J, and connected by a rod (having knife-edges at L and M) to lever
Magnesia 2 Q, pivoted at N. A bucket is suspended at P to recein- the load in the form of shot
Sulphuric anhydride 2 (lead pellets) fed from the container.
Soda and potash The testing is carried out in the following manner : A briquette is placed in tht•
jaws, the spindle T is lifted to release the shot, which passes in a steady stream through
IOO a valve down the nozzle of the container into the bucket. This load is transmitted
to the briquette through the system of le,·ers and ultimately causes it to break across
The whole of the lime should combine with the silica and alumina. Any excess, at the waist. Immediately this occurs the flow of shot is automatically stopped as
called free lime, may produce unsoundness (see p . 24). A deficiency of lime may the bucket falls on the pedestal below, depressing arms, which in turn causes the
produce a weak cement. spindle to drop and close the valve of the container. The bucket containing the shot
The presence of iron is responsible for the grey colour of cement (resembling is placed on some scales and weighed. A direct reading of the breaking load in pounds
that of Portland stone). If excessive, the iron oxide increases the difficulty of grind- is obtained from the scales, as thev are calibrated in accordance with the ratio of the
ing the clinker. levers after the weight of the empty bucket has been allowed for. As this breaking
Excessive quantities of magnesia and sulphur compounds cause unsoundness. load is applied on 1 sq. in. of the briquette, it becomes the breaking stress in pounds
An excessive quantity of soda and potash may cause efflorescence in the cement, per square inch.
and these alkalis should therefore be kept to a minimum. A line diagram of the lever system of the apparatus is shown at c. The ratio of
(c) St,·ength.-The specification requires that cement shall pass tests to determine the lengths ]'K' and (r.' in the lower le,·er is as I : 5 and that of M'N' and N'P' is as
its strength in tension or compression. I : 10. ·Hence the magnifying ratio is so, i.e., the stress on the briquette is so times
Tensile Strength Test.- The cement has to be mixed with sand to .form a mortar as large as the load in the bucket. Thus, if the weight of the shot in the bucket wh«?n
composed of I part (by weight) cement and 3 parts of Leighton Buzzard sand (a very equals 7 x '= 70-lb., and this
the briquette fails is 7-lb ., the load acting on MI. IO
clean, white and well graded sand obtained from Bedfordshire) to which a specified I
amount of water is added. The mortar is formed in a brass mould of the shape multiplied by 5 equals 350-lb. This is the breaking load, and is that which is read
shown at B, Fig. 9, the cross-sectional area at the " waist " of the briquette being directlv from the scales.
I sq. in. The mould is carefully filled by consolidating the mortar with a standard Coiupressit·e Strength Test .-I£ required by the purchaser the above tensile stress
steel spatula (knife) until it is flush with the top ; the mould is reversed and the test may be substituted by a compressive strength test. The latter is applied to z·78
broad blade of the spatula is used to pat the mortar until water is brought to the or 3-in. cubes of a I : 3 mix, the mixing and compacting by vibration in a machine
surface, after which the surface is smoothed over and brought flush with the top of being specified. Three cubes are tested in a compression machine (see p. 32) at three
the mould by a trowel. The briquette is stored in a damp atmosphere and kept for days after moulding, and the average minimum compressive strength (calculated
twenty-four hours at a temperature of 58° to 64° F., when it is removed from the from the crushing load) for ordinary Portland cement shall be I ,6oo~lb. per sq. in.
mould, submerged in clean water and left until required for testing. Three cubes are similarly tested at seven days, when the a\·erage minimum compressive
It is required that twelve briquettes shall be prepared and stored in this manner, strength shall be 2,soo-lb. per sq. in. (see Table II, p. 34).
and that six of these shall he tested at three days after moulding, followed by the (d) Setting Time.-When cement and water are mixed to form a paste, the mass
 BRICKWORK
remains plastic for a short while. The water combines chemically with the grains
of cement to form hydrates. This is known as hydration. As this proceeds, the
plasticity gradually disappears and the cement stiffens or sets. The cementing material
lwtwccn the particles of cement increases in amount, causing the mass to gain in
strength and hardness, and this hardness increases for some considerable time after
it has-set.
The specification refers to "initial set" and "final set." Regarding the former,
it is essential that the cement shall set slowly at first to allow time for the mixing
and placing in position of the concrete, and to ensure thorough adhesion between
ac.Jjacent batches of concrete. It is equally important that the concrete shall harden
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quickly after its initial set in order that it may be loaded as soon as possible and (in
tht> case of reinforced concrete) permit of the early removal of any forrnwork or
shuttering (temporary timbering) which may be supporting it.
According to the specification, the initial setting time for normal setting cement
~hall he not less than thirty minutes and the final setting time not more than ten
hours. If a quick-setting cement (see next column) is required, the initial sl"tting time
is reduced to not less than five minutes, and the final setting time to not more than
thirty minutes. The Vicat apparatus, shown at D, Fig. 9, is used to ddermine the
initial and final setting times of cement. A brass cylindrical mould, approximately
3-in. dia. and r ~-in. deep, is placed upon a metal plate and filled to the top with neat
cement to which sufficient water has been added to make it plastic. The tilled mould
is placed on the base as indicated by broken lines. The initial set is measured by
means of a needle ha\'ing a flat end, o·o39-in. ( 1-mm.) square, which is screwed to the
bottom of the rod in place of the final settin!( needle shown. The pin is withdrawn
and the roc.J is lowered until it touches the smooth surface of the cement, when it is
quickly released and allowed to penetrate the cement. This is repeated at intervals
on different parts of the specimen until the needle fails to pierce it completely. The
time which has elapsed between the addition of the water and this partial penetration
of the needle is called the initial setting time and, as already stated, must not be less
than thirty minutes for normal setting cement (or five minutes for quicl~-setting
cement). The final setting time is determined in a similar manner, the initial setting
needle being replaced by the final setting needle shown. The latter, of the same
shape and section as the former needle, has a metal fitting attached at the end ; the
base of the fitting has a raised rim which is about o·o:z-in. (!-mm.) above the end of
the central needle. The cement is consid,ered to be finally set when, on a gentle
application of the needle, the central flat point makes an impression on it, but the
raised rim fails to do so. This final setting time must not exceed ten hours for
normal-setting cement or thirty minutes for quick-setting cement.
(c) Soundness.-Unsound cement has a tendency towards excessive expansion.
Sound cement is relatively free from this tendency and its volume remains constant.
Most serious defects in cement products are caused by expansion which takes place
during setting and may continue for some considerable time. Thus, reinforced
concrete made of unsound cement ·may crack and disintegrate to such an extent as
to permit the entrance of moisture and cause corrosion of the exposed steel. The
soundness test which appears in the standard specific!ltion is therefore very important.
This soundness or expansion test is carried out in the Le Chatelier apparatus
illustrated at F, Fig. 9· This is a brass split cylindrical mould having an indicator
attached on each side of the split. The mould, resting on a glass plate and held
together with the split edges touching, is completely filled with neat cement gauged
with just sufficient water to make it plastic, and covered with another glass plate
which is held down by a small weight. It is at once immersed in water (temperature
58° to 64° F.) and left for twenty-four h'ours. It is taken out, the distance w between
the indicators is measured, the weighted mould is again immersed and then boiled
for three hours. The mould is removed and, after cooling, the distance between the
points is again measured. The difference between the two measurements indicates
the expansion of the cement and shall not exceed o·4-in ( 10-mm.).
Good cements will show little (not more than o·o4-in.) if any expansion. The
expansion of poor cements is often due to the presence of excess gypsum and other
sulphates. The boiling water accelerates the reaction and resultant expansion.
A simple but effective test (not mentioned in the specification) is the hot-pat
test. Water is added to neat cement and thoroughly mixed to a plastic condition .
This is worked to the shape of a ball, placed on a piece of glass which is tapped on
the bench until the cement flattens out to the shape of a disc about 3-in . in diameter,
a little mort' than j -in. thick at the centre and tapering tu a knife-edge at the circum-
ference. The surface is then smoothed over with a knife. After being CO\'ered over
with a damp cloth and allowed to harden for twenty-four hours, the pat is boiled in
water for four or five hours. If the cement is unsound, radial cracking (especially
at the edges) and distortion will appear, duoe to expansion ; the edges may curl up and
surface flaking may appear. A pat of sound cement will remain unaltered after this
treatment, although fine shrinkage cracks may appear.
The cold-pat test is similar to the above, except that the pat is not boiled but
simply immersed in cold water for twenty-four hours before examination.
(a) (ii) RAPID-HARDENING OR HIGH-.EARLY-STRENGTH PoRTLAND CEMENT.-
This is true Portland cement, and, as its name implies, its chief characteristic
is the comparative rapidity with which it gains in strength in the early stages of
hydration (see Table II, p. 34).
The B.S.S. No. 12-1940, already referred to, applies to this cement. Whilst
the residue of ordinary cement on a 170 sieve shall not exceed 10 per cent.
(see p. 22), that of rapid-hardening cement shall not exceed 5 per cent. The
ultimate tensile stress shall be not less than 300-lb. per sq. in. after one day
and 450-lb. per sq. in . after three days. The compressive strength shall be
not less than I ,6oo-lb. per sq. in. after one day and 3,500-lb. per sq. in. after
three days. The initial setting time shall be not less than five minutes and
the final setting time shall be not more than thirty minutes. These require-
ments should be compared with those stated in respect to ordinary Portland
cement.
Rapid-hardening cement can be usefully employed in cold weather, as it
is less liable than ordinary cement to damage from frost. It is preferred to
ordinary cement in the construction of concrete roads, as it can take traffic
within a few days, whereas concrete composed of ordinary cement should be
left for twenty-eight days before roads are opened to heavy traffic. This advan-
tage also applies to reinforced concrete floors, etc., made of rapid-hardening
cement, as the lapse of time before the removal of the temporary timbering
(formwork) and the application of loads is considerably reduced. The .cost of
rapid-hardening cement is slightly more than that of ordinary Portland cement.
"Ferrocrete" and "Vitocrete" are some of the well-known brands of rapid-
hardening cement.
(a) (iii) WHITE PoRTLAND CEMENT.-The chemical composition and charac-
teristics of white Portland cement are similar to those of ordinary Portland
cement, except that the latter is of a grey colour. The colour of white cement
is due to the raw materials used and the special precautions taken in its pro-
duction. The materials are pure limestone and china (white) clay, the iron
oxide content (which imparts the grey colour to ordinary Portland cement)
being less than 1 per cent. The cement must not come into contact with iron
or steel during its manufacture, the kiln is lined with special fireclay blocks,
and oil is generally the fuel used. Aggregates used with white cement should
 CEMENT
be light coloured, (see p. 28). White cement is more expensive than ordinary
cement. It is in increasing demand for external rough-casting of walls, pointing
of brickwork and masonry, and in the manufacture of reconstructed (artificial)
stone and tiles. '\Veil-known brands include " Atlas " and " Snowcrete."
CoLOURED CEMENT.- Cement, used for special purposes such as for plastering
walls and in the manufacture of reconstructed stone and tiles, is now obtainable
in a variety of colours. Pigments, such as black oxide of iron and manganese
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black (to produce a black colour), red oxide of iron (producing red), brown
oxide of iron (producing brown), chromic oxide (producing green), etc., are
thoroughly incorporated with the cement in a dry condition by machinery.
Coloured cement can be obtained ready for use from the manufacturers, or the
cement and pigments can be mixed on the job.
(a) (iv) PoRTLAND BLAST-FURNACE CEMENT.-This is a mixture of ordinary
Portland cement and blast-furnace slag. The latter is a product of the blast
furnace in which iron ore is smelted as a preliminary in the manufacture of
cast iron, steel, etc. Normally this slag is an impurity which is run into ladles
and conveyed to the slag tip. When, however, it is used in the production of
cement, the slag as it issues from the furnace is cooled by a stream of water
which reduces it to a honeycombed, granulated condition. The slag is removed,
dried and mixed with ordinary cement clinker and passed to a ball mill (see
p. 22) for thorough incorporation and fine grinding. Not every slag is suitable
for this purpose. The quality of this cement must comply with the British
Standard Specification for Portland~Biastfurnace Cement, No. 146-I932. The
proportion of slag must not exceed 65 per cent., and that of Portland cement
clinker inust not be less than 35 per cent. (see p. 28).
(b) HIGH ALUMINA OR ALUMINOUS CEMENT. 1- There is a considerable
difference in both composition and manufacture between this cement and
Portland cement. Aluminous cement is made from a mixture of limestone
and bauxite (aluminium ore imported principally from Baux, France) which
are fired in a furnace in which pulverized coal and a hot air blast are em-
ployed. The heat fuses (liquefies) \he materials, whereas in the manufacture
of Portland cement the heat clinkers the raw materials (see p. 22). The liquid
cement is tapped from the base of the furnace and conveyed to mills where it
is ground to extreme fineness. The cement is much darker in colour than
Portland cement. An approximate analysis is :
Per Cent.
Lime . 39
Silica . 7 fine particles, such as dust or silt, is not suitable, as an excessive amount of
Alumina 39
Iron oxide IJ
Magnesia, etc. 2
100
This cement is sometimes produced in electricfurnaces and known as electric cement .
1 Various tests are embodied ir~ the British Standard Spec~fication for HiKh Alumina
Cement, No . 9I5-1940.
Its chief characteristics are : Rapid-hardening, great strength, large amount
of heat generated during the setting and hardening process, and its resistance
to acids. Concrete composed of this cement develops a compressive strength
of at least s,ooo-lb. per sq. in. at the age of one day and 7,ooo-lb. per sq. in.
at the age of seven days (see Table II, p. 34). It is unaffected by frost on account
of the heat which it generates. Because of these qualities, high alumina cement
can be usefully employed when iormwork is required to be removed with the
minimum delay, for concreting ground floors on certain soils containing sul-
phates which may attack ordinary Portland cement concrete, for concrete piles
(which can be driven after three days' hardening), for road construction (especially
in the re-laying of city streets), for general work requiring great strength, and
when work must be done during low temperatures. The strength of high
alumina cement concrete is affected adversely if the heat rapidly generated
during hardening is not got rid of. Thus, formwork encasing concrete should
be removed as soon as practicable. Its use is not advocated for mass concrete
exceeding IS-in. thick unless it can he deposited in thin layers, preferably I2-in .
thick, and the dissipation of the evolved heat permitted. Another disadvantage
of high alumina cement is its relatively high cost. It must not be mixed with
or brought into contact with Portland cement, as a reduction in the strength of
the former will result. Well-known brands are" Ciment Fondu "(fused cement)
and " Lightning."
MORTARS
Mortar is composed of an aggregate, such as sand, and a matrix or binding
material of lime or cement or both (see p. 2, Vol. I).
SAND in mortar (I) reduces shrinkage and without it cracks would develop,
(2) assists in the hardening of pure limes especially (p. 20) by allowing the
penetration of air which provides C0 2 for the development of carbonization
(p. 20) and (3) reduces its cost, as sand is much cheaper than lime or cement.
To give the bt:st results sand should be well graded and must be clean.
Grading of Sand.-A suitably graded sand consists of particles varying in
size from coarse to fine, with the smaller particles packing into the voids between
the larger. A coarse sand is one the bulk of which is retained on a No. 52 British
Standard Sieve (,l4 -in. square mesh). If most of the particles of a sample pass
through this sieve, the sand is classified as a fine one. Coarse sand produces
what is known as a harsh mortar. Sand containing a large proportion of very
water is required to make the mortar workable, and this reduces its strength
and increases shrinkage. It is therefore recommended that, for mortar, not
more than 3 per cent. of sand should pass a No. roo standard sieve (1 h-in.
square mesh). To the experienced, the relative coarseness and fineness of a
consignment of sand can be gauged approximately by its appearance and by
rubbing some of it between the thumb and forefinger.
The strength of mortar (and concrete, see p. 28) is decreased if the particles
 185 BRICKWORK
of sand are of uniform si?.e, owing to the presence of a large proportion of pore
spaces. Tests have shown that the shape of the particles is not very important.
Cleanliness of Sand is most essential. Adhesion between the binding material
and the sand is only possible if the particles of the latter are clean, and the
presence of dirt, especially if finely distributed to such an extent as to surround
each small particle, interferes with the setting and reduces the strength of mortars
and concretes. The chief impurities are clay, loam and organic compounds
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such as vegetable matter. The latter, not being inert, is liable to decay, and the
organic acids produced may have an ill-effect on the mortar or concrete.
Clean sand when rubbed will not stain the fingers. A simple and effective
test consists of half filling a glass vessel with the sand, water is added until it
almost reaches the top, and after being agitated, the sand is allowed to settle.
If the sand is clean, not more than a thin film of silt will be seen deposited on
top of the sand, and the water above it will be clear; if, however, the sample is
a dirty one, the bottom layer of the washed sand will be covered by a relatively
thick dark layer of dirt, and small particles of suspended matter (generally
organic and fine clay) may be seen floating in the water even if several hours
have elapsed after agitation and examination.
Sand for general purposes may be considered satisfactory if a test similar
to the above {but in a measuring cylinder) shows that it contains not more than
6 per cent. of silt. This is known as a sedimentation or decanting test.
A test for organic impurities consists of comparing the colour of the watt!r above
the sa~ple of s~nd in a cylinder (to which a definite amount of 3 per cent. sodium
hydroxide solution has been added) with that of a standard solution of tannic acid
and sodium hydroxide. If, after standing for twenty-four hours following agitation,
the colour of the former is darker than the standard colour, it indicates that the sand
contains an excessive amount of organic matter which may be injurious and should
be treated with suspicion.
If, on the score of economy, a local sand is to be used which is not sufficiently
clean, much of the dirt can be eliminated by washing.
The following aggregates are used for mortars: {I) Pit or quarry sand,
(2) river sand, (3) sea sand, (4) crushed stone and (5) ashes.
I. Pit or Quarry Sand.- The quality varies. Provided it is clean, it is a
very good sand for mortar, concrete and plaster. Some pit sands are liable to
contain organic matter in the form of coal which may interfere with the setting.
2. River Sand.- This is usually clean and is an excellent sand for all
purposes. Some river sands may be deficient in fines (smaller particles) and
thus produce harsh mortars.
3· Sea Sand.-Whilst this sand is commonly used locally for concrete, it
is not suitable for mortar on account of its salt content which causes efflorescence
(p. I3)·
4· Crushed Stone.-This is now often used, especially for mortar required
for ashlar work. The waste stone at the quarries is crushed to the size of sand
particles. When this crushed stone is the same as that used for the ashlar work
it assists in producing a mortar which closely conforms to the colour of the
masonry and thus helps in making the joints inconspicuous.
5· Ashes or Clinkers from furnaces are crushed very finely and intimately
ground with the lime in a mortar mill to produce a cheap and strong mortar,
known as black mortar. The ashes should be free from unburnt coal and dust.
Old broken bricks, which should be clean and especially free from plaster, are
sometimes crushed and mixed with the lime in the mill.
LIME MoRTAR.- The slaked lime is mixed with the aggregate and water
either by hand or in a mortar mill. Manual mixing should be done on a boarded
platform to ensure that dirt will not be shovelled into the mix. The period of
slaking, composition and strength of mortar depend upon the class of lime
used.
The properties of the mortar should resemble those of the bricks. Thus, whilst
a dense, strong impermeable mortar, such as cement mortar, should be used for
bedding, jointing and pointing strong bricks of the engineering class, such mortar
would be unsuitable for low-strength bricks of medium permeability if used in the
construction of external walls. Existing brickwork has been known to develop defects
in the bricks subsequent to re-painting with rich, dense mortar. A possible explana-
tion of the cause of this is that water absorbed by the bricks during wet weather
can only be eliminated during dry periods by evaporation on the surface of the bricks
and not through the joints, and any salts in the bricks may crystallize near the surface,
causing disintegration of their faces.
Non-hydraulic Lime Mortars (from pure and lean limes, see p. 20) must
be well slaked before use. This type can be stored in a heap for several days after
mixing, provided the surface is smoothed over with a shovel to minimize
carbonation by the exclusion of as much air as possible. As such mortars can
only harden when exposed to the atmosphere (p. 20), a relatively large proportion
of sand must be added to the lime to assist in the penetration of air. For this
reason the proportion of sand may be as high as 4 parts by volume of sand to I part
lime. These mortars are light-coloured. They are not likely to cause efflorescence.
These mortars are not suitable for work below ground level, especially if the
ground is water-logged. Such mortars are improved if gauged with cement (p. 27).
Hydraulic Lime Mortars (see p. 20) should be used within one hour after
being mixed. This especially applies to eminently hydraulic mortar which
sets quickly after the addition of the necessary amount of water. Any mortar
which has stiffened and cannot be knocked up by means of a trowel to a suffi-
ciently plastic condition should never be used. The proportions of lime to
aggregate range from I part lime to from 2 to 3i parts sand, a common mixture
being I : 3· These are excellent mortars for all purposes and are particularly
suited for work below the ground level and in exposed positions.
Eminently hydraulic lime mortars rank next to cement mortars as regards
strength. They may be a cause of efflorescence (p. I3) owing to the presence
of salts.
Magnesian or Dolomitic Lime Mortars (see p. 21) have a slow-setting action
and they should therefore be slaked for several hours before use. Their pro-
perties and uses are somewhat similar to those of hydraulic lime mortars.
 MORTARS
Dry Hydrated Lime lP· 21) should be reduced to a putty consistency by the
.addition of water and allowed to stand (soak) for about two days before being
mixed with sand.
Black Mortars (see p. 26).- A common proportion is I part lime to 3 parts
ashes or clinker (mixed in the mill). They are hard-setting mortars and are
suitable for internal walls and for brickwork and masonry where the colour is
not objected to. . used in the construction of faced work. The appearance of brickwork is often
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CEMENT MoRTAR (see p. 2, Vol. 1).-It is stronger than lime mortar and is
therefore used in the construction of piers and load-bearing walls ; it is also
usefully employed for work below ground level and for external walls in exposed
positions on account of its impermeability. Cement mortar is now extensively
used during winter, as it is not so liable to damage by frost , owing to its relatively
quick-setting property. It must be used immediately after mixing. Efflorescence
may be caused, due to the presence in the cement of carbonates and sulphates of
potash and soda (see p. 13). The usual composition is I part cement to 3 parts
sand; tests have shown that nothing is gained by using a richer (and more
costly) mix than this, provided the sand is well graded. A dense cement mortar
should not be used fOi' bedding and jointing low-strength bricks (p. 26).
LIME-CEMENT OR COMPO MoRTARS. -Compo is a mixture of lime, cementand
sand. It is usual to mix the lime mortar as already explained, and then gauge
(add to) this mixture with the necessary proportion of Portland cement immedi-
ately before the mortar is required for use. Only non-hydraulic and feebly
hydraulic limes should be used for this class of mortar. The addition of the
cement increases the hydraulicity of the mortar, besides increasing its strength,
and the rate of hardening is therefore accelerated. This quality makes it a useful
mortar to be employed in winter. Compo is more open textured than cement
mortar and is therefore better suited for bedding and jointing bricks of moderate
or low strength. The gauging also increases the workability of the mortar.
The proportions vary from I part cement : 2 to 3 parts lime : 9 to I2 parts sand.
Eminently hydraulic and magnesian limes should not be gauged with cement.
Compo is an excellent mortar for rubble, flint and similar walling where a large
proportion of bedding material is required. When ordinary lime mortars are used
for this class of work there is a tendency for excessive shrinkage to take place, and this
may cause cracks through which water may penetrate. Compo for such work may
consist of I part cement : 4 parts lime : 12 parts sand.
FIRE-RESISTANT MoRTAR.-Ordinary lime and cement mortars are unsuitable
for setting firebricks or fireclay blocks used for lining furnaces, fireplaces, etc. , as
they shrink considerably when subjected to heat. There are several proprietary
mortars specially produced for this class of work. A good fire-resisting morta·r
consists of a mixture of 1 part cement (preferably aluminous cement, see p . 25 ) to
2 parts finely crushed firebrick (p. 16).
Strength of Mortar.-Cement mortar produces the strongest brickwork,
non-hydraulic lime mortar walling is approximately half the strength of that
in cement mortar, and the strength of eminently hydraulic mortars is inter-
mediate between that of cement and non-hydraulic lime mortars. The strength
186
of compo mortars depends a good deal upon the cement content and may be
very little less than cement mortar.
Colour 9{ Mortar.-Whi!st the colour of the mortar is immaterial if the
brickwork i~ to be covered with plaster or roughcast, it is very important that
the colour shall suitably conform with that of the bricks when these are to be
spoilt through inadequate attention being paid to the colour and texture of the
jointing material, even when the bricks are expensive facings. The colour of
mortar is influenced by both the lime or cement and the aggregate, and in order
to obtain the desired result it is sometimes essential to try out different materials
and proportions.
The colour of lime mortar varies from white (when pure lime-p. 2o-is used) to
black (preceding column). Ordinary Portland cement mortar is grey in colour; white
Portland cement with a light-coloured sand produces white mortar; different shades can
be obtained by using coloured cements (p. 25). Sand varies in colour from white to
dark brown or red. A yellow sand, mixed with a grey lime, produces a satisfactory
colour for certain sand-faced brickwork.
Multi-coloured brickwork especially is apt to be disfigured by iron stains. As
this staining disappears after the brickwork has weathered, it is advisable to defe r
the pointing of such brickwork.
In masonry, and in order that the mortar shall harmonize with the stone, it is a
common pmctice to use crushed stone (p. 26) in lieu of sand. Thus, for Portland
stone ashlar work the proportions recommended are 2 parts Portland cement : 5
parts slaked lime : 7 to 12 parts crushed Portland stone.
Waterproofed Mortars.- There are now available a large number of pro-
prietary substances, called waterproofers, which are mixed with mortars to
render them impervious. They are marketed in the form of powders, pastes
and liquids. Their object is to either fill the pores of the mortar or to line the
pores with a film of water-repellent material. Most of these, such as
" Cementone," " Medusa," " Pudlo " and " Sika," are only suitable for cement
mortars. As such mixtures must not be used after the initial set, it is necessary
to apply the material without delay and in some cases within half an hour
after the water has been added. Unused partially set mortar must he
discarded.
The amount of waterproofer added varies and should he in accordance with the
manufacturers' instructions. When in powder form, Lhe mixture m ay consist of
r part cement : 2 to 4 parts sand : 2 to 5 per cent. of the waterprovfer ; the required
amount of the powder is added to and well incorporated with the cement before bein!(
spread over the sand ; the whole is then mixed dry before the water is care fully added,
after which it is mixed to an even consistency. When in the form of a paste, water
is added very gradually to the waterproofer in the usual proportion of 1 part paste to
ro parts water whilst being well stirred to reduce the solution to a uniform consistency;
the cement and sand are well mixed dry before the solution is added , and then mixed
wet to a workable condition. If in liquid form, it is usual to add 1 gal. of the water-
proofer to every 15 gals . of water; the cement and sand are mixed dry hefon· this
" gauging water " is added and finally mixed wet.
Further reference to waterproofers is made on p . 36.
 BRICKWORK
CONCRETE
Concrete consists of a (I) matrix, (2) fine aggregate and (3) coarse aggregate
thoroughly mixed with water. In general, a good concrete is required to be
hard, strong, durable, dense, non-porous, fire-resisting and economical, although
for certain structures, such as internal partitions, strength and impermeability
are not necessary requirements where a porous concrete may be desirable on
account of its lightness and sound-insulating properties. The characteristics
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of concrete are influenced by the quality of the materials, grading of the
aggregates, proportioning, amount of water used, and workmanship. Ideally,
the variation in the size of the aggregates (known as grading) should be such
that the fine aggregate will fit into the spaces between .the coarse aggregate to
leave a minimum percentage of voids to be filled by the matrix in cementing
the whole mass together. Adequate grading is economical, as less cement is
needed when the aggregates are well graded. A mixture which is too rich in
cement may shrink excessively. It is most important to appreciate that the
strength o• mortar depends very largely upon the amount of water used in
relation to che cement ; an excess of water results in a considerable reduction in
strength (see p. 30). Just sufficient water should be added to make the mix
reasonably plastic and workable.
The expression " workable mixture " is applied to concrete of such con-
sistency that it can be readily deposited in position in a uniform condition
and rendered dense after a reasonable amount of punning (see p. 35).
Concrete when used by itself is known as mass concrett (used for foundations,
certain floors, retaining walls, etc.); concrete reinforced with steel is called
reinforced concrete.
I. MATRIX.-The binding material used for most concretes is ordinary
.Portland cement (pp. 2I to 24). Rapid-hardening cement (p. 24) is suitable
as a matrix for concrete structures which have to be speedily constructed. The
fire-resisting and durable qualities of blast-furnace cement (p. 25) render this
a satisfactory matrix for reinforced concrete and marine work. High alumina
cement (p. 25), because of its high strength and rapid-hardening characteristics,
is especially suited as a binding material for concrete used in structures which
are to withstand high stresses and be speedily erected. Hydraulic lime is now
very rarely employed as a concrete matrix, it having been displaced by cement
for this purpose.
2. FINE AGGREGATE.-According to the Recommendations for a Code of
Practice for the Use of Reinforced Concrete in Buildings,1 a fine aggregate
ts classified as one which will pass through a sieve having a !'~-in. square
mesh. Sand (p. 25) is the chief material employed as a fine aggregate, and both
quarry and river sands are extensively used for this purpose. Sea sand is also
used locally as an aggregate, chiefly because of its low cost ; if such sand
is required for concrete which is to be exposed to view, it is advisable to
eliminate as much as possible of the salt content by washing with fresh water,
1 See footnote to p. 29,
otherwise efflorescence may be objectionable. Cleanliness and suitable grading,
already referred to, are essential requirements.
3· COARSE AGGREGATE.-This is classified as material which is retained on a
i\r-in. square meshed sieve. The maximum size varies ; thus, for reinforced
concrete work it is usually !-in., and for mass concrete, as for foundations, it is
generally Ii-in. and may be 2t-in. The materials must be clean (to ensure the
thorough adhesion of the cement and the development of the setting properties
of the concrete), strong (to resist stresses), durable (to withstand alternate
weather conditions of wetness and dryness, frost and thaw, etc.), suitably graded
(for economy and the development of the strength and workability of the con-
crete), free from combustible material (to ensure adequate fire-resistance) and
inert in the presence of water (otherwise disruption of the concrete may result
by expansion and contraction movement). In addition, aggregate for concrete
floors and roads should be effective in resisting abrasion. Flaky and laminated
material should be avoided.
The following materials are used for coarse aggregate: (a) Broken brick,
(b) broken stone, (c) gravel, (d) slag, (e) pumice, {f) breeze and clinker, (g)
foamed slag and (h) expanded slate. See also sawdust concrete and fibrous
wood cement (p. 47, Vol. III).
(a) Broken Brick.-01d bricks from demolished buildings, etc., are broken
for use as aggregate. This is a good aggregate, provided the bricks are not
porous and are thoroughly cleaned, i.e., any lime and plaster must be removed.
Soft and porous brick aggregate is particularly unsuited for reinforced concrete
work, as such admits air and moisture to cause corrosion of the steel ; broken
well-burnt brick aggregate makes a valuable concrete because of its strong,
durable and fire-resisting qualities. Adherent lime and plaster are very
objectionable, as any calcium sulphate may cause expansion and disintegration
of the concrete. Bricks having a high sulphur content are also unsuitable.
Broken brick aggregate should be well watered before being mixed to prevent
excessive absorption of the water used in mixing which may cause the concrete
to crack.
(b) Broken Stone is an excellent aggregate provided the stone is free from
any undesirable mineral constituents and is not soft, porous, friable or laminated.
Granites, sandstones and close-grained limestone~ are all suitable. The stone
is crushed and then screened.
There are several forms of crushers, such as the jaw, hammer, disc, gyratory and
roll types, which break up large blocks of the rock into small pieces. There are also
several types of screens, most of which have a vibrating action. In screening, the
material is passed from the crusher by a belt conveyor to the primary screen, which
has a large (3-in.) mesh. The screened material is then passed successively through
a series of screens of various sized meshes, i.e., It-in., !-in. and i 'rr-in. Thu~, the
3- I !-in. grade is retained on the I !-in. sieve and passed to the stock bin, that which
passes through it is discharged on to the !-in. sieve which separates the It-!-in.
grade (discharged to a second stock hopper) and allows the finer material to pass
through on to the .f0 -in. sieve to be separated into 1-,'',,-in. and finer grades, each
of which is conveyed to a stock bin,
 CONCRETE
(c) Gravel is another very good aggregate and is extensively tised. It is
hard and durable, and is obtained from river beds, the seashore, and inland
deposits which are quarried. The gravel is excavated by hand labour or
mechanically. Clay is a common impurity and must therefore be removed by
washing. Seashore gravel, if required for reinforced concrete, should also be
washed in fresh water so as to eliminate as much as possible of the salts. This
is also known as ballast (see below).
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(d) Blast~furnace Slag (p. 25) is a very uncertain material as a coarse
aggregate. Some slags readily disintegrate and are ·quite unsuitable, whilst
others are inert and are commonly used locally in producing concrete of good
quality. This is also referred to as " ballast" in districts where it is used
(see also (g)).
Burnt Ballast is produced by burning clay in a kiln, and the slabs are then
crushed and screened. It is a suitable material for coarse aggregate, provided
it has been hard-burnt. Under-burnt ballast and that containing sulphur
(from the fuel) should not be used.
(e) Pumice is a whitish or yellowish material of volcanic origin which is
highly honeycombed. It was imported into this country, chiefly from Germany,
and used as an aggregate for lightweight concrete. This concrete, although
relatively weak, is, as its name implies, light and very suitable for partitions
(pp. 45-47, Vol. III), covering fiat roofs, encasing beams and pillars, and similar
purposes where strength is not important. Pumice is crushed. Dust and shaly
fragments should be removed. It does not contain sulphur and is inert.
(f) Breeze and Clinker are waste materials resulting from the burning of
coal. Breeze is obtained from gasworks and coke ovens ; clinker is the mineral
matter or ash from furnaces. These materials produced from certain coals,
especially when they contain small particles of the coal, are distinctly unsound
and should be avoided. They have been responsible for a large number of
concrete failures owing to the considerable expansion which takes place when
associated with cement. They may also have a large sulphur content, which
will cause rapid and extensive corrosion of steel and the spalling off of the
concrete. The Recommendations for a Code of Practice for the Use of
Reinforced Concrete in Buildings classified these as " prohibited aggregates,"
and they must not therefore be used for reinforced concrete work or for en-
casing beams, pillars, etc. However, not all breeze and clinker are dangerous,
and on account of their cheapness and lightness, much of it is used for internal
concrete block or slab partiti<?ns (pp. 45-47, Vol. III).
(g) Foamed Slag, which somewhat resembles pumice, is produced from
blast-furnace slag by rapidly cooling the molten material with water. It is light
in weight owing to its cellular structure and is crushed and graded as required.
It is very suitable for the manufacture of partition slabs (pp. 45-47, Vol. III).
..(h) Expanded Slate is another good lightweight aggregate which has not
been extensively used, probably because its cost is higher than that of foamed
slag. It is produced by heating waste slate to a high temperature until its
188
thickness is considerably increased. This light honeycombed material is then
crushed and graded.
GRADING OF AGGREGATES.-The importance of suitably grading the aggregates
in order to obtain a concrete of good quality has been referred to on p. 28. It
is therefore desirable that samples of the aggregate should be taken periodically
and examined.
These sampks should be representative, and therefore several are taken from
different parts of the consignment. These are well mixed together and a final test
sample obtained. According to the Recommendations for a Code of Practice for the
Use of Reinforced Concrete in Buildings,' this sa:nple should weigh at least 3-lb.
for fine aggregate, ro-lb. for coarse aggregate and r s-Ib. where fine and coarse
aggregates are to be combined. The sample is then passed successively through a
series of nine standard sieves, i.e., r !-in., !-in., i-in., ,'!"-in., No. 7 (o·o949-in. square
mesh), No. 14 (o ·o474-in. mesh), No. 25 (o·o236-in. mesh), No. 52 (o ·o116-in. mesh)
and No. roo (o·oo6o-in. mesh). It will be observed that the size of opening of a sieve
is double (or approximately so) that of the next smaller sieve. The aggregate retained
on each sieve is then carefully weighed and the amount passed through each is
expressed as a percentage.
The following figures shown in brackets are the approximate limits of material
passing through the sieves in respect to fine aggregate suggested in the Report of the
Building Research Board for 1936: ,'',,-in. sieve (roo per cent.), No.7 sieve (75 to 85
per cent.), No. 14 sieve (so to 70 per cent.), No. 52 (30 to 55 per cent.) and No. 100
sieve (o to 3 per cent.). •
The following are the suggested limits of material passing through sieves in respect
to coarse aggregate of a specified size varying from a maximum of 1!-in. to a minimum
of ,'',1-in. ; 1!-in. sieve (95 to 100 per cent.) ~ -in. sieve (35 to 70 per cent.), -f-in.
sieve (10 to 30 per cent.) and l''r. -in. sieve (o to 5 per cent.); for 1-,''.,-in. coarse aggre-
gate, the suggested limits are : !-in. sieve (90 to 100 per cent.), ~-in. sieve (20 to 55 per
cent.) and T"r.--in. sieve (o to 10 per cent.).
An approximate guide for grading is as follows : -
Not more than one-quarter and not less than one-twentieth of the sand of
/ 0-in. maximum size should pass through a No. 52 sieve. Unsuitable grading
of the sand is a frequent cause of defects in concrete, and the strength and
workability of tht concrete depend a good deal upon the percentage of sand
which passes through a No. 52 sieve. Thus, an excess of this fine material
necessitates the addition of an excessive amount of water during mixing and a
decrease in the strength of concrete results, whilst a deficiency of fine material
causes unworkability and harshness. The above Code requires that not more
than 3 per cent. by weight of the sand shall pass through a No. roo sieve. Fine
dust must be excluded from the aggregate.
For coarse aggregate of !-in. maximum size, not more than two-thirds and
not less than one-fifth should pass through a j-in. sieve.
The shape of the particles of aggregate influence the workability of the
concrete. Thus, concrete with crushed aggregate having sharp edges will
require more water than that made of rounded particles, and therefore the latter
1 These Recommendations are emb~died in the Report of the Reinforced Concrdt>
Structures Committee of the Building Research Board, I933·
 189 BRICKWORK
makes a stronger concrete for a given workability and is preferred to angular
particles. The particles should be compact and not flat and elongated.
PROPORTIONING CoNCRETE.- The composition of concrete varies considerably,
depending upon the specific requirements in respect to strength, durability,
impermeability, workability and economy, in addition to the quality and
characteristics of the materials. Thus, the proportions of materials for concrete
required for a reinforced concrete beam will differ from those for a concrete
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non-load-bearing internal partition or for site concrete.
Great care should be taken to determine the correct proportions of the
materials. That of cement should always be specified by weight. The former
practice of specifying cement by volume has been discontinued, as the weight
of a cubic foot of cement is not constant but varies according to its fineness
and the manner in which it is filled, loosely or otherwise. The unit of weight
of cement usually taken is that of a bag of cement as sold, i.e., r-cwt.
The fine and coarse aggregates may be expressed either by weight or by
volume. Although the former may be more accurate, it is not often adopted
in this country where it is the common practice to specify the aggregate in terms
of volume (cubic feet). Hence a concrete mix is usually specified as consisting
of 1-cwt. of cement to so many cubic feet of fine aggregate and so many cubic
feet of coarse aggregate. Examples of this form appear in the Model Bye-laws
(1939) and in the Code of Practice for the Use of Reinforced Concrete in
Buildings (see p. 29). Thus, the Bye-laws stipulate that site concrete shall
consist of not less than I 12-lb. of cement to every 3! -cub. ft. of fine aggregate
and 7-cub. ft . of coarse aggregate. The Code gives tables in which the following
four arbitrary mixes appear : -
!';ominal
Cement.'
Fine Coarse
Mix. Aggregate. Aggregate.
Cwt. Cub. ft. Cub. ft.
I : I :2 I It 2~
I : 1'2: 2'4 I I-A- 3
I : It: 3 I 1i 3!
I : 2:4 I 2t 5 and fresh. It is emphasized that the strength of concrete depends upon the
I quantity of water used in relation to the cement content, and an excess of water,
Sometimes a mix is specified as consisting of r-cwt. of cement to so many
cubic feet of fine and coarse aggregates combined. Thus, the Model Bye-laws
require that concrete for foundations shall be composed of not less than I rz-lb.
cement to evt:ry Is-cub. ft. of coarse and fine aggregates in combination .
The 1 : 2 : 4 mix given in the above table meets general requirements and is
often adopted ; both it and the I : xt : 3 mix are usefully employed for reinforced
concrete work. The I :I : 2 and I : 1 ·z: 2·4 ·mixes, having a high cement
1 Th~ weight of cement varies from 8o to 90-lb. per cub. ft. (seep. 31). Therefore the
volum<" of 1-cwt. of cement is approximately 1!-cub. ft.
content, are suitable for producing very strong and impermeable concretes.
There are several variations to these mixes, depending upon the class of work
required.
In practice, and during wet weather especially, it is difficult to obtain batches
of concrete which are uniform when the fine aggregate is measured by volume.
This is due to the increase in volume, known as bulking, of the sand which
occurs when it is in a moist condition. Experiments show that I-cub. ft. of
dry sand will approximately increase to I{-cub. ft. if 3 per cent. of water is
added to it, and therefore there is actually less aggregate in r-eub. ft. of moist
sand than in the same volume of dry sand. If the water content increases to
4 per cent., the volume will be increased by approximately i ; as the moisture
increases beyond this percentage, the bulking gradually decreases, and when
the sand becomes submerged the volume of the inundated sand is the same as
that when dry. The finer the sand, the greater the bulking. This bulking of
moist sand should be allowed for ; it is customary to assume that the volume
has increased by 20 per cent. , and therefore this amount of sand is added to the
proportion of fine aggregate when mixing.
It is obvious that this is only an approximate correction . In wet weather, sand
which has been deposited on a site has a variable water content . When high-grade
concrete is required , the actual bulking may be obtained in the following manner:
The gauge box used for measuring the fine aggregate (see p . 34) is filled with the
moist sand. This sand is dried, re.urned to the box, and after being levelled off at
the top the reduced depth of the sand is measured. The percentage of bulking equals
Depth of box -depth of dry aggregate x 100 .
Depth of dry aggregate
This method is not readily applied in practice and is only resorted to when specially
called for.
The bulking of sand does not present any practical difficulties when the
mixes are proportioned by weight. Coarse aggregates are not normally subjected.
to the phenomenon of bulking.
WATER.-The water used for mixing concrete is required to produce a
workable plastic mix, in addition to hydrating the cement. It must be clean
however slight, reduces the strength of the concrete.
The following tests were carried out in the Building Laboratory of the Manchester
College of Technology to demonstrate to students the marked effect that the water
content has upon the compressive strength of concrete : Three different mixes of
concrete were separately prepared. The materials in mix " A " were mixed dry in
the proportion of 1 : 1 : 2. The cement used was normal Portland cement. The mix
was divided and each half was separately mixed with water, one half having 30 per cent.
more water added than the other. A 4-in. cube (see p . 32) was then made from
each half of each batch and tested for compression strength at the end of twenty-
eight days. Mixes " B " and " C " were dealt with in a• similar manner, the excess
water added to one-half of each mix being also 30 per cent. The following were the
results:-
 CONCRETE 190

TABLE I approximate rule for finding the amount of water for concrete consisting of
dry and non-porous aggregate is to take 28 per cent. of the wtight of the cement
I
I Normal Mixes .
Mi xes with 30 per Cent. i plus 4 per cent. of the weight of the aggregate. Thus, for a I : 2 : 4 mix requiring
I Excess \Vater. Per Cent.J r-cwt. cemept, 2!-cub. ft. sand (weighing too-lb. per cub. ft .) and 5-cub. ft.

r:-
Proportions. ----~----~-------Red~tionl gravel (weighing 98-lb. per cub. ft.), the number of gallons of water equals:
w w Strength.
c-' Slump. Strength. c· Slump. Strength. 28
(Cement) - ~ XI XII2=3r·36lb.7r0=3'14gals.
100
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In. Lb. per sq. in. In . . Lb. per sq. in.

A I : I : 2 0'43 2! s,o6o o·s6 9 3,400 33 (Sand) _i. x 2! x roo= ro ·oo , 7 ro =I ·oo ,
roo
IB
I
I: 2:4 o·62 3! 2,940 o·8r 9 r,69o
(Gravel) ,
Ic I : 3: 6 o·Ss 2 r ,550 I ' 10 7 86o

These figures illustrate the appreciable reduction in strength as a result of excess water 6·ro gals.
content.

This relationship between the quantity of mixing water and amount of SLUMP TEST.--The best practical test for determining the desired work-
cement in a concrete mix is known as the water-cement ratio, expressed as ability of concrete and the required amount of water is that known as the slump
"W" test. This is now universally adopted both on the site during the progress of
· ( C---
-.-C Water '). either by volume, or by weight, or by the number of gallons
the work and in the laboratory. The apparatus simply consists of a metal mould,
' " ement
of water per hundredweight (weight of a bag) of cement. Thus, if expressed frustum of a cone in shape, with both ends open and provided with two handles ;
the dimensions are rz-in. high, 8-in. internal diameter at the bottom and 4-in.
by volume, r-eub. ft. of water per r-eub. ft. of cement equals a ratio of 1 =r ;
I
internal diameter at the top (see G, Fig. 9). A 2-ft. long metal rod, ~-in. in
if by weight, this ratio becomes diameter and bullet nosed, is also required.
In carrying out the test, the mould is placed on a fiat surface which must be
6z·s-Ib. (weight of r-eub. ft. of water) 6 non-absorbent. It is filled with the freshly mixed concrete to a height of about
--~~~~~-~~-~--~=o· 9'
90-lb. (weight of r-eub. ft. of cement) 1 ' 3-in. ; this is puddled to expel the air by applying twenty-five strokes of the rod.
if 6-gals. of water are used per hundredweight of cement, the ratio is The filling is completed in similar successive consolidated layers and the surface
is struck off flush with the top by a trowel. The mould must be held firmly
6 x ro-lb. (weight of r-gal. of water) as it is being filled, and to prevent movement it may be provided with two fiat
=0'54·
II2 footpieces , attached near the base, upon which the operator stands. Immedi-
ately it is full, the mould is carefully lifted vertically and placed on the mixing
Whilst in the laboratory the materials are usually taken by weight, it is more surface adjacent to the concrete specimen, which will have subsided or slumped.
convenient for practical purposes to specify the number of gallons per hundred- The amount of settlement, which varies according to the water content, is
weight bag of cement. The ~ ratios and the corresponding strengths shown measured in inches by placing a rule across the top of the mould and measuring
the height that its lower edge is above the top of the concrete. Thus, at n, Fig. 9,
in Table I clearly indicate that the strength of the concrete is lowered as a result a 3-in. slump is indicated.
of the additional water. This is an excellent practical test, as it is simple and takes little time to
It is not possible to state definitely the amount of water which should be carry out on the job. By its use it is possible to reasonably control and obtain
used in a concrete mix, as this depends upon the desired workability, amount a uniform consistency of the concrete. It is important to note that the slump
of water in the fine aggregate and that absorbed by the coarse aggregate. An will be affected if the cement and aggregates are changed, and therefore any
such change of materials will necessitate preliminary trial tests to see if any
1 The weight of r-eub. ft. of cement depends upon its fineness; thus, for normal

Portland cement the weight is usually taken as 90-lb per cub. ft. ; the finer ground
alteration in the slump is necessary. A slump test is taken daily to check the
rapid-hardening Portland cement may only weigh So-lb. per cub. ft. consistency (or condition of wetness) of the concrete used for first-class work.
 191
The slump values vary with different classes of work and the following
may be taken as a general guide : For mass concrete and heavy reinforced
concrete structures the slump varies from I to 4-in. It may be necessary to
increase the slump to 7-in. for columns, and for thin vertical and confined
horizontal structures where adequate rarnming of the concrete is not possible.
For concrete roads the maximum slump should not exceed r-in. in order ·that
the necessary strength and wearing qualities may be obtained. Whilst a 7-in.
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BRICKWORK
6-in. internal dimensions. The mould has a steel base plate attached, and both this
and the internal faces of the mould must be well oiled before filling to make the joint
watertight, prevent sticking of the concrete and facilitate the removal of the cube
without damage. The concrete is placed in the mould in three layers of approximately
equal thickness, each layer being separately tamped 35 times if the slump is 1!-in.
or less (or 25 strokes for wetter mixes) with a 15-in. by x-in. by 1-in. steel bar weighing
4"lb., after which the surface is carefully smoothed level with a trowel flush with the
top of the mould. The mould is then stored in a damp cabinet for twenty-four hours,
after which the concrete cube is removed from the mould, marked, and either immersed
in water contained in a tank or buried in damp sand until the cube is ready for testing.

slump is considered as a maximum for good quality mixes, it may be possible
to increase this figure to 8-in. for concrete which does not require a high standard
of strength. Concrete having a slump less than 2-in. must be well consolidated
when placed in position to avoid honeycombing or pore spaces (see p. 35).
CoMPACTING FACTOR TEST.-This is another test applied to concrete, but
it is only suitable for use in the laboratory. It is related to the workability of
concrete, which is defined for this purpose as being the property which deter-
mines the amount of work required to compact or consolidate the concrete
completely. The compacting factor may be defined as a measure of the density
of a concrete achieved by a standard amount of work.
The apparatus used for this test consists of a frame which supports two truncated
conical hoppers, one above the other, with a space between. A cylindrical mould,
having a detachable base, is placed below these hoppers. Each of the latter has a
hinged base which can be shot open.
The upper hopper is completely filled with the concrete immediately after mixing.
The hinged daor is released to allow the contents to fall into the lower hopper. The
base of the latter is then opened and the concrete falls into the cylinder, completely
filling it, the excess concrete being struck off level with the top. The compacting
factor is then calculated in the following manner : The weight of the container when
empty is subtracted from that of the container when full, and this net weight of
concrete is divided by the weight of the concrete calculated from the known specific
gravities of the cement, sand and coarse aggregate, in the correct proportions, required
to fill the cylinder without pore spaces. Thus, if the net weight of the concrete is
125'5 oz. and that of the contents of the cylinder (when no voids are left) is IJJ·8 oz.,
the compacting factor will be 125 .85 =0'94· Experiments have shown that a com-
IJJ '
pacting factor of 0'95 represents a concrete mix of high workability, that of o·92 a
medium workability, and o·85 a low workability.
This is a useful test for comparing the workability of different mixes of concrete.
Each specimen is brought to a standard condition (when deposited from the upper
to the lower hopper) and is subjected to a standard amount of work when it falls into
the cylinder.
CoMPRESSION TEST.-The quality of concrete is generally assessed by its
crushing strength. This strength is determined by testing suitably prepared
specimens of the concrete in a compression machine.
The form of standard test specimen favoured in this country is tne 6-in. cube.
This and the standard method of testing are specified in the Code of Practice referred
to on p. 29. The cement and fine aggregate, in correct proportions, are first mixed dry
until a uniformly coloured mixture is obtained ; the coarse aggregate is added and
well mixed ; the correct amount of water is then added and the composition mixed
for at least two minutes. The concrete is tested for consistency by the slump test,
described on p, JI. and after re-mixing it is placed in ~ steel mould of 6-in. by 6-in. by
This protection of the cube, called curing, is necessary to prevent evaporation of the
water and to provide a favourable condition for the setting and hardening of the
concrete. The strength of the concrete is usually taken at either fourteen or twenty-
eight days after it has been mixed ; occasionally early date strengths are taken at
three and seven days, and sometimes the strengths at three months and one year are
required.
Test cubes prepared on the site during the progress of the work are kept damp
for twenty-four hours and then removed from their moulds. After being marked
to distinguish them, they are carefully packed in a W{)Od box, encased in damp sand
or sacking and dispatched to the laboratory where they are kept damp until required
for testing.
One type of compression testing machine, manufactured by Messrs J. A . Amsler,
and of so-tons capacity, is shown at E, Fig. 9· The concrete specimen is placed on
the lower compression plate B attached to the ram or piston which operates within
the press cylinder. The upper compression plate A is connected by means of a ball-
and-socket joint to the large screw which is operated by the hand wheel w. The
screw is adjusted to lower the plate A tightly on to the top of the specimen. Brackets
at the right-hand side support the oil pump, subsidiary cylinder X with small piston,
pressure gauge and spiral spring. Oil is conveyed by a pipe to the pump from a reservoir
fixed to the back of the machine ; the pump is connected to the press cylinder by an
oil pipe, and a branch (not shown) from this pipe is connected to the subsidiary
cylinder x.
After plate A has been tightened down and valve u closed, the pump is operated
by raising and lowering the 3-ft. long lever by hand. This forces the oil along the
pipe (see arrow " 1 ") into the press cylinder to exert pressure on the underside
of the ram. The latter and plate B gradually rise (see arrow " z ") to press the
specimen against the stationary plate A. Meanwhile the oil forced along the branch
pipe to cylinder x presses the piston downwards (see arrow " 3 ") and this extends
the spiral spring. This extension of the spring is transmitted to the indicating hand
or pointer on the gauge by a steel ribbon tape which is fixed at Y and passed round a
pulley fixed to the spindle of the pointer and weighted at v. This causes the pointer
to rotate round the dial, the scale on which is calibrated to give direct load readings.
The pump is operated and the oil pressure increased, until the specimen is crushed.
When this occurs the indicating hand gradually returns to zero, but a loose pointer,
which the hand engages as it rotates during the test, remains to register the highest
point reached when the specimen failed. This figure, expressed in tons, is converted
to pounds and divided by the area of the cross-section of the specimen to give the
crushing strength of the concrete in pounds per square inch. The specimen is
removed by opening valve u and reversing the hand wheel w ; this relieves the
pressure on the press cylinder and the weight of the ram forces the oil from the
cvlinder to the reservoir.
. Very little effort is required to hand-operate this machine and the time taken
to carry out the test is approximately two minutes, depending upon the strength of
the cube (about x-ton per sq. in. per min.).
For testing specimens requiring comparatively small pressures to crush them
(such as timber), the spring on the so-ton machine is replaced by a lighter one and
the dial is substituted by one reading to zo-tons. This type of machine is also made
having a capacity of zoo-tons. This larger machine is necessary when 6-in. concrete
cubes have to be tested, as a so-ton machine will only test 4-in. cubes at twenty-eight
days.
 TESTING APPARATUS 192

TESTING APPARATUS F0 R CEMENT E T C.

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: --"oo E
'':. PIN

ENLARGEMENT
OF B~QUETIE

RAM~
4" INT. DIA: «;:-:;;::,.;;~--r---:::::----.--

G '
~...........-
IQ
SECTION THI'.O'
A CONCRETE
SPECIMEN SHOWING
A 3 11 SLUMP
F COMP~ESSION TESTING MACHINE
APPA~ATUS FO~
EXPANSION TEST SKETCHES NOT TO SCALE FIGURE 9
 193 BRICKWORK
The specimens referred to in Table I, p. 31, wer~ tested in a S?-ton machine.
The following results of tests, which may be considered as typical, show how
the strength of concrete, having a 2-in. slump, increases with age :-
II
TABLE
---- ----- -·~-· ------- --
~--- ---------- · - ·-··-
I
Compressive Strength (Lb. per Sq. ln.).
Nominal
Type of Cement.
Mix.
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3 Days. 7 Days. 28 Days. 3 Months.
1
Ordinary Portland I 1,400 2,500 6,soo
R.pid-Jmrn.ning P. J' " ' 4 2,500 3,soo s,ooo s.soo 7,000
-H--i-g--h---A-Ium--in_a_ _ _ _ ____ j _ ~·~=--~·~~0 ---8·:~ - - i~~~:~~able
No
MIXING CoNCRETE.-It is most important that the materials shall be
thoroughly mixed in correct proportion. The mixing should be continued until
the concrete is of a uniform colour and consistency. Concrete is either (I)
hand-mixed or (2) machine-mixed.
I. Hand-mixing.- This method is still adopted on small jobs. The mixing
should never be carried out on the bare ground, as this results in the materials
being contaminated by the earth which is scraped up. It should be done on
a proper close-boarded platform or staging, 9 or 1o-ft. square, preferably made
of t. · and g. floor boards fixed to five lengths of 4-in. by 2-in. battens. The
joints of the boards must be close to prevent the escape of liquid grout. Some-
times the boards are protected by a covering of sheet iron or zinc plate, and a
raised kerb round three of the sides is provided. The platform should be quite
level to prevent the water from draining off, and it should be placed conveniently
near to the place at which the concrete is to be deposited. A water point is
brought near to the platform.
Careful measurement (or weighing) of the materials is essential for good
quality concrete. It should be done in relatively small quantities, and a: con-
venient form of measure for the sand and coarse aggregate is a square or rect-
angular box or frame, similar to the batch box H, Fig. 23 ; it is without
a base. This measuring frame should not be too large as to become unwieldy
to handle conveniently; one of 1-cub. ft. capacity is often preferred. A wheel-
barrow, of known capacity when filled level with the edges, is also used instead
of a frame.
If a 1 : 2 : 4 composition (requiring 1-cwt. bag of cemel!t, 2~.-cub. fL of sand
and 5 cub. ft. of broken stone, p. 30) is specified, a convement s1ze of m1x would
be s-·cub. ft. of sand , 10-cub. ft . of broken stone to 2 bags of cement, and the internal
dimensions of the frame would be as indicated at H; Fig. 23. 1 This is preferred to a large
1 The concrete must be mixed and deposited as quickly as possible, and the size of
the mix should therefore depend upon the amount of labour available.
frame which would be filled to the level of a mark which becomes obliterated . in
course of time.
The measuring frame is placed on and near to one end of the platform, filled
to the top with the coarse aggregate, and then lifted. If the frame is of 2!-cub. ft.
capacity, it is laid on the platform near the heap already formed, again filled with
coarse aggregate and removed. This is repeated until four frames of coarse
aggregate have been measured ; after it has been levelled off, two bags of cem~nt
are emptied and evenly distributed over the coarse aggregate. The measurmg
Year.
frame is placed on the heap and filled level to the top with sand and removed ;
this is repeated to give two frames of sand. Some prefer to add the sand after
two frames of coarse aggregate have been measured ; the remaining two frames
of coarse aggregate are then added, followed with the cement.
The materials are then mixed at least "twice dry and twice wet." Usually
two men, one on each side of the heap, shovel the heap to one side, turning
and sprinkling the materials in the process. This operation is repeat~d,
the heap being thrown back to its original position. If necessary the matenals
are again turned over until the colour is uniform, free from streaks of bro:wn
and grey. Water is then added. Only the correct amount of water (varymg
with the nature of the work and materials, and probably determined from a slump
test (see p. 31), must be used. It may be measured by a bucket of known
capacity, probably 2!-gals. The water should not be thrown on to the hea~ from
the bucket, as this washes the cement from the aggregate, but rather spnnkled
on by means of a watering-can, having a rosehead, .and which is filled from the
measured pails. Usually a third man adds the water whilst the other two attend
to the mixing and turn over the heap at least twice, as above described, until a
uniform consistency is obtained.
An alternative method of mixing is to spread the measured sand in a layer
of even thickness on the platform, the cement is distributed over this, both are
mixed together until the colour is uniform, the coarse aggregate is thrown over
the mixture which is turned over at least twice. Water is added and the whole
. . .
again turned over two or three times.
2. Machine-mixing.-Concrete is now chiefly produced by mechamcal mixmg
except where only small quantities are required. Machine-mixing is faster ~d
cheaper than hand~mixing, and it generally produces a more thorough mix
having additional strength. 1 There are two groups of mixers, i.e., (a) batch
mixers and (b) continuous mixers.
(a) Batch Mixers, which are portable, include the (i) tilting drum and (ii)
closed drum types. Each is usually driven by either a petrol or oil engine or an
electric motor.
(i) The tilting drum mixer (see line diagram J, Fig. 23) consists of a ho~per
and mixing drum. Correct quantities of cement and aggregates are loaded mto
1 In the Code of Practice for Reinforced Concrete (see p. 29) it is recommended
that concrete should be mechanically mixed; if mixed by hand an additional IO per cent.
of cement should be ust'd,
 CONCRETE
the hopper, whichis raised to discharge the materials into the drum. A convenient
size of wood hatch box 1 for the aggregate (if 2~-cub. ft. of sand and s-cub. ft.
of coarse aggregate are used) is shown at H, Fig. 23, the box being twice filled
for the coarse aggregate. The coarse aggregate is first placed in the hopper,
followed by the sand and the cement. The capacity of the drum varies con-
siderably, one of 10/7-cub. ft. being useful for average work ; the first number
indicating the capacity (in cubic feet) of unmixed materials and the latter number
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that of the wet concrete produced. The correct amount of mixing water is
discharged into the drum from an automatic tank fixea above it. Projecting
metal baffle blades fixed to the inside of the drum assist in the distribution of
the materials as they impinge against them whilst the drum is revolving. The
period of mixing, which may be controlled automatically, should not be less than
one minute and not more than two minutes after all of the materials have been
added. The strength of the concrete is not materially increased if the latter
period is prolonged ; excessive mixing produces an undesirable stiffening up
of the concrete. When mixing has been completed, the drum is stopped and
rotated vertically to discharge the concrete.
(ii) The closed drum mixer has a hopper, a mixing drum which rotates on a
horizontal axis, and a steel chute which is inserted into the drum after the mixing
has been completed and down wh ~ ch the concrete is discharged.
(b) Continuous Mixers. -These are used on large engineering jobs. The
aggregate, cement and water are mechanically measured and fed into the mixer
from which the concrete is continuously discharged.
CENTRAL MIXING.-ln c0nnection with large contracts, a central hatching and
mixing plant is often installed on the site. This may consist of large elevated storage
bins, below which are hoppers and mixing drums. The aggregate is conveyed to the
storage bins and these feed the measuring hoppers below as required ; the hoppers
also receive the cement. The materials from the hoppers pass into the mixing drums,
water is automatically added, and, after being mixed, the concrete is deposited into
trucks and transported on rails to the required part of the site, where it is deposited.
Central hatching plants are now being used to batch the materials and discharge
them into mixing trucks which perform the actual mixing in course of transit from
the plant to the job.
PLACING CoNCRETE.-Concrete should be placed in position as soon as
possible and within half an hour of mixing. For short distances the concrete
is usually shovelled from the mixing platform or discharged from the mixing
drum into watertight steel wheelbarrows or handcarts, often pneumatically
tyred to reduce vibration, and conveyed to the place of deposition. In order
that the effect of the mixing will not be nullified, concrete must be carefully
placed and not thrown from a height, otherwise its consistence becomes non-
uniform by the separation of the heavier from the lighter particles. Concrete
required for upper floors is hoisted by means of a barrow-lift (pulley block and
tackle, attached to the scaffolding, for lifting the full barrows) or concrete-hoist
(large hoppers containing the concrete are lifted to any desired height, the
apparatus resembling the ordinary passenger-lift).
1 This box is sometimes provided n·ith a hase.
194
The placing of concrete on a large scale may also he effected t"ither by tippinJ.(-
trucks, towers or by pumping. Tipping-trucks, as already explained, run upon rails
laid round the site and convey the concrete where required. A tower may reach a
great height ; a mechanical mixer is placed at the bottom, and this feeds concrete
into large receptacles which are hoisted to the top of the tower where the concrete
is passed down inclined shoots and deposited where required . Pumping concrete
has been proved effective on large jobs where' congested conditions prevent the
placing of the mixer on the site ; a pump forces the mixed concrete through a steel
pipe, 4 to 6-in. in diameter, to the place of deposition ; concrete has been delivered
in this manner to a height exceeding 1oo-ft. and for a horizontal distance of approxi-
mately I,ooo-ft.
CoMPACTING CoNCRETE.-Concrete after being placed in position should
be well rammed or punned or tamped to consolidate it. This is done either by
hand or mechanically. Two forms of rammers are shown at F and G, Fig. 23 ;
these may be used for mass concrete. Metal pummels, similar to G, of various
sizes are employed for consolidating the concrete round the steel bars in reinforced
concrete structures. For mass concrete work the concrete is laid in layers not
exceeding 12-in. thick, and each layer must Lt~ compacted before the next is
spread. For reinforced work the concrete should be deposited in successive
layers not exceeding 6-in. in thickness, and these must be rammed in turn.
A ~-in. rod is ust.! for ramming (or " rodding ") concrete and expelling the
air (see alsop. 31).
For concrete work on a large scale, hand-compacting methods are being
replaced by mechanical means. The concrete is consolidated by vibration, the
vibrators being operated by compressed air or electricity. One form, called a
surface ~1ihrator, consists of a flat plate which is placed on the surface of the
concrete, a vibrating appliance is attached, and this transmits rapid shocks or
vibrations to the concrete which is consolidated as the plate is moved slowly
over the surface. Another form of vibrator consists of a single needle, 2!-ft.
long (or a fork with four prongs), which penetrates the concrete as the appliance,
held by both hands at the head, vibrates and consolidates. External vibrators
are adopted for vibrating reinforced concrete work. The vibrators are clamped
to the formwork (temporary wood framing used to support the concrete until
it hardens). These transmit shocks (some 9,ooo per minute) through the
formwork to the concrete and consolidation results.
Vibrated concrete is denser than that which is hand-compacted, and it is
therefore more impervious and weather-resistant.
CuRING CoNCRETE.-The water must not be allowed to evaporate from the
concrete, and the longer the concrete is kept moist , the more effective will be
the chemical combination of the cement with the water. The rapid drying out
of the water considerably reduces the strength of the concrete. The concrete
should therefore be covered over immediately it has been consolidated. A layer
of sand or sacking, upon which water is sprinkled each day for a week, is
effective. Surface bituminous coatings are sometimes applied to prevent
evaporation, the liquid being sprayed on the concrete.
Frost can do considerable damage to concrete before it has hardened, anc!
 195 BRICKWORK
once it has frozen it does not increase in strength. As a protection against frost,
the concrete should be at once covered over with sacks, tarpaulins, straw, sawdust,
etc. Canvas screens assist in protecting concrete from cold winds, and in severe
weather the covering of windows affords a partial protection to internal concrete
work in buildings in course of construction.
WATERPROOFED CoNCRETE.-The production in a laboratory of concrete
which is practically waterproof is a relatively simple matter when clean, well
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graded and best quality materials, properly proportioned, are thoroughly mixed
with the correct amount of water under ideal conditions. In practice, however,
where the conditions are less favourable, impervious concrete is not readily
produced, and unless the various factors which tend to the production of good
quality concrete are rigidly controlled, it will be interspersed with voids to
such an extent as to render the product porous. Where the concrete is required
to be impervious, it is now a common practice to use admixtures, known as
waterproofers, which will have the effect of reducing the void space. Reference
has been made to waterproofers on p. 27. The powder, paste and liquid forms
are used for waterproofing concrete. The amount of waterproofer added to the
concrete varies, but if in powdered form the usual proportion is 3-lb. of the
powder to roo-lb. of cement. When hand-mixed, the concrete is prepared by
adding the required amount of the waterproofer to the cement and thoroughly
mixing them. This is then added to the aggregate as explained on p. 34· If
the concrete is machine-mixed, it is recommended that approximately half of
the coarse aggregate, sand and cement are charged in this sequence into the
hopper, all of the waterproofer is then spread over the cement, followed by the
rest of the cement, sand and aggregate ; these are placed into the drum, "{hich
is rotated for about one-quarter of a minute before the measured amount of
water is added and the mixing is completed. The general proportion of paste
waterproofer is 3-lb. of paste per roo-lb. of cement, the paste being dissolved
in the mixing water before the latter is added to the cement, sand and coarse
aggregate. When in liquid form, the waterproofer is usually in the proportion
of 1-gaJ. of the liquid tO rs-gaJs. of the mixing water (see pp. 27 and 57).
Certain of the waterproofers are just finely ground chalk, talc and iron
filings which reduce the voids in the concrete. Others are chemically active,
such as sulphate and sodium carbonate. Waterproofers which are claimed to
act as water-repellents (impermeable materials which line the pores) include
resin, calcium soap, and soda mixed with calcium chloride or lime.
BONDING
Students should revise the principles of English and Flemish bonding,
which are stated on pp. 3 to rs, Vol. I.
SQUINT jUNCTIONS.-Most junctions between walls are right-angled, as
described on p. 10, Vol. I, and squint or oblique junctions are not often
called for.
Fig. ro shows some typical examples of squint junctions. Those at A, B, c
and o show English bond and the remainder are in double Flemish bond.
Details A and B show alternate courses of 9-in. and r3!-in. squint walls
connected at an angle of 45 ° to a r3!-in. wall, and those at c and o indicate an
angle of 6o 0 between the walls. It should be noted in each case that (r) the
heading course of the squint wall is bonded into the stretching course of the
main wall, (2) the alternate stretching course of the squint wall butts against
the heading course of the main wall and (3) the first brick at J in this stretching
course is a three-quarter bevelled bat. For comparative purposes and con-
venience in setting-out, the angle between the walls in each detail has been made
to coincide at J with the continuous transverse joint of the main wall. In practice,
both the position and magnitude of this angle vary.
The double Flemish details at E to H show similar angles and thickness of
walls. It will be observeq that, for convenience, the 6£-in. bevelled bat in each
of the squint walls coincides with the through transverse joint of the main wall
at J, and the first bonding brick in the alternate course of each squint wall is
a header on face.
In this class of work the amount of cutting necessary to avoid continuous
vertical joints should be kept to a minimum, the cut bricks should be as large
as possible, and awkward shapes of bricks difficult to cut should be restricted
SQUINT QuOINS.-The description of the more usual right-angled or square
quoins on pp. 10 and 12, Vol. I, should be referred to when considering
squint quoins. The latter are of two forms, i .e., (a) obtuse and (b) acute squint
quoins.
(a) Obtuse Squint Quoins,-These are formed when two walls meet at an
internal angle greater than 90°, such a1< at a bay window (see o, Fig. u) and
splay-corners of buildings adjoining streets. Typical examples are shown at
A, B, c, o and E. Conforming to the general rule, the closer appears next to the
quoin header, which latter is often less than 4!-in. on face. It should be noted
that, in each case, the combined width of the header and closer is 2!-in. less
than the quoin stretcher. Thus, the alternate courses at A show the stretcher
face to be 6£-in. ; therefore the return header, together with the closer, is
6£-in. - zt-in. =4!-in. ; as the header is 3-in., the closer is 4!-in.- 3-in. = ri-in.
as shown. Joints which appear at the internal angles should be lapped as much
as possible at successive courses. In this connection stability would be increased
at the internal angle at A if purpose-made bricks Q and R (shown shaded) were
used, as these would eliminate the 4!-in. wide mitred joints at the angle.
For faced work it is now general to employ purpose-mades for the quoin
bricks, and most of the larger manufacturers stock special bricks, such as A, B, c, o
and J, Fig. 5, for this purpose. A much better appearance is thus obtained than
when ordinary standard bricks are cut to shape. In the absence of purpose-made
bricks, wire-cuts only should be shaped, as those with frogs produce ugly joints
if the margins are removed.
(b) Awte Squint Quoins are rarely employed. They are necessary at corners of
 s Q u N T J u N c T 0 N s
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SHOWING APPLICATION OF
OBTUSE SQUINT QUOINS
ALTERNATE COURSES SHOWING BIRDSMOUTHED ALTERNATE COURSES SHOWING BIRDSMOUTHED
ACUTE SQUINT QUOIN IN ENGLISH BOND ACUTE SQUINT QUOIN IN DOUBLE FLEMISH BOND
SEE FIG. 6 VOL.I FOP. RIGHT ANGLED QUOINS FIGUR II
 REBATED 6 SPLAYED JAMBS BONDING 198
W I T H 2 V4 I R E C E S S E S buildings abutting on streets which meet at an internal angle less than 90°. A few
ENGLISH BOND SINGLE FLEMISH BOND typical examples are detailed in Fig. II, those at F, G, Hand N showing alternate
courses in English bond and those at J, K, L, M and P indicating alternate
courses in double Flemish bond. In each case the rules of bonding which
influence the face appearance have been complied with (see pp. 7 to 12, Vol. I).
Several expedients are sometimes adopted to dispense with the sharp arrises at
very acute quoins, as such are readily damaged, difficult to cut (if standard bricks
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are used) and may cause injury to persons coming in contact with them. Thus,
at F and J the corner is removed (or, preferably, purposely moulded to the shape
shown) and bullnoses are shown at G and K. A simple and effective alternative
is shown at N and P, where a bird's-mouthed appearance is obtained by the use
of standard bricks which require little cutting and which cut surfaces are not
exposed.
The above are only a few examples of squint quoins. There are a nuuber
w T H R E C E S S E s of alternatives. The aim should be to obtain the maximum lap with the minimum
ENGLISH SINGLE FLEMISH BOND of cutting. Whilst the correct face appearance is not necessary if the walls are
to be plastered, the principles of sound bonding should be observed and con-
tinuous straight joints avoided.
REBATED AND SPLAYED JAMBS.-These are in addition to the square and
rebated jambs described on p. 13, Vol. I, to which reference should be made.
Rebated and splayed jambs are detailed here in Fig. 12. As shown, such a
jamb (if of a window opening) consists of a square outer reveal, a recess and a 45°
to 6o 0 splayed inner reveal of obtuse squint quoin form. These jambs are only
applied to door and window openings in thick walls either as an architectural
feature or to increase the amount of light entering a building. As thick walls
are not structurally necessary in the modern steel-framed or reinforced concrete
multi-storied type of building, it follows that these jambs are not now so often
i employed.
I
The examples shown at A, B, c and D have 2!-in. recesses, and are therefore
1 - - - - L_ _J_____.J _L.__----'---'---U f-L___.__ __.____.______.
suitable for solid framed windows or door frames, whilst the remainder have
p E R S
4!-in. recesses for the reception of cased framed windows (see pp. I 13 to II9,
Vol. I). An additional example is shown at wand x, Fig. 19. The suggested
DETACHED ATTACHED bonding of alternate courses in both English and single Flemish bonds is typical
SQUINT PIERS OCTAGONAL PIER
only, there being several different arrangements of the bricks. The internal face

~[d]?Z appearance is only important if the walls are not to be plastered. The bond
should be as strong as possible on account of the additional stresses which are
transmit~ed from lintels or arches, and therefore continuous vertical joints

'~
should be avoided and the cut bricks should be as large as possible.
The inner reveal may be stepped and not splayed if the internal face of a
wall is to be panelled. The plan in outline would then resemble that shown on
~
WITH 21r!4' WITH 411:2"
the right side of the plan at B, Fig. 19. This type is known as a rebated and
stepped jamb, the stepped recesses varying from 2! to 4!-in.
RECESS lt.ECESS
PIERS.-Further examples of piers illustrated in Fig. 7, Vol. I, are shown at
~JF·===-j J, K, L and M, Fig. 12. The alternative plans of detached squint piers (J and K)
KALE FEET
DETACHED OCTAGONAL PIER FIGURE 12
 199 BRICKWORK
are typical of those required in the construction of bay windows. The number
of joints could be reduced, and greater strength therefore obtained, if purpose-
mades were used instead of cut standard bricks.
An example of a detached octagonal pier is shown by plans of alternative
courses at L, and an attached octagonal pier is detailed at M. Other polygonal
forms, especially the hexagonal, are sometimes preferred. These may be con-
structed of standard bricks, cut to shape as required, but a better appearance
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is, of course, obtained if purpose-made bricks are used. Two further examples
of detached piers are shown at R, Fig. 24 (seep. 64).
CAVITY OR HOLLOW WALLS
This type of construction is now very common and, for the reasons stated
on pp. 43 and 44, is generally preferred to solid wall construction for many types
of buildings, especially houses. Cavity walls are detailed in Figs. 13 and 14.
A cavity wall is usually an external wall, although it is sometimes adopted
internally because of its good sound-resisting quality (see p. 49, Vol. III). It
consists of two separate walls, known as leaves or skins, of brickwork, having a
cavity between, and connected together by metal ties. This double wall is
generally 11-in. thick, consisting of 4!-in. inner and outer leaves and a 2-in.
cavity (see A, Q and P, Fig. 13). Such a wall is adequate for a two-storied
building of the domestic type. The inner leaf is increased to 9-in. or more in
thickness when heavier floor, etc., loads have to be. supported (see J, Fig. 13 1 ).
For stone-faced buildings, the double wall may consist of a cavity between a
41 to 9-in. stone outer leaf and a 4!-in. or thicker brick inner leaf (see p. 44).
The width of the cavity varies from 2 to 3-in., the latter being the maximum
width specified in the Model Byelaws, 1939·
TIES.-These must be sufficiently strong for the purpose, be non-corrodible
and so shaped that water from the outer leaf will not pass along them to the
inner leaf. The metal ties are usually of wrought iron or mild steel, and these
should be thoroughly galvanized or dipped in hot tar and sanded to protect
them from rust. Either copper or bronze or similar durable and highly corrosive-
resistant metal ties should be selected for important buildings and those near
the sea.
Three types of cavity ties which are made of any of these metals are shown
at F, c and H, Fig. 13. The wire tie at F is commonly used, and, provided it
is of sufficient gauge, is a useful type ; the ends, which are twisted together and
turned downwards, cause any water travelling along the tie from the outer leaf
to drip into the cavity (see J) clear of the inner leaf; in addition, large accumula-
tions of mortar droppings, which are a frequent cause of dampness (see p. 42),
do not readily lodge on the ties as the wire is comparatively thin. The wire
should not be less than ro Birmingham Wire. Gauge (known as "tens" and
equivalent to 0·134-in. diameter); lighter gauge ties (of 12 B.W.G., termed
1 See also J. N muiR, Fig. 7, Vol. Ill.
"twelves" and equivalent to o·109-in. diameter) are used for cheap work only.
A similar pattern, of narrow flat bar section with twisted ends, is shown at H,
and is a good type. The flat bar tie shown at c, having forked ends and twisted
in the middle, has been used for many years, and affords a stiff and durable
connection. Cast-iron ties and hollow glazed stoneware block ties are now very
rarely employed.
According to the Model Bye-laws, 1939, these ties must be placed at distances
apart not exceeding 3-ft. horizontally and 1-ft. 6-in. vertically, which is equivalent
to two per square yard. The ties are staggered and the distribution is as shown
at E. Ties should be placed at 1-ft. 6-in. vertical intervals at all angles and
door and window jambs to increase stability (see Q and L, Fig. 13; E, Fig. II ;
and D, Fig. 15).
CoNSTRUCTION .-A cavity wall is often built with the outer leaf of facing
bricks and the inner leaf of commons. No difficulty arises if the facings are
thinner than the commons, as the ties are placed at vertical intervals (not
exceeding 1-ft. 6-in.) where the bed joints of both leaves approximately coincide.
The 4!-in. leaves are commonly constructed in stretching bond. As this has a
very unattractive appearance, the monotony is sometimes relieved by construct-
ing the external leaf with a row of snap headers (half bricks) to three or five
rows of stretchers (known as English Garden Wall Bond, see A, Fig. 18). Alterna-
tively, the outer leaf may be built in Flemish bond or Flemish Garden Wall
Bond, shown at B, Fig. 18, and A, Fig. 44, snap headers and not whole bril'ks
being used as required. The cut surfaces of these snap headers should be
flush with the internal face of the outer leaf.
Two methods of constructing the base of the wall are shown at A and P,
Fig. 13. Brick footings are rarely employed. Method A, showing the cavity
extending down to the concrete foundation, is common. This has one possible
defect, namely, if the brickwork below the ground level is not soundly con-
structed, especially if the site is water-logged, water may pass through any
open joints, collect in the cavity and escape through open joints in the inner
leaf, to cause dampness below the floor by spreading over the site concrete. A
sounder method, and one which is advocated, is that shown at J and P, where
the bottom of the cavity is 3 to 12-in. below the damp proof course. Rain-water
gaining access to the cavity through the outer leaf will stream down the inner
face of this leaf. This should be prevented from accumulating at the base by
providing narrow outlets or weep-holes in the course immediately below the
damp proof course in the outer leaf, each third or fourth vertical joint between
the stretchers being left open and not filled with mortar, otherwise the water
may penetrate the brickwork above the damp proof course and cause dampness
on the internal face of the wall. See note at J, which shows the detail at the foot
of a I5t or 16-in. cavity wall. The lower portion of the cavity when continued
to the concrete bed is sometimes filled with 1 : 2 : 4 concn;te, the coarse aggregate
being not more than i-in. gauge. The top of this concrete should be at least
3-in. below the damp proof course and not as shown at F, Fig. 14, otherwise
 A v T y w A L L s
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 201 BRICKWORK
mortar droppings (see below) will accumulate through which water may be
transmitted in the direction of the thick broken arrow to cause dampness and
possibly dry-rot.
The position of the damp proof course is as for solid walls, i.e., at least 6-in.
above the ground level. This must not extend across the cavity for the reason
stated below, and each leaf must therefore be provided with a separate damp
proof course.
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For cavity wall construction to be effective, it is essential that the inner wall
shall be entirely disconnected (except for the cavity ties) from the outer leaf.
Where this is not possible, as at door and window openings, special precautions
have to he taken, as stated below. If the cavity is bridged by a porous material,
water may penetrate and cause dampness on the inner face of the wall. Hence
it is important that during construction mortar shall not be allowed to drop
and lodge upon the ties (see E, Fig. 14). In order to maintain a clean cavity,
a wood batten should be employed of a thickness slightly less than the width
of the cavity and with a piece of cord attached to each end. This is supported
upon the ties, raised as the work proceeds, and any intercepted mortar and
brick chippings removed . Temporary openings should be left at the bottom
of the cavity to afford access for the removal of droppings on completion of the
wall. Similar gaps should be left at intervals up quoins and jambs through
which a lath may be passed to dislodge any deposit on the ties. Another effective
method is to flush the whole cavity with water, a hose pipe being used from the
top of the wall for the purpose of dislodging any mortar and washing it to the
base, from which it is removed through the temporary gaps. Neglect of this
precaution is a frequent cause of dampness in cavity walls.
The reason why the cavity should extend below the damp proof course,
and for the latter to be in separate widths, will now be appreciated. If the
bottom of the cavity is level with the damp proof course, or if the latter is the
full width of the wall, water may be conducted to the inner leaf through
accumulated mortar droppings, and produce damp and unhealthy conditions.
Alternative details at the eaves are shown at A, B and P. That at A is sound,
as the solid portion of wall at the top distributes the weight of the roof over
both leaves and the overhanging eaves prevents the transmission of moisture
through this solid wall. This is a·better detail than that at P, which shows the
roof supported chiefly by the inner leaf. Detail B shows sound construction .
Special precautions should be taken to prevent dampness at parapet walls.
Defective construction is shown at A, Fig. 14, where water may be transmitted
through the 9-in. solid parapet wall in the direction of the thick broken arrow
to cause dampness and possible defect of the roof timbers. The cavity should
he extended to the coping. An example of defective construction associated
with a flat roof is shown at o, Fig. 14. The cavity should have been continued
to the coping, or, alternatively, either a lead or asphalt felt damp proof course
should have been inserted above the cavity where indicated. It is always advis-
able to continue the asphalt roof covering (or lead flashing) for the full thickness
of the wall to prevent the penetration of water throu~h defective coping joints
or porous stone or brickwork.
In the absence of adequate precautions dampness will readily occur round
door and window openings. An example of unsound construction, commonly
adopted, is shown at K, Fig. 13, where water may penetrate in the direction of
the thick broken arrow through the solid jamb . A damp-resisting material should
be provided as shown at M and o. The former detail shows a double layer of
slates, bedded in cement, the outer layer projecting in a groove in the frame ;
this groove should be filled with oil mastic as the work proceeds. Effective
construction is also shown at o, where lead, asphalt felt or a double layer of
slates is applied at the slightly recessed jamb. A small reverse recessed jamb
is shown at N, and the bevelled bricks forming the inner reveal only come into
contact with the frame, which should be bedded in mastic ; this detail is not
recommended for adoption in exposed positions, although it is an improvement
upon K. Detail L shows the cavity extending to the opening, and being closed
by a double layer of slates in cement. This is quite satisfactory, although not
so effective in withstanding heavy loads transmitted from lintels. An alternative
method for preventing dampness at jambs consists of placing as the work
proceeds a vertical layer of asphalt felt or lead as shown at o, Fig. 32, and A,
Fig. 33, Vol. III ; this layer should be 9 in. wide, extending to the groove
of the window frame at one edge and into the cavity at the other.
Dampness is very liable to be caused at the heads of openings if proper
protection is not afforded. Thus, water passing through defective joints, etc.,
in the outer leaf will travel down its inner face until it ·comes into contact with
a lintel, when it will spread along the top to the inside face of the inner leaf ;
the water will also drip at the soffit. The protection should take the form of a
lead, copper or asphalt felt covering, stepped down from the inner leaf, as shown
at c, Fig. 13, and continued over the tile course or window (or door) frame, as
indicated at A and c, and by broken lines at o (see also o and o, Fig. 28, Vol. III.) .
This covering should extend for some 3 to 6-in. beyond each side of an opening or
end of a lintel in order that the water may drip clear into the cavity. In addition,
a few open vertical joints may be left in the brick head to allow any water to
escape. The alternative lead trough, shown at o, is not recommended, as this
does not prevent water from gaining access through defective joints in the head
(or porous bricks) and causing dampness. Nor is it sufficient to use a narrow
covering with the lower edge bedded in the joint level with the top or above a
concrete lintel ; contact between the lintel and the head or arch must be broken
by the lead, which is continued as shown by broken lines at B, Fig. 14.
Dampness may also be caused at window sills, especially if these are of
porous stone and are in direct contact with the brick backing (see c, Fig. 14).
An effective preventive is to break contact by means of a lead or asphalt felt
covering as shown by broken lines, or by continuing the cavity (even if reduced
in width) to the wood sill or window board. The ends of stone or terra-cotta
sills should be notched with the back flush with the inrier face of the outer lea~
 C A V I T Y
DETAILS SHOWING DEFECTIVE CONSTRUCTION
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WA L L S CAVITY WALLS 202
otherwise rain may penetrate through mortar droppings which may lodge on
the projecting ends.
If a lean-to or flat roof of a lower building adjoins a cavity wall the usual
lead cover flashing should be continued for the full thickness of the outer leaf
and be stepped up to the inner leaf. A few weep-holes should also be left in
the course of the outer leaf above the flashing . Similarly, when a pitched roof
abuts against a higher cavity wall, the stepped cover flashings at the intersection

should be continued with upturned edge to I-in. beyond the inner face of the
outer leaf. Such provision is necessary to intercept rain-water streaming down
A the inner face of the outer leaf and causing dampness to the party wall below.
An additional cavity wall detail showing plans of successive courses at an
obtuse squint quoin is given at E, Fig. I I. The external corner brick may be a
D purpose-made dogleg as shown, or the special squint c, Fig. 5· Alternate plans
of an I I-in. circular wall are shown at D, Fig. IS (see also p. 44). In both
details wall ties are shown at the angles in each course to increase stability.
FLOOR TrMBERS.-Only sound, well-seasoned timber should be used for
HEAVY BI!.Ot<.EN LINES floor joists, wall plates, etc., otherwise dampness from the cavity may cause
INDICATE HOW WATER dry rot. It is also a wise precaution to have the wall plates and ends of built-
MI>.V PENETRATE
in joists thoroughly creosoted or treated with other preservatives (see pp. I2-I4,
-CONCRETE LINTEL WALl TIE E Vol. III). The risk of dry rot to ground floor (or basement) timbers is con-
-
siderably reduced if the joists are supported on wall plates bedded on sleeper
WATER MAY PENETRATE IF CAVITY IS INTERRUPTED \valls, as shown atE, Fig. IO, Vol. I.
B 6Y MORTAA DROPPINGS LODGING ON WALL TIES ADVANTAGES OF CAVITY WALL CoNSTRUCTION.-The chief merits of cavity
walls are: (I) They prevent rain from penetrating to the internal face, (2) they
have a high insulating value, and (3) they are economical.
DAMPNESS MAY IE CAUSED WHEN LINTEL IS IN r. Prevention of Dampness.-A cavity wall is more reliable than a solid wall
DIRECT CONTACT WITH ARCH of corresponding brick-thickness in excluding rain . Thus, an II-in. cavity
wall in an exposed position will prevent water from penetrating to the inner
leaf, provided adequate precautions are taken in its construction and sound
materials and workmanship are employed. But an external ll·in. solid wall

c A5PHALT >HT
(which is equivalent in thickness of brickwork to an I r-in. cavity lYall) in an
exposed position will not prevent rain from pertetrating to the internal face
unless the wall is rough-casted or similarly protected. A.s has been pointed out
OFTEN OMITTED _:;; SITE CONCRETE , on p. I4, a solid wall is vulnerable to dampness by the penetration of rain through
--, r
cracks in the mortar joints and to other causes, and it is recognized that external
solid walls of buildings to be used for human habitation should be at least 131-in.
thick, unle~s they are rough-casted.
F z. Insulation.-As air is a good non-conductor of heat, it follows that the air
in the cavity is effective in reducing the transmission of heat through the wall.
Therefore the" heat losses" through an I r-in. cavity wall are less than through
a 9-in . solid wall, and a building of hollow wall construction is IYarmer in 11 inter
and cooler in summer (as the inward flow of the heated external air is impeded)
SEE ALSO "1<.'~ FIG.I3 than one built of solid outer walls. This affects fuel consumption, for less fuel
is required to heat a building with cavity walls than that of solid wall construct ion
SCALf FEET
FIGURE 14
 203 BRICKWORK
An important matter affecting the heat insulating value of a cavity wall is the
extent to which the cavity should be ventilated. Formerly, it was generally
considered desirable to ventilate the cavity by means of air bricks fixed just
above the ground level and also near the top. Whilst this circulation of air
ensured a dry cavity and reduced the risk of defects arising in floor timbers, it
also destroyed the insulating value of the wall to such an extent that an II ~in.
cavity wall so ventilated afforded less heat insulation than a g-in. solid wall.
Therefore the only ventilation of the cavity which is now advocated is that
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provided by the weep-holes near the base of the cavity and at the head of door
and window openings, as described on pp. 40 and 42. Of course the usual
ventilation must be provided to ground floors of timber construction.
The sound insulating value of an II-in. cavity wall is also higher than that
of a g-in. solid wall, and the former is therefore more effective in excluding
external noises (seep. 4g, Vol. III).
3· Economy.-An II-in. cavity ·wall costs less to construct than a IJ~-in .
solid wall (which is the minimum thickness if dampness is to be avoided).
Comparative figures show that the approximate cost of an I 1-in. wall is at least
20 per cent. less than a 13!-in. solid wall.
SUMMARY OF SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS.-!. Wherever possible, contact between
the two leaves should be avoided.
2. The cavity should be kept clear of droppings, and any on ties should be
removed.
3. The main horizontal damp proof course must be in two separate widths,
and the bottom of the cavity must be at least 3-in. below this.
4· Heads of openings must be properly protected by lead or similar damp
proof material. Jambs must not be solid unless slate, etc., damp proof
courses are provided. Projecting ends of stone or terra-cotta sills
should be notched back from the inner leaf. Cover flashings at inter-
sections of lower buildings adjoining cavity walls must extend to at
least 1-in. beyond the inner face of the outer leaf.
5· Weep-holes should be formed immediately below the main horizontal
damp proof course and above the damp proof courses over openings.
No other ventilation to the cavity should be provided.
6. Built-in floor timbers should be sound and well-seasoned and their ends
should be treated with a preservative (see pp. 12-14, Vol. III).
7· The cavity should be continued up a parapet wall to the coping.
8. Ties must be rust-proof, capable of preventing rain-transmission and
easily cl~aned of droppings.
At certain Bath stone mines (see p. ror) small pieces of waste but sound
stone are sawn into blocks which are 6!-in. high (or equal to two courses of
brickwork) by 4!-in. wide by g-in. to 2-ft. long. These are used as facings of
11-in. cavity walls, the stone being in regular courses, a type of walling known
locally as range-work.
Another type of cavity wall, suitable for public buildings, is shown at A, B
and P, Fig. 16, Vol. III. This consists of an external leaf of ashlar, backed at
alternate courses with brickwork, and an inner leaf of brickwork.
CIRCULAR WORK
Curved work is occasionally required as for segmental and semicircular bay
windows, wells of staircases, apsed ends, and circular (on plan) factory, etc.,
chimney stacks. The plan of a portion of a room with a semicircular bay window
is shown at A, Fig. rs, that on the left being above the sill level and that on the
right below it. A sketch of this wall is shown at H, Fig. 27.
It will be seen at E and F, Fig. 15, that uncut standard bricks are quite
unsuitable for circular work if normal bonding is to be maintained, as the
stretcher faces of the bricks only conform approximately to the curve, and very
wide joints on the convex surface are produced. The width of the joints can
only be reduced by cutting each brick to a wedge-shape to form radial side
joints. Not only is this an expensive procedure but the appearance is not
satisfactory (especially if the curve is to a small radius), as the " curve" is made
up of a succession of straight stretcher faces. In order to conform more closely
to the curve, and when ordinary standard bricks only are available, heading
bond (see p. 7, Vol. I) may be adopted. But such a wall, where each
course consists of headers, is unattractive in appearance and deficient in
strength.
It is now the general practice, even in cheap speculative work, to use only
purpose-made bricks for the exposed faces of circular walling. Such bricks
are moulded to the required shape either by hand (see p. 4) or by the machine-
pressure process (see p . 3).
Many of the larger manufacturers keep stock~. of ci~cular stretchers and headers,
machine-pressed in dies shaped to curves of radn. varymg from 2 to 8-ft., as .shown
at L and M, Fig. 5· The contractor states the radtus of the curve when ordermg the
bricks. If these do not conform to a stock radius, the plan of the wall is chalked out
on the setting-out board and .the p~sition of the .bricks mark~d after due allowance
has been made for shrinkage m drymg and burnmg. Two zmc templets are cut to
the shape of a header and stretcher. Wood moulds (see p. 4) are prepared from
these and handed to the moulder who proceeds to shape the bricks by hand.
Alternative plans of a portion of a 13!-in. wall in English bond are shown at
c, and of an u-in. cavity wall at D. Unless both faces of a curved wall are to
be exposed, and as purpose-made circular bricks are relatively expensive
(especially if hand-made), it is custo?Iary t? b~c~ the curved facings with
common bricks which are axed to give radial· JOints as sown at c. If the
internal surface of a cavity wall is to be plastered, the inner leaf is usually built
of common bricks (see D), and unless the curvature is too sharp these commons
are not cut to give radial joints.
The setting-out of circular work is described on pp. 68 and 70.
 c R. c u L A ~ w 0 ~ K
BONDING. 204
REINFORCED BRICKWORK
BAY WINDOW
! ~,-s> REINFORCED BRICKWORK (see Fig. 16) is receiving much attention at the
1-o·--I.P-o"' - present time, and its use is gradually being extended. It is brickwork which
has been strengthened by the introduction of steel.or wrought iron in the form
I N G F. 0
A S(ALE

·'
l'ii I II I
FEET
•I I il-~--
of either flat or rod bars, woven wire or expanded metal. This reinforcement is
placed in the joints or in grooves or perforations in the bricks. Such brickwork
K E y p L A N
is capable, of resisting tensile and shear stresses, in addition to compression
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PURPOSE-MADE FACING BRICKS
MAY 8E SACKED WITH AXED
COMMONS IF THE INTERNAL
FACE OF THE WALLIS PLASTERED
SEE FIG. 2}
stress. It is essential that the bricks shall be sound and well burnt, the work
well bonded in cement mortar or cement-lime mortar, and the reinforcement
effectively protected against corrosion. Rusting of the reinforcement may cause
serious damage because of the resultant expansion. Bricks of the engineering
type are most suitable when heavy loads have to be supported. The mortar is
usually composed of 1 part Portland cement to 3 parts sand; 11,1 part of slaked
lime may be added. Lime mortar should not be used, as this rriay have an
injurious effect on the metal. In accordance with the Model Bye-laws, 1939,
a brick wall may be reduced in thickness by 4~-in. provided it is suitably
reinforced and such reduced thickness is not less than 8!-in. Hence this type
of construction increases the floor area of a building (or reduces the external

c
PUI!.POSE-MADE FACING BRICKS
COMMON BRICKS MAY BE USED
FOR THE INTEII.NALLINING
WHEN IT IS PLASTERED
ALTERNATE PlANS OF WAll AT '6" SHOWING AN II" CAVITY WAll
D 4!-in. walls), 7-in. (suitable for 9-in. walls) and 12-in. (used for 13! -in. walls).
ENGLISH BOND CAVITY WALL
STANDARD BRICKS SHOULD ONLY
BE USED fOil. THE INTERNAL
LINING AS SHOWN IF THE FACE
IS CONCEALED OR THE APPEAR-
ANCE IS NOT OF IMPORTANCE
size of a building) and decreases the dead load on foundations.
Reinforcement of brickwork also improves the longitudinal bond of thick
walls. Whilst thick walls are strong transversely, they are weak longitudinally,
as, with exception of the outer stretchers, they consist wholly of headers which
only give a lap of 2!-in. The details in Fig. 16 show how the provision of
reinforcing metal strips increase the longitudinal tie.
Fig. 16 shows examples of reinforced brick (a) walls, (b) pillars and (c) lintels.
(a) Reinforced Brick Walls.- The walls at B are shown reinforced at every
third course with steel meshed strips called Exmet. 1 This is made from thin
rolled steel plates which are cut and stretched (or expanded) by a machine to
a diamond meshwork form (see A). It is known as " expanded metal." The
junctions between the meshes remain uncut. It is supplied in 27o-ft. coils or
bundles of 16-ft. long flat strips in three standard widths, i.e., 2! -in. (suitable for
Each width is obtainable in 20 (o·o35-in.), 22 (o·o3o-in.) and 24 (o·ozz-in.)
Birmingham Wire Gauge. In addition, 4!-in. width of material in 22 and 24
gauge is also produced. The size of the mesh (i-in.) is constant. To prevent
corrosion the metal in the coil form is coated with oil and then dipped in
asphaltum paint. Flat lengths are galvanized. 2
The Exmet is uncoiled and pressed down into the mortar immediately the
latter has been trowelled on the bed. It lies quite flat when uncoiled and the

1 Manufactured by Messrs The Expanded Metal Co. Ltd.

2One m ethod of galvanizing, known as the hot-dip process, consists of cleansing the
lt=d--r---..---,----.- metal and removing any rust by placing it in dilute hydrochloric acid, washing it to remove
~~=~~~1 the acid and then passing it through a bath containing liquid zinc.
PLANS SHOWING THE UNSUITABILITY OF UNCUT STANDARD BRICKS FOR CUIWED WORK
g; 1 1 4 t1 •1 il •1 mr'l FIGURE 1.5
 205
thickness of the bed joints is therefore not increased. Hand shears are used to
cut the material into lengths as required.
The example at B shows the application of zt-in. (see A), 7-in. and 12~in.
wide Exmet. Combinations of these widths are used for thicker walls, and
when so employed, the material considerably improves the longitudinal tie
which is especiallv weak in thick walls. The strips should be lapped 3-in. at
the intersections, . as shown, and at the joints. Sometimes only zt-in. wide
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BRICKWORK
course (see E). This detail shows the treatment at a right-angled quoin where the
ends are double-hooked (see J) and beaten fiat ; alternatively, the middle and inner
strips · may be continued and single-hooked (see K) to the two outer strips. At an
intersection (see H) the bars are interlaced and single-hooked. Any joints between
long lengths are in the form of a welt (similar to D, Fl~. 73, Vol. I). Although l~ss
effective thin wire twisted round the bars may be used mstead of the more expensive
hook-and-welt joints. Hoop iron is· now rarely employed, and whilst it is stronger
than Exmet and Bricktor, it is more costly. It is also difficult to bed the bricks evenly
unless the joints are unusually thick.

strips are used for any thickness of wall, one strip to each half-brick thickness
of the wall, and is thus similar to that shown at D. The amount of reinforcement
used depends upon the nature of the loading, and whilst it may be necessary
to reinforce every course, it is usual to provide reinforcement at every third or
fourth course. Another arrangement consists of staggering the strips, thus in
a 13~-in. wall, one zl-in. strip is placed on one course at r-in. from the external
face, another strip is provided in the centre of the next course, and in the follow-
ing course a z l -in. strip is placed 1-in. from the internal face; this is repeated
for the full height.
Cavity walls (p . 40) may be reinforced by a z! -in. strip at every third course
of each 4! -in. lining. Partition walls, built with bricks laid-on-edge, may also
be strengthened by the provision of z! -in . wide Exmet. The zt -in. wide strips
especially are suitable for curved walls (p. 44), as this width can be readily bent
as required. Expanded metal is also used to strengthen walls of chimney stacks
and parapets built in exposed positions. Further applications include footings,
walling over wide door and window openings, boundary and balcony walls and
tall chimneys. Reinforcement of retaining walis, piers and arches is referred
to in next column and on p. 48. It can also be usefully employed at toothings
(see p. 4, Vol. I) when the bond between new and existing walls at the indents,
is reinforced if the strips are left projecting beyond the old work and built-in ·as
the new wall is constructed.
Another well-known form of meshed reinforcement, called Bricktor,1 is
shown at c. It is made of steel wire, black japanned as a protection, produced
in 2 and zt-in. widths and sold in coils. The 2-in. width is suitable for brick-
on-edge partitions and consists of four straight tension wires of 17 B.W .G.
(o·os8-in. dia.) interlaced with three 19 B.W.G. (o·o42-in. dia.) binding wires.
The z! -in. strips have five tension wires and four continuous binding wires,
each twisted to and between a pair of tension wires as shown. One strip is
provided at every half-brick thickness of the wall (see D). It is very easily
handled, and is used for similar purposes and in like manner as described for
Exmet.
A type of reinforcement much used to strengthen brick walls in the past is shown
atE and F. This consists of wrought iron (known as hoop iron, hence the name applied
to the bond) or mild steel Aat bars w hich vary in width from ~· to r}-in . and . l .r to
'f', -in. in thickness. Protection against rust is provided by dipping the bars m h?t
tar · these are then at once sanded to increase adhesion of the mortar. One stnp
is ~rovided per half-brick thickness of wall, and. it is usual to reinforce every sixth
1 A product of Messrs Johnson's Reinforced Concrete Engineering Co. Ltd.
Retaining walls (those supporting earth, etc.) are often reinforced. If either
of the meshed types are used, zt-in. strips may be embedded in the vertical joints
to assist in resisting lateral pressure in addition to the bed joint reinforcement.
Another form of reinforcement consists of vertical bars of circular section, and
details of an actual retaining wall 1 of such construction is shown at L, M and N.
This 9-in. wall is built of engineering bricks in cement mortar ( 1 : 3) and re-
inforced with vertical mild steel bars near each face, in addition to steel meshed
strips at every fourth course. The bricks opposite the vertical bars are purpose-
made and grooved as shown at P . These grooves are slightly larger than the
diameter of the bars to permit the latter to be grouted in with mortar to prevent
corrosion. In constructing such a wall the bars are accurately placed in position,
the ends being bent and anchored into the concrete foundation (see L). Erection
of the bars is facilitated by the use of thin (10 B.W.G. or o·134-in. dia.) steel
wire ties at every fourth course. These ties, which are built in as the work
proceeds, are twisted round the bars, and those round opposite bars are tightened
by twisting their ends. When the top course has been completed the grooves
on face are well pointed so that the vertical rods are completely encased in
cement mortar. Vertical damp proofing (see p. 52) completes the wall. If
· it is an area wall it may be finished with a stone or reinforced concrete coping
and the ends of the vertical bars would be bedded in it to strengthen the work.
The walls are designed in accordance with the stresses to be resisted, and
the size and spacing of the vertical reinforcement are therefore variable. Some-
times the bars are arranged near to both face J.ines of the wall, opposite to each
other and in pairs at 9-in. centres with steel wire connections placed in the
horizontal joints.
Perforated bricks may be used instead of grooved or slotted bricks, the
centre of the perforations being about !-in. from the external face. As these
must be threaded over the vertical bars, they are not so convenient as the grooved
bricks, although they are quite suitable for dwarf walls such as balcony, parapet
and garden walls. The position of the vertical bars is concealed when perforated
bricks are used in wall construction, and such are therefore preferred to
grooved bricks when the appearance of the brickwork .is of impo~ance.
Many air-raid shelters have been constructed of remforced bnck walls. In
such work the vertical bars are placed in position and the brickwork built round
them. Special bricks are not employed, ordinary stoc~s being cut as required.
1 Constructed by the patentees, Messrs B. Morton & Sons, Manchester.
 R E N F 0 R c E D B c K w 0 R K
~~
ALTBIHI\~

~·~
IMS . 1
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SCAI.E ·FOR a,o,!,F,I.,IA,N,O,S,T,U,V.W,X,Y.Z t.Z' FEET
FIGURE 16
 207
Small bars of circular section (usually !-in. dia.) are sometimes used at the
bed joints of walls in lieu of hoop iron or meshed reinforcement. Thin steel
plates, !-in. thick and ~-in. less in width than the thickness of the walls, may
he embedded at every fourth course to provide heavy reinforcement. Such
should be well tarred and sanded.
A patent type of reinforced partition is described on p. 45, Vol. III.
(b) Reinforced Brick Pillars.-Detached piers are reinforced by providing
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BRICKWORK
is inserted and pressed down to the stirrups or to a level slightly above them.
The continuous vertical joint is then filled with grout from the top. Prior to the
removal of the turning piece, the pieces of thin wire are cut flush with the two
faces and the ends turned into the joints. Pointing completes the lintel. A 1-in.
by t-in. wood fillet may be used as a temporary support for the lower tension
bar in lieu of the pieces of wire. This must be oiled before being built in to
permit of its removal after the turning piece has been removed. The continuous

a 2~-in. wide strip of Bricktor or Exmet set back 1-in. from the external face
at every second or third course or as required. Alternatively, !-in. diameter rods
may be embedded at the bed joints, each rod being bent to the shape of the pier,
about 1-in. from the face, with each end overlapping about 6-in. at one corner.
An excellent type of reinforced pillar 1 is shown at s, T, u, v and w. This 9-in.
square pillar is reinforced with four steel rods, well anchored into the concrete
bed, and steel plates (see v) or wire ties (see w) embedded at every fourth course.
The purpose-made bricks are shown at Q, T and u . Note that the bars are well
protected against corrosion by the mortar. Details of an 18-in. square pillar
are shown at x and Y, including a sketch of the special bricks at R; holed steel
plates may be adopted in lieu of the wire ties when a heavier reinforcement is
required. Perforated bricks may be used, but as these have to be threaded
over the rods they are not so convenient as the grooved bricks.
Attached piers are reinforced by 2t-in. wide strips of Exmet or Bricktor,
placed 1-in. from the face and lapped over the continuous outer strips on the
wall bed joints. Alternatively, two vertical bars with special bricks, similar to
that shown at R, may be preferred.
(c) Reinjarced Brick Lintels or "Soldier Arches."-These lintels must be
provided with additional support when the span exceeds 3-ft. Omission of
adequate reinforcement has been responsible for many failures. Two methods
of reinforcement are shown at z and z', Fig. 16 (see also Fig. 12, Vol. I). That at
z shows the lintel reinforced with two t-in. diameter mild steel bars embedded in
the longitudinal joints and extending to 6-in. beyond the jambs. The alternative
form at z' shows two !-in. diameter bars or tension reinforcement embedded in
the continuous longitudinal joint, together with !-in. diameter bent steel bars,
called stirrups, bedded in every third vertical joint. The object of the stirrups
is to resist shear stresses.
In constructing the lintel at z', two small wood fillets are nailed to the top
of the turning piece (used as a temporary support) at a clear distance apart
equal to the thickness of the lintel. Pieces of thin wire are placed transversely
across and nailed to the fillets at a spacing equivalent to the centre of every
third vertical joint. The bottom bar is placed centrally on the wires and built
in at the ends. The bricks of the lintel are laid (working from each end towards
the centre), and at the same time the stirrups, supported by the bottom bar,
are bedded in position at every third joint, care being taken that the continuous
longitudinal joint is filled with mortar for the lower 2-in. only. The top rod
1 By courtes.y of the patentees, Messrs B. Morton & Sons, Manchester.
joint is filled in with cement mortar and the soffit pointed after this fillet has
been removed.
The size and number of bars vary with the span and loading. That shown
at z' is typical for a lintel having a maximum span of 8-ft.
Flat and segmental arches may be strengthened by embedding meshed
reinforcement in the bed joints of the walling which they support.
Reinforced brickwork has been adopted in the construction of fire-resisting
floors . These slabs are reinforced with bars between the joints of the bricks
placed on edge, both transversely and longitudinally; and these slabs are supported
by steel beams at a maximum distance apart of 7-ft. Reinforced slab construction
is necessary for large brick canopies over doorways, etc.
RAKING BoNDS.-A characteristic defect in a thick wall built in English
bond is a deficiency in the longitudinal bond due to the absence of stretchers in
the heart of the wall. As stated on p . 46, this tie may be improved by the
provision of metal reinforcement. An older method, and one which is now only
occasionally adopted, is the introduction of courses of bricks set at a rake (or
inclination) at intervals up the wall. These are known as raking bond courses
and are of two forms, i.e., (a) diagonal bond, and (b) herring-bone bond.
(a) Diagonal Bond (see plan A, Fig. 17).-This is best suited for walls which
are from 3 to 4-bricks thick, and is applied between the stretching 1 faces at every
fifth or seventh course. Alternate raking courses should be inclined in the
opposite direction to that shown. The method of setting-out is indicated on
the figure. The triangular spaces formed near the stretching faces should be
filled in with cut pieces of brick and not mortar only.
(b) Herring-bone Bond.-This form (so-called because of its slight resemblance
to the spine of a herring) is shown at plan B, Fig. 17, and may be applied
to walls which are at least 4-bricks thick at five to seven course vertical intervals.
The bricks are laid at an angle of 45° in both directions from the centre. Like
diagonal bond, alternate herring-bone courses are reversed. The setting-out
is shown in the figu.e. Note (1) the construction lines F and G are drawn parallel
to and equidistant from the centre line, with the 45° distance between (as 3-5)
equal to +t -in. or the width of a brick, and (2) the long raking joint 1-2 is drawn
from the centre and inclined at 45°, followed in sequence by the long raking
joints 3-f, s-6, 7-8, etc.
An alternative to raking bonds for increasing the longitudinal tie in thick
walls is known as longitudinal bond. A course built in this bond consists entirely
1 Raking bond courses in brick footings should be between. the normal heading faces.

P L A N S 0 F R A 1\ N G
J.IOTE: THESE &eNDS AI'.E SELDOM I'.EQUIP.ED AS l'.fLATIVELY FEW BRICK WALLS EXCEEDING 16' IN THICKNESS ARE NOW BUILT
SCALE FEET
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DIAGONAL BOND HE~RING-80NE
THE LONG IW'JNG JOINTS Ar-E PAI'.ALLEL TO C 1D'; CONSTIWCTION- C'E'• CE,C'D' •CD
of stretchers, with exception of a row of queen closers adjacent to each outer
row of stretchers. The inner rows of stretchers are arranged to break joint to
give a 4!-in. lap. This bond may be applied at every fifth course.
The above three bonds are seldom required for constructional purposes, as
modern steel-framed and reinforced concrete construction has, to a large extent,
eliminated thick walls. Both forms of raking bonds are, however, often used
with good effect in decorated brickwork. Examples of such brickwork are shown
in Fig. 24, the panel at M.I indicating diagonal bond and that at M.2 showing the
bricks arranged to a herring-bone pattern (see p. 62).
SPECIAL BONDS
Bonds which have not already been described include Garden, Cross, Dutch,
Brick-on-edge and Facing Bonds.
GARDEN WALL BoND.-As its name implies, this bond is suitable for garden,
division and similar walls which usually do not exceed r-brick in thickness.
Owing to the slight variation in the lengths of bricks it is difficult to construct
a 9-in. wall in English bond if a fair or uniform face is required on both sides
(see p. 7, Vol. I). As fewer headers are employed in garden wall bond than
in either English or Flemish bonds, it is usually possible to select from the bricks
available sufficient of the longer bricks of uniform length as headers for a garden
bonded wall, the remaining bricks being used as stretchers and built flush with
both faces of the headers. Fair faces on both sides of a garden bonded wall are
thus ensured. Whilst garden wall bond is not as strong as English bond (the
transverse tie being inferior), it is sufficient for most dwarf walls and for those
not requireri to withstand large stresses. As mentioned on p . 40, garden wall
bond is sometimes used instead of stretching bond for the construction of the
outer leaves of cavity walls. It has a good appearance,- and on this account ts
greatly to be preferred to stretching bond.
SPECIAL BONDS 208
There are two forms of garden wall bond, i.e., (a) English garden wall bond
B 0 N D S and (b) Flemish garden wall bond.
(a) English Garden Wall Bond (see A, Fig. r8).-This consists of one course of
headers to three or five courses of stretchers. As in English bond, a queen
closer is introduced next to the quoin header in the heading course. A header is
placed at the quoin of each middle (or alternate) course of stretchers to give the
necessary lap and face appearance of stretching bond (see also H, Fig. 3, Vol. 1).
The longitudinal vertical joint between each three (or five) successive stretching
courses is corttinuous, and this causes the deficiency in transverse strength
stated in the preceding column. This bond, because of its economy, is very
frequently adopted in the construction of 9-in. thick rough-casted external walls,
especially for houses not exceeding two stories in height.
(b) Flemish Garden Wall Bond (see B, Fig. r8).-This is also known as Sussex
80 ND B and Scotch bond. It consists of three or five stretchers to one header in each
e, E'D'• ED FIGURE 11 course. A three-quarter bat is placed next to the quoin header in every alternate
course, and a header is laid over the middle of each central stretcher.
In a modified arrangement at the quoin of a Sussex bonded wall, a queen
closer is placed next to the quoin header of each alternate course, and this is
followed by a series of three stretchers and a header. Each alternating course
comprises a quoin stretcher with a stretcher adjoining, followed by a series
consisting of a header and three stretchers. Excepting at the quoin the appear-
ance is similar to the above, as each header is centrally over the middle stretcher.
MoNK BoND is a variation of Flemish garden wall bond, each course consisting
of a series comprising a header and two stretchers, the header falling centrally
over the joint between a pair of stretchers.
ENGLISH CRoss BOND (see c, Fig. 18).- This is similar to English bond, in
that it consists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers, with queen closers
next to the quoin headers. Each alternate stretching course has, however, a header
placed next to the quoin stretcher. This causes the stretchers to break joint
in alternate courses.
DuTCH BoND (seeD, Fig. 18).-This is another modification of English bond.
The bond consists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers, but each
stretching course begins at the quoin with a three-quarter bat, and every alternate
stretching course has a header placed next to the quoin three-quarter bat. This
also has the effect of the stretchers breaking joint in alternate courses. The
presence of the quoin three-quarter bats makes it unnecessary for queen closers
to be placed next to the quoin headers as in English bond.
BRICK-ON-EDGE BoNDS.-These differ from normal bond in that at least
alternate courses are 4!-in. high, the bricks being laid on edge and not on bed.
They are econemical as, compared with English bond, considerably fewer bricks
and less mortar are required. Their strength is deficient, and the appearance is
unsatisfactory on account of the large scale of the brick units and the light colour
which is characteristic of the beds of most bricks. Only wire-cut bricks should
be used . These bonds are sometimes employed for garden and similar walling,
 209 BRICKWORK

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FIGURE 18
SILVERLCKK.1S BOND RAT-TRAP BOND

and •H.:casionally for walls of cheap one-storied cottages. They can be employed (b) Silverluck's Bond (sec E, Fig. r8).- This resembles English bond in that
effectively if their external faces are covered with vertical tiling (see p. 11 r, it consists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers, but, whereas the headers
Vol. III). The best known brick-on-edge bonds are (a) rat-trap bond and are laid on bed, the stretchers are placed on edge with a continuous cavity
(b) Silverlock's bond. between. The jambs are solid, and a three-quarter bat at the beginning of each
(a) Rat-trap Bond (see F, Fig. r8) .-All bricks are laid on edge, and, as shown, heading course gives the necessary bond . Whilst this is stronger than rat-trap
are arranged to give a face appearance of Flemish bond . Each alternate course bond, it is not so economical.
L commences with a three-quarter bat, followed by a header, and each alternate On the score of economy in materials and space, brick-on-edge stretching
course K commences with a header, succeeded by a stretcher. As indicated on bond is frequently employed in the construction of 3-in. thick partition walls
the plans, there is a 3-in. cavity between each pair of stretchers, except at the in lieu of 4!-in. thick brick walls.
jambs, which are solid (see also sketch). It is estimated that, compared with a FACING BoND.- This is usually employed for solid walls exceeding 9-in. in
9-in. solid wall, a rat-trap bonded wall shows a saving of approximately 25 per thickness which are faced with thin bricks and backed by thicker and cheaper
cent. External walls of cottages built in this bond must be protected on their standard commons . The faced work is bonded to the backing in a series of
outer faces by rough-cast or vertical tiling, otherwise water may penetrate blocks of a height which depends upon the difference in thickness between the
through the solid headers and mortar droppings. two types of bricks. Thus, in the section through the r8-in. wall at G, Fig. r8,
Occasionally 9-in. rat-trap bonded walls are built solid, the cavity being the height of four courses of 2-in . thick facings with their bed joints is shown
filled by stretchers placed on edge. to coincide with three courses of commons together with their joints, and the
 ARCHES
blocks of faciQ.gs are alternately ! and r-brick thick. The facings may be built
in either English, Flemish or any of the bonds A, B, c or D, Fig. r8 (with snap
headers at the ~-brick thick blocks), and the backing is built in English bond.
Somew hat similar construction may be applied to rl-brick walls, with the backing
to the alternating 9-in. thick facing blocks built in stretching bond.
A modified form of facing bond may be applied to 9-in. thick walls. Thus,
the facings and commons would be built in l-brick thick leaves in stretching
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bond with facing heading courses at suitable intervals. If the facing and backing
bed joints coincide, as shown at G, such facing headers would appear at every
fifth facing course.
Facing bond is not, of course, as strong as English bond, but the alternative
would be to use thin bricks for the backing of the same thickness as the facings.
And this would add considerably to the cost, especially if the facings were 2-in.
or less.
ARCHES
A description of several forms of arches is given on pp. 22-26, Vol. I.
SEMICIRCULAR ARCH WITH 0RDERS.-An opening in a thick wall is often
finished with either splayed or stepped jambs (see p. 39) and an arch comprising
several rings of diminishing width or thickness. The arch is thus recessed or
stepped by a series of rings known as orders (or " rows "). It is applied to both
door and window openings and has a satisfactory appearance.
An example of this type of arch is shown at A, Band c, Fig. 19, which illustrates
a main entrance to a house. Special attention is drawn to the section at c, which
shows the bonding of the arch as each ring extends to the inner face . This is
known as a bonded arch. It is much stronger than the alternative unbonded
arch, often applied, when 4l-in. by 4~-in. by 3-in. voussoirs are used for each
ring which is therefore only 4!-in. wide on soffit. The impost is shown con-
sisting of a double row of tiles which project ! -in. An alternative is a thin stone
course or a course of purpose-made bricks.
It is assumed that the door shown opens into an outer lobby, otherwise the
thickness of the wall should be increased, with the inner ring at least 9-in . wide
on soffit.
The two steps, of combined height equal to the brick-on-end plinth, are
formed with bricks-on-edge in cement. These bricks must be hard and durable,
otherwise the arrises would be readily damaged. The bottom step is segmental
with a 4-ft. radius, and consists of purpose-made bricks with a tile-on-edge
infilling ; the vertical joints are radial.
Another example of a semicircular arch with orders is shown at P. 14, Fig. 24.
This arch is three-ringed and the stepped recesses are continued down the jambs
to the steps of the doorway . This is an alternative treatment to the splayed
jambs shown at A, Fig. 19 (see alsop. 64).
A semicircular arch with a toothed or indented extrados is shown at P . 13,
Fig. 24 (see also p. 64).
210
STILTED SEMICIRCULAR ARCH WITH SEGMENTAL RERE ARCH (see U, V, W, X
and z, Fig. 19.)- A stilted (or elevated) arch is one which has its springing line
above the impost. Thus, the amount of stilting of the semicircular arch at u is
equal to two courses. In the absence of an impost the arch is continued below
the springing line with several parallel voussoirs, any difference in texture and
colour between the voussoirs and general walling producing the stilted effect.
This arch is enriched by a slightly projecting crown course known as a label
(see u and the section at z). When the label consists of moulded bricks (or stone)
it is called a hood mould. The voussoirs and label are of purpose-made bricks,
and the arch is bonded on face.
When the jambs of an opening are rebated, the external arch need not
necessarily be of the same shape as the internal arch. Thus the external arch at
u is semicircular of 2-ft. 3-in. radius, and the inner arch is segmental of 6-ft.
radius. As the internal jambs are splayed, as shown at wand x, the intersection
between the soffit of the segmental arch and a splayed jamb ''ill take the form of
a curve as indicated at z. This segmental arch is kno\\ n as a rere (meaning
" back " or " rear ") arch.
The development of the curved intersection is shown at x, \" and z. The plan at X
and sectional elevation z of the splayed jamb are each divided into four or any con-
venient number of equal parts. Vertical lines are projected from the quarter-point~
I, 2 and 3 on the plan to the inti"ados of the segmental arch. Horizontal lines arc
drawn from the points 5, I, 2, 3 and 4 on the intrados to intersect the corresponding
ve rtical lines at z. A line s. 1, 2 3 and 4 drawn through these points of intersection
gives the required curve, as shown at z. Horizontal lines projected from the voussoir
joints at the intrados of the segmental arch at v to z give the level soffit joints in
section YY.
CIRCULAR OR BuLL'S-EYE ARCH (see H, Fig. 19).- This form of arch is
chiefly adopted as an external decorative feature to receive either a fixed light
or frame with a pivoted sash . Circular openings in internal walls are occasionally
required through which metal smoke flues, ventilating tubes, etc., are passed.
Purpose-made, rubber or axed bricks are used externally, and an internal arch
is usually a rough ring.
Constructi~n.-The lower half or im·ert of this arch is firs.t built. The adjacent
brickwork which will form the base for this lower half is built from course z and
racked back up to course Y at the centre. A wood batten is laid across tht· opening
and weighed at the ends on course Y, and the trammel rod or radius rod (see p. 8s,
Vol. I) is screwed or nailed to it at the centre ; allowance for the thickness of the
bed joint at the extrados must be made in determining the length of the rod. Course
z is completed ; stretchers I, 2 and 3 are laid temporarily in position and marked to
the required cun·e as the radius rod is traversed ; these bricks are cut with a hammer
and bolster (see 35, Fig. I9, Vol. I) and trimmed accurately to shape with a scutch;
they are then laid permanently. Each course up to the middle line is completed in
this manner, after which the purpose-made voussoirs forming the lower half of the
arch are bedded in position , the radius rod being used to check the radial joints and
curve. Finally, the upper half of the arch is constructed by the usual method, a
wood centre on struts being used as a temporary support (see p. 6o, Vol. III).
SEMI-ELLIPTICAL ARCH (see J, Fig. 19).-This shows half of an axed arch,
bonded on face with a portion of a tiled key, and a half arch in three rough rings.
Both purpose-mades and rubbers may be used for the former.
 211 BRICKWORK
This form of arch has several demerits. It is not structurally sound, as
defects such as shearing at the haunch joints may occur, especially if the rise
is relatively small. Labour costs are high, as special care must be taken in its
setting-out and erection if abnormally shaped curves at the intrados and extrados
are to be avoided. It is sometimes preferred to the segmental arch where a
comparatively large span is required and the height is restricted. The rise of
the arch should be at least one-third the span.
As the student will be aware, an ellipse is produced when a cone is cut by
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a plane which does not intersect the base and is not parallel to it. A true
elliptical curve cannot be constructed with compasses, as no part of it is circular.
However, for reasons of economy and the need to reduce the number of voussoir
templets to a minimum, it is usual to adopt a geometrical method for setting-
out the intrados and extrados of a semi-elliptical arch. There are several methods,
that set out from five centres shown at J being one of the best, as by it compound
curves can be produced which closely conform to that of the true ellipse.
Setting-out.-Draw the major and minor axes ; make cd = half span ab ; con-
struct circle with d as centre and db as radius, and mark off be and bf = radius
db ; draw lines dern, djr, ken and kfo ; g, e, k, f and h are the five required CPntres
for both the intrados and extrados, and dm, kn, ko and dr are common normals.
Construct tangential curves as, st, tu, uv and vw with .g, e, k, f and h as
centres respectively ; construct the extrados in a similar manner ; mark off the
thickness of the voussoirs on the extrados (if the bricks are axed, purpose-made or
rubbed) and draw the bed joints of the voussoirs. It is important to note that these
joints are radial, as shown by the broken constructional lines ; thus the voussoirs
within the portion of the arch mnts radiate from centre e, and those within portion
nout radiate from centre k. It will be seen that the bricklayer will only require three
differently shaped templets to which axed or rubber voussoirs are shaped, i.e. , one
for the central voussoirs, one for those within the intermediate portions mnts and
orvu, and one templet for the voussoirs within the two end portions. Also for purpose-
mades, three similarly shaped but larger (to allow for shrinkage) moulds will serve
the moulder to shape the bricks.
ELLIPTICAL ARCH (see K, Fig. 19).-This may .be adopted as an alternative
to the circular arch H. The method of setting out briefly indicated in the figure
has been selected as an alternative to that described for the semi-elliptical arch J.
It will be seen that only four centres e, m, n and fare required.
Setting-out.-After the major and minor axes have been drawn and their lengths
decided upon, with centre a and radius ab describe arc be; join bh, with centre h and
radius he describe arc cd ; bisect bd, and the two centres e and fare at the intersection
between this bisector and the two axes ; the two remaining centres m and n are easily
obtained by making am =af and an.=ae. The voussoir joints of each of the four
sections of the arch radiate towards its centre. Only two templets are required for
the whole of the voussoirs.
PoiNTED ARCHES.-These are also known as Gothic arches, as the pointed
arch is characteristic of this style of architecture. The intrados and extrados
of each of the several forms of this type of arch are segmental curves which
intersect at the pointed apex at which each half abuts to form a vertical joint
on the centre line. It is therefore not usual to have a key.
There are five forms of pointed arch, i.e., equilateral, drop, lancet, Tudor
and Venetian.
The first three are illustrated at T, Fig. 19. The equilateral arch is shown at
R, bonded on face ; the radius of each curve of the intrados equals the span,
the centres are at the ends of the springing line and the extrados is parallel to
the intrados. A drop arch, as at Q, has its centres on the springing line and
within it ; in the example the span is 4-ft. 6-in. and the radius is 3-ft. 9-in.
A lancet arch has its centres on the springing line and outside the span ; that
shown by broken lines at s has a span of 2-ft. 3-in. and the radius is 2-ft. 7!-in.
In each form the bed joints of the voussoirs radiate to their respective centres.
The equilateral and drop arches are shown in section at o .
TUDOR ARCH (see N, Fig. 19).-This arch, commonly employed during the
Tudor period, has four centres, all within the span ; two of them are on the
springing line and the other two are below it. The Tudor arch, like the semi-
elliptical, is a weak form.
S etting-out.-There are several methods . In that shown, ac is set up and made
equal to i (or!) rise em ; join me and draw mn at right angles to it of indefinite length;
mark off mn and ar = ac; join nr, bisect it and continue the bisector until it intersects
mn continued at s ; s and r are the required centres for the right half of the arch, and
sr produced to u is a common normal. The remaining two centres v and w may be
found by measuring from the centre line. The voussoir bed joints radiate from the
respective centres. Two templets are required for the voussoirs.
VENETIAN ARCH (see L, Fig. 19).-This pointed arch is deeper at the crown
than at the springing line. The centres are on the latter. The voussoirs are
radial from the centres of the intrados curves.
FLORENTINE ARCH (see M, Fig. 19).-This, like the Venetian arch, is deeper
at the crown than at the springing. The intrados curve is semicircular, and the
extrados has a pointed apex as it consists of two segmental curves, as shown.
Here also the voussoirs are normal to the intrados curve. Sometimes the extrados
is semi-elliptical.
A semi-hexagonal arch and a tiled segmental arch are illustrated in Fig. 24
(see p. 64). Note also the fiat arch at H, Fig. 24, Vol. III.
The centering for the above arches is described on pp. 6o and 62, Vol. III.
DAMP PROOFING OF BASEMENTS
The materials used for horizontal damp proof courses and their application
are described on pp. i7 and 18, Vol. I. Vertical damp proof courses will now
be considered.
The materials chiefly used for vertical damp proof courses are (I) bituminous
substances and (2) waterproofed cement and concrete.
1. BITUMEN is a name applied to natural pitchy (see p. 54) substances con-
sisting principally of hydrocarbons which vary in colour and hardness. It
includes (a) natural asphalt, (h) artificial asphalt and (c) fibrous asphalt fe lt.
 ARCHES
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A CONSTRUCTION OF ElliPSE:
c:d=ab; be=bf=bd;dm.kn,
KO & dr ARE COMMON NOR-
SEE "A~ FIG. Z3.
VOLUME 3. MALS; g,e,k,f l. h ARE CENTRES

2 11 BRICK5 WITH 'h' 011. ~·

BED JOINTS

w
PLAN

N
 213
(a) Natural or Native Asphalt occurs in many parts of the world in either a
pure (or moderately pure) condition or associated with a large proportion of
mineral matter such as limestone, shale, etc., and known as rock asphalt. It is
found in liquid form in springs, liquid or semi-liquid condition in lakes, and
in impregnated rock formation. As there are no deposits in this country,
asphalt has to be imported, the chief supplies heing obtained from the British
West Indies, France, Switzerland and Germany .
Natural asphalt is one of the most efficient materials employed for damp
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BRICKWORK
sieve (mesh of o ·o8I-sq. in. aperture) and at least IS per cent. will pass a No . 200
sieve (mesh of o·oo3-sq. in. aperture). The required amount of Trinidad Lake
asphalt is added and thoroughly incorporated by mechanical agitators with
the powdered aggregate in a tank at a temperature of from 350° to 400° F. The
total bitumen content should be at least I6 per cent. In order to stabilize the
mastic and render it suitable for marketing, up to I2! per cent. by weight of
fine grit such as sharp-grained sand is added during the mixing process. Finally,
the mastic is discharged from the tank and cast into flat blocks weighing approxi-

resisting purposes ; it is black in colour, very durable, tough, elastic and
noiseless.
Ohc of the largest deposits of asphalt exists on the Island of Trinidad , British
West Indies. It is a lake, known as Trinidad Asphalt Lake, approximately circular, of
2,ooo-yd . in diameter and nearly 300-ft. deep . Whilst large quantities of asphalt
have already been obtained from it, it is estimated that there still remain some 10 to
IS million tons. The consistency of the asphalt is such that it will pe rmit m en to
work on the surface.
The chief supply from France comes from a large deposit in the Seyssel region
and is commercially known by that name. Another source is that from a deposit
mined in the south (St Jean de Maruejols, Department of Gard). These arc rock
asphalt deposits, the limestone having a maximum asphalt impregnation of 12 per
cent. It is both quarried and mined.
The largest deposits occuring in Switzerland are in the Val de Travers region,
west of Lake Neuchatel, and well known as Val de Travers and Neuchatel asphalts.
This is asphalt-impregnated limestone, the asphalt content varying from 8 to I 2 per
cent.
The principal deposit in Germany is situated at the village of Limmer (in the
province of Hanover) and is marketed as " Limmer Asphalt." This is limestone
which is impregnated with 8 to 20 per cent. of asphalt.
Winning and Refining.- The methods employed to obtain asphalt depend
upon the nature of the deposits. Thus, Trinidad Lake asphalt is hand-picked
by men working on the surface, loaded into trucks which are hauled by cable
over rails either to the refiners or to the shore (about l-mile distant) and loaded
for direct shipment. Deposits of rock asphalt near the surface are open-quarried,
blasting being resorted to. Deep deposits are mined.
\Vater is present in most natural asphalts. That from Lake Trinidad, for
instance, has nearly 30 per cent. of moisture content. This must be removed.
Dehydration is effected by heating the asphalt in open metal tanks, after which
it is passed through a fine screen (to remove pieces of \YOod, etc.), and poured
into barrels. Rock asphalts are crushed, ground and screened before being
either heated in tanks or dried by exposure to the atmosphere.
Prt'Paration of .\"a/ural Asphalt Mastic .-This is recognized as one of the
most reliable materials for the damp proofing of \\ails, tloors and Hat roofs.
:\s, for this purpose, most rock asphalts arc deficient in bitumen , it is necessary
to enrich them hy the addition of Trinidad l .ake asphalt. The rock asphalt o.r
aggregate used in the preparation of the mastic should contain at least 90 per
cent. of calcium carbonate and not less than R per cent. of bitumen. This
rock is reduced hy grinding to a pcmder so that the \\·hole \\·ill pass a :\o . R
mately t-cwt. each. It is thus in a convenient form for handling.
(b) Artificial Asphalt is a cheap and inferior substitute for the natural product.
The composition is a mixture of tar with aggregates such as sand, pulverized
chalk and pitch (see below) . It is liable to deteriorate and become brittle.
Therefore, when used as a damp proof course, cracks may appear through
which water may penetrate . The composition of artificial asphalt varies, a
common mixture being I part tar (or tar and pitch), I part sand and It parts
crushed chalk. These are boiled in a tank and thoroughly incorporated by
stirring before being run into blocks.
Tar, a black, thick, oily, strong-smelling liquid, is obtained by the destructive
distillation in a closed retort of bituminous coal, wood and certain other organic
substances.
Coal tar is the largest group , a nd is recovered as a by-product in gas manu-
facture. The gases produced when the coal in the retorts (long vertical or inclined
vessels of circular or D-section) is heated proceed through the hydraulic main (a
large pipe), condensers (pipes in which the gases are cooled), tar extractor and
scrubbers (where ammonia and impurities are removed) to the gasometer. During
the process, tar is deposited in the hydraul ic main, condensers, extractor and scrubbers,
collected and mixed.
Valuable oils are obtained by subjecting the tar to fractional distillation. The
process consists of heating the tar in a still (metal cylinder) and collecting the con-
densed vapours. Benzene, toluene, naphtha, carbolic acid, cresol, creosote, naphtha-
lene and anthracene are some of these oils.
Pitch is the residue in the still after the oils have been evaporattd. This black
coloured material has a variable consistency, becoming brittle in winter and softening
when subjected to heat in the summer, hence the reason why this is an unreliable
material for damp proofing (see above) .
(c) Fibrous Asphalt Felt (see p. I8, Vol. I).-The continuous process is one
of several used for manufacturing this material. The felt or hessian forming
the base is passed in a continuous stretched sheet through a machine and succes-
sively (I) pre-heated as it travels over and under steam-heated cylinders, (2)
impregnated with asphalt by being passed under and over a series of rollers
in a tank containing hot liquid asphalt, (3) air-cooled as it traverses rollers,
(4) passed through a second tank containing hot asphalt mastic and surface
coatings of the liquid applied to each side of the sheet, (5) on emerging, sprayed
by compressed air with grains of talc or similar material (to prevent the sheets
from sticking together when coiled up) on the upper surface, (6) passed between
a pair of rollers to embed the particles of talc and coiled by traversing air-
 DAMP PROOFING
cooled drums, (7) automatically cut into 24-yd. lengths, and (8) finally wound
into coils by a winding machine.
APPLICATION OF VERTICAL DAMP PROOF CouRsEs.-As stated on p. I7,
Vol. I, the object of a horizontal damp proof course provided in a wall at least
6-in. above the ground level, is to intercept water absorbed from the soil and
prevent it from rising up the wall. It is clear that this will not stop water from
passing through a basement wall from the adjacent earth. Therefore it is
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necessary to introduce a vertical damp proof course which must extend from
the above horizontal damp proof course down to a second horizontal course at
or near the base of the wall.
Several alternative details showing the damp proofing of basements are
illustrated in Fig. 20. A section through a basement is shown at A, in which a
damp proof course in the thickness of the floor is continued vertically up each
wall to the horizontal course placed at a minimum height of 6-in. above the
ground level. The damp-resisting material thus forms a waterproof tank,
preventing water from passing through the floor and walls adjacent to the earth,
in addition to intercepting water absorbed from the ground which would other-
wise pass up the walls above the ground level.
The damp proofing material in details B, c, D, E and c is natural asphalt
mastic. The blocks of mastic (see p. 54) are broken into small pieces, placed
into a tank on the site, and gradually heated until the asphalt is sufficiently fluid
to be applied. With exception of detail E, the vertical damp proof courses
are situated within the thickness of the walls, and thus conform \Yith what is
considered to be the best practice.
Detail c shows one method of damp proofing a basement which has a joist
and boarded floor. The 1t-brick main wall has, in addition, a 42-in. thick
outer leaf which is finished with a plinth course. This leaf is built in stretch·
ing bond, and its function is to protect and retain the vertical damp proof
course.
The wall is built up to the level of the lo\ver damp proof course of asphalt
or other approved materials described on pp. 17 and 18, Vol. I. It is constructed
in the following manner : The main I ~-brick \vall is continued for three or four
courses, and the joints on the outer face are raked out to a depth of about l-in.
to afford a key for the vertical asphalt. A similar number of courses of the outer
leaf are built at a distance of !-in. from the main wall. This cavity is main-
tained and mortar droppings prevented from falling into it, if a length of 11-in.
by i-in. board is placed next to the main wall as the leaf is constructed. This
board is removed and the cavity is filled with molten asphalt from a pail ; a
length of floor board supported on the leaf by small splayed blocks and tilted
towards the cavity facilitates this operation. A metal rod is used to consolidate
the asphalt and prevent the formation of air voids. Care must be taken to
ensure that the cavity is entirely free from mortar droppings before the asphalt
is poured, otherwise water may be subsequently transmitted through such
porous material to the main wall. The wall and vertical damp proof course are
214
fctmed in short '' lifts " in this manner until the position of the upper horizontal
damp proof course is reached. The latter course is then applied and the normal
construction of the wall continued.
Attention is drawn to the means of ventilation provided to safeguard the
floor timbers against dry rot. Vertical shafts or flues, of 9-in . by 41-in. cross
section, are formed at approximately 6-ft. intervals in the centre of the main
wall during construction ; openings are left at the inner face belo\\ the basement
floor, and the upper ends are completed \Yith the usual perforated air bricks,
as shown.
Detail D shows an alternative and efficient method of damp proofing. The
bottom layer of concrete known as the subfloor is covered with a Z-in. thickne~s
of asphalt laid in two separate coats (or a Ik-in. thickness in three coats); th1s
in turn is covered with a second layer of concrete, called the loading floor (as it
counterbalances the upward pressure of subsoil water), and finished \\'ith wood
block flooring (see p. 38, Vol. III).
The asphalt covering the subfloor is continued as a \·ertical damp proof
course, additional asphalt being applied at the intersection between the horizontal
and vertical layers, and finished as a splayed angle fillet, to prevent possible
creep of moisture at the intersection. The vertical layer is formed as follows :
The outer 4~-in. thickness of the wall is first constructed in stretching bond up
to the level of the horizontal laye_r ; the joints of the inner face are raked out
and dust, etc., removed by means of a stiff broom ; the first coat of the hot
asphalt, approximately ~-in. thick, is then applied, it being spread or floated
on by the aid of a hand float similiar to that shown at o, Fig. 23. The latter is
applied with sufficient pressure until a smooth surfaced homogeneous layer of
asphalt is obtained, free from voids or blow holes. Any blow holes must be
stabbed, filled in and smoothed over. The second coat must cover the joints
of the first. The finished thickness of two-coat work is f-in. For special work,
and especially if water pressure has to be resisted, three separate coats are
applied, the overall thickness being i-in . or, preferably, 1!-in.
In order to provide a uniform backing for the asphalt, it is advisable to build
the inner or main wall i-in . from the face of the asphalt. Grouted cement is
run into this cavity as each four courses of the brickwork is built. If this is
not done, spaces will be left between the asphalt and the outer face of the main
wall, and any water from the soil forced through the outer leaf may seriously
damage the unsupported patches of asphalt and gain entrance into the building.
The cement grouted backing to the asphalt is shown in detail B.
The upper horizontal damp proof course may only cover the wall from the
vertical layer to the outer face, or, preferably, extend for the full thickness of
the wall as indicated by broken lines at D.
Sometimes the provision of subsoil drainage i• made to remove the risk of damage
to the ,·ertical damp proof course. Thus, as shown at D, small diameter drain pipes
(see Chapter Eight) are laid butt-j?int~d in _the tr~nch an~ cov~r~d wit~ about 2-ft.
of gravel before the trench is filled m w1th so1l. Th1s subsOil dram ts contmued round
 215 BRICKWORK
the building, laid with adequate fall , and continued to a hedge ditch or other suitable
outlet. Hence the level of the subsoil water is lowered to that of the drain, eliminating
pressure on the vertical damp proof course, as the water passes through the open
JOmts of the drain and is removed.
Another form of internal vertical damp proof course is shown at G. The
wall is constructed in two block-bonded thicknesses with a continuous double
layer of asphalt between, the height of the blocks being five courses each.
The detail at E shows the vertical asphalt applied on the external face of the
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walls. The joints must be well raked out to afford an adequate key for the
asphalt, otherwise there is a risk of the covering becoming detached from the
wall. There should be a minimum width of 2-ft. 6-in. working space between
the wall and the timber;ng of the trench to enable this to be done . In order
that the asphalt will not be exposed to view and the hot rays of the sun, it is
turned in 4t-in. just below the ground level and continued vertically to the
upper horizontal course. This method is not so efficient as either of those
shown at c, D and G, especially if the damp proof course is subjected to sub-
soil water pressure. The construction of the floor, in which Bull Dog clips
are employed, is described on p. 38, Vol. III.
Detail F shows the application of sheets of fibrous asphalt felt . This bitumin-
ous sheeting is generally in 3-ft. widths and is laid vertically with 3-in. wide
lapped joints. In the given example it is shown applied to the internal face of
the main I !-brick wall. This face is first rendered with cement mortar (I : 3)
of l-in. thickness to provide an even surface for the sheeting.
It is usual for three men to work together when applying the felt. The roll is
supported by two men holding the projecting ends of a wood roller which is passed
through it. Commencing at the upper horizontal damp proof course previously laid,
and working downwards, the underside of the roll as it is gradually uncoiled is heated
by a blow lamp manipulated by the third man. Meanwhile, one of the other men
holding an end of the rod with one hand, presses a hand float over the sheet as it
uncoils and attaches it to the rendered face of the wall. This is continued, the roll
being slowly uncoiled as it is heated and attached, until the base is reached. The
upper edge must be thoroughly heated and sealed to the horizontal damp proof course,
and the lower edge should be heated and lapped 3-in. over the floor damp proof
course previously laid. Each successive vertical layer of sheeting must be thoroughly
sealed by heat and pressure at the lapped joints.
The inner 4!-in. wall is built after the concrete loading floor has been formed,
a i or !-in. cavity being left between the leaf and the asphalt and filled with
grouted cement as described on p. 55 in connection with detail B. It is usual for
this inner leaf to be continued up to the basement ceiling.
Bituminous sheeting may also be applied next to a 4t-in. leaf as at D or
externally as at E.
DAMP PROOFING OF FLOORS.- The concrete floors shown at D, E, F and G
are shown with a damp proof course over the concrete subfloor. Such pro-
vision is necessary if the site is damp (see waterproofed concrete-floors on p . 57).
The course may be either of asphalt mastic or fibrous asphalt felt.
The surface of the concrete must be absolutely dry before the asphalt is applied,
otherwise adhesion will be adversely affected. It should be level and wdl brushed
down. In order to promote adhesion, hot liquid asphalt, known as a primer, is brushed
over the surface before the first coat of asphalt mastic is applied ; alternatively, the
concrete may be covered with bituminous paper or building paper (one type consists of
two layers of hemp impregnated with bitumen and covered with brown or kraft paper).
This first coat of mastic, ~-in . , thick, is spread and floated over in bays not exceeding
4-ft. 6-in . ; the joint between a bay and that last formed is properly sealed by spreading
the hot asphalt some 3-in . over the edge of that already laid to soften it, and after the
superfluous asphalt has been removed, the joint is well floated or ironed until both edges
are properly bonded and levelled. The second coat is applied direct on to the first,
care being taken that the joints do not coincide with those below. If a third coat is
required , this must also break joint with the second.
If fibrous asphalt felt is to be used, as shown at F, the concrete subfloor is primed
and the bituminous sheeting is laid with 3-in.lappedjoints, as described in the preceding
column for vertical sheeting, the sheets being heated as they are uncoiled and floated
on to the floor. As any sharp projections on the s urface of the subfloor may tear the
sheeting, it is advisable to cover the concrete with a ~--in. thick layer of cement
mortar. It is also desirable to cover the sheeting with a x-in. layer of cement mortar
to prevent damage when the concrete of the loaded floor is deposited. This also
ensures a good backing for the damp proof course, which is wry essential if water
pressure has to be resisted.
In order to prevent damage being caused to the horizontal damp proof course
by the upward pressure of subsoil water, it is often necessary to reinforce the
concrete by a continuous layer of expanded metal or other steel reinforcement placed
about I-in. below the damp proof course. Similar reinforcement, placed approxi-
mately 1-in. from the top, is also usually provided in the concrete loading floor.
Such reinforcement resists the tension stresses created.' In all such construction
the loading floors should be tied or built-in to the walls , as shown at D, E, F and G.
TREATMENT OF DAMP EXISTING BASEMENT WALLS.-The absence of vertical
damp proof courses is a frequent cause of dampness in walls of existing basements.
One method of curing such dampness is to apply a bituminous sheeting
vertical damp proof course to the internal face of the wall, similar to that shown
at F and described in the preceding column, and to construct a 4l-in. brick (or
concrete) wall from the floor to the ceiling.
Alternately, asphalt mastic may be applied to the internal faces of the walls
after any plaster has been removed and the joints well raked out. T wo coats of
asphalt may be rendered as described in connection with detail D and a 4!-in.
brick lining constructed, or this inner lining may be built with a !-in. cavity
between, into which the liquid mastic is poured (see description on p. 55 in
respect to detail c). If a wall exceeds 9-ft. in height, it is desirable to bond the
new 4!-in . brick lining to it; this is effected by forming s-in. by s-in. by 4-in.
high pockets (one per square yard) in the existing wall, lining these with asphalt
mastic, and building in headers from the new wall during its construction.
If the wall can be treated externally, the vertical asphalt damp proof course
may be applied on the outer face, as shown at E.
When the floor, in addition to the walls, of an existing basement is damp, it
is advisable to take up the floor, replace it with at least 6-in. thickness of concrete
(I : 2 : 4) and cover it with a !-in. double layer of coloured asphalt befo:e the
walls are treated. This can be obtained in various colours, and provides a
noiseless, damp-resisting and hygienic finish. Occasionally the layer of asphalt
1 See Vol. IV.
 DAMP PROOFING 216

DAM p p R 0 0 F N
GROUND
LEV~
A 0 F B A S E M E N T S
8 A 5 E M E N T

1----oAMP·PROOF COURSES~ B~CEMENT

. 1-IIJ;z• . . <iROUT
ASPHALT
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~ ~ ENLAR<ifD SECTION SHOWJN<i

K E Y SECTION CEMENT 6ACKJN<i FOR A5PHALT

S E C T I 0 N S EXTERNAL WA L L S P 0 RT I 0 N S 0 F F
Frrrl''l' '$ 21 sl ~ tl m~
SCALE

may be placed. direct upon the existing concrete floor; this is rarely satisfactory,
as the concrete is usually defective.
Waterproofed cement (see below) is also applied to walls and floors of damp
existing basements in lieu of bituminous materials.
2. WATERPROOFED CEMENT RENDERINGS AND CONCRETE.-Waterproofers,
as described on p. 27, are used for cement renderings and concrete (see p. 36)
for damp proofing basements. The composition of the mixes varies according
to the waterproofer, water pressure (if any) to be resisted, and the particular
requirements of the building. In all cases the directions of the proprietors of
the waterproofers should be complied with, and only best materials and work-
manship employed.
The construction may be somewhat similar to that shown at E, except that
the floor consists of one layer only of waterproofed reinforced concrete covered
with a rendering of waterproofed cement mixture ; the rendering is continued
vertically on the outer face of the wall to the upper horizontal damp proof
course as shown.
The composition of the concrete recommended by one firm whose product
is a well-known waterproofer in powder form is 1 part Portland ceml'nt, 2 parts
 217 BRICKWORK
sand, 3 parts coarse aggregate (graded from i-in. down to !-in.) and 3-lb. of water- must be formed, or pipes, as shown, provided near the base of the wall to allow
proofer to zoo-lb. of cement. The reinforcement is placed at 1-in. from the upper
surface, the thickness of the floor and amount of reinforcement depending upon the the escape of subsoil water, otherwise the pressure may overturn it, especially
span and water pressure to be resisted. The concrete is at once covered with a i -in. if the water becomes frozen. The floor of the basement is an alternative to those
mixture composed of 1 part Portland cement, 2 parts sand and s-Ib. of waterproofer shown in Fig. 20 ; if the ground is waterlogged the concrete must be water-
to zoo-lb. of cement. The vertical rendering is of similar composition, but is 1-in.
thick in three coats. proofed and reinforced as described on p. s6.
To cure dampness in an existing basement, it is recommended that a 6-in.

D R y
layer of waterproofed reinforced concrete, composed as above, be formed on the
A R E A
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old concrete floor ; this is rendered with a !~in. layer of waterproofed cement
mortar, as above, and continued as a 1-in. thick vertical layer on the inner face
of the walls. C.l. 0"' W.l. MILING ~---__1
The following is the sequence of operations : (z) Chases are formed in the walls
to receive the edges of the waterproofed concrete floor ; (2) any plaster, limewash 91 lC 61 STONE COPING
or paint is removed from the walls , the joints are raked out or the brickwork (or stone-
work) is hacked over by using a hammer and punch to give a key for the rendering,
the walls are brushed down with a stiff broom to remove dust and afterwards copiously
watered to prevent excessive absorption of moisture from the rendering ; (3) the
surface of the existing floor is well hacked, brushed and washed ; (4) a 5 per cent. 9" RETAINING WALL &UILT IN
grout of waterproofed cement is brushed over the cleaned surface to effect a bond CEMENT MORTAl!.. -----w~"Ail
between it and the waterproofed concrete layer which is at once laid before the grout
sets ; (5) this is rendered without delay; (6) each prepared intemal face of the wall is
grouted, and after the fillet has been carefully formed at the bottom comer (this is
important, as the intersection is vulnerable) and before the grout has set, the first coat
of the wall rendering is applied, followed by the subsequent coats. ~--4•-ou WIDE AREA --~-w

Defects in this form of damp proofing may occur through cracks which may
develop in the rendering coats through which water may penetrate.
In modern construction, basements are frequently constructed of solid
reinforced concrete walls, the concrete being waterproofed.
A double course of slates, bedded in cement (as described on p. 18, Vol. I),
may be used as a cheap, but less effective, alternative vertical damp proof course
to those described above.
Finally, the practice adopted in cheap work of rendering the inside faces of
basement walls with two coats of cement mortar to a finished thickness of £-in.
is highly undesirable, as dampness will ultimately appear through this thin un-
waterproofed layer. The covering of damp walls with wood cleading or panelling
should also be discouraged, as this only hides the defects, and, whilst the
unhealthy conditions still remain, the wood is likely to be attacked by dry rot.
The provision made for damp proofing walls built on sloping sites is described
on p. 6o.
DRY OR OPEN AREAS.-Fig. 21 shows a section through a typical open area.
Such provision is necessary to afford natural lighting and direct access to a
basement.
The ground is supported by a retaining wall some distance from the outer
wall of the building. The area must be paved and drained, gullies (see p. 72)
being placed as required and connected by drains to the public sewer. The
retaining wall must be built in cement mortar, and is usually surmounted by a
metal railing or balustrade, as this obstructs little light ; either small weep-holes
DAMP PROOF COUI!..SE
3 11 DIA. PIPES AT 91-011 INTEIWA
CONCRETE~
S E C T 0 N
l''l"llllllij)
SCALE FEET
FIGURE 21
A closed dry area may consist oi a 4!-in. independent wall , ex~ending from a fe:w
inches below the basement floor to the ground level, 2! to 4!-m. from the mam
wall and finished at the ground level with a brick-on-edge coping which closes
the cavity; the latter may be.ventilated by -:ertical shaf~s formed in the main ":all,
similar to that shown at c , F1g. 20. Th1s I S an undesirable form of construction,
as water may gain access through the thin retaining wall and cause dampness as
it accumulates. To overcome this defect the closed cav1ty IS sometimes mcreased
in width, the bottom is concreted and a gully provided which is connected. to tJ:e
sewer by a drain . This gully will, however, become unsealed (see ChapterE1ght) m
dry weather owing to the evaporation of the wa~er in the trap, ~~d thus gases from
the sewer will escape into the inaccessible cavity. Such prov1s1on cannot be to()
strongly condemned.
 STEPPED FQUNDATIO NS 218

STEPPED FOUNDATIONS FOR SLOPING SITES

Foundations must be horizontal irrespective of the character of the site. S T E P P ED FOUND ATIONS
If a site has little or no fall, the foundations of walls of the same thickness
are generally level throughout. On a sloping site, however, it would be un-
F 0 R S L0 P I N G S I T E 5
economical to construct all foundations at the same level as that of the lowest,
and it is therefore the practice on such a site to arrange the foundations
at different levels according to the slope. Such are known as stepped
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foundations. The steps should be in relatively short lengths and pre-

ferably of uniform height not exceeding 3-ft., the smaller the better. Hence
when the slope is considerable, it is desirable to form the foundation of a wall
of appreciable length in a series of small steps ; if the steps are high owing to
their inadequate number, there is a risk of unequal settlement occurring due to
the large variation in the loads transmitted to the foundation on each side of a
benching (see below) and the difference in shrinkage of the mortar joints between
the larger number below each benching and those above ; this may cause cracks
to appear in the wall immediately over the changes of depth. The lengths of
the steps need not be uniform, and they may vary considerably if the fall is very
irregular.
Two typical arrangements of stepped foundations are shown at A and B,
Fig. 22. D
The site at A has a fairly regular slope, with a total difference in level in
the length of the wall of 4-ft. The two steps are of uniform height. The
sketch detail c shows the concrete continued vertically from the lower to the
upper concrete beds. This is known as a benching and should be of a width at
least equal to the thickness of the concrete bed. In this example the floor level
is the same throughout.
The sectional elevation at B shows the ground to have an irregular fall , the
total difference in level being 7-ft . Advantage has been taken of the fall to obtain
garage accommodation as shown ; a building should be designed to ·obtain
accommodation in this manner in order to reduce the cost and avoid " dead
walling " at the lower level. The foundation consists of brick footings on concrete
as an alternative to that at A. The detail at n shows the footings (and wall) of
the lower section abutting against the concrete benching, and those above it
returned, the lowest course of footings being 6-in. from the edge of the
benching.
SITE CoNCRETE.-This has not been shown in order to avoid complication .
No attempt would be made to arrange this in a series of level steps; the top
6-in. of virgin soil would be removed and the 6-in. of site concrete would be
formed to a slope more or less conforming to that of the ground. The floor of ..
TOP Of :§ITE
the garage at B would be of concrete. The site concrete under the floor on the SLOPED 6ACI<. OR VERTICAL D.P.C. ~-
left of the division wall could be laid to fall as described above, in which case
l"lb I;j I:& lit I 81 I 1b I ifi! I MI t~ I ffio
the division wall would require a vertical damp proof course ; alternatively the SCALE ;:o~ 1 A" e- 8 6" FEtT FIGURE 22
latter can be dispensed with if the earth is excavated to a depth of 9-in . below
 219 BRICKWORK
the horizontal damp proof course in the wall, sloped back and covered with 6-in.
of site concrete as shown at H.
DAMP PROOFING.-The horizontal damp proof courses are stepped as shown,
care being taken that none come within 6-in. of the ground ; the vertical joints
should be as short as possible in order not to weaken the walls, otherwise the
steps should be as shown at G where asphalt mastic is applied and the adjacent
walling toothed. A vertical damp proof course, indicated by a thick line, would
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be required on the back face of the garage division wall unless the earth is removed
and the site concrete sloped as explained above. The vertical damp proof
course is required to he continued round the side walls of the garage as the
floor is· below the ground level ; this may be applied to the internal faces, as
shown by the shaded area, but if this is objected to on the score of appearance,
it may be formed \1 ithin the thickness of the wall in the usual manner.
CONCRETE FLOOR CONSTRUCTION
A concrete floor may consist of a single layer, known as one-course
work, or two layers called two-course work. T he former is commonly adopted
for floors of garages, cellars, coal houses, etc., and those which are to be
covered with other materials such as boarding and asphalt ; site concrete
is in one layer only. Two-course work is generaliy employed in good
practice, and consists of a base layer covered by a finishing surface or wear-
ing coat which should not be less than :f-in. thick. A common mix for the
base is 1-cwt. Portland cement, 2t-cub. ft. of dean coarse sand and s-cub . ft.
of coarse aggregate graded 1-in. down to 1''~~"-in. (producing a I: 2:4 mix, see
p. 30): just sufficient water should be used to give a 2-in. slump. A hard wearing
surface, known as a granolithic finish, is obtained from a mixture of I part cement,
1 part sand and 2 to 3 parts clean granite or whinstone chippings (crushed granite)
capable of passing through a l-in . square mesh sieve and excluding dust; approxi-
mately 6o per cent. uf the chippings should be retained on a l -in. mesh sieve ;
the surface concrete should give a 1-in. slump (see p. 31). The concrete is
either machine or hand mixed, as described on p. 34· An excess of water,
cement and tnmelling (see below) should be avoided, as this brings the cement
to the surface and produces what is known as a dusty floor. The surface should
be applied to the base before the latter has hardened. The ground should be
firm, any soft patches being replaced with concrete or hard stone. Sometimes
a 6 to 12-in. layer of broken bricks or stone is first laid to receive the base layer;
this sub-bast.: is called hard core or penning (see Fig. 21 ) .
1\fethods of forming a Concrete Floor.-Large floors are formed in a series of
hays or sections, a convenient size being xo-ft. square, concreted alternately.
One of seYeral methods of forming a two-coursed floor is as follows : As shown
at A, Fig. 23, 1 ~-in. thick edge-boards or battens are nailed to wood stakes (or
secured by staples to ~-in. diameter ~etal rods) driven in along the boundaries of
the bays at about 4-ft. centres, the top edges of the battens being brought to the
required floor level by the use of a long straight edge and spirit level. The base
concrete is deposited in a bay, spread, and shovelled up to a height slightly more
than the finished level. A wood strike-board, tamper, or striking-off board is then
used to consolidate and bring the concrete to a uniformly level surface ; as
shown at B, this strike-board is notched at each end, the depth of the notch being
equal to the thickness of the surface coat of the floor. It is manipulated by a man
at each end who, working together, tamp down the concrete by lifting and
releasing it as they proceed slowly backwards and forwards, any excess concrete
being struck off as the tamper is brought forward when traversing the battens,
and any low patches being filled in before the surface is given a final light tamping.
The wearing coat should be laid within an hour of mixing the base concrete.
The ends of the strike-board used for forming the finishing coat are not notched
(see c). The granolithic mixture (see preceding column) is deposited and then
levelled as the strike-board is caused to traverse the edge-boards with a to-and-fro
and zigzag motion. When sufficiently hard, the surface is tamped and floated with
the wood float D, any irregularities being made good. The surface is finally
trowelled smooth by means of the steel trowel E, which is worked in a circular
motion. Excessive trowelling brings to the surface a liquid scum, called laitance.
Such should be avoided, as this destroys the initial set and produces a friable,
non-wearing surface having a glossy finish which has a tendency to dust and
craze.
Not all surfaces are finished in this manner. Thus, for cQinmon work, the concrete
is often spade-finished, i.e., the surface is beaten down and smoothed over with the
back of the spade. Another finish, often adopted for paths and roads, is produced
by jumping the strike-board up and down as it traverses the edge-boards, to form a
serious of small corrugations. A hard-wearing surface of attractive appearance may
be produced by mechanically operated grinding discs which are applied to the floor
after it has become sufficiently· hard. This exposes and polishes the coarse aggregate.
Terrazzo is another finish used in first-class work. One method is to cover the
concrete base with a 1-in. thick wearing coat composed of 1 part cement and 2 parts
sand ; crushed marble of t-in. gauge (free from dust) is sprinkled and rolled into
this coat whilst it is still soft ; when sufficiently hard (three or four days after laying)
it is ground down to a smooth surface by stone discs mechanically operated. Another
terrazzo finish consists of a 1-in. coat of 1 part cement and 2! parts crushed marble
of l-in. gauge or less, which is machine ground after it has been allowed to partially
harden.
An alternative method of forming a two-course floor is as follows : The floor is
divided into bays, as above described, by te·m porarily bedding wood battens, called
sO"eed rules, on narrow strips of concrete ; these are firmly tapped in p osition until
their top edges are brought to the required level by means of a straight edge and
spirit level ; each alternate bay is dealt with in turn; the base concrete is deposited
and levelled off to the top of the screeds by a straight edge which is drawn over them
in a zigzag manner ; the concrete is compacted or punned with a wood rammer (see F)
or iron rammer or punner (see G) ; the top layer of concrete is then spread over the
base, brought to a level surface flush with the screeds by means of the straight edge,
floated (o) and trowelled (E) as already described ; the screeds are removed, and the
holes filled in with concrete and levelled off.
The floor should be covered with damp sacks or 2-in. thickness of sand, kept
moist by occasionally spraying water on it from a hose to prevent the concrete from
drying out too rapidly. It should be kept damp for at least ten days (see p. 35).
 DECORATED BRICKWORK 220

CONC ~ E T E F L 0 0 ~ CON s T P-. U C T 0 N

-~-~----r DRUM
/ .- / WHEN CONC~.m
;\'1--.._
// I IS &EING

~G
MIXED t, OISCHM:iE
WOOD FLOAT -
F ./ wooo / /~l \ WAn•'
TANK
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,~ , A I / I
""' HOPPE~
WHEN BEING
I
FILLED L EMPTIED I
....._,
\ J
\ i

f\ A M M f s
I
"'
:t_
I

I ,I ~
q·
~.,.,. STAKES

E 0 D 0 F TILTING Dlt.UM

A 0
0 0
I N G A
u R s E
CONCRETE
-p--r>=r
SCALE Of FEET
=n= 11:
MI XER
sr=_sc::· ::u::==:il
T E F L 0 0 ~ & A T c H 6 0 X FIGURE 23

DECORATED BRICKWORK
The decorative value of brickwork is influenced by the size, shape, colour
and texture of the bricks and mortar joints, in addition to the face arrangement
of the bricks and form of the feature .
BRICKS.-The thickness of the bricks affects the appearance of faced brick-
work considerably. Whilst a wall built of thick bricks looks strong, and these
are therefore suitable for engineering work, it is generally agreed that the appear-
ance of most walls is enhanced if 2-in. bricks are employed. Bricks which are
uniform in shape, with straight, sharp arrises, give a mechanical appearance to
a wall, which is avoided by the use of the somewhat irregularly edged and surfaced
hand-made variety.
A wide range of colours and textures of bricks is now available (see pp. 12 and
13). Some walls are purposely built of bricks which are uniform in colour; such
bricks must be carefully selected if a dull, monotonous appearance is to be avoided.
Within recent years there has been an increased demand for multi-coloured
bricks ; these have a very pleasing appearance, provided the selected shades
suitably blend and violent contrasts are avoided. Regarding texture, bricks
having a smooth surface can be readily cleaned and are therefore often employed
for external walling in towns where they quickly become discoloured in the dust-
laden atmosphere ; otherwise sand-faced or richly textured bricks are generally
preferred because of the excellent effect they produce.
]OINTING AND PoiNT!NG .-Particular attention should be given to the colour
of the mortar, and the shape and texture of the joints used for facing work .
Various forms of jointing and pointing are described on pp. 31 and 32, Vol. I.
The appearance of a wall constructed of sound materials and workmanship may
be completely ruined by the adoption of unsuitable joints. Thus, for example,
joints least suitable for sand-faced bricks of rich texture and warm colouring
are those of black or dark blue mortar (see p. 27) which are struck-jointed, on
account of the colour and the smooth mechanical appearance.
The texture of the joints should conform with that of the bricks: Joints
smoothed over with the trowel should not be associated with rough textured
bricks, for which flush and recessed joints (see Vol. I) give the best results. If
neither of the latter can be adopted because of expense, a satisfactory finish to
 221 BRICKWORK
rustic brickwork is obtained if the joints are just left as the mortar is cut off
with the trowel, no attempt being made to smooth the surface ; the fairly rough
texture of such joints gives a more satisfactory finish to this class of work than
that produced by smooth struck joints.
The colour of mortar is referred to on p. 27, to which attention is drawn.
Marked contrasts between the colour of the jointing material and the bricks
should be avoided, hence white joints should not be used with bright red facings.
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Generally, black mortar should be avoided for faced work. The design of a
fa<;ade can be influenced by mortar joints ; thus, horizontality can be effectively
stressed if the vertical joints are made inconspicuous by flush-pointing them
with mortar of the same colour as that of the bricks (which should be uniform),
and a lighter coloured mortar is used for the flush-pointed bed joints.
That the shape of the joint affects the appearance of brick walling may be
appreciated by comparing work which has been flush jointed and that with
recessed joints. Whilst both are attractive, there is a big contrast between the
flat appearance of the former and the deep shadows formed by the latter, in
which each brick unit in the mass is clearly defined. An effective modification,
in which both of these joints may be employed in conjunction, consists of flush
vertical joints and recessed bed joints.
The thickness of the joints is also important. With few exceptions, such as
for glazed brickwork, thin joints should be avoided. Most first-class work has
j-in. thick bed joints, and sometimes this thickness is increased to !-in.
Monotony of plain brick walling is relieved by using bricks either of con-
trasting colour, or texture or face appearance, or a combination of all three, at
prominent positions, such as at parapets, quoins, string courses, door and window
openings, etc. The judicious use of stone and tiles at these positions assists
in providing interesting contrasts. A few examples of these are illustrated in
Fig. 24.
PARAPETS (see A, B, c, D, E and F).-That at A shows a simple finish to the
quoin of a brick-on-edge parapet. The double course of tiles at B is surmounted
by brick-on-end and brick-on-edge courses, both of which may be set slightly
back from the face and at the quoin. The parapet course at c consists of stretchers
alternating and coursing with bricks laid on end bed-faced ; this is bedded oh
a slightly projecting stretching course and is finished with one or more projecting
courses of tiles. Bricks-on-end (which may be slightly set back from the face),
surmounted by two courses of thick tiles, comprise the parapet at D, and an
interesting finish at the quoin is . provided by the tiles as shown. A simple but
effective detail is shown at E, where the top four heading courses are set back
(or indented) t to 1-in. from the face and at the quoin, and these alternate with
stretching courses of suitable contrasting colour flush with the wall face ; a
2-in. thick stone coping serves as a finish. That at F simply consists of a brick-
on-edge course surmounted by a similar stone coping.
Additional designs suitable for parapets, modified as required, include the
string courses at N.7, R and 9, diagonal pattern at M . I (or a course of bricks
laid diagonally), herring-bone pattern at M.2 (two inclined courses laid hori-
zontally), pattern M.3 (see below), pattern M.5 (arranged horizontally), bricks-
on-end as shown at P. 10, and one or more courses of basketweave shown at P. 14.
The top courses of bricks, tiles or stone of a parapet should be well bedded
and jointed in cement mortar in order to exclude water and increase stability.
The provision of a horizontal damp prbof course, below the parapet and extend-
ing the full thickness of the wall, is an additional requirement.
Built-up cornices, involving the use of moulded bricks, rarely find a place in
modern design.
QuOINS (see G, H, J, K and L).-Additional interest may be provided by simply
using at the quoins bricks of contrasting colour to that of the rest of the walling,
and producing a toothed effect, as at G and L ; the quoin bricks may be darker
than the adjacent walling (i.e ., " purple" quoins against a mass of "buff
brindles ") or lighter, such as " cherry red " quoins contrasting with " dark
strawberry " coloured adjoining brickwork. The appearance of additional
strength is obtained by using rusticated or indented quoins, as shown at H, 1
and K. The elevation and sketch at H show projecting blocks of two-course
depth alternating with three-course projecting blocks, the blocks being of uniform
length. The treatment at J is somewhat similar, but the shorter alternate blocks
give a toothed effect. Projecting blocks at greater intervals are shown at K.
In general, indented courses should not have a greater set-back than 1-in.,
if a coarse appearance is to be avoided.
This form of treatment is also employed at door and window openings.
STRING CouRsEs.-A few suggestions are shown at N.6, 7, 8 and 9, and at 1.
Most of the parapets described above may also be adopted for string courses or
friezes . Moulded brick courses are not now greatly favoured.
PANELS.-Large masses of plain walling may be relieved by the provision
of decorative panels. A few designs are shown at M. I, 2, 3, 4 and 5. That at
M. 1 shows square panels of bricks laid diagonally with header divisions ; the
infilling bricks may be of contrasting colour. The panel at M.2 consists of a
herring-bone infilling, short brick-on-end head and sill, and header verticals.
Panel M.3 comprises three " piers" of purpose-made bricks with bevelled
faces which project (see plan), alternating with bricks arranged on end, and
finished with two courses of tiles top and bottom, the latter projecting as shown
on plan. The simple rectangular panel at M.4 projects (see plan) and is of
contrasting colour. A somewhat complicated design, suitable for a large panel,
is shown at M. 5 ; such provides an interesting feature, especially if surrounded
by a large mass of brickwork ; the panel may be given a slight projection.
Another form of panel, much favoured, consists of an infilling of bricks arranged
in .basketweave pattern (see P. 14).
ARCHES.-Apart from their design, arches may emphasize such salient features
as doors and windows by the employment of bricks of contrasting colours and
textures, and the introduction of differing materials forming the keys and imposts.
Thus, for example, a pleasing effect to a fa<;ade constructed of dark coloured
 D E c 0 R A T E D B R c K w 0 R K

L s
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 223
bricks may be obtained if rubbers or similar coloured voussoirs are used for the
arches, and points of interest provided if tiles or stone are use~ for .key blocks ..
Several arches having tiled keys are shown in Vol. I and m Ftg. 19 of this
volume; additional examples are illustrated in Fig. 24. That shown at P.Io
shows a lintel or soldier arch with several projecting voussoirs. P. 11 shows a
segmental arch constructed entirely of tiles.
BRICKWORK
made ; special bricks, shaped somewhat like those indicated at M.3, are some-
times used. The concrete is placed in position as the brickwork proceeds.
Although this brickwork does not support any load, other than its o_wn weig?t,
it is advisable to tie the shorter faces into the concrete by placing I -m. by l-m.
by 6-in. long copper strips in the bed joints at sixth course intervals.

F I R E P LA C E S, F L U E S, C H I M N E Y B R E AS T S A N D S T A C K S 1
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The mortar joints at the tiled soffit (and sometimes on the face) are usually receased
(see p. r r ). This effect is obtained by spreading a i-in. layer of sand on the wood centre ;
each tile is forced down until it touches the lagging, and mortar rs spread 0':1 the bed As a means of heating a living-room of a house the open fire is sti.ll the most
of the tile above the sand. Pointing is applied on removal of the centre. Th~s ensures
clea.n exposed edges of the tiles, which are otherwise liable to become stamed wrth popular in this country, despite the fact that it is very largely responstble for ~he
the m o rtar·and rendered inconspicuous. pollution of the atmosphere by the smoke and other products of combust~on
emitted from it. It also serves as one of the most effective aids to natural venttl~­
The semi-hexagonal arch at P. I2 embodies tiles at the corners. The se~i­
tion. Incidentally, a convenient and cheap supply of hot water. for dorr:esttc
circular arch P. 13 consists of a tiled key block and purpose-made long voussotrs
purposes is obtained if the fireplace accommodates a copper botler assoCJ~ted
alternating with shorter ones ; this toothed arrangement is continued down the
with a range, the more modern of which is economical in fuel consumptiOn.
jambs ; owing to the difficulty in accurately cutting to the required. shape t.he
In districts where cheap supplies of electricity (or gas) are available, the r:e~ent
bricks adjacent to the extrados, this form of arch is usually assoctated wtt~
tendency is to use radiators as a sole means of heating bedrooms and dmmg-
rough-casted walls, and rough cutting is therefore only necessary. A semi-
rooms, and thus the provision of open fireplaces in such rooms is not necessary.
circular arch, with stepped rings, over a door opening is shown at P.14; the
Each open fireplace must be provided with a flue or duct for the removal of
core or tympanum is filled with bricks arranged in b~sketweave p~ttern ; . an
smoke. If the chimney in which the fireplace opening and flue are formed
equally effective treatment is to arrange the bricks formmg the core m hernng-
projects (and it generally does) it is known as a chimney breast until it penetrates
bone formation. This core is supported on a stout oak frame, and one or more
the roof, when it is called a chimney stack. .
courses of tiles (with i-in. projection) are often introduced between the top of
Fireplace, etc., construction must comply with the bye-la"":s. ~he reqmre~
the frame and the brickwork.
ments of the Model Bye-laws, reprinted in 1939, have been bnefly mcorporate.d
DIAPER WoRK.-Variegated coloured or diaper work in which dark c?loured
in the following description, and most of them are illustrated in Fi~. 25 .. Thts
bricks, arranged in pattern form, are associated with lighter coloured bnckwork
shows the plan B, vertical section c and elevation A of a two-ston:d chtmney
(or light coloured brick patterns contrasting with general walling of dark bricks)
breast (which accommodates two fireplaces and flues), together wtth enlarged
is less prevalent in modern construction than formerly. The present tendencyt
details.
when multi-coloured bricks are employed, is to lay the " darks " in haphazard
FouNDATIONS.-The foundations of a chimney .must be similar to those of
fashion, no attempt being made to arrange them to any mechanical pattern.
the adjacent wall, i.e., they must comply with eith~r of those shown at A, B or c,
:\ few examples of diapers or chequer work are shown at ~·15, 16 a~d 17.
Fig. xo, Vol. I (see A, c and z, Fig. 25). The chimney must be well bonded to
In each case the general wall bond is adjusted to suit the particular destgn of
the adjacent wall (see plan at z) and be provided with a proper damp proof
the diapers. .
course (see A and section at z).
PIERS.- These have been referred to on p. 40. The detached octagonal pter
CHIMNEY BREAST.- The jambs (attached piers at the sides of a firepl~ce
shown in plan and part elevation at R.x8, with a simple brick-on-edge plinth
opening) must be not less than 8!-in. wide. Their projectio? v~ries. accor~mg
having a ~-in. projection, has a pleasing appearance. Inde~ted cour~es, s~t
to the type of range to be accommodated, thus a greater proJeC~IOn ts reqmred
back about J-in. and at six to eight course intervals, are sometimes p~ovtded m
for a kitchen range than for most bedroom fireplaces. The size of fireplace
this form of structure. An alternative design (occasionally employed m modern
opening also varies, thus a modern kitchen range (with oven) of medium size
churches) is shown in plan and part elevation at R. 19. Steel pillars (which
will require an opening 3-ft. 6-in. wide by 4-ft. high, whilst the smallest bedroom
support the steel roof trusses and any steel beams) are encased in concrete and
fireplace opening need o,nly be r-ft. 6-in. wide and 2-ft. high . The width of a
finished with brickwork. The plinth is four courses high above the floor and
chimney breast may be varied according to the size and importance of a room,
has a !-in. projection. The bricks forming the two longer faces of the pillar
shaft are arranged diagonally (those in alternate courses being laid in the opposite 1 The introduction to fireplace con~truction is sometimes deferred until the third year
direction) to give a serrated effect. As shown, these bricks are not purpose- of the course.
 F I R E P l A C ES, F l U ES, C H I M N E Y B R EA S T S A N D S T A C K S
thus, for a long drawing-room, the breast mav he at least 6-ft. wide in order that
it may he of suitable proportions. · mended mixture consists of 1 part cement, 3 parts lime and 10 parts sand; an old
The head of a fireplace opening is finished with either a stone or concrete
lintel or a brick arch, the latter usually being segmental in two rough rings.
Where a breast projects more than 4l-in . and the jambs are less than 13-in.
wide, a brick arch must be built on a wrought iron or steel bar, 9-in. longer than
the opening at each end, with ends turned up and down ; the ends may be
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split and turned as shown in Fig. 26, or turned either up or down without
being split ; the object of this cambered chimney bar is to tie ·in the narrow
abutments.
The back of a fireplace opening in an external wall (see B and Q) or between
two openings built back-to-hack (see R) in a wall, otha than a party wall, shall be
at least 4-in. thick. A party wall is a division wall between two buildings occupied
by different tenants or belonging to different owners. The back of every other
opening (thus including a single opening in an internal wall as at s, and back-to-
hack openings in a party wall) shall be not less than 8~-in . thick . The backs shall
be continued at the thickness stated for a height of at least 12-in. above the top
of the opening, unless the opening is in a party wall and is for a kitchen range
when the thickness (8~-in.) must be continued for a height of 9-ft . above the
level of the hearth.
FLUES.· -The size of a flue is usually 9-in. by 9-in. and this should be uniform
through its length, except at its outlet, where it may he slightly restricted . The
brickwork above the fireplace opening is corbelled or gathered over in order to
reduce the opening to the size of the flue and avoid a large space which may
produce eddies and reduce the upward current (draught) of the flue (see A,
Figs. 25 and 26). This reduced opening is known as a throat. The two flues at
A, Fig. 25, arc indicated by broken lines (see also c). That from the lower fire-
place must be bent in order to negotiate the upper fireplace. The gathering over
should be arranged to bring the narrowest part of the throat centrally over the
fire, not as shown at c, Fig . 26. It is generally agreed that, whereas a flue should
be as straight as possible for most of its height, it should have at least one bend
in order to reduce down-draught and the admission of rain ; hence the reason
for not rnntinuing the upper flue in a straight line to the chimney pot ; if this
flu t was straight throughout, it would undoubtedly produce a smoky chimney
because of its short length . Any bends must be gradual and should not be less
than 45° to the horizontal. The brickwork enclosing flues shall be at least 4-in.
thickness (see J, wand x) ; if the angle of an oblique flue is unavoidably less
than 45 °, this thickness must be increased to a minimum of 8!-in. on its upper
side ; the minimum thickness of the back of a flue in a party wall (not back-to-
hack with another flue) must be 8i-in. up to its intersection with the roof. The
minimu m thickness of chimney breast walls is 4-in. (see c). The inside of a
flue must be rendet'ed with mortar to prevent the escape of flame and smoke
through any cracks or open joints ; this is known as pargeting or pargi11g, and
should be at least ! -in. thick.
224
. A good .mixture for parging is composed of 1 part lime to 3 parts sand, together
Wtth ox hatr ( 1 -lb. of hair to 3 cub. ft. of mortar) well rahd in ; another recom-
specifiqtion, still adoptt-d in country districts and which produces a very adhesive
non-cracking coat, is 1 part lime, z parts sand and 1 part cow dung.
This parging is applied in course of construction, and in order to keep the flue
clear of mortar droppings, pieces of brick, etc., it is advisable for it to be t·ored. A
" core " is a.sack, stuffed with shavings, with a rope attached ; it is placed within the
Rue at its commencement, drawn up in stages as the work proceeds and any droppings
removed. This precaution is often omitted and hence the somewhat frequent cause
of smoky chimneys, the accumulation of mortar, brick bats, etc., at the bottom of a
bend being such that the passage of smoke is impeded and sometimes complett•ly
stopped. An additional precaution to ensure a clear flue is to lea\'e an opening in
the face of the chimney breast at the bottom of a bend which is unavoidably sharp,
and this is made good after any accumulation has been removed .
Flues in chimneys constructed of st:>ne (which is occasionallv u~ed where stone i'
readily available) arc lined with either cvlindrical or rectangula·r fin·cla\' tuhes which
are ~-in. thick, 8-in . internal diameter (or square) and z-ft. long. Th.ese tubes are
butt jointed and solidly backed with mortar · an\' bends arc blocked out with mortar
to avoid cutting and rnitring the edges of ;he tubes. Such linings are now rarelv
used, as most chimneys are built of brickwork. ·
CHIMNEY STACKS.-A chimney breast which is to penetrate the ridge of a
roof is gradually reduced in width above the ceiling until that of the chimney
stack is obtained, which should occur just below the penetration (see A). The
minimum height of the stack is 3-ft. above the ridge, as shown. If the stack
does not pass through at the ridge but penetrates one slope only, this 3-ft.
height is measured from the highest point of intersection, such as at the back
gutter. For reasons of stability, the maximum height of a stack is six times its
least width (unless otherwise s~cured) measured from the highest point of inter-
section (see T). The minimum thickness of the walls of a stack is 4-in . If the
stack only accommodates one flue, the appearance is co nsiderably improved
if this thickness is increased to 9-in . The 4t-in. thick withes (or divisions)
should be well bonded into the external walls. Plans showing typical bonding
are sho':Vn at J and x. Chimney stacks should be buiit in waterproofed cement
mortar from 12-in. below the lowest point of intersection of the roof; the
parging of the flue above this level should also he of this material. Rain is thus
prevented from soaking down the walls, and, provided the joints are well filled
with mortar, cold air is excluded which would otherwise cause chimneys to
smoke as the rising warm air is cooled.
It is usual to terminate a flue with a fireclay pot, although this is not always
necessary and its omission is sometimes preferred. Chimney pots are of various
shapes and sizes, a simple type being cylindrical, of R-in . (or 9-in.) internal
diameter, l to f-in. thick, and with a flange at the base ; its height varies, 12-in.
being common ; it is often tapered to about 7!-in. (internal) at the top to give a
restricted outlet which is considered to have the effect of increasing the velocity
of the ascending current. The pot should be supported on the brickwork (see w)
and securely built in cement mortar between two or three courses of brickwork
(or a stone cap or several courses of tiles) ; the top of the stack is jlaunched,
i.e., covered with cement mortar, which is weathered to thro\\· off the water.
 F R E p L A
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PLAH y WHAT TO AVOID

T A c

c PLAN 'M M'

p

" id
I l I ,f I AI I &f i) I ,!, ,!,. I li i I
5C:ALE FOR A,&,C.J,N,O,P,Q,It.,S l. T FEET

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FIGI,JRE 2.5
 SETTING OUT
Many buildings are marred by unsightly chimney stacks which penetrate the roofs
at random. As a rule, stacks should be of simple design. A frequent mistake is to
complete stacks with cappings of oversailing courses with excessive projections. The
coarse finish which these give is shown at Y, where the capping and necking courses
are given a z t-in. projection. Ugly chimney pots are common. Tall chimney pots
are unnecessary, unless the flues are short or have been improperly constructed, or
high trees and buildings are in such close proximity as to produce down-draughts. An
unobtrusive but effective finish may be obtained if the chimney pots (or short lengths
of drain pipes) are caused to project not more than r -in. above the !launching; this
is usually sufficient to prevent eddies of wind which may be created if the top surfaces
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226
inclined back and splayed sides or cheeks, a metal (cast iron) grate, metal (stainless
steel, etc.) angle frame, and a surround of 4-in. square glazed tiles. The fireclay
block is bedded on mortar and backed solidly with concrete or brick in cement.
The upper surface of this backing should be sloped as shown to prevent soot
from accumulating ; if left square, as is sometimes advocated, the large
accumulation of soot will be blown into the room in the event of down-
draughts. The tiles are bedded on the cement rendering. The tiles and

of the stacks were flat. simple kerb forming the front hearth are bedded in cement mortar. The
Two simple designs are shown at u and v. The former stack is constructed of back of the block is inclined forward and its sides are splayed in order to
standard 3-in. bricks with an oversailing course having a small projection. The stack
at vis built of 2-in. bricks, and is finished with a brick•on-edge course set back !-in. ; throw the maximum heat into the room.
part section and the plan are shown at w and x. The appearance of a chimney stack
is much improved if thin bricks are employed. The leadwork conforms with the
details shown in Fig. 73, Vol. I.

HEARTHS.- These must be of incombustible materials and securely supported.

The back hearth (that within the fireplace recess) is bedded on the walling of the
breast (see c) or as shown at z. The front hearth must have a minimum thickness
of 6-in. (see A), a minimum extension beyond the opening at each end of 6-in.
(seeR), and a minimum projection from the breast of 1-ft. 4-in., as shown at R.
The support and trimming of front hearths are illustrated in Figs. 32, 33 and
34, Vol. I ; the section at z shows an alternative treatment of a ground floor
hearth. The bye-laws state that no woodwork shall be built in under a fireplace
opening within xo-in. of the upper surface of the back hearth.
Additional bye-laws designed to prevent fires include the following :-
The external face of a chimney forming part of an internal wall less than
8!-in. thick shall be rendered with cement or lime mortar (not less than !-in.
thick) up to the roof. Similar rendering must be applied if woodwork (as at
floors and roofs) is placed within 2-in. of walls of flues and fireplace openings
which are less than 8!-in. thick. FIREPLACE NOTE: JN COt.\PLIANCt. WITH THE MODEL &YELAWS,J939
Woodwork (such as joists) shall not be built in a wall or chimney breast OPENING WITH A W.ll'.ON CHIMNEY 8AI\ MUST BE PROVIDED WHEN THE

within 9-in. of a flue or fireplace opening.
Wood plugs shall not be driven into a wall or chimney breast within 6-in.
of a flue or fireplace opening.
Fires have been caused by plugs (used for fixing skirtings, picture rails, grounds for
panelling, etc.) which have been driven through joints and actually penetrated flues .
It is therefore important that joiners should know of the position of flues when fixing
wood members round chimney breasts.
Metal fastenings, such as nails, screws and holdfasts, shall not be placed
within 2-in. of a flue or fireplace opening.
Holes in a chimney for the insertion of ventilating outlets or pipes from a
heating stove shall not be made within 9-in. of any timber.
FIRE INTERIORS.1-Details of a simple fire interior, suitable for the ground
floor opening at A, are shown at z. This consists of a fireclay block with base,
1 These are more fully described in Vol. IV,
81t.ICK AP-CH f.J JAMSS ME LESS THAN 13' WIDE L THE 8'-!AST PROJ
CHIMNEY SAP.. MORE THAN 4~· FIGURE 7.6
SETTING OUT
A brief description of the construction of walls is given on p. 31, Vol. I.
Prior to the commencement of building operations the site must be surveyed
and anv differences in level of the surface obtained by means of an instrument
called ~ dumpy le·vel. The trenches to receive the foundations must be first
set out or pegged out before their excavation is begun. If the site is sloping, and
before the trenches are set out, it may be necessary to level the surface by
exca\·ating the higher parts and removing the soil to the lower portions as
required. Boning rods, as described on p. 75, are used for levelling.
The first line to be set out is generally that of the main frontage of the
building. As a linen tape stretches and is unreliable, a steel tape is used to
 227 BRICKWORK
measure off its length and fix its relative position. A wood peg or stake is driven
in at each end, the centre of the pegs indicating the position of the quoins. The
lines of all other walls are measured off from this front wall line.
The plans of most buildings must be approved by the local authority before
building operations are commenced . A plan submitted for approval will include the
block plan of the building on which is shown the site, drainage, relative position to
adjacent streets, etc. If the site adjoins existing buildings or a highway, it is very
important that the frontage line shall be accurately set out in order that it shall not
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encroach beyond the building line, the position of which is obtainable on application
to the local authority.
If a building is rectangular, right angles are set off from the main line by
using the" 3 :4: 5 "method, i.e ., a distance of 40-ft. is measured along the line
from one end and a pin (or arrow, made of stout wire, about g-in. long, ring-
shaped at one end and pointed at the other) is inserted ; a tape is held at each
end of this length, the 30-ft. division on one of the tapes is held at the so-ft.
division on the other, both tapes are stretched taut and a pin is inserted at the
intersection . The 30-ft . line thus set off is at right angles to the main line, as,
in a right-angled triangle, the sum of the squares on the two sides containing
the angle equals the square on the hypotenuse, i.e., 40 2 + 30 2 = 50 2 • The large
wood square shown at R, Fig. 27, is also used for setting out and checking right
angles.
It is necessary to fix the height of one of the floors of the building, usually the
ground floor level, to which all other heights are related. If possible, this should
be a permanent level, such as the top of a plinth or step of a conveniently situated
existing building ; otherwise a peg is driven in a position on the site, preferably
opposite a door opening where it is not likely to be disturbed, until its top
coincides with the required level as determined by a dumpy level or other means.
The height that the top of this peg is above the ground should be noted and
booked in case the peg is surreptitiously or accidentally lowered and a subsequent
check is required.
PROFILES are used to ensure the accurate setting out and construction of the
walls. These are temporary guides, consisting of boards nailed to wood pegs
which are driven into the ground. Details of profiles are shown in Fig. 27. A
key plan of a building is shown by broken lines at A, and the various profiles are
indicated at the corners and opposite to division walls. Enlargements of these
profiles are shown in the plan G and the sketches B and c. A corner profile is
made of three pegs, well driven in, to which two boards are nailed. One profile
is placed at each corner (see A and G), with the boards parallel to and at 2 to 3-ft.
from the outer trench lines. The top of the corner peg at least of each profile
is often the level of the ground floor. A steel tape should be used when setting
out these profiles, and the measurements checked. A useful check is obtained
by taking diagonal measurements between opposite corners, and if the building
is rectangular, these should, of course, be equal. Permanent dimensions are
marked on each ·board indicating the width of the concrete bed, brick footings
(assuming that these are to be provided) and the thickness of the wall (see Band
G). Saw-cuts, about !-in. deep, are made down these marks in the upper edge
of each board to receive the ends of the bricklayer's line. Each profile used for
division walls consists of two pegs and a board, and the latter is similarly marked
and cut (see c and c). The centre lines of the walls are sometimes marked.
The position and correct alignment of the trenches, footings and walls are
obtained by plumbing down from lines which are stretched in turn between
opposite profiles. Thus, assuming that the trenches have been lined out and
excavated, and the concrete 1 has been placed in position, the bottom course of
footings would be aligned in the following manner: One end of a line (see M
and p at B and c) is passed down the saw-cut at the top of the appropriate mark
and wrapped round the board, and after the line has been stretched taut the
opposite end is fixed in a similar manner. The plumb-rule, sometimes stayed as
shown (the stay being nailed to the rule), is held by one hand against the line
near one end of the trench and, when vertical, a mark is made by the point of
the trowel in a little mortar trowelled on the concrete bed. A brick is laid
temporarily on this mortar with the outer face in line with the mark ; the plumb-
ing of this face is checked. Another brick is laid in a similar manner at the other
end. A bricklayer's line, with pins, is fixed between and level with the top of
these bricks. The bottom course of footings is then built, commencing at the
corners, the position of each of which is found by plumbing down at the inter-
section of the two lines (see L at B). Similarly, the wall is set off correctly by
plumbing down from lines N and Q shown at B and c.
Sometimes two profiles, like E shown at c, are used for the two walls forming a
quoin instead of a comer profile. Profiles for division walls are often dispensed with,
the right-angled intersections being then checked by the use of the large square R.
Corner profiles for setting out squ~n.t quoins (se_e Fig. r r) have their bo_ards paral~el
to the sides of the walls, and a dtvtswn wall whtch forms a squmt JunctiOn (see F1g.
ro) is set out by placing the two profiles, one at each end, at right ang\es to its length.
Whilst profiles assist in the accurate setting out and con~tructton of walls, their
use is by no means general. In the absence of profiles the hnes of the trenches are
pegged out, two pegs being driven in at each end of a trench at a dtstance between
their o uter faces equal to tts wtdth ; the lme IS stretched m ah.gnment w1th these outer
fa ces ; these pegs, like the profiles are placed some z-fr. outs1de the ltnes of trenches.
1 Levelling Concrete Bed. - A peg i:; dri~·en in the bottom and at each corner of the
trenches until the top of each is at the requ1red dcJ)th below the floor level : th1s depth 1s
obtained by means of a z-foot rule and the use of .a sptnt level a.nd short stra1ght edge
applied on the corner peg of the nearest profile. It th.ts depth 1s ~n accordan~e. w1th the
gauge of the brickwork decided upon, the Rom level wtll course w1th the bed JO II1t of the
brickwork. Intermediate pegs are then dnven 111 the bottom of th~ trenches at convemcnt
intervals until their tops are at the same .level as the corner pegs. fhts 1s assured 11 thre.e
boning rods (see p. 75) of the same ~etght (about 4-ft.) are used, o~c ~:m each of a pat,~
of ·corner pegs and the thtrd on the mtermedtate. pegs m turn, and stghtmg through
from one end. The concrete is carefully deposited and bn;mght approxtmately to the
level of the peg tops. A horizontal surface is obtained by usmg a stnkmg-off board (see
p . 6o) on each pair of adjacent pegs in turn. These wood pegs must be removed before
the concrete has set, and the holes filled with conc~ete. If j!Ilowed to remam the pegs
may rot and be responsible for the onset of dry rot m floor, etc., ttmbers (see pp. 14-16,
Vol. III).
00
C\1
C\1 s E T T N G 0 u T
r-- -r--- --lfi
PltDf!}J D -~FILE E:_ P~ILE F.
~P~OFilE "E'
LINE~\-- / LINE FOI\.
,~:lJWALLS, • I! I' / (PLUMBING
~"' H
A(',/" f. ~ , ~OTING$
'~... ~ 11 WALLS I
11~ / PLUMBING WN...L
~gr,t~====~--¥~:!~~--===~. ~ ~~- FI\.OM LINE G.
~ i[
h~ .
.
KEY PLAN l! i '
1! ! !
B
PEG~
MAPJ<..S I
SAW-CtiT
1'•1'80A~~oV K E T C H
COR.NEI\. Pfi.OFJLE '0'
SEE I<.EV PlAN
T A I L S } . :. . ---·
'-JOJ"j , ~.... I PLUMS-P-ULE if 0
"<t
lAI\GE
SQUAI1-E
.--:J!._-
<L
R. (90j
/ ,
1- --·· ··--- 3'-0" ·- ···-'
::::> ,CORNER PROFILE "F!
0
~
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1-
I G
UJ
V)
PEG
p L A N s H 0 WI N G
5 E T T I N G 0 u T 0 F WA L L s
J
P L A N 0 F
T E M P L E T
USED INSTEAD OF THE TRAMMEL
H SEE FIG.I5.
SKETCH
SHONING APPLICATION OF THE
T R A M M E L FIGURE 21
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 229 BRICKWORK
After the trenches have been excavated to the required depth and the concrete beds
formed, the alignment of each wall is maintained by placing the quoin bricks in correct
position , as described on p. 68, and stretching a line between.
CIRCULAR WoRK.-This may be set out by using either (a) a trammel or
(b) a templet.
(a) Trammel Method.-The application of a trammel for the bay window
indicated at Ais shown at H, Fig. 27. The bonding of this wall is shown in Fig. rs.
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A trammel is a t-in. thick board, not more than 6-in. wide, and holed at one end.
A !-in. diameter metal bar is set up vertically in a slab of conc.rete at the centre of
the circle; the length of the bar must be sufficient to reach to the top course of the
proposed wall, and must be vertical, as tested by a plumb-rule. Aiternatively, the
rod may be tightly fitted into a wood peg or post which has been driven into the
ground at the centre. The trammel is threaded over and passed down the bar,
and the width of the concrete (and footings) and the thickness of the wail. are
accurately marked on its upper face . The. setting out and construction of the
semicircular (or segmental) wall are aided by the trammel as it is caused to rotate,
and by plumbing. As the brickwork proceeds above the ground level, the
trammel, which must be horizontal, is supported at its holed end by a piece of
cord which is fastened under it to the bar, the cord being raised as each course
is completed.
(b) Templet Method.-This is often preferred to the t rammel on account of
its convenience and the accurate check which it affords. A templet consists of
two wide thin pieces of board, everlapped and nailed to each other, as shewn at J.
The outer edge is sawn and carefully planed to the required curve. A wood
tie connects and projects beyond the two ends, and the outer edge of t his tie
must coincide with the external face of the main wall. Three wood struts or
stays are fixed as shown ; these make the templet rigid and convenient for
handling. The templet is placed as required on top of each course during and after
its construction, any bricks not conforming to the curve being tapped in or out
until their outer faces correspond to the curve. Plumbing provides a further
check on the work. It is most important that the outer edge of the tie is .in true
alignment with the main wall face each time the templet is used.
GENERAL.-In conclusion, it is most important that the following require-
ments be observed if best results are to be obtained when setting out facing
work:-
r. The normal face appearance of the selected bond must be maintained over
and under openings. Hence the average length of the bricks should be carefully
noted and, as stated on p. 13, Vol. I, the width of each opening should be a
multiple of I brick for English bond, and for Flemish bond the width should be
a multiple of r! bricks after r8-in. wide; the combined thickness of the
vertical or cross joints must, of course, be allowed for. Thus, for English,
English garden wall, and stretcher bonds, the size of an opening may be 9-in.,
r-ft. 6-in., 2-ft. 3-in., 3-ft., 3-ft. 9-in., etc., plus the combined thickness of the
vertical joints ; for Flemish and Flemish garden wall bonds, the width may be
r-ft. 6-in., 2-ft. 7!-in., 3-ft. 9-in., 4-ft. IO!-in., 6-ft., etc., together with the
cross joints.
If these dimensions are departed from when the above bonds are adopted,
broken bond is inevitable. An example of broken English bond above an
opening is shown at N, Fig. 19; note the stretching course immediately over
the crown. Unsatisfactory features of broken bond are the non-maintenance
of the perpends and unbalanced treatment at the jambs of openings (such as
a stretcher at one side and a header or bat in the same course at the other).
2 . The length of walling between openings and the width of external attached
piers should be in accord with the average length of the facing bricks. Thus, for
example, broken bond will be avoided if these lengths and widths are multiples
of whole bricks (plus the total thickness of the vertical joints) and the bond is
either stretcher, English or English garden wall.
It is usual to mark the above position of door and window openings, etc.,
on the course of common brickwork (generally 3-in, below the ground level)
and when constructing the faced work to make certain that the appropriate
perpends are vertically under the reveals concerned.
3· Split courses above arches and lintels (seep. 21, Vol. I) and below sills must
be avoided. Therefore the average thickness of the bricks and the bed joints
must be taken into account when deciding upon the height of most openings
and the construction must conform to the gauge rod (see p. 3 r, Vol. I) on which
the courses are indicated. It is good practice to arrange that a stretcher is the
first (reveal) brick in each of the courses immediately above the sill and below
the arch. To attain this, it is necessary that the number of courses between
the ground level and the sill course shall be carefully ascertained and the bonding
arranged accordingly.
Accurately set out brickwork is no more expensive than that which is constructed
in a haphazard fashion, and whilst the above preliminaries to actual construction
will involve some thought and the expenditure of a little time, the results obtained
are well worth while.
 CHAPTER NINE
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DRAINAGE
Sy/labus.-Characteristics and brief description of the manufacture of drain pipes, including bends, junctions, channels and taper pipes, gullies and interceptors .
Setting out and construction of drains. Drainage systems for small buildings ; inspection, interception and ventilation.
SEWAGE DISPOSAL.-In addition to rain water, the waste and refuse required to
be disposed of from houses and other occupied buildings include (r) liquid
wastes from sinks, lavatory basins and baths, (2) excrement and (3) ashes and
household refuse.
Where there is an inadequate water supply, such as in certain rural districts, the
rain water is usually collected in galvanized iron tanks and used for household
purposes, and fixed receptacles known as privy middens, earth closets or ash closets
are provided for excrement, ashes and other refuse. Another objectionable but less
insanitary form of accommodation existing in certain districts, including a number
of large townships, consists of pail closets or tub closets in which movable receptacles
for frecal matter are provided, ashes being received in small dust bins. This is known
as the dry or conservancy system of sanitation.
The best system, now in general use, is known as the water-carriage system. This
provides for the admission to and removal by pipes of the liquid wastes from sinks,
baths, etc., and excreta. These combined wastes and excreta are called sewage.
A complete sewerage or drainage system consists of a network of pipes conveying
sewage, the smaller pipes being connected to larger ones and these ultimately com-
bining to form what is called a main outfall sewer.
The method of disposal of sewage depends a good deal upon the location of the
district. Thus, that from a coast town is simply disposed of by continuing the outfall
sewer some distance on the sea bed and allowing the sewage to discharge into the sea
during the ebb-tides. If a tidal river is conveniently accessible, rhe sewage may be
discharged into it after it has been passed through a settling tank or received similar
preliminary treatment. Otherwise the outfall sewer is continued to the sewage disposal
works, where the sewage is treated and rendered innocuous. One form of treatment,
known as the activated sludge system, consists of passing the sewage through a screen
and a settling tank prior to admitting it to a large rectangular tank where it is agitated
by compressed air admitted at the floor level. In another method the sewage after
being screened and settled is sprayed over a percolating filter consisting of a 6-ft. deep
bed of gravel or similar material. Another method, now being gradually superseded
by the activated sludge system, consists of the admission of sewage to one or more
contact beds of gravel or broken bricks, etc.: where it is allowed to remain for several
hours. If only a comparatively small system, the sewage, after preliminary screening
and settling to eliminate as much as possible of the solid matter (called sludge), may
be distributed over land. After being treated by one of these methods, the purified
liquid or effluent is discharged into the nearest watercourse. In each of these systems
the sewage is rendered harmless by the action of bacteria and oxygen.
In the absence of a conveniently situated public sewer (see next column), and
where no nuisance is likely to occur, the sewage from a country house may be conveyed
to a septic tank (similar to the inspection chamber shown in Fig. 31, but with the outlet
230
at the same level as the inlet and several feet above the floor) or " cesspool " and then
allowed to percolate through the soil (provided it is gravel or is otherwise suitable)
or passed over a small filter bed of clinker, etc.
In some districts the rain water is kept separate from the sewage, one set
of pipes taking the former and another the sewage ; this is known as the separate
system. Most local authorities, however, adopt the combined or single-sewer
system, in which one set of pipes takes both sewage and rain water.
The channels or pipes which convey sewage are called drains or sewers. The
essential difference between a drain and a sewer is concerned with ownership.
A sewer belongs to a local authority, who is therefore responsible for its main-
tenance ; a drain is the property and responsibility of an individual. Briefly,
according to the Public Health Act, r875, a drain is a channel by which sewage
is conveyed from a single house or premises within the same boundary ; if it
serves more than one house, the channel is a sewer. Much litigation has resulted
in determining whether pipes were drains or sewers, and whilst the above is a
broad distinction, it may not apply in districts where local authorities have
obtained special powers under private acts or have adopted provisions under the
Public Health (Amendment) Acts.
DRAIN PIPES AND TRAPS
Drain pipes and traps are made of clay or shale and cast iron.1 When made
of the former they are known as stoneware or fireclay or earthenware pipes. These
terms are often loosely applied. The clay from which stoneware pipes are made
is found in this country in the south and midlands, and fireclays are obtainable
in the north. Both produce drain pipes and traps of first quality. Generally,
the term earthenware is applied to drain pipes and traps which are made from
clays used chiefly for the manufacture of bricks, and the quality is variable. In
the British Standards Specifications, Nos. 65 and 539-1937,2 the term" ware "
1 Cast iron drainage is detailed in Vol. IV.
2 Extracts from these are made by courtesy of the British Standards Institution, 2~
Victoria Street, London, S.W. I.
 231 DRAINAGE
is applied to clay pipes and traps. These sanitary goods are salt-glazed (see p.
74) to render them impervious.
Drain pipes are illustrated in Fig. 28, and include straights, bends, junctions,
tapers and channels.
STRAIGHT PIPES (see A, Band c, Fig. 28).-The cylindrical barrel has a flange or
socket at one end, and the opposite end is called the spigot or faucet. The interior
of the flanges and the exterior of the spigots are grooved to a minimum depth of
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1 ,; -in. to afford a key for the jointing material.
1 The internal diameter varies from
3 to 36-in. The iVImlcl Bye-laws stipulate that the diameter of drains conveying
sewage must not be less than 4-in . ; this size is sufficient for most house drainage
systems of average size, and very rarely are pipes exceeding 6-in. diameter
required for this purpose. The larger pipes are used for public sewers and
2 and 3-in. pipes are utilized for subsoil or agricultural drainage. The length
of the barrel, exclusz?:e of the flange, varies from 2 to 3-ft., that of 4 and 6-in.
pipes being 2-ft. The minimum thickness of pipes, size of flanges, etc., are shown
in the table at c.
RADIUS BENDS (see H and J).-These are required at horizontal and vertical
changes of direction of straight lengths of drains. The standard radii of 4 and
6-in. pipes are shown. They are described in accordance with the number of
bends required to make a complete circle, thus that at H is known as a quick or
quarter bend, the 135° example at J is called an eighth circle bend, and the slow
bend having a contained angle of 1 57!0 (see J) is called a sixteenth circle bend. A
bend required to change the direction of a drain on plan should be slow or
"easy," and two eighth circle bends are preferable to a single quarter bend.
Whilst the latter should never be used for this purpose (unless the drain conveys
rain water only), they can be usefully applied at the foot of vertical soil and
ventilation pipes (see p. 82), or at the bottom of short branch drains where they
enter inspection chambers (see p. 8o, or as shown at E, Fig. 32).
jUNCTIONS (see u and v).-Such are necessary at connections between dcains.
That at u is called a single junction and is specified according to the internal
diameters of the connecting pipes, i .e., 4-in. by 4-in., 6-in. by 4-in., 6-in. by
6-in., etc. The branch or arm of a junction should be obliquely inclined in the
direction of the flow of the se11 age . Right-angled or square junctions must never
be used ; a branch pipe which is unavoidably at right angles to a main drain
should be connected by means of an oblique junction and a slow bend. A
double junction is shown at v ; they are not advocated, an inspection chamber
(see p. 8o) being preferred ; the arms should be the maximum distance from
each other, and a better arrangement is to use two adjacent single junctions.
TAPER PIPES (see K).·-These are necessary when the size of a drain has to be
increased on account of one or more additional branches which may be con-
nected to it lower down its length. That shown is of the level invert or straight
invert type, the invert being the lower internal surface. Another type has the
socket concentric with the spigot, and thus there is a slight fall in the invert from
tht: socket to the spigot. Tapers are specified according to the size of the adjacent
pipes, i.e., 6-in . by 4-in., 9-in. by 6-in., etc. Very occasionally, as for alteration
work, a taper pipe is required having the socket at the larger end. A standard
6-in. by 4-in . taper bend is shown at w.
CHANNEL PIPES, required at inspection and disconnecting chambers, are
described on p. 8o and illustrated in Figs. 30 and 31. A standard channel bend
is shown at x, Fig. 28.
TRAPS. -These are made of salt-glazed ware and cast iron, and include
gully traps and intercepting traps.
Gully Traps or Gullies (see Q, R, s and T, Fig. 28).-The Model Bye-laws
require that waste pipes from lavatory basins, baths and sinks shall be discon-
nected from a drain by a " trapped gully with a suitable grating above the level
of the water in the trap." Gullies are also placed at sides of roads and paths,
and in yards and other paved surfaces (see garage concrete wash at A, Fig. 31)
for the purpose of receiving rain water and that used for cleaning purposes.
The object of the trap is to prevent gases escaping from the drain and
polluting the atmosphere. A gully takes the form of a bent channel (see Q)
with the inner fold projecting into the retained liquid and 2!-in. below the
outlet to form the seal. The internal surface is curved throughout, varying from
6-in. at the inlet and 4-in. at the outlet. It is of the self-cleansing type, as it
permits of the free passage vf waste liquids, and the absence of angles and
corners prevents any accumulation of small pieces of organic, etc., matter. The
flat base enables the gully to be bedded correctly, and as shown at c, Fig. 32, it
is set on 6-in. of concrete. The top length of the drain is connected as shown
by broken lines ; if required, additional cover and protection is afforded to the
upper end of the drain by using a gully having a curved outlet such as that shown
at A, Band c, Fig. 32. The inlet is provided with a flange to receive the cylindrical
rim of the square dish (see Q and s), the joint between the two being of cement
mortar. As shown, the dish is slightly rebated for the cast iron grid or grating
(see also R) . Standard gullies are shown at A and B, Fig. 32 (seep. 84).
There is a difference of opinion as to whether a waste pipe should discharge
over or under the grating. Most authorities insist upon the former, and the
dish is therefore useful in preventing waste liquid from splashing and fouling
the adjacent ground or pavement. The undercut type of dish, indicated by
broken lines at Q, is more effective in preventing the discharge from an upper
floor bath waste pipe from overflowing (see p . 84). This type of gully with
circular top and separate dish is much preferred to the square grid gully which
has a square rebated top to receive the grating direct. As the latter has no
separate dish, it is often impossible to fix it square with the wall of a building
unless a bend (on plan) is provided at the beginning of the branch drain; an
additional undesirable feature of the square grid gully is the fouling of the
adjacent surfaces which results from discharges from waste pipes, unless some-
what unsightly brick-on-edge or stone kerbs are provided at the edges.
All rain water pipes must discharge over gullies and shall not be connected
Jirect to a drain forming part of a combined drainage system (seep. 71), other-
 D R A N p p E s T R A p s
A
FLANGE
Oil. 24' TO 3 b' 6AI'.I'.EL -
SO<t<-ET
c T 0 N

s T R
p
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CHANNEL
FLANGE ,...--t--'---.nnnrw-r-\-. -l
\ l
B -~ ~
SECTION THII.OUGH A
6' ><4" LEVEL INVEfi..T
TAPEfl.. PIPE

p
c DETAIL OF SPIGOT E. FLANGE
BEDDED IN SOCI\fT
STOPPfll.~
.-.>.,,
THKI'-

L
IOIAMETEII. ·e·
OF CLEMING A S E C T I 0 H
OF PIPE 'D' 'F' 'G'
'',,>;:, LEVEll.
4' 'h.' 2' 3JI!' 3'
6' !!I&' 2!14' l'lo' .:H&'
C.I~ON MI.EASING STOPPEl\.
9' 3/4' 2l'J' Yl' Y4' ALTEIUIATIVE TO 'N'
12' I' 2314' 516' J,'l&' N T E R C P T 0 fl..

N.S. THESE PIPES t., FITTINGS Alt..E OF SALT-GLA2fD STONEWA~E 011. FIMCLAY

M NOW SPECIFIED AS "WME'

6' " 4' U N C T 0 N 5

X
w v
SIMILAI'. II.ADII TO 'J'

.
SEE CHANNELS AT
'I~•c• E. •o: FIG.JO
E.. ·&:·c~ -G~ -..t• t •J: ~163l

L L Y 4'
I 5 H 6' x4' TAPEF..I'lEND CHANNEL 6END

SCALE kll'.. A ,&,H),It..-.M.N.It.s.T.U.V,W t. ){ FEfT

IIi
SCALE FOJ.. P t.
,, t="1E
Q
.. 11 i u
INCHES
FIGUI\E 28
 233
wise gases from the drain will ascend and gain access into the building at the
eaves. Some prefer the fall pipes to be discharged below the gratings of gullies
for the reason that overflowing does not result if the former are choked with
leaves, etc. ; many authorities will not permit of this practice and insist upon
the pipes discharging over gullies. As traps may become unsealed by evaporation
during hot weather, it is advisable that water be poured down them occasionally
during such prolonged periods.
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DRAINAGE
I maximum temperature of about 250' C. is 1·eached ; this is known as the vitrification
stage .. The pip~s are. now glazed, the operation being called salting, as common salt
(chlonde of sodmm) IS used for this purpose. The amount of salt added varies, but
a shovelful of salt thrown. through each firebox four times during the salting period
IS usual. The heat volat1hzes the salt; and the sodium combines with the silica of the
clay to form t.he characteri~tic brown glazed surface coating. The inside of the sockets
and the outs1de of .the sp1gots are unglazed (except the spigots of the top pipes) as
thes~ are covere_d m the stacks, and thus a better key for the jointing material is
obtamed. Burnmg may occupy from three or four davs, and cooling, which must be
carefully controlled, takes the same time. ·

All gullies must be fixed outside a house. In order to comply with this
requirement in connection with a basement, it may be necessary to construct a
small area (at least 2-ft. 6-in. wide for access) adjacent to an external wall, m
the concrete floor of which the gully is fixed.
Applications of gullies are illustrated in Figs. 30, 31 and 32.
Intercepting Traps or Disconnecting Traps or lnterceptors.-One of several
types of this ware trap is shown at M and P, Fig. 28, and a similar trap is shown
at B, Fig. 30. The seal increases from z!-in. for a 4-in. interceptor to 3-in. for
6-in. and 9-in. traps. The trap is fixed in an interceptingchamber (see Fig. 30),
and its object is to intercept the sewer gases from the drainage system. Its
adoption is becoming less frequent, and its merits and demerits are discussed
on p. 82.
MANUFACTURE OF DRAIN PIPES AND TRAPS.-The processes vary according
to the class of clay and the plant available, but, as in brick manufacture, they
are divided into the preparation of the clay, moulding, drying and burning.
The clay is finely ground and screened as described on pp. 2 and 3· Grog (or
powdered burnt clay-see p. 3-or crushed burnt and damaged pipes) is added to the
clay to reduce the shrinkage, some clays requiring 25 per cent. of this material.
Straight Pipes are moulded by machinery, which is of both the vertical and horizontal
type. The former consists of a long fixed vertical metal outer cylinder having its
lower end enlarged and shaped to the reverse of the exterior of a pipe socket, an
inner fixed core with an annular space between it and the cylinder, and a disc or
socket head (at the bottom of the core within the enlarged cylinder base) attached
to a table which can be raised and lowered. The diameters of the cylinder, core and
socket head are equal to the size of the pipe (see c, Fig. 28), plus shrinkage allowance.
After the base of the outer cylinder has been clamped to the table, the prepared
clay of required stiffness is forced down the annular space by means of a steam ram
until it has been sufficiently consolidated. It is thus the shape of a pipe, having a
socket and an elongated barrel. The clamp is released, the table with socket head is
lowered, and, assisted by the downward pressure of the ram, the hollow cylind.rical
shaft of clay is extruded and cut to the required length by means of a wire.
The pipe is removed from the socket head (which is then sprayed with oil before
the table is raised ready for moulding the next pipe) and placed, with its socket
uppermost, over a vertical core or mandrel fixed to a revolving table. The socket is
trimmed and the grooves are formed either by a machine which is lowered into the
socket, or by a comb held in place by hand, as the pipe revolves. It is then placed
over a horizontal core where it is cut to correct length and the spigot grooved, the
latter operation being performed by a small pivoted arm which is impressed into the
clay as the core rotates.
After moulding, the pipes are wheeled and placed vertically on the drying fioor
and gradually dried in a temperature of 8o° F. for one or two days.
They are then taken to the kiln, which is generally of the circular down-draught
type (see p. 6). The pipes are carefully stacked vertically upon their sockets, one
above the other, to a height of from 8 to 12-ft. The heat is gradually applied until a
junctions are made from straight pipes moulded as described in the preceding
column. Thus, a s~all ~ockete~ piece·required for an arm of a junction is cut from
a fres.hly moulde~ p1~e, ~ts end 1s shaped by hand (or by a special.machine), the cut
edge 1~ covered w1th hq~ud clay and fitted on to a recently moulded pipe. On the
fo.llowmg ~ay the reqmred hole in the latter pipe is cut at the joining of th" arm,
tnmmed with a kmfe and smoothed over with the fingers.
Bends are formed eithe! by a machine, to which various dies can be fitted, or by
hand . . If the la~ter, a straight pipe as it emerges from the machine, is bent to the
approximate radms, and then fitted over a core of the correct shape and trued up
by hand.
Ch'!nnels.-T.w o half-round channels are obtained from a whole green pipe. The
latter IS placed m a plaster-of-Paris mould which is half-round in section and the
length of a pipe, and it is divided longitudinally by a piece of wire drawn along
the top edges of the mould. The cut edges are then trimmed. ·
A three-quarter channel bend, such as is shown at G, H and J, Fig. 31 , consists of a
half-round channel bend (obtained by dividing a green radius bend) together with a
length cut by hand to the required shape. These are stuck together with liquid clay
and the joint neatly trimmed off.
Traps are moulded by hand in moulds made of plaster of Paris. Two moulds
are required per trap. Each mould is shaped with its internal surface the reverse
of the exterior of the trap to be moulded. Thus, for a gully such as that at T, Fig. 28,
the ~oulds would be shaped to the exterior shown in section Q. A clot of prepared
clli;Y 1s flattened to the required thickness, and this is taken by the moulder who works
1t mto the mould to the desired shape. 'When the two pieces have been moulded in
this manner, the two moulds are brought together and clamped by bands of hoop iron.
~hen the clay has sufficiently set, the moulds are removed and the junction is neatly
tnmmed and smoothed off. Interceptors are hand-moulded in a similar manner.
Junctions, bends, channels, traps, etc., are dried, burnt and salt-glazed as above
described.
Whilst most channels are salt-glazed, they are sometimes required to be white
glazed or enamelled. Enamel consists of powdered flint, china clay, powdered zinc,
etc., well mixed together and water added to form a slurry. Glaze is a somewhat
similar mixture with the addition of whiting, felspar and soda. The channels must be
thoroughly dry before the enamel is applied. In best work three or four coats of
enamel are first brushed on the internal surface and edges of each channel, and this is
followed by two coats of glaze. This film is fused when the channels are heated in
the kiln and forms a hard, durable, impervious and white coloured surface.
CHARo\CTERISTICS OF WARE PIPES.-A sound pipe should be well glazed and
burnt throughout, straight in the barrel (twisted or \\'arped pipes cannot be
properly jointed), truly cylindrical, smooth, and free from cracks and blisters.
h should ring sound when struck with a hammer. Requirements of the British
Standard Specification, No. 65-1937, include: (1) the variation in thickness of
the ba~rels and sockets of 4 and 6-in. pipes shall not exceed y\r-in., (2) the deviation
from straightness of a 2-ft. long barrel shall not exceed -f~; -in., and (3) the
deviation of the internal diameter of 4 and 6-in. pipes shall not exceed l and
i~-in. respectively,
 SETTING OUT AND EXCAVATION OF DRAIN TRENCHES
For first-class work, British Standard Te!lted Salt-glazed Ware Pipes should
be used. Each pipe is subjected to an internal hydraulic test at the works and
should withstand a pressure of zo-lb. per sq. in. without showing signs of injury
or leakage. The specification also includes an absorption test.
SETTING OUT AND EXCAVATION OF DRAIN TRENCHES
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A drain must be laid to an adequate inclination or gradient. This is expressed
as a ratio between the total fall (or difference in level between the upper and
lower ends of the drain) and the horizontal length of the drain. Thus, if the fall
is 2-ft. and the horizontal length is 6o-ft., the gradient is I in 30. A 4-in. drain
should have a minimum fall of I in 40 and a 6-in. drain a minimum fall of I in 6o,
i.e., the diameter in inches is multiplied by xo.
Before deciding upon the gradient to which a drain is to be laid, it is necessary
to obtain the depth of the public sewer (or existing drain or cesspool) and the
level of the ground. The depth of the sewer below the ground level at the
proposed point of connection may be obtained by inspection on the site, such
as at a convenient manhole or chamber (seep. So), or from the surveyor to the
local authority ; the level of the ground along the proposed line of the drain is
determined by using a dumpy level and levelling staff or the straight edge and
spirit level. The longitudinal section, such as is shown atE, Fig. 30, can then be
plotted. Besides having an adequate fall, the drain should be laid to a uniform
gradient up to the boundary of the site, or from chamber to chamber (seep. 8o),
after which the fall may be increased up to the connection. Thus, atE the drain
has a uniform inclination of I in 32 up to the intercepting chamber M, from which
point the gradient is increased. In this example it would be uneconomical to
maintain a uniform gradient from the gully to the sewer because of the additional
excavation which would be entailed.
Unless the drain is a short one the setting out of the trench is performed in
the following manner : A wood peg is driven in on the proposed centre line of
the drain at each point where it changes direction. The sides are pegged out,
pegs being inserted at half of the width from each centre peg ; a cord is stretched
taut and tied to one pair of side pegs, the side is marked with a pick or spade,
and 'the opposite side is similarly marked after the line has been transferred to
the corresponding pegs.
The correct level of the bottom of the trench is obtained and a uniform fall
maintained by the use of two sight mils and a boning rod. A sight rail is a wood
board, having straight edges, and about I t-in. thick. It is fixed to a pair of
4-in. by 2 or 3-in. wood posts, having pointed ends, which are securely driven
into the ground at one end and clear of the proposed trench ; each post is some-
times packed with earth, gravel, etc., within a 6 or 9-in. drain pipe placed vertically
with its flange resting on the ground. The sight rail is nailed to the two posts
at any convenient height and with its upper edge horizontal as tested by a spirit
level. The second sight rail is fixed at the correct level in a similar manner at
234
the opposite end of the trench ; the level of the top edge of this rail must be such
that an imaginary line, called the line of sight, drawn from it to that of the other
is parallel to the proposed gradient of the drain ; a dumpy level and levelling
staff should be used to fix the height of this second sight rail to ensure that the
difference in level between the two rails is that decided upon. An application
of sight rails is illustrated at A, c and D, Fig. 29, where the inclination of the line
of sight is I in 40 and is 7-ft. 6-in. above the bottom of the proposed trench.
The required gradient of the trench bottom is maintained by use of the boning
rod. This rod resembles an elongated tee-square having a wood blade with
cross head attached (see A, B, c and o). The height of the rod must equal the
vertical distance between the line of sight and the predetermined level of the
trench bottom, i.e., 7-ft. 6-in. in this example.
The excavation is proceeded with until the level of the bottom of the trench
is reached as determined by "sighting through." Thus, the foreman standing
immediately behind one of the sight rails looks towards the far sight rail so that
he can just see the top edges of both rails, and the required depth is indicated
when the top of the boning rod, resting upon the bottom of the excavation and
held vertically by an assistant, coincides with the line of sight. This is repeated
the rod being held at intervals along the trench. The boning rod w at o, Fig. 29,
shows that the required level of the trench at that point has been reached and
that additional excavation is necessary further up if, when sighting through as
the rod is held in turn at positions u and v, its head appears above the line of
sight as indicated. Excavation of the last one or two inches may be deferred
until just prior to the laying of the drain, when the earth is trimmed off and the
bottom rammed solid.
Timbering, as required, is provided as a temporary support to the sides of
the trench (see Fig. 42, Vol. I, and Fig. I9, Vol. III).
JoiNTS.-These must be airtight and watertight; none of the jointing material
must remain within the bore of the pipes, and the invert must be in true align-
ment throughout. The jointing material used for ware pipes is ( 1) cement and
(2) bitumen.
r. Cement Joint (see c, Fig. 29).-This is the joint most commonly employed.
The composition of the mortar recommended is 2 parts cement, I part sand and
2 per cent. of waterproof compound (see p. 27) ; sometimes neat cement is
used, but this has been known to crack the pipe sockets owing to the expansion
of the cement (probably of indifferent quality) when setting ; another mixture,
often used, consists of equal parts of cement and sand. In addition, it is
customary to use a piece of yarn (also known as hemp, gaskin, gasket, jute and
rope) at each joint.
The joint is formed in the following manner : The spigot of a pipe is placed
within the socket of the last laid pipe and closely butted against the shoulder.
A piece of yarn, after being dipped into a pail of cement grout to preserve it
(unless it has been previously tarred) is wrapped two or three times round the
spigot and well caulked against the shoulder by means of a blunt chisel, cement
 235 D RAINA.G E
mortar is packed in by hand to completely fill the annular space, and this. is CONSTRUCTION OF DRAINS
neatly finished by a fillet splayed by a trowel at an angle of about 6o0 • The
Bo~h the (I) boning and (2) gauge-board methods are adopted in the laying
object of the yarn is twofold; as it prevents the entrance of the cement to the of drams.
~nside of the drain and assists in centering the pipes to maintain a properly aligned
. The following is how these methods are applied to a drain which is laid
mvert.
d1rec~ly on the ground. The construction of a drain is proceeded with, com-
Some jointers prefer to omit the preliminary packing of the joints with yarn.
mencmg at the lower end, after the trench has been excavated and the bottom
Accordingly, unless the mortar is of a stiff consistency, much of it will pass within
fo~ed to the required gradient as described on p. 75· The sockets are therefore
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the drain and a " dropped invert " will result as the pipes. because of their
facmg up~ards and against the flow. As the barrels of the pipes should have a
weight, will subside and squeeze out some of the material. Such a faulty joint is
firm beanng on the solid ground, it is necessary that holes be formed in the
shown at H. If the projecting mortar is not removed, as explained in next column,
bottom of. the. tre~ch unde~ the sockets (see E and F, Fig. 29). These are formed
paper and solids may accumulate to cause an obstruction in the drain ; lodge-
a~ each p1pe. IS la1d, suffic1ent earth being removed by the pipe layer to enable
ment may also be caused by the dropping of the spigot. The unsightly appear-
h1m to get. h1s. hand under the sockets to form the joints.
ance produced by an excess of mortar and the absence of a fillet is also
I· Bomng IS the more accurate method. The boning rod used is similar to
shown.
that referred to on p. 75, except that it is provided with a projecting wood or
2. Bituminous Joint.-Of the many patent joints on the market that shown
metal s.hoe as .sh~wn at B, Fig. 29. It is held on the invert of each pipe in
at J, K and L, Fig. 29, and known as the Hassell's Double-lined Joint, is one of
success1?n,. as md.Icated at E, any adjustment of the pipes being made until the
the oldest and best. Each pipe has two solid bituminous rings moulded on the
?ead comc1des w1th the line of sight. Thus, the position of each pipe is fixed
i~side of the socket with a I-in. space (for a 4-in. pipe) between, and two similar
mdependently and therefore any errors are not accumulative. The formation
nngs are cast on the spigot (seeK). Two holes are provided in the socket (see L).
of sinkings under the sockets as mentioned above is often omitted and instead
~he joint is made in the following manner : Plastic cement (provided by the
a brick is pla~ed under each ba.rrel near the socket ; this is an undesi;able practice
p1pe manufacturers) or a mixture of 2 parts tallow and I part resin is applied on
as such partially supported p1pes may be fractured by the weight of the earth
the surface of the inner ring of the socket and the dovetailed ring on the spigot
ab~ve or by traffic. The pipes are jointed as described on p. 75· Any cement
(see K) ; the spigot is inserted into the socket and pressed against the shoulder
wh1ch may have entered the drain must be removed before it has set. This is
(see J), and waterproofed cement grout is passed down a funnel, held at one of
done .~mediate!~ each joint is made by using a wood scraper Q or scraper R
th6 holes, into the groove or annular space, driving out the air until it appears
at the second hole. This is an excellent joint as it is air and watertight, is quickly (cons1~tmg ?f ~ d1sc of ru~ber bolted between two wood discs) or a badger (having
two .d1scs s1mliar to R w1th a steel spiral spring between) or a bag containing
made, a truly aligned invert is assured, and no cement can enter the bore of the
shavmgs.
pipe.
2. Gaug_e-board or Straight-edge Method.-This is illustrated at F, Fig. 29.
These and similar jointed pipes are especially useful for the construction of
drai~s in waterlogged trenches where water seriously interferes with the laying
The board IS tapered as required. Thus, if the drain is to be laid to a fall of I in 40,
a 5-ft. long board Will be loX I2 in.= It-in. deeper at one end than the other •
of p1pes with ordinary cement joints unless pumping is resorted to.
a thin block is nailed on the splayed edge at each end so that the board will clea;
Bi~uminous join~s,. n?t of the .moulde? ri~g type, are also made by using
th~ sock~ts. The g.auge-board is used as each joint is formed, the level of the pipe
hot b1tumen as the JOmtmg matenal. Th1s g1ves a more elastic joint than that
bemg adjusted until the bubble of the spirit level is in the centre of its run when
made of cement, but it is not often used.
the level is placed on the board as shown. This method should only be used for
FouNDATION.-A drain must have a firm foundation, otherwise settlement
may occur and cause cracked or broken pipes, cracked joints, an irregular invert, short le~gths and branches of drains. It is not so accurate as the boning method,
for, unhke the latter, any errors are accumulative. Also, as the thickness and
etc. The :"~?del Bye-laws .require that ware pipes within " a distance of so-ft.
from a bulidmg shall be la1d on a bed of concrete unless the nature of the soil bore of pi~es may ~ary slight!~, it follows that the invert may not be parallel
renders this unnecessary." In best work a concrete bed is provided even if the to the reqmred grad1ent. Spectal care must therefore be taken when using this
method to a drain having only a slight fall.
g~ound is firm. Th~s bed should be 6-in. thick (or not less than the internal
diameter of the dram) and from 8 to I2-in. wider than the internal diameter The gauge.-board is often used witho.u t blocks, and is then laid upon the sockets ;
of the pipe. ~t is then benched or ftaunched to midway up or to the whe.n so apphed, ~rrors may occur by irregularly shaped and eccentric sockets. A
~tra1ght .edge, haVl!lg a projecting screw at one end which is adjusted as required,
c~own of the p1pe, as shown at M and N, Fig. 29 (see p. 78 and c and H, lS sometimes used mstead of the gauge-board. A lath, having a small fillet attached
F1g. 3I). at one end of a thickness equal to the required difference in level, is a further substitute.
 SETTING OUT CONSTRUC TION OF DRAINS
SI<.ETCH SHOW I N G

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&ED. HOlES SHOULD 8i FOit.MED [SEE Fl<i.41, .:-....
UNDEII. THE SOCKETS AS SHOWN VOI.UME ij '
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S E C l I 0 N 'X ~ LONGITUDINAl SECTION TH"OUGH TRENCH

SCAlE FOR B,E.F.M.N.P,Q f. I'. FEET

FIGURE 29
 237 DRAINAGE
The concrete foundation for a drain referred to on p. 76 is formed in the
following manner : The bottom of the trench is laid to fall as explained on p. 75 ,
additional depth being allowed for the concrete. Wood pegs are driven in along
the trench bottom at 9 or 10-ft. intervals with their tops 4 to 6-in. (according
to the thickness of the concrete) above the ground. The concrete forming the
rectangular bed is placed in position and screeded off (see p . 6o) level with the
tops of the pegs. The top of the concrete is thus given a fall parallel to the line
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of sight. The pipes are then laid by either the boning or gauge-board methods
with their flanges resting upon the concrete. The-concrete benching is formed
after the joints of the drain have set, the concrete being well packed under the
pipes and neatly flaunched midway up the drain pipes or to the crown (see M
and N, Fig. 29). Some prefer to provide additional room for making the joints
by laying the barrel of each pipe on a brick laid flat upon the concrete bed near
to the socket, followed by packing and benching. A better method is to embed
bricks flat at 2-in. depth and 2-ft. centres (or socket intervals) in the concrete
foundation during formation ; these are removed before the concrete has set,
and the holes thus formed for the sockets are filled in with fine concrete after
the joints have set and during benching.
TESTING DRAIN PIPES.- No drain shall be covered up before it has been tested
and approved by the local authority.
The test most generally applied to new drains is the hydraulic or water test.
Briefly, after the joints have set, the lower end is plugged, the drain is filled with
water and allowed to remain for about an hour. Any drop in the water level at
the end of this period (after allowance has been made for slight absorption)
indicates leakage. Examination will show the cause of this. Any cracked or
otherwise defective pipes are replaced by sound ones, and cracks in joints are
made good.
Another test, now falling into disfavour because of the cost entailed, is the
smoke test. Smoke from burning oily cotton waste is pumped by a machine into
the lower end of the drain, the upper end is plugged, and pumping is maintained
until a certain pressure is reached. Any defects are exposed by escaping smoke.
These and other tests are fully described in Vol. IV.
Ball Test.-A drain may be airtight and watertight and pass either of the above
two tests and yet be of defective construction owing to the presence of jointing
material within the drain and an improperly aligned invert. It is for this reason
that many authorities now apply the ball test to newly constructed drains in
addition to the hydraulic (or smoke )·test. This test merely consists of passing a
solid rubber ball down each length of drain. The diameter of the ball is !-in.
less than that of the drain. The ball is put into the drain at the top end, and if
it emerges a: the lower end it is a sufficient indication that the drain is true in
bore and free from cement ridges. If the ball does not traverse the full length
of the drain, the cause of the stoppage is ascertained and any defects remedied.
This is an important test.
REFILLING TRENCH.-After a drain has been approved, the trench should be
carefully refilled in 6-in . thick layers. The finer earth is placed with care next
to the drain so as not to damage the pipes and joints. This is spread and lightly
consolidated, after which the remainder of the refilling is completed, each layer
being well rammed.
DRAINAGE SCHEMES
The drainage plan of a building (with certain exceptions) must be submitted
to and approved by a local authority before building operations are commenced.
The following is usually required to be indicated on such a plan : ( 1) The position
of rain water pipes, gullies, and the various sanitary fittings such as lavatory
basins, baths, sinks and water closets; (2) arrangement of the various drains, the
sizes of which must be specified; (3) inspection chambers, and, if necessary,
the intercepting chamber (see p . 82) ; (4) means of ventilation ; and (5) the
position of the public sewer (or other outlet) to which the main drain is shown
connected.
A typical plan showing the drainage scheme for a small house is shown at A,
Fig. 30, and a part system is shown at A, Fig. 31. These are referred to on p. 84.
PRINCIPLES OF DRAINAGE.-The essential principles of drainage applied to
these and similar schemes are :-
I. Drains must be airtight and watertight, constructed of sound materials
and workmanship, with an even invert and a clear bore, and all traps
must be self-cleansing and have an adequate seal.
2. They must be provided with a sound foundation, laid with an adequate
and uniform gradient and in straight lines between points and where
the direction changes.
3· Adequate means of inspection and cleaning must be provided, inspection
chambers being constructed at change of direction points and in
convenient positions to receive the maximum number of branch drains.
4· A drain may be required to be disconnected from a sewer (or cesspool)
by the provision of an intercepting chamber (see p. 82).
5. Adequate ventilation must be provided.
6. Branch drains should be as short as possible and preferably laid in straight
lines to the nearest inspection chamber.
7. Bends must be slow and junctions oblique.
8. Rain water pipes, and sink, lavatory basin and bath waste p1pes must
discharge over gullies outside.
9· Water closets must be connected direct to drains, upper water closets
being connected to soil pipes which must be ventilated.
10 . Unless unavoidable, no drain shall pass under a building. If laid under a
building, the drain must be either of ware completely encased with
concrete not less than 6-in. thick (as shown at P, Fig. 29) or be con-
structed of cast iron.
Several of these principles have been already referred to,
 D R A N A G E s c H E M E ~~11
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T I 0 N SECTION

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GROUND LEVEL INSPECTION CH.I.MIIEP. AT 'L'

E S E C T 0 N T H ~ 0 U G H
f l H ti f II I iii I 'I&' I I lj)' I I 1fi1 I I ljjl I I l j l 1 I j FIGURE 30
SCAL~ FOR B, C 6 D FEET
 239 DRAINAGE
INSPECTION CHAMBERS.-All drains should be conveniently accessible, and,
in accordance with principle No. 3, adequate means of inspection and cleaning
must be provided. The only satisfactory provision takes the form of a chamber
such as that shown in Fig. 31. The floor is of concrete, the walls are of brick
or concrete and a cast iron cover provides means of access. The minimum
internal dimensions are 1-ft. 6-in. square when the depth is 1-ft. 6-in. or less,
2-ft. 3-in. by 1-ft. 6-in. when the depth is 3-ft., and 3-ft. (preferably 4-ft.) by
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
z-ft. 3-in. when the depth exceeds 3-ft., the latter size being necessary to
enable a man to pass down and do any operation required.
The concrete floor is 6-in. thick and this need not project more than is
necessary to enable the walls to be constructed, i.e., 3 to 6-in. Brick footings
are unnecessary. The thickness of the walls need only be 4!-in. when the depth
is under 2-ft. 6-in., but should be 9-in. thick for deeper chambers. The 9-in.
brickwork is usually built of common bricks (which should be hard and sound)
in English bond in cement mortar 1 to 3, to which 2 per cent. waterproofer is
sometimes added; this bond is shown at c, Fig. 31. An alternative form of
wall construction is shown at H, the walls being in two separate half-brick leaves
in stretching bond with a continuous l-in. thick layer of waterproofed mortar
between which serves as a watertight lining.
The drains are run in straight lines to the internal faces of the walls, and the
channels to which they are connected are jointed and bedded in cement. The
ends of the pipes through the walls may be .either arched or concreted over as
shown at c, Fig. 30 and c, Fig. 31, respectively; if roughly bricked round (a
cm.n mon practice) leaks may occur. The channels are usually of salt-glazed or
white-glazed ware, but they may be formed in the concrete. Two alternative
forms of branch connections at chambers are shown at Band G, Fig. 31. These
show three branches delivering at the main drain. The construction at B consists
of one double and one single half-round channel junction ; the right-hand and
lower left-hand branches are gradually curved in the direction of the flow by
the provision of slow half-round channel bends (see also sketch c). The alterna-
tive plan c shows the application of three-quarter branch channel bends which
provide gradual leads and prevent sewage overflowing and fouling the bottom
of the chamber ; they are particularly effective when the curvature is sharp ;
as shown, the inverts of these bends are above that of the half-round main
channel, as their lower ends are supported on the top edges of the latter (see
also sketch H). A selection of standard three-quarter branch channel bends,
alternative to those at G and H, is shown at J. The spaces between the channels
are filled in with concrete and this is sloped or benched up as shown at B and c,
Fig. 30 and c, Fig. 31. The object of the benching is to prevent fouling of the
base from discharges from the branch channels. Sometimes the benching is
given a slope of 45° ; this is rather excessive, as a workman can only stand upon
it with difficulty. The form of benching recommended is that shown at c,
Fig. 31, although that indicated at c, Fig. 30 is adequate when the chamber only
accommodates the main channel.
The chamber must be watertight to prevent leakage of sewage in the event
of the main drain below it becoming choked. For this reason it is usual to
render the inside of the walls with a cement mixture composed of 1 part Portland
cement and 2 parts sand ; a 2 per cent. waterproofer is sometimes added to the
mix. The thickness of this rendering should be from l to f-in ., and it should
be continued from the top and over the benching to the inner edges of the
channels as shown ; it should be trowelled smooth. Chambers over 3-ft. deep
are sometimes rendered up to that height, above which the joints are neatly
pointed with cement mortar. Rendering is not required when, as occasionally
used in first-class work, salt-glazed or white-glazed or blue Staffordshire bricks
are employed for the internal facing of a chamber.
Access to the chamber is provided by a galvanized cast iron cover with frame.
These are of many different patterns and of various strengths and sizes. They
must be large enough to allow a man to pass through, common sizes being
24-in. by 18-in. (see B and c, Fig. 30, and c, Fig. 31) and 27-in. square in the
clear. The cover for this purpose must be airtight, and therefore the joint
between the frame and cover has either a single, double or triple seal. A single
seal joint is shown at Q, Fig. 30, the groove in the frame being filled with grease
into which the lower rim of the cover projects ; a band of solid rubber, known
as a rubber ring, may be used instead of the grease to form a seating for the rim.
Both of these materials may be used, thus a double seal cover may have the
outer groove filled with grease or tallow, and the inner groove fitted with a rubber
ring or tarred cord. If required, the cover may be locked, four gun-metal screws
being used for this purpose. The top of the brickwork is corbelled over as
shown, and the frame is bedded in cement mortar on it, the face of the cover
being brought level with the surface of the ground or pavement. Unless the
adjacent surface is paved, a 6-in. wide concrete curb, rendered smooth in neat
cement, should be provided as a margin to the frame (see c, Fig. 31) ; this
covers the flange of the frame and keeps it in position ; a rebated hard stone
curb serves the same purpose.
Chambers which exceed 3-ft. in depth should be provided with step- or foot-
irons. These may be of galvanized cast iron, horse-shoe shaped, as shown at
c and D, Fig. 31, and fixed at every fourth course, or they may simply consist of
1-in. by f-in. flat wrought iron bars (dipped in hot bitumen to preserve them)
fixed at vertical intervals across one of the corners. They should be well bedded
in to make them secure and prevent leakage.
RoDDING.-As implied, inspection chambers are provided as convenient
means of inspecting, testing and cleansing drains. In the event of a drain
becoming choked, the cause of the stoppage is removed by the application of
cleaning rods (also known as clearing rods or drain rods). A rod consists of a
bundle ofmalacca canes or Sarawak bambo canes (or !-in. diameter bronze rods)
in 2 to 6-ft. lengths; these lengths are screwed together by means of locking joints.
Several varieties of tools are available for screwing to the first length, such as
screws, plungers, rollers, brushes and scrapers for the withdrawal of obstruc-
 DRAINAGE SCHEMES 240

N s p E c T 0 N c H A M B E
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STEP-IRON

A
K E y
r~Jt:kl
DRAIN CHUTES
CONClflf lfOO!NG
f. &fNCHING OMITTED
4' HALF-~UND s K E T c H
4' DRAINS "CHANNEL f. p L A N
/ SHOWING APPUCATION OF
THREE -QUARTER BRANCH
CHANNEL BENDS

PLAN OF STANDARD
p K E T C H THREE-QUARTER BRANCH
CHANNEL SENDS

tions and the removal of grease, etc. which tends to accumulate on the internal
surface of the drains.
In small deep chambers especially, the insertion of a drain rod is facilitated
if a ware drain chute is provided. An application of these is shown at H, Fig. 31,
type E being fixed at the exit and type F at the entrance of the main drain.
INTERCEPTING OR DISCONNECTING CHAMBERS.-Principle No. 4 refers to
drain disconnection. An intercepting chamber is similar in all respects to an
inspection chamber except that an intercepting trap or interceptor is fixed to
the drain at the lower end of the chamber for the purpose of disconnecting the
sewer gases from the drainage system. Of course, it also provides means for
inspection and rodding. The position of such a chamber should be on
the line of the main drain and as.near as possible to the boundary. Plan and
sections of an intercepting chamber are shown at B, c and D, Fig. 30. The trap
has been referred to on p. 74, one type being shown at L, M, N and P, Fig. 28,
and a somewhat similar form is shown at Band o, Fig. 30. The seal in each case
is zt-in. and the water level is 2 to 3-in. below the channel invert. This drop
is called the cascade and its object is to increase the velocity of the sewage during
its passage through the trap. This cascade cannot always be obtained owing
to the available fall from the head of the drain to the sewer being inadequate,
and therefore under such conditions a trap having the outlet level with the inlet
is used. The-latter form of interceptor is a frequent cause of stoppage in a drain,
especially if the drain has less than the required minimum fall, owing to the
 241
resulting inadequate scour through the trap leading to an accumulation of solids.
The trap is provided with a clearing arm (also called a raking arm or cleaning
arm) through which a drain rod can be passed to clear any obstruction between
the trap and sewer. A stopper or cap is fitted to the arm. There are several types
of stoppers, including ( 1) a simple ware disc which is cemented to the socket ;
(2) a ware disc having a bituminous rim, which, when smeared with grease or a
non-setting composition, is fitted to a similar bituminous ring on the socket of
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DRAINAGE
air within the drains by providing for its discharge into the open where it will
not cause a nuisance or endanger health ; otherwise the accumulation of the
gases may be such as to unseal traps and thereby permit of the escape of noxious
air into buildings or at the ground level.
The simplest and most effective means of ventilation, generally accepted
up to within recent years (see below), is to provide an inlet at the lower end of
the drain and an outlet at its upper end or head. The inlet is usually a short

the arm (see M, N and P, Fig. 28); (3) a cap which is screwed to the socket to
form a bituminous joint ; and (4) that shown at L and known as a releasing stopper.
The latter is the best form. The body of the fitting is cemented into the socket of
the arm ; the stopper is tightly forced in position by means of a lever which engages
in slotted projecting lugs ; a chain is attached to one end of the lever and passes
through a staple fixed near the top of the chamber: It is an airtight stopper; it cannot
be forced out by pressure of gases in the sewer, and in the event of the trap becoming
choked and the chamber filled with sewage, the latter is caused to escape down the
raking arm b y jerking the chain and releasing the stopper ; otherwise, unless the
obstruction can be removed by prodding the trap, the sewage can only he removed by
baling or pumping.
None of the above stoppers (I), (2) and (3) can be removed like the releasing
stopper to empty a chamber filled with sewage. In addition, when stopper (1) is
cemented in, it is difficult to remove without causing damage ; if left uncementcd
(as is general) the joint is not airtight and the ,,ap is readily forced out, hv excessive
pressure of sewer gases, into the trap to cause stoppage of the drain. Stopper (2) is
nn improvement upon (1) as it is eas;!y removed when required and the joint is air-
tight; it has, howe\'l' r, a 'imilar defect in that it can he forced out by hack pressure
from the sewer.
The trap has a flat base, and it is set correctly by means of a spirit level placed
upon the " true levelling edge " (see P, Fig. 28).
Formerly, most local authorities insisted upon the disconnection of house
drains from sewers by the provision of intercepting traps. In many districts
now, however, the use of such traps is optional, and an increasing number of authorities
advocate their abolition for the chief reasons that ( 1) the trap is liable to become
choked, preventing the escape of the sewage and its ultimate overflow at the
gullies; (2) the air in soundly constructed sewers is not more harmful than drain
air, and disconnection therefore serves no useful purpose; and (3) increased
ventilation of the whole sewerage and drainage system results when interceptors
are omitted. The generally accepted view now is that interceptors are un-
necessary if the sewers are properly constructed and adequately ventilated, but
such traps are essential if the sewers are neither self-cleansing nor suitably
ventilated.
Both inspection and intercepting chambers are commonly referred to as
. manholes, but this term should not be used in connection with house drainage
owing to its ambiguity.
VENTILATION.-Drains must be efficiently ventilated (see principle No. s),
and the Model Bye-laws require that " at least one ventilating pipe " shall be
provided to a drainage system as far as possible from the connection to the
sewer. The chief aim in drain ventilation is to reduce the pressure of the foul
length of ware pipe taken from near the top of the intercepting chamber and
continued by a vertical cast iron pipe, 5 or 6-ft. high, fixed to the boundary wall
or fence ; this is finished with a head having a louvred opening, behind which
is a hinged aluminium or mica valve or flap (see c and D, Fig. 30). The outlet
is a cast iron pipe provided at the head of the drain. Such an outlet ventilating
pipe is shown at F, Fig. 30; this would be fixed to the wall of the building and
continued at least 2-ft. above the eaves and distant from dormer, etc., windows
(as at D, Fig. 32); its foot would be connected to the 4-in. by 4-in. junction
in the main drain by means of a 4-in. diameter bend. Thus, air entering the
drain through the valve at the lower end traverses the drain before escaping
at the head. In practice, however, the INLET pipe is often found to be an unsatis-
factory feature owing to the valve becoming either stuck or damaged or detached,
and thus acting as an outlet. It is for this reason that many local authorities do
not now insist upon the provision of ventilating inlets, and existing inlets are often
abolished, especially if they are adjacent to buildings or public footpaths. The
bye-laws state that the minimum internal diameter of a ventilating outlet shall
be 3-in. and that the open end shall be protected against obstruction, such as
a bird's nest, by t he provision of a spherical galvanized iron (or copper) wire
cage (see D. Fig. 32). As a ventilated soil pipe (see D, Fig. 32) acts as an
outlet it may serve as the required outlet provided it is situated near to the
head of the drain. It is not practicable to ventilate every branch drain, and
this is an additional reason why branches should be as short as possible (see
principle No. 6). In addition to the outlet at the head of the drainage system,
many local authorities insist upon the provision of a ventilating outlet at the
head of every branch drain which exceeds 3o-ft. in length.
DISCONNECTION OF RAIN WATER PIPES AND WASTE PIPES (see principle
No. 8).-Rain water pipes must not be utilized to ventilate drains. They
must not therefore be connected direct to a drain but must discharge over
guiJies (see pp. 72 and 74).
Waste pipes from sinks, lavatory basins and baths must discharge over gullies
outside (p. 72). In addition, and in accordance with the Model Bye-laws, each
of these waste pipes when it exceeds 6-ft. in length must be provided with a
suitable trap. The object of such traps is to prevent the entrance of gases from
decomposing organic matter which coats the inside of the pipes; many local
authorities insist upon all waste pipes being trapped, irrespective of their length.
These requirements are iiJustrated in Fig. 32, thus:
A trapped sink waste is shown discharging over a guily at A. The standard
 s A N T A y F T T N G s
WII'.E OOME
/ PLAIN TILES
FOit.. TILING DETAILS, SH FIGS. 4l t, .U. VOL..~.

NOTE: II.AIN-WATE~ PIPES ~WASTE PIPES ENLAI\.GED DEIAILS OF SANITMY

FIIDM SINI(S, BATHS 6 LAVATO,_Y FITTIN<iS WiTH THEil\. CONNECTIONS
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BASINS A~ DlSCHAMED OVEit.. AM GIVEN IN CHAPTEit.. TWO,

GUUIES. VOLUME FOUR.
WATEJI..CLOSETS AM CONNECTED
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WATE~ I FLUSH PIP£ - --
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co
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_, E
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6'x4'GULLY
WITH DISH
IANTI-SPLASH SHOE

GULLY OUTLETS SUITA&Lf FOJI-. OJI-.AINS HAVING STEEP GJI-.AOIENTS FIGURE .32
FliT
 243 DRAINAGE
gully is bedded upon 6-in. of concrete, and its outlet is curved, as an alterna-
tive to that at Q, Fig. 28, in order that the upper end of the drain (especially if
subjected to overhead traffic) may have increased cover and protection, and to
provide a good connection to a branch drain having a steep gradient.
The trapped bath waste pipe at B discharges into a hopper head of a rain
water pipe which is disconnected over a gully at the ground level. This gully
is in the form of an S trap and is suitable for a short branch pipe to the
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drain shown. It will be observed that, because of the depth and close proximity
of the main drain, this branch drain consists of a slow bend and a short pipe
which is cut to the required length to fit the junction at the main drain.
Economy results if, as shown by broken lines at B, drainage from the roof is
provided by the rain water pipe which delivers into the hopper head. The
anti-splash shoe shown is effective in preventing fouling of the adjacent paving,
etc., which often occurs when the ordinary type of shoe is provided, and especially
when a large volume of water is discharged from a bath at a high velocity (see
p. 72).
The trapped lavatory basin waste pipe shown at c is connected to a vertical
pipe which is continued to the ground level where it delivers over a gully. Some
authorities require such a vertical pipe to be continued above the connection
and (like the ventilating pipe at D) terminated above the eaves. This is an
alternative arrangement to B.
These waste pipes are of lead or copper, and the traps are provided with
cleansing screws to afford means of access when required.
WATER CLOSETS.-These must be connected direct to drains (see principle 9).
There are many types of these fittings; those .shown at D and E are of the wash-
down pedestal type, and have a 2-in. seal. If situated on the ground floor, as at
E, it is usually connected to the drain by a bend. A pedestal provided on an
upper floor, as shown at D, must be connected to a cast iron or lead soil pipe
which is jointed to the drain and its upper end is continued as a ventilating pipe
terminating at least 2-ft. above the eaves (see p. 82).
These various sanitary fittings are included here in order to make the
description more complete. They are not usually studied in detail in the second
year of a course.1
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS SHOWN IN FIGS. 30 AND 31.-A·drainage plan of a small
one-storied house is shown at A, Fig. 30. It complies with the principles laid
down on p. 78. The gully at F receives a rain water pipe and the lavatory
basin waste pipe, and the 4-in. drain from it is laid with a uniform gradient of
I in 32 to the inspection chamber L. The water closet is connected direct to
the drain which is also taken to the chamber. A rain water pipe and the lavatory
basin and bath waste pipes discharge over gully J connected to a 4-in. drain.
As these drains are laid in straight lines to the inspection chamber they can be
easily rodded if necessary. The main drain is continued at the same gradient
to the intercepting chamber M , 2 collects the short branch drains from the gullies
at H and K, and proceeds with an increased gradient to the public sewer to which
it is connected in the direction of the flow. A ventilating outlet is connected
to the head of the system at F ; if required, a ventilating inlet is provided at M
(see p. 82). A section through the main drain is shown at E. In order to
provide additional protection to the upper portion of the drain (which will be
necessary if there is likely to be any traffic over it) it may either be encased in
concrete (see P, Fig. 29) for two or three pipe lengths, or the drain at the con-
nection to gully F may be given additional fall (see B, Fig. 32). Details of the
intercepting chamber are shown at B, c and D and have been explained on p. 81.
The construction of the inspection chamber L is somewhat similar to, but smaller
than, that illustrated in Fig. 31 and described on p . So.
A key plan of portion of another drainage system is shown at A, Fig. 31.
This has been introduced to show the application of a deep inspection chamber,
detailed on this drawing, and which has been already described.
1 Details are given in Vol. IV.
2 This has been shown as an intercepting chamber to satisfy the requirements of those
local authorities who still advocate the use of the intercepting trap. As pointed out,
however, on p. 82, many local authorities deprecate the use of interceptors, and therefore
in those districts coming under their jurisdiction the trap may be omitted at the chamber
at M which would then serve as an inspection chamber only.
 CHAPTER TEN
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MASONRY
Syllabus.-.Formation and classification of stones ; characteristics, tests. Quarrying, mining and machine dressing. Stone dressings to door and window openings.
Cornices. Stone steps and stairs.
FoRMATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF STONEs.-As stated on p. 33, Vol. I, rocks
are divided into three principal classes, i.e., (r) igneous, (2) sedimentary and (3)
metamorphic. These are considered in greater detail in this chapter.
Geology, which is the science concerned with the composition, structure and
history of the materials of the earth, is briefly referred to here as an introduction
to a study of the rocks used for building purposes.
The basic rocks of the earth's crust were formed from material molten by intense
heat atthe interior of the earth. Some of this material, such as granite (see next column),
was consolidated at a great depth below the surface, whilst molten paste erupted
from volcanoes solidified on the earth's surface to form rocks, such as, for example,
those contained in the mountains of the Lake District, North Wales and the Scottish
Highlands. Other rocks were formed from fragments of minerals disintegrated from
the originally formed rocks by natural agencies, such as the expansive action of frost
and the expansion and contraction due to alternate heat and cold, and removed by
streams to form successive layers of sand, gravel, etc. ; the pressure on the lower layers
squeezed out the water and interlocked the grains, and, in addition, water charged
with substances such as carbonate of lime and silica acted as cementing agents and
hardened the mass of such sedimentary rocks during percolation ; examples of rocks
formed in this manner are sandstones and limestones (see pp. 88-94). Marbles
(seep. 96) and slates (see p. 132, Vol. I) are examples of another class of rock formed
from basic or sedimentary rocks which have been metamorphosed (altered) in structure
as a result of lateral (side) pressure or heat or both. Yet another class of rocks is formed
from the remains of marine organisms, and certain limestones (see p . 94), con-
sisting of shells, corals, etc., are examples of these.
A classification of the known rocks of the earth's crust is given in Table IV on p. 87.
1. Igneous Rocks.- These have been formed of material which has been
molten by the intense heat within the interior of the earth and become solidified.
They are divided into (a) plutonic rocks, (b) hypabyssal rocks and (c) volcanic rocks.
{a) Plutonic Rocks are igneous rocks which have been consolidated at a con-
siderable depth below the earth's surface; the erosion (wearing away) of the
upper and softer strata has caused such rocks to appear at the earth's surface.
Consolidation was gradual owing to the extremely slow rate of cooling, and
such rocks are therefore completely crystalline and have a coarse-grained texture.
These rocks consist of silica in combination with bases such as iron, lime,
magnesia, potash and soda, and they are classed as acid, intermediate or basic,
according to the percentage of silica content. Thus, acid rocks have over 66 per
244
cent. of silica, intermediate rocks have from 52 to 66 per cent. of silica, and the
silica content of the basic group is less than 52 per cent.
The (i) granites are included in the acid group of plutonic rocks, the (ii)
syenites and (iii) diorites are of the intermediate group, and the (iv) gabbro family
forms the basic group. These are described below.
CoNSTITUENT MINERALS OF IGNEOUS RocKS.-These include quartz, felspar,
mica, hornblende, augite, diallage, magnetite and pyrites.
Quartz is pure silica. The grains are }_lard and. extremely durable ; they are
commonly colourless, although those of gramte especially may vary in colour from
pink, yellow, purple, red and brown to black.
F~/~par is the gro~p of mi~erals which is usually the most abundant. The grains
are srhcates of alumm~ combmed wrth one or more of the bases-lime, potash and
soda. Potash felspar rs known as orthoclase ; soda felspar or albite and soda-lime
felspar or ?ligocla~e are called plagioclase felspars. The colour of the plagioclases is
usually whrte or hght grey, and that of orthoclase crystals may be yellowish-pink,
red or green.
Mica.-;-These crystals ~re silicates of al_umina with potash or magnesia. The
potash mrcas are sliver whrte and have a bnght lustre ; one of the most important
of these is known as muscovite. The magnesian micas are dark brown or black and
the principal of these is called biotite. Mica appears as short, glittering scal~s or
flakes parallel to the natural bed ; these flakes are therefore an indication of the
position of the natural bed. The white mica is very durable, but the biotite variety
is softer and liable to decomposition.
Hornblende is of the amphibole group and is a silicate of magn"si3 lime aluminium
and iron. The colour is green, brown or black. ' '
Augite is a modification of hornblende, it being similar in composition and colour
but differing somewhat in the shape of the crystals .
Diallage is a variety of augite, green in colour, and when seen under the microscope
the crystals are usually laminated.
Magnetite, or magnetic ore, has a bluish-black metallic lustrt: ; it influences the
colour of stones.
Pyrites is another iron ore. It occurs as small yellow specks. Crystals of the
" white iron pyrites " variety, called marcasite, readily decompose, as the pale yellow
changes to white efflorescence and the sulphuric acid formed in the process sets up
decay in the stone.
(a) (i) Granite.-There are several kinds of this crystalline granular rock
and these vary in colour and texture. The chief constituents are felspar, quartz
and mica, the former being predominant ; hornblende and augite are sometimes
represented in addition to or in place of mica. If the mica present is the white
 245 MASONRY
variety, the rock is called a muscooite granite ; a biotite granite contains the dark
mica only ; when both micas are present, it is known as a muscooite-biotite
~:ra11ite. A homblende-biotite gra11ite has a hornblende and dark mica content,
and if hornblende without mica is present it is a homblende gra11ite.
The colour of granite is influenced chiefly by that of the felspar. The texture
is also estimated by the size of the felspar crystals ; thus, it is considered that
granites containing felspar grains which exceed ~-in. in length are coarse-
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mottled or speckled coloured appearance of certain granites make them most
suitable for decorative use, as for wall and floor coverings, pillars, etc. Granites
have been used on many important buildings (for plinths, external walls
of lower storeys, and dressings to principal entrances, etc.), for memorials, and
for engineering works (including docks, sea walls, embankments, lighthouses
and bridges). In districts near the quarries, granites have been used exclusively
for the construction of external walls of buildings ; thus, the external walls of

grained, those having felspars between } and ~-in. are medium-grained granites,
and fine-grained granites have felspars less than }-in. long.
Granites are extremely hard, durable and strong. Those with plagioclase
felspars and dark micas are relatively less durable than granites having orthoclase
felspars and light micas. As described on p. 105, granites are capable of taking
a high polish and are therefore easily kept clean when employed in polluted
atmospheres. Owing to their great hardness, granites' are difficult to work and
are thus expensive. This accounts for their restricted use for building purposes.
Their very high strength and durable qualities render granites the best natural
stones for resisting high stresses and severe exposl.Jre ; in addition, the rich
TABLE
GRANITES
.-----~----- ·-··-- -;-------------;-------------------,--------,---------------,
most of the buildings in Aberdeen are constructed of this material. Granite,
because of its hard-wearing quality, is used for kerbs of streets, and for the same
reason it has been extensively employed for road .setts, although this form of
road paving is not now favoured on account of the noise from traffic which results
when streets are laid with setts. It is also used for coarse aggregates for concrete.
The principal centre in England where granites used for building purposes
are quarried are Cornwall and Westmorland (Shap). Scottish granites are
worked chiefly in Aberdeenshire (the most important centres being Aberdeen
and Peterhead) and Kirkcudbrightshire. The principal granite districts in
Ireland are in counties Down, Dublin, Wexford and Wicklow. Norwegian
III

REF. CRUSHlNG
NAME OF NAME AND ADDRESS STRENGTH WEIGHT
No. (see SITUATION OF QUARRY. (lb. per CHARACTERISTICS.
GRANITE. OF OWNER. (tons per
Fig. 33). cub. ft.).
sq. ft.).
2 CORRENNIE Alford, Aberdeenshire John Fyfe Ltd., Blaikie's 162 A muscovite-biotite. Salmon red ;
Quay, Aberdeen, Scotland medium grained.
8 CREETOWN Fell Hill ana Silver Hill Quarries, Stewart & Co. Ltd., 25 Fraser A biotite. White (when hammered)
Creetown, Kirkcudbrightshire Road, Aberdeen and bluish-white (when polished) ;
fine grained.
DE LANK SILVER De Lank, St Breward, Bodmin, Cornish De Lank Granite 1171 A muscovite-biotite. Light greenish-
GREY Cornwall Quarries Ltd., De Lank, grey ; medium grained.
Bodmin, Cornwall
3 KEMNAY. Near Aberdeen, Scotland John Fyfe ' Ltd., Blaikie's A muscovite~biotite. Light silvery-
Quay, Aberdeen, Scotland grey speckled with black mica ;
medium grained.
4 LOWER PERSLEY Near Aberdeen, Scotland George Hall, 17 Back Hilton 166 A muscovite-biotite. Light bluish-
Road, Aberdeen . grey ; fine grained.
PETERHEAD, RED Stirling Hill, Boddam, Peterhead, Heslop Wilson & Co. Ltd., 175 A biotite. Brilliant red ; coarse
Aberdeenshire Peterhead Granite Works , grained .
Boddam, Aberdeenshire
6 RUBISLAW Aberdeen, Scotland Rubislaw Granite Co. Ltd., 1099 156 A muscovite-biotite. Bluish-grey;
Queen's Road, Aberdeen fine grained.
5 ScLATTIE Bucksburn, near Aberdeen A. & F . Manuelle Ltd., 59 r6o A muscovite-biotite. Light bluish-
Marischal Street, Aberdeen grey ; medium grained.
16 SHAP Shap, Westmorland The Shap Granite Co. Ltd., 1500 r6s A biotite. Greyish-pink (" Light
Shap, Westmorland Shap ") and reddish-brown
" Dark Shap ") ; medium grained.
ToR BRAKE and St Breward, Bodmin, Cornwall Wm. Nankivell & Sons Ltd., A muscovite-biotite. Silvery-grey ;
ToR DowN St Breward, Bodmin, Corn- medium grained.
wall
 CLASSIFICATION OF STRATA

TABLE IV
CLASSIFICATION OF STRATA

- - - - - - - - - ---.------------:-------·- -·-- -- ····- ·- -

This classification of the known rocks of the earth's crust shows the com- I 1
, Group
or Era.
System or
Period.
Series or Epoch.
Building Stones, Slates, Marbles,
Granites, Limes, etc., Found.
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plete geological history divided into three great eras the Eozoic (meaning

ir Middle Permian
" dawn of life"), Palreozoic (" ancient life) " and Neozoic ("new life").
The eras are divided into periods and the latter are divided into epochs. Upper Permian Sandstones, including I ,azonby.
Magnesian Limestones, including
The mass of rock of an era is known as a group, the rocks of each period Permian Anston, Linby and Park Nook.
a system, and those of an epoch are referred to as a series. The strata are l Lower Permian Magnesian Sandstones, including
Red and White Mansfield .
shown in correct sequence, the oldest (those in the Emmie group) being at
I the bottom of the table.
Coal Measures , Sandstones, including Appleton,
Appley Hridge, Brackenhill,

..
Heworth Burn, Springwell,
0
Thornton Blue and Woodkirk .

.l
Group System or Building Stones, Slates, Marbles, 0 Millstone Grit Sandstones, including Berristall,
or Era. Period. Series or Epoch. &l Bolton Woods, Bramley Fall,
Granites, Limes, etc., Found. Carboniferous
Dungeons, Dunn House, End-
-- - · · -- - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 cliffe, Guiseley, Langridge, Stan-
Recent Strata cliffe, Stanton Park and Wellfield.
~

t
Post-pliocene Glacial Beds Yaredale Beds
Forest Bed Carboniferous Lime- English Marbles, including Hopton-

}c~"'''
Norwich Crag stone Wood. Limestone yielding lime.
Pliocene Red Crag Upper Devonian Slates, including Cornish (Delabole).
Caralline Crag ju Old Red Sandstone Sandstones. used locally in

.
Miocene
r Barnstead Beds
... 1
-0
Devonian
Gloucestershire, :'-Jorthumberland,
etc. (see p. 89).

u Oligocene -<
Bembridge Beds
Osborne Beds
Headon Beds
jCI•y• ond Mod•.
I~
I~
L Middle Devonian Limestones, including Radford.
English Marbles. including Ash-
burton.
< Lower Devonian
Bagshot Beds ~
Barton Clay Ludlow Beds

J
1
u Bracklesham Beds Wenlock Beds Welsh Slates, including Corwen and
Eocene ~Clays, sands and gravels. Silurian Llangollen.
0 London Clay
N
Woolwich Beds 1 Llandovery Beds
0 BaJa Beds
1<1 Thanet Sands J I
IZ Upper Cretaceous Llandt-::o Beds Welsh Slates, including Festiniog 'I

~l
Cretaceous { Middle Cretaceous Beer Limestone. and Precelly. Lake District
Lower Cretaceous Kentish Rag Stone. Slates, including Buttermere,
.. Ordovician
Upper Oolites Portland Limestone. Limestone Honister, Elterwater, Kentmcrc
yielding lime. and Tilberthwaite ; also Burling-
Middle Oolites Limestones, including Bladon. ton Quarry.
Lower Oolites Limestones, including Ancaster, Arenig Beds
Jurassic Clipsham and the Bath (Monk's Olenus Beds
Park, etc.) Limestones. Cambrian Paradoxides Beds
Lias Limestones, including Blue Lias Olenellus Beds Welsh Slates, including Bangor,
Stone yielding lime (see p . Dinorn•ic and Penrhyn.
20).
Rhretic
Keuper Sandstones, including Hollington Mainly igneous (including Granites,
Triassic and Red Runcorn. see Table Ill). Scottish Slates
Bunter EozoiC Pre-Cambrian from Argyll. Dumbarton and
Sandstones, including Corsehill, St.
Bees, Shawk and Woolton. Perth.
 247
(grey) and Swedish (grey, red and black) granites are also imported into the
United Kingdom, much of it being dressed in the Aberdeen district. The dis-
tribution of granites in Great Britain is shown in Fig. 33 1 and listed in Table III.
As indicating the composition of granite, that of the De Lank Silver Grey
Granite (see Table III) consists of quartz 46 per cent., orthoclase felspar 30
per cent., plagioclase felspar 6 per cent., muscovite (white mica) I I per cent. and
biotite (black mica) 7 per cent.
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MASONRY
hardened and consolidated by great pressure and were cemented together by
sandy or clayey paste or by a chemical substance (such as carbonate of lime)
conveyed by the percolating water. Other rocks of this division are formed
from the remains of marine organisms (shellfish, etc.) and chemically by pre-
cipitation. The principal sedimentary rocks are (a) sandstones and (b) limestones.
(a) Sandstones .- These consist of grains of quartz (sand or silica, seep. 85)
held together by a cement or matrix. In addition to quartz, sandstones may

(a) (ii) Syenite.-None of the true syenite quarried in this country is used for
huilding purposes. It occurs in Leicestershire, Carnarvonshire, the Highlands of
Scotland and the Channel Islands, where it is quarried and used for road material.
A well-known syenite, called " Pearl Granite," is imported from Norway and used
for plinths to shop fronts, etc. ; it has a mottled appearance, with dark green mark-
ings and light-coloured patches. Syenite is hard, durable, strong and more easily
worked than granite. Quartz is usually absent, felspar is the prevalent mineral,
hornblende is present, and the mica content is usually less than in granite.
(a) (iii) Diorite.-This occurs in Leicestershire and Carnarvonshire. It is
difficult to work, and this, in addition to its dull, dark green or black colour, renders
it unsuitable for building purposes. It is sometimes known as greenstone, and is used
as road metal. Whinstone is the name applied in Scotland to this stone, although
in certain localities this name is given to any stone which is difficult to work or to
stone used in road construction. Felspar, hornblende, augite and dark mica are
present, and quartz is usually absent. · siliceous, calcareous,ferruginous and argillaceous; two or more of these substances
(a) (iv) Gabbro is quarried in Cornwall, certain parts of Wales, and in the Scottish
Highlands. It is rarely used for building purposes on account of its bad weathering
qualities and its dull appearance. Felspar, hornblende, augite or diallage are the
chief minerals of gabbro.
(b) Hypabyssal Rocks.-These were masses of molten material which penetrated
the overlying strata, and erosion of the latter has exposed these rocks at the surface.
Cooling of the masses was more rapid than with the plutonic rocks, and their texture
is therefore finer. Hypabyssal rocks, like plutonic rocks, are classed as acid, inter-
mediate and basic. The rocks of the acid g~oup are called quartz porphyries, those
of the intermediate group are porphyries and porphyrites, and dolerites and diabases
are of the basic group. The quartz porphyries and porphyrites occur in Cornwall
and Devon (when they are known as elvans), North and South Wales and in Scotland ;
some of them readily take a polish and have been used for ornamental purposes and
general walling ; they are now used chiefly for breaking up into aggregates for concrete
and road purposes. The porphyrites are quarried in Leicester, Somerset, Carnarvon-
shire, etc. ; they are very tough and are commonly used for road metal. The dolerites
and diabases have a wide distribution throughout Great Britain and are employed
extensively for roads (the stone being sometimes crushed, screened, dried and coated
with bitumen to form tarmacadam) and rough walling; this stone is known in the
north as "whinstone."
(c) Volcn.,ic Rocks have been formed from lava poured out at the surface from
volcanoes. Rapid cooling and hardening caused the material to be fine grained and
of a glassy character. Their group classification are rhyolites (acid), trach:J,·tes and
andesites (intermediate) and basalt (basic), They are quarried in England, Scotland,
Wales and Ireland, and are employed for road construction.
2. SEDIMENTARY OR AQUEOUS RocKs.-This division comprises those stones
which are chiefly employed for building purposes. Most of these rocks are
formed of fragments of igneous rocks which have been deposited by water in
layers or strata. As successive layers were formed, these sediments became
1 Only some of the important quarries producing granite for building purposes are
indicated here. A number of well-known quarries have been closed down because of the
absence of demand, and a large number of igneous rock quarries produce stone which
is used solely as road metal and for concrete aggregates,
contain such minerals as mica, felspar, hornblende and oxides of iron (seep. 85).
The texture of the stone is influenced by the size and distribution of the grains ;
thus, a stone may vary from fine to coarse-grained, and be either compact or the
grains may be more sparsely distributed in the cementing material. As the
quartz grains are practically indestructible, the durability of sandstones and grits
(see p . 89) depends chiefly upon the cementing material. With the exception
of freestones (see p . 89), sandstones are highly stratified, the bedding or natural
bed being clearly visible as a general rule. The beds vary in thickness from a
few inches to many feet.
The principal cements, the composition of which varies considerably, are
may be present in the cement. Sandstones are classified according to the nature
of the binding material, thus (i) siliceous sandstones, (ii) calcareous sandstones,
(iii) ferruginous sandstones and (iv) argillaceous sandstones. They may also be
classified as (v) micaceous sandstones and (vi) felspathic sandstones, if either mica
or felspar respectively is present in fair quantity. In addition, sandstones are
classified according to the character of the grains and degree of the stratification,
e.g., (vii) gritstones, (viii) flagstones, (ix) tilestones, (x) liver stones, (xi) freestones
and (xii) York stone.
(a) (i) Siliceous Sandstones.-The grains of these stones are held together by
siliceous cement (silica deposited from solution in water). Such sandstones are
exceedingly durable, as the silica has good cementing properties and is not attacked
by acids in the atmosphere. They are very hard and are usually difficult to work.
Examples of siliceous sandstones are the gritstones (see p. 89 and T able V).
(a) (ii) Calcareous Sandstones.-The grains are bound together by calcareous
cement, which is composed of calcite (crystals of carbonate of lime) or a combina-
tion of carbonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia and known as dolomifr'
(when they are called dolomitic sandstones). Whilst both calcite and dolomite
have good binding qualities, they are not durable if exposed to polluted atmo-
spheres owing to the acids attacking the matrix and loosening the grains of
sand which gradually become removed by the weather. These stones are easily
worked. White Mansfield is an example of a dolomitic sandstone (see p. 92).
(a) (iii) Ferruginous Sandstones .- The cementing material is largely ferru-
ginous, i.e., oxides of iron deposited from solution. This influences the colour
(such as brown, red, brownish-yellow, etc.) of the stone. These are good
weathering stones, although they may be affected by frost action in very exposed
situations, Red Runcorn and Woolton are of this class (see Table V).
 SANDSTONES
(a) (iv) Argillaceous Sandstones are of inferior quality and unsuitable as
building stones owing to the argillaceous (clayey) cement becoming soft when
wetted by rain.
(a) (v) Micaceous Sandstones are those in which white mica (muscovite,
see p. 85) is prominent. The mica is clearly visible as glittering flakes lying
with their longest faces parallel to the bedding planes. The presence of mica
thus assists in indicating the direction of the natural bed of a stone. An example
is Red Corsehill (see Table V).
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(a) (vi) Felspathic Sandstones contain felspar in subsidiary amounts. Stones
of this class are quarried in different parts of the country, including Herefordshire,
Shropshire and Worcestershire, and are used locally.
(a) (vii) Gritstones or Grits.--These are strong, hard and durable stones.
The sand grains are often coarse and angular, giving a rough texture; and the
cement is siliceous. Examples are Berristall, Bramley Fall, Dungeons, Dunn
House, Stanton Park, etc. (see Table V).
(a) (viii) Flagstones are strongly laminated and are therefore readily split
along the bedding planes. They are used as paving or flagging stones, treads of
steps, etc. Many quarries in Yorkshire produce sharp, annular-grained, hard-
wearing and clearly laminated stone suitable for these purposes.
(a) (ix) Tilestones.- These are thinner-bedded stones than flagstones and
are used for covering roofs, e.g., traditional in the Cotswold District (thin bedded
limestone) and in Yorkshire (thin bedded sandstone). See Fig. 48, Vol. III.
(a) (x) Liver or Knell Stones.- These are known as "thick-bedded," and, as
implied, large blocks of the stone can be obtained. Many sandstones and lime-
stones are in this class.
(a) (xi) Freestones are those which are fine-grained. They have no well-
defined bedding planes and can be easily dressed. Examples are Red Corsehill,
Locharbriggs and Wootton (sec Table V).
(a) (xii) York Stone.- This is a term applied to sandstones from Yorkshire, and
more particularly to those from that county which are specially ~ard, strong and
durable, and specified as being suitable for stt:ps, sills, lintels, copings, landings, etc.
Whilst the present demand for every description of stone for building purposes
is less than formerly, those of the sandstone class form one of the most valuable
walling materials. The weathering properties of stones are discussed on p. 97,
and reference is made to the severe test imposed on stone by sulphur acid present
in smoke polluted atmospheres. It has been pointed out that the durability
of sandstones depends very largely upon the cementing material (see p. 88),
as the quartz is practically indestructible. Siliceous sandstones (p . 88) are
therefore generally considered to be the most durable of the sedimentary rocks,
as the binding material of silica is highly resistant to acid attack. The excellent
state of preservation of many ancient buildings built of this stone is evidence
of this. Unfortunately, city buildings constructed of sandstone often assume a
drab appearance owing to the dark discoloration which results. Many sandstones
are exceptionally hard, and for this reason are selected for steps, sills, etc. Some
are difficult to work, but others of the freestone (see preceding column) class are good
chiselling stones and are very suitable for moulded work. Sandstone is an ex-
cellent and frequently used material for road construction and concrete aggregates.
Sandstones are very widely distributed throughout the British Isles. The
distribution of some of the more important quarries producing building stone is
shown in Fig. 33· This does not include the large number of small quarries which
are worked, often intermittently, to supply sandstone for building purposes locally.
A selection of some of the principal quarries producing sandstones used for
building purposes is listed in Table V. The chemical composition of a few
building sandstones is shown in Table VII. An enlarged sketch showing
approximately the structure of a sand!:tone such as is seen under the microscope 1
is shown at A, Fig. 34-· See footnote to p. 94·
Whilst granites and certain Welsh slates are obtained from the Pre-Cambrian and
Cambrian systems respectivel y (see Table IV), much of the stone is either inacces-
sible, or too difficult to work or is of unsatisfactory appearance. The Ordovician
system does not provide building sandstones beyond .beds of flagstones which are
quarried for local use. Flagstones and grits are quarried from the Silurian system
and used locally. Good building sandstones are quarried from the Old Red Sandstone
series of the Devonian system and used locally in counties Gloucestershire, Hereford-
shire, Shropshire, Monmouthshire, Northumberland , Aberdeenshire and Kincardine-
shire ; sandstones from the other series of this system are unimportant. Several
good quality building sandstones have in the past been quarried in the North of
England and in Scotland from the Carboniferous Limestone and Yoredale Beds
series of the Carboniferous system and used on important huildings, hut they are
now chiefly used locally.
The most prolific sources of best sandstones employed for building purposes are
obtained from the (i) Millstone Grit and (ii) Coal Measures series of the Carboniferous
system (see Tables IV and V).
(i) Millstone Grit.-Whilst this .series of strata, consisting of regular beds of ~:rit­
stone, has a wide distribution throughout the country, it has been most extensively
developed in Derbyshire, Lancashire and Yorkshire, where much excellent building
stone is quarried.
(ii) Coal Measures.-This formation is widely distributed. The chief quarries
are situated in Durham, Gloucestershire, Lancashire, Northumberland, Yorkshire
(where there arc many), Glamorganshire, Lanarkshire and Linlithgowshire. The stone
is quarried in other counties and used locally. In general, this stone is hard, dura hie
and of a good colour.
Sandstones for building purposes from the Permian system are quarried in
Cumberland (Lazonby); local stone is also used from this system in the south-west
of this country. The Bunter and Keuper series of the Triassic system yield good
building sandstones in Cheshire, Cumberland, Lancashire, Shropshire, Staffordshire,
Warwickshire, Worcestershire and Dumfriesshire.
Building sandstones are rare in the Jurassic system. There is none of much
importance in the Cretaceous strata, and stone in the Cainozoic group is too soft for
building purposes.
(b) Limestones.-These are called calcareous (" limey ") mcks, as they consist
mainly of carbonate of lime. They are formed either by (a) organic or (b)
chemical agencies.
1 A thin piece of the stone, approximately -~-in. square with smoothed faces, is mounted
(secured by an adhesive,) on a piece of glass known as a slide. The specimen is then
reduced to the required thickness, which may be not more than ,-.!m,-in. ; this is done
by rubbing it on a piece of glass on which water and an abrasive (carborundum) is applied.
An examination of the slide under the microscope will show the structurt' of tht· stone.
 249 MASONRY
TABLE v
SANDSTONES

RBF. GEOI.OGICAL CRUSHING WEIGHT RJ!sULT OF

No. NAME OF SITUATION OF NAME AND AnDRESS IDENTIFICATION. STRENGTH PoROSITY SATURATION
(see STONE. QUARRY. (tons per (lb. per CHARACTERISTICS. (percent.) CoEFFICIENT FROST 'fEsT
OF OWNER. cub. ft.).
Fi11. 33). SERIES. SYSTEM. SQ. ft.).
(seep . 99). (seep. 99), (aee p. Ioo) .

30 APPLETON Shepley, Wm. Hampson & Co. Coal Carboni£- 686 I48 Blue and. brown ; durable, very II 0 '70 Undamaged
Yorkshire Ltd., Shepley, near Measures
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erous hard and strong ; hard to (seep. 99)

32 APPLEY BRIDGE
BLUE
Near Wigan,
Lancashire
Huddersfield
Walter Martland Ltd.,
Appley Bridge, near
.. .. .. 152
work
Grey to blue ; very hard and
durable ; fine texture : fairly
7 o ·8I ..
36 BERRISTALL Pott Shrig)ey,
Derbyshire
Wigan
Ashton & Holmes Millstone
Ltd., Macclesfield, Grit
.. 278 lSI
easy to work
Cream ; durable; fine texture ;
free working
8 0'95 ..
23 BoLTON Woons Near Bradford,
Yorkshire
Cheshire
Bolton Woods Quarries
Ltd., Bolton Woods,
.. .. .. 148 Brownish-grey ; hard and dur-
able; fine texture
II o·55 ..
31 BRACKENHILL . Ackworth,
Yorkshire
Bradford
Ackworth Stone Co. Coal
Ltd., Ackworth, near Measures
.. .. 138 Light grey to brown ; both fine
and coarse texture ; durable
.. .. ..
25 BRAMLEY FALL Horaforth, Leeds
Pontefract
A. R. BrigiS & Co. Millstone
Ltd., Horsforth, Grit
.. 400 I36 Grey to buff ; very hard and
durable ; fine to coarse tex-
18 0 '70 Undamaged

19 BUTLER DELPH Near Blackburn,

Lancashire
near Leeds
John Greenwood, Rail-
way Street, Gloasop
.. .. .. !63
ture; rather difficult to work
Buff; very hard and durable;
coarse grained ·
.. .. ..
10 CORSBHILL, Annan, John Murray & Sons, Bunter Triassic 636 130 Pink pastel ; durable ; close 2I o·6o Weathered a
RED Dumfrieashire, Annan, Dumfries- grained ; good working little at
Scotland shire, Scotland arrises
28 CROSLAND HILL Huddersfield, Crosland Hill Quarry Millstone Carboni£- 573 148 Creamy-brown ; very hard and II o·ss Undamaged
Yorkshire Co. Ltd.. Hudders- Grit erous durable; medium grained;
42 DUNGEONS Birchover,
Matlock,
field
James Akeroyd & Sons,
Ltd., Birchover,
.. .. 612 140
good working
Pink; very durable; fine to
medium texture
IS o ·66 ..
I7 DUNN HOUSE.
Derbyshire
Darlington,
Durham
Matlock, Derbyshire
New Dunn House
Quarry Co., Winston,
.. .. 468 13S Light brown; very durable ;
medium grained ; very free
I5 o ·66 ..
Darlington, Co. working
Durham
7 EARNOCK Auchentibber, Hugh B. Kerr, Station .. .. .. I34 White and grey ; very hard and I8 u ·75 ..
Hiah Blantyre, Road, Blantyre, durable ; good working.
Scotland Lanarkshire, Scot-
land
33 EDGEFOLD Near Bolton, Jackson's Stone Coal Carboni£- S50 ISO White to biscuit ; -:ery durable; 9 o ·67 Undamaged
Lancashire Quarries Ltd., Fam- Measures erous fine grained ; easily worked
45 ENDCLIFFE Stanton Lees,
Darley Dale,
worth, Near Bolton
Henry Deeley Ltd .. Millstone
Birchover, Matlock Grit
.. 612 I40 Pink and brown ; very durable ;
fine to coarse texture
IS o ·67 ..
24 GUISBLl!Y
Derbyshire
Guiseley, Leeds A. R. Briggs & Co.
Ltd., Horsforth, near
. .. .. I41 White and
durable;
variegated ; strong,
even texture ; free
I5 0'70 Undamaged

I3 HawoRTH
BURN
Gateshead,
Durham
Leeds
Tate, Brown & Co ..
Heworth Burn and
Coal
Measures
.. 6si I4S
working
Bluish-grey
durable ;
; very hard and
fine grain ; not easy
12 o ·8o ..
Felling Quarries, to work
Gateshead-on-Tyne
49 HoLLINGTON Hollin11ton and
Great Gate,
Stanton & Bettany Ltd ..
Rocester, Uttoxeter,
Keuper Triassic 26o(W. andS .) 133 White and salmon : very dur- 19 0'75 ..
289 (Red) IJS able ; fine texture ; free work-
Stoke-on-Trent Staffordshire 3 25 (Mottled) 138 in g. Red and mottled : very
durable; harder than above ;
free working
37 KERRIDGE Macclesfield, John Wetton & Sons Millstone Carboni£- s8o 153 Buff; very hard and durable ; 7 0 '90 Undama11ed
Derbyshire Ltd., Bollington, Grit erous fine to medium texture ; 110od
near Macclesfield working; obtainable in large
blocks
 T ABLB V-5 A N D S T 0 N ES-Cantinued.

REF. GBOLOGICAL CRUSHING WRIGHT

STRENGTH POROSITY SATURATION REsULT OF
No. NAME OF SITUATION OF NAME AND ADDRESS IDENTIFICATION. (lb. per (percent.) CoEFFICIENT FROST TEST
(tons per CHARACTERISTICS.
(see STONE. QUARRY. OF OWNER. cub. ft.). (seep. 99), (seep. 99) (seep. 100).
Fig. 33). SERIES. SYSTEM. (sq . ft.) .

I4 LAZONBY Penrith, Henry Graves & Sons, Upper Permian .. I46 "Red" (light terra-cotta) and 10 o ·63 Undamaged
Cumberland Lazonby,Cumberland Permian "White" (light yellowish-
W. &W. Graves, 41 pink); very ·hard and dur-
Chiswick Street, able ; coarse grained ; diffi-
Carlisle cult to work
9 LocHARBRIGGS Dumfries, Baird & Stevenson Bunter Triassic 40S 125 Pale salmon pink; durable; 2S 0'70 Weathered a
Scotland (Quarrymasters) Ltd., medium texture ; free work- little at
I I Bothwell Street, ing ; obtainable in large blocks arrises
Glasgow, C.2
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18 LaNGRIDGE Near Preston, Thomas Croft & Sons Millstone Carbon if- .. 145 Grey and brown ; very durable : 12 0'75 Undamaged
Lancashire Ltd., Blackpool Road, Grit erous medium-grained ; excellent

39 MIDDLEWOOD Oughtibridge,
Sheffield
Preston
Joseph Turner Ltd.,
Oughtibridge, Shef-
.. .. .. ..
working
White to snuff brown ; durable;
medium to coarse texture
.. .. ..
field
35 RuNCORN, RED Weston, near The Runcorn Stone Keuper Triassic 2S4 130 Red and mottled; durable; 2I o ·6s Weathered a
Runcorn, Co., Weston, near coarse to fine texture ; easily little at
Cheshire Run corn worked arrises
2I ScouT STONE Halifax, B. Riley & Sons Millstone Carboni£- .. I72 Light brown to greyish-white ; .. .. ..
Yorkshire (Quarry Owners) Grit erous hard and durable
Ltd., Halifax. York-
shire
II SHAWK Thursby, w. & w. Graves, 4I Bunter Triassic .. 138 Red, white and flecked; very 18 o·68 "
near Carlisle Chiswick Street, durable; fine texture; free
Carlisle working; very suitable for
carving
12 SPRINGWELL Gates head, Richard Kell & Co. Coal Carbonif- .. 160 Yellow ; very durable ; medium .. .. ..
Co. Durham Ltd., Springwell Measures erous grained; fairly easy to work
Quarries, near
Gateshead-on-Tyne
IS ST. BEES, RBD St. Bees, Tom McKay & Sons Bunter Triassic 393 142 Bright red ; very durable ; fine .. .. ..
Cumberland Ltd., St. Bees, Cum- grained ; good working
berland
46 STANCLIFFE Stancliffe, The Stancliffe Estates Millstone Carboni£- 646 14S Honey to very light drab ; very 12 o·6s ..
Derbyshire Co. Ltd., Darley Grit erous hard and durable ; uniform
Dale, Derbyshire texture, close-grained ; good

43 STANTON PARK Birchover,

Matlock
James Akeroyd & Sons
Ltd., Birchover,
.. .. 6oo ISO
working
Pink and brown ; very durable ;
fine to coarse texture
.. .. ..

44 STANTON
WooDHOUSE
Stanton Lees,
Darley Dale,
Matlock, Derbyshire
Henry Deeley Ltd. ,
Birchover, Matlock,
.. " Sl2 140 Brown; very
texture
durable; fine 16 o·68 ..
22 THORNTON
BLUE
Derbyshire
Near Bradford,
Yorkshire
Derbyshire
c. Cockroft Ltd·.,
Black Dyke Quarries,
Coal
Measures
.. .. 148 Bluish-grey ; very hard and
durable; fine grained ; costly
II o·ss Undamaged

29 WELLFIELD Huddersfield.
Yorkshire
Thornton, Bradford
Samuel Johnson &
Son (Mirfieid) Ltd.,
Millstone
Grit
"
705 ISO
to work
Brown ; very durable ; fine
grained ; free working
Q O'QO ..
Crosland Hill,
20 WEST END Keighley,
Yorkshire
Huddersfield
Chas. Barrett & Sons
Ltd., Oxenhope,
.. .. .. IS3 Brown; very hard and durable ;
fine texture
8 0 '93 ..
near Keighley
38 WINDYWAY Macclesfield, John Wetton & Sons .. .. 6o8 153 Bluish-grey : durable; fine to .. .. ..
Derbyshire Ltd .. Boilington, medium grained ; good work-
near Macclesfield ing ; obtainable in large
blocks
26 WooDKIRK Morley, George Armitage & Coal Carboni£- 672 146 Blue; durable; fine grained:. IO o ·6s ..
BLUE nc;ar Leeds Sons Ltd .. Robin Measures erous good working
Hood, Wakefield .

27 WOODKIRK .. I ..
Yorkshire
.. .. .. SIS 142 Brown; durable; fine grained ; 14 o·6s ..
BROWN good working
34 WoOL TON Woolton, Morrison & Sons Ltd., Bunter Triassic SI8 I30 Red; durable; fine grained; 22 o·6o Weathered a
Liverpool Wavertree, Liver- good working I itt le at
pool, IS arrises

253
 TABLE VI-Ll M ESTON ES
RI!F.
No.
(eee
NAME OF
STONE.
I
SITUATION ot·
QUARRY.
. NAME AND ADDRESS
OF 0WNBR.
GEOLOGICAL
IDEN'IIFICATION.
CRUSHING
STRENGTH
(tons per
WEIGHT
(lb. per CHAR.~CT£RISTICS.
I
POROSITY SATURATION
(per cent.) CoEFFICIENT
Fia. 33). SBRII!S. SYSTEM. SQ. ft.).
cub. ft.) . (see p . 99).1 (see p. 99).

51 ANCASTER BROWN Ancaster. Lincoln- The Gre~rory Quarries Ltd., Lower Jurassic 152 Brown with gn•y and huff mottling : I
WEATHER BED shire Ancaster, Lincolnshire Oolites not durablt' in polluted atmo-
spheres ; coarse grained ; free
working ; takes high polish
52 ANCASTER FREE- 1~7 Cream to brown ; durable in non- 6
STONE' polluted atmospheres ; fine even
texture : free working
66 AsH BURTON Newton Abbot, W. W. Jenkins & Co. Ltd .. Middle Devonian 170 See p. 96
Devon Castle Circus House, Devonian
Torquay
67 BI!I!R Beer, East Devon Beer Stone Co. Ltd., Middle Cretace- 117 White ; not durable in polluted JO 0'77
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Seaton, Devonshire Creta- ous atmospheres : fine grained and

ceous compact ; very easy working
57 BLADON Bladon, Benfield & Loxley Ltd .. 106 Middle Jurassic 153 Light brown with traces of blue ; 8 0'93
near Oxford Bullingdon Road, Oxford Oolites durable in non-poHuted atmo-
spheres; in thin beds only (7-in.
average)
53 CLIPSHAM BIG Clipsham, Rutland Chpsham Quarry Co., Clip- Lower 292 140 Pale cream ; durable in non-polluted 16 o·8o
PITS QUARRY sham, Oakham, Rutland Oolites atmospheres ; medium grained ;
free working
54 CLIPSHAM OLD 292 Buff, many shelly fragments ; dur-
QUARRY able, especially in non-polluted
atmospheres ; coarse grained ; free
working
59 CORNGRIT Corsham, The Bath and Portland 129 Light cream ; durable in non-polluted
Wiltshire Stone Firms Ltd., Abbey atmospheres ; little coarser grained
Yard, Bath than Corsham ; free workin11
CoRSHAM DowN . 128 129 Li11ht cream ; durable in non-polluted
atmospheres ; fine ~~Cained ; free
working
47 HOPTON-WOOD Wirksworth, The Hopton-Wood Stone Carbonif- Carbonif- ISO Seep. 96
Derbyshire Firms Ltd .. Wirkaworth, erous erous
Derbyshire Limestone
s6 HoRNToN Edge Hill, Hornton Quarries Ltd., Lower Jurassic 132 Brown, blue and mixture of both ; 21 o ·Ss
Warwickshire North Bar, Banbury, Oolites close grained ; tasily worked ;
Oxford takes a good polish
MoNK's PARK Corsham, The Bath and Portland 224 IJS L ight cream to white ; durable in
Wiltshire Stone Firms Ltd., Abbey non-polluted atmospheres ; fine
Yard, Bath and even grained ; free working
68 PORTLAND •. ls!e of Portland, Upper 138 Whitbed most suitable for general 18 o·67
Dorset Oolites building purposes ; light brown or (seep. too)
white ; durable ; medium grained ;
good working
6s RADFORD Oreston, F.]. Moore Ltd., Hamilton Middle Devonian 172 Grey to red ; durable ; fine grained ;
near Plymouth House, Tothill Road, Devonian free working
Plymouth
s8 ST. ALDHELM Box Box, Wiltshire The Bath and Portland Lower Jurassic 107 Cream to light brown ; most durable 26 o·6o
GROUND Stone Firms Ltd., Abbey Oolites Bath stone ; medium llfained ; free
Yard, Bath working
55 WELDON Weldon, F . St. B. Gre~orie, Weldon, 120 Pinkish-brown ; not durable in 29 0 ' 75
Northants. Kettering, Northants polluted atmospheres ; coarse
-------~----------------~--------------~------------------------~--------~------~--------·----~--------~--2g~ra=i~n~e=d~;~ea=s=i~ly~w~o~r=k=ed=---------~--------~-----------
MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES
41 I ANSTON I Anston,
W. R . Yorkshire
James Turner & Son Ltd.,
Kiveton Park, near Shef-
Middle Permian I 8Js 149 Rich deep cream ; durable in non- IS o·6o

so LINBY
I Linby, Notting- field
M . McCarthy & Sons Ltd.,
Permian polluted atmospheres; fine
grained ; free working
Brownish-yellow ; durable, especially
145 17 o ·so
hamshire Bulwell, Nottingham in non-polluted atmospheres ;
1
coarse grained ; free working
40 PARK NooK Park Nook, H. & R. F. Knowles, Skel- 345 135 Cream ; durable in non-polluted 23 o ·8o
I
Skelbro?k, brook, Doncaster, Yorks. atmospheres ; fine grained and
Near Doncaster compact ; easily worked ; suitable
for carved work

MAGNESIAN SANDSTONE
I MANSFIELD,
I WHITE. I Mansfield,
Nottinghamshire
I
I
The Gregory Quarries Ltd.,
Ancaster, Lincolnshire I Lower
Permian I Permian I 140
I Creamy-yellow ; not durable in
polluted atmospheres ; fine even
I
grained
1 The Am·aster Freestone ts also quarned by Thompsons Ancaster Quarnes Co. Ltd. (II Elmer Street, N., Grantham) at Haydon, Near Grantham.
'Portland stone is also quarried by The South-We•tern Stone Co. Ltd. (Thessaly Road, Battersea. London. S.W.8) in the Isle of Portland,
• Red Mansfield stone (warm red colour due to greater iron o:tdde content) is also quarried.
 C'J
11) OJ 5 P 0 S I T I 0 N 0 F 8 U I L 0 NG S T0 NES
C'J IN GREAT 6 R I T A I N t, I RELANO
51.

LIMESTONES
51. AIKASTER 8~N WEATHER &ED
52. ANCASTEII.. FREESTONE UNCOIJISHttiE
66. ASH&URTON OfVOII.SHI.-.E
61. &EER PEYOtUHIIU
!LAOON OXFOIU> HI
53. CLIPSHAM 81<i ~tTfQUARRY
.54. CLIPSHAM OLD QUARIW RIITlANl)
59. CORNGRIT WlmHIU
60. CORSHAM DOWN WILTSHIM

tJ 30.
31.
2~.
19.
10.
l8.

SANDSTONES
APPLETON
32. AIPUY IWOGE 8lUE
36. 6fAAISTALL CHISHIIU
13.

I'ONUHII.l
&OLTON WOODS YOMSHIIU
1.1\HCS.
8MCI<..ENHill YOI'.IC.SHIII.E
&~lEY FALL YOIIJISHIM
8UTLE!t.. DELPH LAHUISHIU
CORSEHILL, RED DUMFII.IESSHI
Cli..OSLAND HILL YOIWHIIl£
4l HOPTON-WOOD OEUYSHIIU 42. DUNGEONS DEMYSHIII.E
56. HORNTON Ol(FOII.OSHII\1 :.~ I'J. DUNN HOUSE OU'-HAt.\
61. MONI<!S PARK WILTSHIU ~ ~ 1· EAII..NCXI<. IJINMI'.SHIM
68. PORTLAND OOII.UTSHII\1, ~. 33. EIXiEFOLD I.AI-ICASHIU
AADFOit..D DEVOHSHIU -4-S. ENOCLIFFE Dffi.&YSHtii.E
!!J1'
65. '
58. ST. ALDHHM &OX G~ND 24· CiUISElEY YOIU<.SHIU
55. WELDON ~THMIPTONSHIU 13. HEWORTH BURN D~HAM
49. HOLLINGTON STAFFOJU)SHUif
MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES ~· 3'). KERRID<iE CHE.SHIIU
.41. ANSTON YOMSHIM .• 14. lAZONBY (:UM!iii.LAND
5a LIN&ll HOTTINGitAA\Sifiii.E 9. LOCHARSRI«iS DUIU'ItlfSSttiiU
-40. PAM NOOK YOAASI11M 18. LONCiRw.EroNCAIHIII.E
39. MrDDl.r oo 'JOIWHII!.E
MAGNESIAN SANOSTONf .li RUNCOR • R 0 CH&SHI.-.E
V)
4A MANSFIELD, WHITf NOTT.S. SCOUT STONE YOIWHif'.E
21.
w ll . SHAWl<. CUM&fw.HO
z G~ANIT~S
2. CORRENNIE A.lli iU>IfNI1111\E
12. SPRINCiWELr OUNiAM
15. ST. 8EES I'J: CUM&fii!ANI>
0 8. CREfTOWN I'J~8KJ<IHTIHII\E
64. Of LANIC. SILVER GRE:Y
.¢. STANCLIFF OERIYIHIIU
4!. STANTON PARK OEUY!Hif'.E
r 3. JC.IMNAY ~EII.O.IJIISHIM
COII.HWML
.u STANTON WOODHOUSE •
V) .4. LOWEit.. PERSU!Y A&EII.PI!tNSHtP.E THOJt.NTON BlUE 'IOIWHIIIE
~.
I. PETE~EAD. RED AIIIIU>ffNIHIIU WELLFIELO YOAASHIII.E
'29.
6. RU81SLAW ASEII.DfEH 2Q WEST END YOII.IC.SHIU
l? .s. SCLATTIE MiN:IIIHSHIU 38. WINDYWAY CHUHIM
z 16. SHAP WUTMOIUANO
62. TOR 8AAKE CD«11Wo1
1.3. TOft.. DOWN~
16. WOODIC.IRIC. BLUE YOIW.
21. WOOOKIRIC.. &P..OWN )10JW.
34. WOOLTON I.MCASHII!.f
a
_J
:::::>
co
u..
0
z
0
r ;
,,_.......
:.
V) 1
/
0 ~:-::
•55
a.. ')
V)
> •.50
a 5) "· eOMOIW
IRISH CiAANITES IR.JSH MARBLES
FROM: OOWN ~~: CAII..LOW
DUBLIN C~l<..
WEXFOJU> GALWAY
WICIC.LOW IC.Ili<.ENNY
I~SH SLATES
Ff!.OM: DONEGAL
KEI1.1\.Y
"--LKENNY
TIPI'ERAA.Y
NOTE: 1HIS DOeS NOT INCLUOE MANY QUARRIES Pl\ODUCINCi STONE USED FOR~ PAVING, CO'IRSE }NGfi..ECiATES,
(.TC. AND &UILDINCi STONE WHICH IS CHIEFLY US&D LO<:IwLLY.
xq
I
SCALf
tO I 1P Al 41 W> IDQ
MilE$ FIGURE 33
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 253
(a) Those of organic origin are formed of the fossil remains of mulluscs (minute
animal organisms, such as snails, furnished with shells which consist of calcium
carbonate), corals, etc., that have been deposited in lakes or in sea basins, and
the accumulations subsequently hardened into rocks by pressure and cementing
material. These are known as shelly limestones, well-known examples being
Ancaster, Clipsham and Weldon (see Table VI and D, Fig. 34).
(b) Limestones of the chemically formed group consist of grains, each having
a central core or nucleus (probably a sand grain or a fragment of a shell) round
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
MASONRY
is usually so slight (sheltered surfaces being possibly an exception, see p. 98) and
uniform as not to be detrimental. Another reason for its popularity is the
attractive appearance of light and shade produced on the weathered surfaces of
this stone. As mentioned on pp. 33 and 34, Vol. I, there are three 1 beds in a
Portland stone quarry which yield stone used for constructional work, e.g.,
the roach bed, whitbed and basebed, the whitbed being most suitable for general
purposes. The structure of whitbed stone is illustrated at B, Fig. 34·
Many limestones are fine grained and easily worked. Those from Bath and

which concentric layers of calcium carbonate have been deposited from water.
These grains, having the appearance of eggs or roe of a fish, are called oolites,
and the stone is sometimes referred to as " egg stone " 1 or " roe stone " (see
B and c, Fig. 34). The grains vary in size, stones having large grains being
called pistolite. Fragments of shells may he present. Portland stone and those
quarried in the vicinity of Bath (e.g., Corsham Down, Monk's Park and St.
Aldhelm Box Ground) are well-known examples of oolitic limestones (see Table
VI and B and c, Fig. 34 2 ).
The grains are cemented together by a matrix consisting of carbonate of
lime, called calcite, or a mixture of carbonate of lime, silica, alumina and magnesia.
In some cases the grains are only cemented together at their points of contact
(see B, Fig. 34), in other types (see c and D, Fig. 34) the cementing material
completely occupies the spaces between the grains.
Carbonate of magnesia is present in most limestones (see Table VIII).
Stones containing a relatively high proportion of this carbonate are called
magnesian limestones. If the magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate are
present in approximately equal proportions, the rocks are called dolomites or
dolomitic limestones; Anston and Park Nook are examples of dolomites (see
Tables VI and VIII). A magnesian stone containing a large proportion of
silica is classed as a calcareous or dolomitic or magnesian sandstone ; White Mans-
field stone is of this type (seep. 88 and Tables VI and VII).
Limestones are used extensively for building purposes. Their weathering
properties are referred to on p. 97. Many are excellent for internal work on
account of Jheir agreeable colour and free working qualities, and for external
walling in districts free from atmospheric pollution. Whilst certain limestones
are well established as suitable building stones and have been widely used for
this purpose, others are quite unsuited for external walls of buildings in districts
where acid gases are produced by the burning of coal (seep. 97).
A limestone generally considered to be well suited for external ashlar work
subjected to acid attack is Portland stone. It has been employed during the
past three hundred years for many important buildings in London and the
provinces, and whilst the external faces are liable to become affected, the erosion
1 Oolite is derived from oon = egg and lithos = stone.
:lIt wilt be observed that, in order to provide a useful comparison, A, B, c and D, Fig.
34, have been sketched to the same scale, a portion of each prepared slide being magnified
and projected to permit of this,
Beer especially are so soft immediately after being quarried that they can be
readily sawn and chiselled, and their fine grain and even texture render them
particularly suited for delicate carving. It is because of these characteristics,
together with their agreeable appearance, that they are selected for internal
ecclesiastical work such as pulpits and alter screens. Kentish Rag, a hard
siliceous limestone (seep. 43, Vol. I) is not easy to work.
The distribution of certain important limestone quarries and mines is shown
in Fig. 33· These limestones are listed in Table VI. The chemical composition
of some of .them is given in Table VIII . Some idea of the structure of lime-
stones may be obtained by reference to the enlarged sketches at B, c and o,
Fig. 34·
'The Pre-Cambrian, Cambrian and Ordovician systems do not contribute any
building limestones of importance. The Silurian system yields building limestones
in Shropshire where it is used locally. Good limestone is obtained from the Middle
Devonian series and is quarried in Devon, Ashburton (see p. 96) and Radford being
examples ; some are finely veined and are of a rich colour ; the former is used for
its decorative qualities and the Radford stone has been extensively employed locally,
including important buildings in Plymouth, Torquay, Ilfracombe, etc. The Carbo-
niferous Limestone series furnishes highly decorative limestone in Derbyshire (e.g.,
Hopton-Wood); this takes a high polish and is classed commercially as a marble
(see p. 96) ; stone from this series is used locally in Somerset and South Wales ;
local use is also made in the West Riding of Yorkshire of limestone obtained from the
Yoredale (or Wensleydale) Beds. Magnesian limestone occurs in the Permian system
in Nottingham and Yorkshire. The Triassic system does not yield any building lime-
stones.
The Jurassic system, especially the Oolites series, furnishes many important
building limestones. A few are from the Lias series, including those quarried and
employed locally in Oxfordshire, Worcestershire, Warwickshire and Glamorganshire.
Ancaster, Clipsham and the Bath stones are from the Lower Oolites, and Portland
stone is from the Upper Oolites series.
Kentish Rag, used for rubble masonry in the South of England, is from the Lower
Cretaceous series and the white Beer stone is from the Middle Cremceous series.
As mentioned on p. 89, none of the rocks in the Cainozoic group is sufficiently
hard for building purposes.
3· METAMORPHIC RocKs.-These are either igneous or sedimentary rock:;
which have been altered or metamorphosed by heat (from the earth's interior)
or pressure (caused by the weight of superimposed layers of material or to the
1 At two of the quarries worked by the South-Western Stone Co. Ltd., a bed of stone
below the whitbed has been discovered which yields a highly decorative hard and compact
limestone, known as " Perrycot." This is sawn into f-in , thick slabs and is used for
decorative wall linings, etc.,
 -.::1" D I AG P..AMS SHOWING TYPICAL
l1':l
C\J STft..UCTU~ES OF BUILDING STONES

WOOLTON STONE FEAAUGINOUS

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V)
w MATEII.IAl
z
r~U<t.ITI>Jr.
.liONS)

0
I-
V)

u..
0
V)
w
ES
a:::
:::>
1-
u
:::>
a:::.
......
V)

CONTINUOUS
IN<i MATE~Al ~CITE)
MONK' S PARK STONE OOUTIC LIMESTONE

C L I P S HAM ST0 N E SHELLY LIMESTONE

~----------------------~~ ----------------------~

NOTE: THESE DIAGAAMS~ f?AAWN TO THE SAME SCAlE, Mi CONSIDEIVII'>lY MAGNIFIED. SANDSTONE 'N SHOWS OUAII.TZ
<IMINS WHICH Arv; ltNGUlAR b WELL INTEII.LOCilED. UMESTOHf '8' SHOWS SMALL OOLITES, FII.EQUENTLY
G~I'ED b CEMENTED TOGETHE~ I;T THEI~ I'OINTS OF CONTACT. LIMESTONE "C' SHOWS MUCH I.MGfll.
OOLITES WHICH ME ISOLATED t, Af1..E Sll<iHTLY PO~; THE CEMEHTIN<i W.Tf'-IAL IS CONTINUOUS. THE
LIMESTONE AT 'I>" SHOWS II.ELATIVELY FEW OOLITfS. t. A LA~GE PWI'Oft.TIOH OF SHELLS t. I'E&&LES; THf
CALCITE IS CONTINUOUS aliT PON:S AU PRESENT AT THE EDGES OF OOLITES, Pf&aLES, fTC.
FIGURE 34
 255 MASONRY
TABLE VII movement of the earth's crust) or a combination of both. As a result of this
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SANDSTONES metamorphism, the original structure of the rocks has been destroyed, the
,; .; arrangement of the particles (or stratification) being changed. The chief
o....:. .....0 "CI metamorphic rocks used for building purposes are (a) marbles, (b) slates and
:--. ~ ....
~

.," " .,1:~" o'e<..s::·i

<i
.....0 QJ.~
... ·- u ;1 ..:I
(c) quartzite .
(/)

";;1..<:
Yet ] '§
1:
:l c " "'0

... Naml" of Stone. :;. ]-!i

..
.8 ..
" (a) Marbles.- True marbles are metamorphosed limestones consisting of
~

:;;: ~~ ... ....:~ :O::E ;.l ~ "CI ..."'

t
I
u._ '2 0 aggregates of granular crystals of calcium carbonate (calcite). The composition
·~ 0 sc.. ~ "
';;
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

~~ (.) 0
varies, but some marbles comprise approximately 98 per cent. of calcium
E= ....
:;..
--- ---·--- carbonate with traces of magnesium carbonate, silica and oxide of iron. Many
30 Appleton 92'22 2·16 2'96 0"30 0'71 ... ... 1·6s
32 Appley Brid~e Blue 78·83 9'30 3'36 0'99 1·o8 hard, compact limestones, capable of taking a good polish, are referred to in the
2'03 2'42 1"99
36 Berristall 87 '00 s·:zo 3'·10 o·68 1'00 ... I ·So 1'22 trade as marbles, although the metamorphosis has been only partial ; examples
25 Bramley Fall 96·58 1"10 0"34 0'49 ... ... 1'49 of these so-called marbles are obtained from Derbyshire and Devonshire (see
10 Corsehill, Red 95'33 0'59 1'28 1'49 1'31 ... ... ...
z8 Crosland Hill 8T8s 4·6s z·j6 0'09 0'29 0"42 2·86 1'48 below). Marbles are obtained in a great variety of colours, some of them being
42 Dungeons 96'40 1'30 0'36 ... ... ... 1'94 richly marked or veined (due to the presence of iron oxides) and others are richly
17
13
49
Dunn House
Heworth Bum
Hollington
97'30 o·8s 0"30 o·zs
86·so 5'93 2·49 1'22 0'91
86·64 8·78 1'02 0"72 0'44
I ...
...
...
...
I '95

I o::.o
1'30
1·oo
2"00
fossilized ; many are finely grained and can be elaborately carved. Because of
their delicacy of colouring and capacity of taking a high polish {p. I04), marbles
9 Locharbriggs 97·88 0"38 o·8o 0'25 0'10 ... 0"59 are chiefly used for decorative purposes ; they are thus employed as wall linings
48 Mansfield, White 51 ·62 x·ss 26·58 18·x6 ... ... z·o6
12 Springwell 86·04 8·8o o·67 0 '19 ... 2"30 2·oo (the slabs being usually !-in. thick), pavement or floor coverings (of ! to I-in .
IS St. Bees Red 85·2o 2'00 I 7"00 0'10 0"30 ... 3'30 2'10 thick slabs), staircase treads, risers and balustrades, internal columns, shop
46 Stancliffe 96'40 1'30 0'36 ... ... .. . 1"94 fronts, fireplaces, etc. ; they are also in demand for ecclesiastical work, such as
29 Wellfield 8s·78 6·98 1'73 0'73 ... ... 1'57
26 Woodkirk Blue 82'72 6·88 3·86 1'00 0"30 0'70 0"19 13'21
4'35 altars, screens, fonts and statues .
27 Woodkirk Brown 83·00 8·o2 3'43 0'12 0'07
I 0'55 o·6s 4'16
I The best known so-called marbles quarried in this country (and known as
" English marbles") are Ancaster Brown Weather Bed (Lincolnshire}, Hopton-
TABLE VIII Wood (Derbyshire) and Ashburton (Devonshire), although none of these are
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LIMESTONES true marbles.
Ancaster Brown Weather Bed is of the Lower Oolites series (Jurassic system).
I
I .... -
0 .
z~ .,s::" e"
u.5.'!
~ ~
.,c: ...
-c:~c

.,._
0
.,
"CI
c .
It is brown with grey and buff mottling. It is coarse grained, free working and
takes a high polish.
"C::·~
"'oi Name of Stone. o ·~
.8~
1: 1:
.s 0 ~
<i
... l!l"' Remarks . Hopton-Wood Marble.-This Derbyshire marble is marketed under five
!::'"- ...
., .....
.0....:1
e "' ~..:I
·~ t :O::E
(.)._ :.l::i! i 00 classifications, i.e., {I) Light Hopton-Wood (cream-coloured ground spotted
:;:0 ~
:...>0 I
"'"'
!%:~ 0
with small light brown crystals ; suitable for both internal and external-if in
------- -
52 Ancaster Freestone 93 '59 2'90 o·So ... 2'71 clean atmosphere-purposes); (2) Dark Hopton-Wood 1 (similar to {I} but
41 Anston 54·88 43'08 0'73 o·s6 0"75 A magnesian lime- more densely marked with slightly darker patches); (3) Black Bird's-eye (black
stone.
I with slight brown cast having light coloured fossil spot markings, hence the
I
67 Beer . . . 96·6o o·so 0"45 2'25 o·zo
54 Clipsham Old Quarry 97'56 0"54 o·83 o·84 0'23 name ; only suitable for internal work) ; (4) Grey Bird's-eye (similar to (3) but
6o Corsham Down 94'95 2'26 0'98 ... 1'81 I of grey-brown colour); and (5) Derbyshire Fossil (deep grey colour, richly
47 Hopton-Wood . 98 ·40 I 0'32 0'31 0'77 o·:zo Referred to as a
marble fossilized, some of the fossils being 2-in. long ; only suitable for internal work).
I
61 Monk's Park 95'56 0'40 I '52 I ·2o I '32 Ashburton .Marble-This Devonshire marble has a most attractive appearance,
40 Park Nook 56·xo 42 '20 o·5o .. . I ·2o A magnesian lime- it being dark grey in colour, verging on black, with bright red and white crystal-
stone.
68 Portland . 95'16 1'20 o·so 1·2o 1"94 line veins, together with fossils.
65 Radford 98·so 0'37 o·2o 0"90 0"03 Irish Marbles in demand in this country include: Black (quarried in Kil-
s8 St. Aldhelm Box 94 '52 2'50 I ·2o ... I ·78 kenny and Carlow); Connemara Irish Green (quarried in Galway, green ground
Ground
55 Weldon 93 '43 3'55 I'09 o·So I ·13 1 Both Li~ht and Dark Hopton-Wood stone were used after the Great War by the
Imperial War Graves Commission for I20,ooo headstones.
 DEFECTS
with grey and black patches and veins); Victoria Red (from Cork, mottled light
red with thin dark veins).
Many foreign marbles are imported and used for decorative purposes in this
country, and the following are some of these :-
BsLGIAN : Belgian Black (deep black) ; Belgian Fossil or Petit Granite (very dark
grey with lighter grey spots-fossils-and veins); Blue Beige (black or deep blue-black
ground with white, light grey or bluish-grey streaks) ; Rouge (various, light reddish-
brown ground with white, grey or dark brown irregular veins) ; St Anne (dark grey
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
with white cloudy patches and irregular veins).
FRENCH : Brocatelle Jaune (yellow with brown and white veins); Brocatelle
Violette (purplish-grey with brown and yellow patches) ; Comblanchien (light brown
with fossils); Jaune Lamartine (rich yellow with fine brown, grey and red veins) ;
Lunel (light fawn with few markings) ; Napoleon (light fawn with brown and red
ve ins) ; Rose (red with black veins).
GRECIAN : Cippolino (pinkish-white with dark green wavy hands); Skyros (creamy-
white or delicate yellow ground with gold and purple veins) ; Tinos (dark green ground
with lighter green streaks and narrow irregular black and white veins); Verde Antico
(light and dark green mixture with occasional whitish patches).
ITALIAN : Breccia (grey, purple and yellow mixture with white veins) ; Do·pe
(lavender or dark grey, slightly veined) ; Fleur de Peche (rich purple with white
mottling) ; Lroanto Rosso (dark red, purple and green m ixture); Pm·onazzetto (ivory
ground with irregular orange and rusty veins) ; Pat.'o nazzo (similar to Pavonazzetto
with purple veins; scarce); San Stefano (dark buff with stippled darker flecks) ;
Second Statuary (white with grey or greyish-green veinings) ; Statuary (pure white
and expensive; so called as it is principally used for statues) ; Sicilian (white with
bluish cast); Sienna (all shades of yellow with purple and black veins) ; Travntine 1
(straw, amber and golden ground with irn:gular darker graining; bands of small
pores characteristic).
NoRWEGIAN : Brfche Rose (pale rose-pink ground with white mottling) ; Norge
Clair (white).
Swl!t>ISH : Swedish Green (pale green ground with darker green ribboning and
white mottling).
Alabaster, -used for ornaments, electric li~~:ht bowls, etc. , is sulphate of lime . It is
white when in its pure form . The true alabaster comes from Algeria and has been
deposited as stalactites and stalagmites." So-called alabaster is found in Derbyshire,
Somerset and other parts of this country.
Onyx Marbles from Al~~:eria, Brazil and Mexico are of calcium carbonate produced
as stalactites and stalagmites. They are richly figured and are of many colours,
varying from white to yellow, the characteristic veining being due to the presence
of metallic oxides.
Marbles are obtained from the Devonian and Carboniferous systems.
(b) Slates.-A true slate is a metamorphic sedimentary clay rock. Originally
the clay was deposited as a fine silt; this was compressed by vertical pressure
into shale, which, when subsequently subjected to eno11UOUS lateral pressure
accompanied by intense heat, was converted into slate. The forces producing
this side pressure contorted the original horizontal bedding planes, and, in
addition, rearranged the particles into inclined cleavage planes. An example
1 Traoertine or Cal~areous Tufa consists of hardened masses of carbonate of lime
deposited by springs ; the compact variety is known as " travertine " and the. light and
spongy type is called " tufa ." · responsible for decay of stone are acid gases, such as sulphur dioxide and trioxide,
2 These are produced by the dropping of water containing carbonate of lime through
fissures in the roofs of caves. Icicle-like stalactites (masses hanging from the roof) and
~talagmites (deposits gradually built up on the floor) of calcium sulphate (or calcium
carbonate) are thus formt'd,
IN STONE
of this formation is shown in Fig. 68 on p. 133, Vol. I, and, as there described .
a block of slate is readily converted into relatively thin roofing slates by
splitting it along the parallel planes of cleavage. The preparation, character-
istics, etc., of slates are described in Chapter Five, Vol. I.
Welsh slates are ohtained from the Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian systems.
The Bangor, Dinorwic (or Velinheli) and Penrhyn slates are worked from the Cambrian
(Oienellus Beds) rocks ; the Festiniog (or Portmadoc) and Precelly slates are mined
or quarried from the Ordovician (Liandeilo Beds) rocks; slates from Corwen and
Llangollen are obtained from the Wenlock Beds (Silurian system) and are softer
than most of those mentioned above (see Table IV).
Lake District green slates (Buttermere, Honister, Elterwater, Kentmere and
Tilberthwaite) and those from the Burlington quarries arc of the Ordovician age
(Llandeilo Beds).
Cornish (Delabole) slates are obtained from the Upper Devonian series.
Scottish slates from Argyll (Ballachulish and Easdale \, Dumbarton and Perth
are from the Pre-Cambrian system.
Irish slates from Tipperary, Donegal, Kerry and Kilkenny are of the Ordovician
age.
(c) Quartzite is a very compact, hard and durable metamorphic rock. Like slates,
it is readily split into thin slabs, but it is very difficult to saw to panel sizes. When
converted, the slabs have a very pleasing textured surface and attractive colour,
ranging from grey , olive to golden . Whilst for centuries this has been used as a
building material in Italy, where it is quarried, it has only recently been employed
in this country on buildings as a floor and external and internal wall co\·ering, th.-
~ to l-in. thick slabs bt"ing bedded in mortar.
DEFECTS IN STONE
Certain defects in stone are mentioned on p. 39, Vol. 1, and include clay-
holes, mottle, sand-holes and vents.
DECAY of stone may be due to (1) incorrect bedding, (2) atmospheric im-
purities, (3) careless selection, (4) association of dissimilar stones, (5) efflorescence,
(6) frost action and (7) corrodible metal fastenings. Regarding decay caused by:
1. Incorrect Bedding.-Serious weathering defects occur if stone is incorrectly
bedded (see pp. 38 and 39, Vol. 1), and especially if face-bedding (e.g. , with the
natural bed vertical and parallel to the face of the wall) is resorted to. Blocks
of stone must be built with the natur;d lwd pcrpendic11!ar to the pressure (set'
also 6 on p. 98).
2. Atmospheric Impurities.-'--A polluted atmosphere is the principal cause
of decay of certain stones. Those containing calcium carbonate, such as lime-
stones (ordinary and magnesian) and calcareous sandstones, are especially liable
to attack.
The chief sources of atmospheric pollution are domestic coal fires and
industrial furnaces. Such pollution occurs principally in the vicinity of large
towns and manufacturing centres. The products of combustion of coal mainly
and soot ; sulphurous acid and sulphuric acid are formed when the dioxide
and trioxide respectively come into contact with water, such as rain. Although
the acid gases are most concentrated in cities and industrial areas, they are
 257
readily carried by air currents and do damage for a considerable distance from
the source of pollution.
When these sulphur acids descend with the rain, snow or fog upon the calcium
carbonate of ordinary limestones, calcium sulphate is formed and carbon dioxide
is liberated. The rain washes away the sulphate, causing erosion (wearing away)
of the surface of the stone. The action of these acids on magnesian limestones
has a similar weathering effect, the small quantities of magnesium sulphate and
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calcium sulphate produced are dissolved by the water present and tend to form
a surface skin when the water dries out. Such erosion occurs chiefly on those
external walls of buildings which are exposed to the prevailing wind (which
in this country is from the south-west) and the washing action of the rain. The
defect is not serious when the erosion is very gradual and uniform, and is con-
sidered by some to be an advantage on account of the different texture of wall
surfaces which results. This natural washing by rain is responsible for the attrac-
tive dark and light appearance of Portland stone and similar limestone buildings.
Serious decay occurs when the sulphur acids cause the formation of a hard
layer or skin on the outer surface of limestone, which subsequently blisters and
flakes off, the latter condition being known as exfoliation. Such layers consist
chiefly of salts (calcium sulphite and calcium sulphate). When the skin scales
off, a fresh surface is exposed and a new hard layer is formed. Constant repetition
of this process results in a weakening of the wall, and the appearance is, of course,
very ugly. The decay only occurs on the surfaces of external walls which are
shtltered from the washing action of rain ; exposed surfaces are not affected,
as the rain removes the salts and thus prevents the formation of the surface
skin. Some limestones are less liable to this form of decay than others.
Soot is a product of combustion of coal and is largely responsible for the
discoloration of stone. It may also cause decay. That from domestic fires
especially consists of a large proportion of tarry matter and this causes the soot
to adhere to stone surfaces. Sandstones are very liable to become discoloured,
and in course of time most sandstone buildings in industrial towns become black
and assume a drab appearance as the pores of the surface of the stone become
filled with soot deposit. Limestone buildings are not so disfigured, except
those sheltered walls which are not rain-washed and on which the soot is allowed
to accumulate.
Decay of stonework can be retarded very effectively if soot and dirt are~emoved at'
sufficiently frequent intervals by either washing it or cleaning it by means of jets of steam.
Stonework is washed with water from a hose pipe (such as a fire hose) connected
to the water main ; a pumping machine is used if the pressure of the water is in-
adequate. Ladders, scaffolding or suspended cradles are required, as the stone must
be scrubbed bv hand with bristle brushes. An effective method for limestone build-
ings is to appiy water in the form of a fine spray through nozzles to the stonework
for one or two hours, and after a short interval the surface is lightly brushed with
comparatively soft scrubbing brushes.
Steam cleaning is very effective when applied to walls which are much discoloured.
The steam, generated by a boiler, is passed up a flexible tube from which it emerges
on to the stone. A wire brush fitted on the nozzle of• the tube is used to scrub the
black surfaces, · ·
MASONRY
The value of these processes in maintaining a clean appt:arancc of buildings and
arresting decay is being appreciated by an increasing number of property owners,
and some buildings in towns where the atmosphere is highly polluted are washed
yearly ; other buildings only require such treatment every five or six years.
The practice which is sometimes adopted of using special cleaning preparations,
such as caustic soda and other alkalis, is condemned, as such chemicals damage the
stonework.
3· Careless Selection.-Stone obtained from soft beds in a quarry or mine
~ill weather more quickly than that from the harder beds. A wall becomes
unsightly if it consists of stones which do not weather uniformly. Careful
selection should ensure that only the hardest and most durable stone is used.
4· Association of Dissimilar Stones.-Decay of sandstones may result if both
limestones and sandstones are used together in a wall. Thus, for example, a
limestone string course or limestone dressings to door and window openings
in a wall mainly constructed of sandstone may be the cause of decay of the
adjacent sandstone ; plinths of sandstone have been known to decay because
of the limestone above them.
The following is the reason for the decay : When salts, such as calcium
sulphate, are formed (see preceding column), they may be washed from the
limestone on to the surface of the sandstone. These salt& may be absorbed and
crystallize; as an increase in volume occurs when these crystals are formed,
the resulting pressure just behind the surface disintegrates the stone ; such decay
may become extensive.
Similarly, when ordinary. limestone is associated with magnesian limestone,
decay of the former may occur due to the absorption of magnesium sulphate
(see preceding column) from the magnesian limestone.
5· Efflorescence (see p. 13).-Decay may arise from unsuitable jointing
material. The salts in cement and lime mortars may be absorbed by the stone ;
crystallization of the salts may occur and either set up decay of the stone (due to
the resulting pressure) or cause efflorescence on the surface. Such defects are
especially likely to occur if the jointing material is a rich impermeable cement
mortar, for, in wet weather, water will be absorbed by the stone and not the
mortar ; as this water dries out from the stone surface only (and not from the
joints), the salts are either brought to the outer face of the stone to cause efflor-
escence or they crystallize in the pores immediately behind it.
Brown or yellow staining of limestone walling may result from alkalis in
the mortar. Discoloration of the limestone facing of compound walls may be
caused from brickwork backing which is bedded and jointed with black mortar.
It is desirable, therefore, that either suitable lime mortar (see p. 47, Vol. !) or
asphalt be used to back the ashlar blocks, the latter being preferred, as the water-
proof material effectively prevents the salts from the backing mortar penetrating
the stone.
6. Frost Action.-This is described on p. 15 and is also referred to on p.
roo. Porous and laminated stone is especially liable to decay caused during
the winter by the absorption of water, which expands in the pore spaces and
 TESTS APPLIED TO STONES
bedding planes when it becomes frozen, and thus disintegration of the stone not likely to be exceeded, even in the most exposed positions, by those met with in
occurs. Copings, unprotected cornices and string courses, walls of unsuitable practice.
2. Percentage Porosit;· Test .-In order to understand the significance of the expres-
materials and inferior workmanship below the ground level, and retaining walls sion "percentage porosity, " the student should revise the definitions of bulk density
are most vulnerable to damage by frost action. Blocks of face-bedded stone are and solid densit:>' which he would have considered in his study of Building ·Science
and which for convenience are repeated here.
particularly liable, as any water penetrating the stone and becoming frozen will
Density (in lb. per cubic foot) = 1 weig~t (in b~b·i ) ; therefore the bulk or
cause patches of the skin to spall off. vo ume m cu tc eet
7· Corrodible Metal Fastenings.-Reference is made on p. 52, Vol. I, to the total density (in lb. per cubic foot) weight (in lb.) If the specimen
damage caused to stonework which is secured with corrodible metal, such as bulk volume (in cubic feet)
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to be examined is of irregular shape, the bulk volume is obtained by using an apparatus

wrought iron. The expansion which occurs when embedded wrought iron such as the overflow tank shown at A, Fig. 35· The specimen is carefully lowered into
corrodes is sufficient to split huge blocks of the stone, such as cornices, copings the tank which has been previously filled with water to the " weir " level indicated ;
and upper spire stones.1 Metal which does not rust, such as bronze, gun-metal the water displaced passes from the outlet into a vessel of convenient size and trans-
ferred to a glass measuring cylinder ; this gives the volume of the water, which is
and copper, should be used for these fastenings. equal to that of the specimen.
PRESERVATION.-The best method of preserving stone is by washing or The solid or powdered density (in lb. per cubic foot) weight (in lb.)
steam cleaning (see p. 98). Most so-called " preservatives " have proved to be solid volume (in cubic feet)
Actually, the solid density of most stones, in addition to bricks and concretes, is
unsatisfactory. approximately the same, namely, 166-lb. per cub. ft. The adoption of this figure
therefore simplifies the routine, as it obviates the necessity of powdering the specimen
TESTS APPLIED TO STONES and obtaining its volume.
The percentage porosity is found after the bulk and solid densities have been
It is recognized that the most reliable indication of the durability of a stone determined, thus :
required to withstand certain atmospheric conditions is obtained by a careful . volume of voids
Percentage porostty = bulk volume x IOO
inspection of that used in the construction of buildings which have been subjected
to similar exposure for a lengthy period. Such is not, however, a conclusive =bulk volume -solid volume x 100
guide, as the quality of stone obtained from different parts of a quarry may bulk volume
vary considerably, and it does not therefore follow that the characteristics of = ( 1 _solid volume x we~ght) 100
recently won stone are similar to that obtained from older workings in the same bulk volume x wetght
quarry and which was used for the inspected buildings. Further, the quality =(I -
solid volume X weight ) IOO
of stone from a new quarry cannot be judged in this manner. Laboratory tests weight bulk volume
are therefore valuable for supplying information which could only be otherwise , ( 1 _bulk density) Ioo
obtained by trial and error methods. , solid density
The following are tests which may be carried out for estimating the durability =(I_ bulk density) Ioo.
of stone : ( 1) Rate of water absorption or permeability, (2) percentage porosity, ' !66
(3) saturation coefficient, and (4) resistance to frost. They provide information The percentage porosities of the stone specimens (approximate size, s-in. by 3-in. by
2-in.), given in Tables V and VI can be determined by using this formula. Thus,
which can be compared with stones whose durable qualities and other properties taking the Appleton stone which heads the list in Table V, the bulk density being
are known, and whilst such comparative tests are not decisive, they do give data 148-lb. per cub. ft. the percentage porosity = ( I - ~t~)Ioo = I I approx., the figur~
which may be of value when selecting a stone for a specific purpose. Students
should refer to the footnote on p. 14 for brief definitions of absorption, given in the table.
3· Saturation Coefficient Test.-Damage caused by frost is referred to on p . 98
permeability and porosity. Very porous stones will absorb more water than others less porous and are there-
fore more vulnerable to damage due to frost action. If the voids are completely
1. Rate of Water Absorption or Permeability Test.- This is described on p. 14, filled with water and this water freezes, the resulting pressure will tend to disrupt
the brass cover being fitted to the stone specimen whose four vertical faces are rendered the cell walls by internal pressure. If, however, the interconnected pores (see p. 14)
impermeable by the application of wax. As already explained, the test conditions are are only partly filled with water, there may be sufficient space within them to allow
for this expansion, and damage to the stone structure will not occur. Hence the
1 The apex of a stone spire consists of blocks of stone which are usually connected ratio of water absorbed to the volume of void space may be taken as a measure of the
together by a central vertical metal rod. It is a fairly common experience to find that capacity of the stone to resist frost action ; this ratio is known as the saturation
these blocks have developed cracks, and investigations have shown that the defects were coefficient. It is usually expressed as follows :-
caused by the corrosion of the rods. The work of restoration is costly, as scaffolding
has to be erected, and the whole of the defective stonework must be removed and replaced S . ffi . t water absorbed after twenty-four hours ' soaking
with new blocks which are " threaded " over a non-corrodible vertical rod, • aturatJon coe qen = tot11l water absorption after five hours ' boiling ·
 259 MASONRY

A p p ~AT U s F 0 ~
F f\0 s T A C T I 0 N T E sT
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WATE~
LEVEL

A
;.:

SECTION

s E C T 0 N
0 v E F L 0
~ w WOOD B 0 X, I c E CONTAIN E 1\.
T A N K 6 s p EC M E N CONTAI NE ~
I I I I
1 FIGURE 35
I :CX~-

SCALf FEET

-This test is carried nut ~s follows : The stone specimen is dried in an oven,
allowed to cool, weighed, soaked in cold water for tw~nty-four hours, removed and
wiped with a cloth, and re-weighed: The difference between these two weights
is that which is placed in the numerator (p . 99). The sp~cimen is then returned to the
water and boiled for five hours ; it is then allowed to cool under water, removed,
wiped and weighed ; the difference between this latter weight and the dry weight
is the figure which appears in the denominator.
The saturation coefficients supplied in Tables V and VI were obtained in this
manner. Thus, taking the Portland stone listed in Table VI, the dry, soaking and
boiling weights were I ,o28, I ,084 and 1, 111-gm. respectively, giving a saturation
coefficient
__ (water absorbed after twenty-four hours' soakmg)
- (total water absorption after five hours' boiling)
___ weight after soaking (r,o84-gm.) - dry weight (1,o28-gm.)
weight after boiling (I,III-gm.) -dry weight (1,028-gm.)
= t=o·67 (see Table VI).
This coefficient has a practical value as it is considered to be a helpful guide to
the capacity of the stone to withstand frost action . As a general rule, it is regarded
that a stone having a saturation coefficient of o·So and under should not be liable to
 MINING AND DRESSING
damage from frost action. As, however, there are exceptions to this, it is desirable
to submit a stone of unknown frost resistance to a freezing test (see below).
4· Frost Resistance Test.- The apparatus 1 used for this purpose is illustrated at. B,
Fig. 35· It consists of a wood box (22-in by 22-in. by 21-in. deep of r-in. thrck
timber), a zinc ict container (14-in. by 14-in. by 13-in. deep of 20 Z .G.) with lid.' a
wrought iron specimen container (Iol-in. by Io-in. by 9-in. deep of 14 S.W.G.) w1th
cover, and a bag filled with sawdust (or similar insulating- material) as a cover to the
wood box.
The test is performed in the following manner : Sawdust (or granulated cork)
to a depth of about 4-in. is placed at the bottom of the wood box; the ice container
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is placed on top of this sawdust and this or similar insulating material is packed at
the sides as shown in the section ; the stone specimens are placed in the specimen
container, the metal cover is tightly screwed down to ensure that the rubber pac~ed
joint is watertight, and this container is placed within the ice container. The freezmg
mixture is then packed in the ice container, the lid is fitted on it and, finally, the
sawdust bag is placed over the outer box (see section). The freezing mixture consists
of 2 parts (by weight) of ice to I part (by weight) of common salt. This produces a
temperature in the specimen container varying from I 5° to 20° F. (- 9° to -7° C.
approx.). The specimens are subjected to this temperature for eighteen hours, after
which they are removed and gradually thawed in :water for six hours ; after examina-
tion, they are replaced, again frozen for eighteen hours, removed, thawed for six
hours and examined. This cycle is repeated until the samples have undergone ten
freezings.
The specimens listed in Table V were tested in this manner. It will be seen
that some were unaffected and others showed damage at the arrises. Stone of poor
quality is seriously damaged when subjected to this test, some splitting and showing
similar signs of disruption after only the first or .second freezing:,
The weather conditions experienced in this country are not sufficiently severe to
cause frOst damage to stonework in general walling, unless the stones are face-bedded
and the stone is of inferior quality, but coping, etc., stones are liable to disintegration
if subjected to prolonged periods of rain followed by frost (see p. 99).
Other tests include a chemical test (such as subjecting the specimens in a closed
tank to hydrochloric acid fumes) and that for determining the compressive strength;
a machine used for the latter is shown at E, Fig. 9, and described on p. 32.
QUARRYING AND MINING
A description of quarrying appears on pp. 33 and 34, Vol. I. Open quarrying
is not resorted to when building stone is at a considerable depth below the
surface, as the removal of the overburden would be too costly. Beer stone and
most of the limestones (including Congrit, Corsham Down, Monk's Park and St.
Aldhelm Box Ground, see Table VI) obtained in the Bath district are mined. A
typical stone mine consists of an adit or tunnelled opening made in the side of
a hill at the level of the best stone. The adit is continued as the stone is removed
3nd follows the bed. Branch tunnels are formed from this main gallery. In
the Box Ground mine the underground workings pass from one side of the hill
to the other, a distance of three miles, and the galleries in some places are nearly
roo ft. below the surface. The height of the tunnels is at least equal to the
thickness of the good stone beds, which may be up to ro-ft., and the width may
exceed this.
The roof and floor of a tunnel consist of hard coarse stone. The first opera-
tion in winning the limestone is to pick out the top 9-in. of the stone just below
1 As used in the Department of Building, Manchester College of Technology.
260
the roof ; this is called the picking bed, and the tool used is a long-handled pick.
When the picking has proceeded some 5 or 6-ft., a long hand saw is employed
(which is operated at the handle by both hands) to divide the rock by vertical
cuts extending from the top to the next bed and at about s-ft. horizontal intervals ;
this operation is comparatively easy as the stone is very soft. A block, having
three free sides, is removed either with large crow bars or by a crane, the rope
from the latter being attached to a lewis bolt inserted in the face of the block.
The blocks, which may weigh from 6 to 8-tons, are squared up with saws, and
then lifted by the crane on to bogies which run on lines and are horse-drawn
along the tunnel to the surface depot. The roof is supported at intervals by
strong cross-beams supported by props at the sides ; falls of the roof are also
averted by the insertion of oak wedges in any vertical cracks or vents.
When Bath stone has just been removed it contains much quarry sap ; it is
soft, and if used immediately it would weather badly. It is therefore allowed
to season for a period before being fixed. The time allowed for the blocks of
stone to remain in the stacking ground depends very largely upon the demand,
but normally the stone is seasoned for several months before being dressed.
If necessary, the stone can be dressed soon after mining if obtained between the
late spring to the end of September, but that mined during the winter months
is stored underground till the following spring before it is worked. Damage
from frost is thus prevented.
MACHINE DRESSING
A brief description of certain machines used for dressing stone is given on
pp. 34 and 35, Vol. I. Some of these are illustrated here in Fig. 36.
FRAME SAw (see A and B).-This machine, which is used for sawing large blocks
into several smaller slabs, has a swing frame which holds the desired number of steel
saw blades. The frame is suspended by four rods, and operates with a backward
and forward motion by means of a connecting rod secured to the frame and the
crankshaft of the flywheel which is driven by electric or other power. The blades
are either corrugated (see c) or wavy or plain in section, the former being commonly
used for sandstone, limestone, slate and granite, and the plain type for marble;
they are 3, 4, 5 or 6-in. wide by t-in. thick (for marble), .,''.1·-in. thick (for sandstone
and limestone) and i-in. thick (for granite). This machine is made in various sizes,
the maximum size of stone that can be dealt with varying from 8 to 14-ft. long, 4 w
8-ft. wide and 4 to 6-ft. thick.
The block of stone to be converted is placed on a bogie or trolley, packed firmly
and level, and wheeled ir\ position under the 3Wing frame. The required number of
blades is fixed in the frame at the necessary distance apart. The maximum number of
blades which may be fitted to the frame depends upon the hardness of the stone
and the power of the machine ; generally the number does not exceed twelve, and this
may be reduced to four or five blades if the stone is very hard ; for marble slabbing,
when the thickness of the slabs may be only l-in., the number of blades (which are
secured by special fittings) may reach thirty. The machine is set into operation
causing the saw frame to descend the long worm screws in the four legs at a pre-
determined speed and regulated by the ratchet arrangement controlled by the levers
shown at A. The rate of the downward feed is regulated according to the hardness
of the stone, the number of blades used, etc. ; as a guide, the cutting speeds of one
rz-ft. long machine, having twelve blades, are 5. 12 and 30-lin. in. per hour for hard
 MASONRY
sandstone, Portland stone and Bath stone respectively ; a similar machine, with
four blades, will saw granite at the rate of from 1 to It-in . per hour; for cutting
thin slabs of marble, the speed is reduced to about 1!-in. per hour in order to secure
the desired accuracy.
An abrasive material, such as chilled shot (steel pellets), sharp sand or car-
borundum, in addition to water, must be used to facilitate the sawing operation. The
water is supplied from a tank situated above the machine and is automatically dis-
tributed over the stone through small taps fixed in two transverse pipes which either
swing backwards and forwards with the frame or are kept stationary. The abrasive,
placed as required over the cuts or kerfs in the stone by the sawyer (man in charge
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of the machine), is carried by the water down the cuts to the lower edges of the blades,
and thus deepens the cuts during the reciprocating action of the blades ; in addition,
the water cools the blades and thus prevents undue wear of the steel. Steel shot is
generally used for corrugated blades, except for limestone, when sand should be
used, as shot rusts and would cause discoloration.
The cross-section at A shows a block of stone partially sawn into seven slabs.
On completion of the "slabbing," the frame is stopped and raised, the bogie
is run clear of the frame and the stone is removed .
The frame saw is the most useful machine for cutting hard stone.
Another machine, known as the rip saw, is somewhat similar to the above with the
exception that its width is greater than its length and the wide bogie runs on a track
at right angles to that shown at B ; the swing frame has thus a transverse reciprocating
motion. The rip saw is usefully employed for cross-cutting blocks and especially
those which are too wide for the ordinary frame saw.
DIAMOND SAW (see D).-This machine is used for rapidly and accurately cutting
relatively small blocks of stone, such as slabs from the frame saw. It has a circular
steel saw blade which is caused to rotate by an electric motor at a high speed to cut
the stone which travels towards it on a moving table. The size of saw blade varies
from 24 to 84-in. Saw blades must be carefully tensioned (seep. 27, Vol. III). Welded
to the rim of the blade are U-shaped steel sockets or clips into each of which a half
carat diamond is securely fixed ; an enlargement of a portion of a blade is shown at
E; the diamonds are staggered, as indicated, in order that the width of the cut is fully
covered ; four sockets per inch diameter of blade are provided, thus a 6o-in. blade
is fitted with 240 sockets provided with the same number of diamonds. The maximum
speed of the blade varies with its diameter; that of a 6o-in. diameter blade is 575
revs. per min. whilst a 72-in. diameter blade has a maximum velocity of 480 revs. per
min. This speed is regulated according to the character of the stone, it being much
less for a hard sandstone than for a soft limestone ; in order to avoid damage to the
arrises of the stone, the speed of the blade is lowest when the blade is just entering
and leaving the block. The deepest cut that a saw blade will make is less than half
the diameter of the blade, thus, for example, the maximum depth of cut of an 84-in.
blade is approximately 3-ft. and the thickness of stone would be restricted to this.
A water feed, necessary to cool the blade, is provided as shown at D. The pipe
can be raised or lowered as required to deliver water on top of the stone. A guard
is fixed to the upper half to prevent splashing.
The stone is placed upon, but not necessarily fixed to, a cast iron table which
moves on rollers. After the blade has been brought to the required position by
traversing the frame, the table is advanced quickly to bring the stone up to the blade
and proceeds at the desired speed until the cut has been formed, after which the
table is quickly returned. The machine has four changes of feed for cutting, in
addition to the quick advance and return, and these changes are readily effected by
the sawyer operating a lever.
The cutting speed depends upon the horse-power, hardness of the stone and depth
of cut. A 30 h .p. machine will saw a 3-ft. thick block of Portland stone at the rate
of 216 sq. in. per min. of sawn area. This rate is much higher than that of the frame
saw, but whilst the latter can deal with all types of stone, including granite, a diamond
saw is only suitable for relatively soft stones, such as limestones, as hard stones would
quickly damage the blade and wear out the sockets.
Tlw machine can also he Pt:.Ovided with two tahles which can be either used
tog<"thE-r or one can h<" loaded whjlst the stone on the other is being cut,
This machine may also be provided with two circular saw blades, when it is ~ailed
a twin blade or duplex machine. It has either one or two tables, the latter moving on
separate tracks parallel to each other. The blades, with a lateral movement, are
independent and may be traversed in the same or opposite direction as required.
These blades can be raised or lowered (known as a rising and falling motion) and are
thus invaluable for forming cuts less than the thickness of the stone (an operation
called checking) as required for grooves in window sills, etc., for channelling (removal
of portions of the backs of stones such as are required to be fixed to steel beams and
pillars of steel-framed buildings, etc.), recessing (e.g., jamb stones) and for sinking
mouldings of cornices, etc. The maximum vertical movement is 3-ft. The area of
sawn surface of Portland stone when the cut is 3-ft. deep and both blades are operating
is approximately 8oo-sq . in. per min. This machine has largely replaced the single
blade type.
CROSS-CUT OR BEAM SAw.-This consists of a long transverse cast iron beam,
supported by a pill'lr at each end, along which a circular saw blade is caused to travel ;
it is obtainable in two sizes, allowing a maximum traverse of blade of 8 and 12-ft.
The largest size of blade is s-ft. and this gives a maximum depth of cut of approxi-
mately 25-in. A wide table, mounted on wheels or moving on inverted vee-slides
(as shown at J), is usually provided, although side-by-side twin tables are also available.
The table, with the stone in position, is brought under the blade, adjusted and
locked ; the blade is then made to traverse and cut the stone. Both fixed heighi and
rise and fall mot•ement types are available, the former being useful for plain sawing
and jointing (such as squaring ends of blocks·of stone, edges of marble slabs, etc.) and
the latter, which permits of a maximum vertical movement of the blade of 15-in., is
invaluable for checking, channelling and recessing.
The blade may be of either the diamond or carborundum (see below) type. A
typical cutting speed by a diamond saw is 220-sq. in. per min. for Portland stone; this
speed is reduced to from one-third to one-half if the blade is of the carborundum type.
GRAVITY SAW (see F).-This type is so called as the table supporting the stone is
pulled forward partly by the force of gravity. A counter-weight, adjusted according
to the weight of the stone, is suspended by a wire rope which passes over pulley
" 1 " (the block of which is secured to a roof, etc., beam), under the lower pulley
"2," and is attached to the forward end of the moving table. Thus, a smooth pull,
with a distinct economy in power, is obtained throughout the cut. The backward
movement of the table is accomplished by operating the handwheel " 1."
The cast iron table has transverse and longitudinal slots to receive clamps for the
accurate setting and expeditious fastening down of the stone ; it has a deep longi-
tudinal slot to allow the blade ,to pass below the under surface of the stone. One
type, of maximum size 120-in. by 39-in., is known as a cross traverse table, as it can
be given a transverse movement by operating the handle of screw" 2." The maximum
cross movement is 30-in. A number of parallel cuts can thus be formed with one
placing of the stone. The other type, called a plain table, cannot be moved trans-
versely.
This machine may be provided with either a diamond blade or a carborundum
blade. The latter is a steel blade with a 2 to 3-in. wide rim of carborundum (an abrasive
material, being a crystalline compound of carbon and silicon) ; the carborundum,
mixed with shellac, is heated and pressed round the periphery of the steel blade, which
is dovetailed to provide a key. Carborundum blades give better finished surfaces and
finer cuts than those formed by diamond blades, and they can be used for both hard
and soft stones. Their cutting speeds are, however, not more than half those of
diamond blades ; thus, typical speeds are 8-in. per min. for 6-in. slabs of Portland
stone and 4-in. per min. for 12-in. slabs, and these rates are approximately doubled
if diamond blades are used.
Gravity saws are made of three types, namely, (1) fixed hei'ght, suitable for plain
sawing and -jointing, (2) rise and fall for checking, channelling and sinking, and (3)
universal, which cuts the stone at any angle from vertical to horizontal, as it has a
swivelling head which can be adjusted to a vertical or inclined plane as required.
The latter can be provided with a carborundum wheel (16-in . diameter and from 1 to
2-in. thick) in lieu of the circular blade, which rotates in a vertical spindle and g~rds
and moulds the edges of the stone or marble.
 MAS 0 N R. y MACH N E s
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JENNY LIND POLISHE~ P L A N E R FIGURE 36
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
 MASONRY
PLANING AND MOULDING MACHINES.-As implied, these are used for machining
the exposed face or faces to the desired finish and for moulding blocks of stone.
One of the simplest, known as the canting arm or reversible planer, is shown at J. For
surfacing, the stone (of a maximum length of 9-ft.) is fixed upon the rocking table
between the two vices, with the face to be dressed uppermost. Wide blocks of stone
fixed on the rocking table (which may be only 6!-in. wide) are accommodated by
supporting the overhanging portions by wood struts resting upon wedges on the main
table. One or more tools are fixt'd by wedges in the tool box and the latter is moved
along the cross-head to the required position by manipulating the handwheel shown ;
the cross-head is lowered by power or by the operator pulling down on the rope
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
until the edge of the tool is just below the surface of the stone. As the main table
which supports the loaded rocking table moves forward on inverted vee-slides, the
surface of the stone is cut as indicated at H ; the cross-head (or canting arm or reversible
head) swings over on the return travel of the stone which automatically occurs when
the stop, adjusted as requirt'd at the side of the main table, comes in contact with the
kicker which moves the driving belt from one pulley to the other. It thus cuts in
both directions, and for this reason is recognized to be the best machine for surfacing.
The cross-head is lowered as required after each cut. The rate of surfacing stone
is dependent upon several conditions, but an approximate average speed is Io-sq. ft.
per min.
Whilst essentially used for surfacing, this machine can also be used for moulded
work. Thus, for cornices and similar members, a plate box into which is fitted a
plate or tool having an edge smithed to the reverse of the required mould is fixed in
the tool box. The rocking table is rotated and fixed at the desired angle so as to
bring the surface of the stone to be moulded into a convenient position relative to the
tool which cuts the stone during the forward movement of the table. Before a stone
is placed on the machine for moulding, one end is " cut in " to the required section
by hand by the mason. . .
The rocking table can he removed so that large blocks can be machmed by fixmg
them directly on to the main table.
For circular work, such as column " turning," two metal brackets are fixed to the
main table. The block of stone is supported by two horizontal metal " centres "
which are attached to the brackets and are let into the ends of the stone. The cutting
process is as described above, the main table moving forward towards the tool bo":
fi.xed in the middle of the cross·-head and the stone rotated after each cut by means of
gearing fixed on one side of the brackets. Flutes are formed, after the turning has
been completed, by specially shaped tools fixed in the tool box. A column shaft
up to 8-ft. long and 4-ft. 6-in. diameter can be worked on this machine.
Circular column shafts, caps and bases, balusters, etc., are also turned in a lathe.
Like the wood-working lathe described on p. 30, Vol. III, the stone is fixed to two
centres and as it rotates it is cut by a tool fitted in a holder which traverses the length
of the ~tone. Flutes are formed by the planing machine or by hand.
Other machines cut the stone in the forward direction only, and are known as
rigid head planinc. machi~tes. They have a quick return . . They . are especially in-
valuable for forimng mtncate moulded work. No hand fimshmg IS necessary, as the
machined-cut surfaces arc excellent.
One of these rigid head planing machines, called an open-side planer, has two tool
boxes, one within the cross-head (or cross-arm) and the other at the side of the single
pillar. The upper tool box traverses the cross-arm and the tools can be made to
move vertically ; the side tool box has a nse and fall motiOn and the honzontally
fitted tools can be moved horizontally. The top tools cut the upper surface of the
stone whilst the side tools mould the vertical surface at the same operation. A big
saving of time thereby r~sults. This machine i~ panicularly eff~ctive for . deep
cornices. Unlike the cantmg-arm planer (see J), 1t has only one pillar and tt can
therefore deal with wide (up to 7-ft.) blocks ; it is employed for forming return
mouldings on stones such as quoin cornices and string courses, square pillar and
pilaster bases and caps, etc. . . . _ . . _ edge about 6cin. above the top of the slab.
Another rigid head plamng machme IS the four-head plan_er. As Imphed, thts
has four tool boxes, i.e., two in the cross-head and one at the s1de of each of the two
pillars. Like those in the open-side planer, these tool boxes are independently
operated, and the machine is therefore capable of moulding and surfacing the top
and side faces of two blocks of stone at the same time.
For marble, granite and similar brittle stone, carborundum wheels of the required
shape may be fitted into the tool boxes in lieu of steel tools. The abrasive action
of these wheels, assisted by water delivered on the stone, forms the desired section
as they rotate at a high speed.
POLISHING MACHINES.-These include the (a) Rubbing Bed, (b) Jenny Lind
Polisher and (c) Disc Polisher.
(a) Rubbing Bed.-This consists of a circular metal table, 6 to 14-ft. diamett'r and
2 to 2!-in. thick, which revolves on a vertical spindle at a speed varying from 20
(the largest size) to 45 revs . per min. It has a circular trough round the rim to e.arry
away the liquid slurry produced during the rubbing operation.
This machine is now used chiefly in marble and granite works, and whilst it was
formerly employed for surfacing limestone and sandstone blocks, it is now rarely
used for this purpose, as the circular saw-especially the carborundum saw-and
planers give a surface which is satisfactory for most purposes at a cheaper cost.
The block or slab of marble, etc., is placed on the table, and sharp sand or steel
shot, together with water, is applied as the table rotates. The friction created by the
action of the abrasive between the table top and the stone produces a smooth surface.
Large blocks are kept in position by a wood beam fixed across and slightly above the
table. Small blocks are controlled by hand.
(b) Jenny Lind Polisher.-One of several types, known as the rise and fall model,
is shown at G. It is used for smoothing and polishing flat surfaces of marble and
granite blocks or slabs. The machine, which is fixed to a pillar or wall, consists of a
metal frame carrying an arm and a vertical rotating polishing spindle to which is con-
nected a rubbing head or a polishing disc; the diameter of the head is Io-in. and that
of the disc is 12-in. ; the discs of larger machines are up to 30-in. diameter. As shown,
the frame with arm is in two sections and the swivel joints allow the head or disc
to be easily guided in any direction ; each section of the arm is 3-ft. long and a 9-ft.
by 4-ft. slab can be covered by the head at one fixing. The frame has a 2-ft. vertical
adjustment by means of the hand wheel and screw and, in addition, the polishing
spindle can be vertically adjusted through 7 or 8-in. The rubbing head revolves at
a speed of 250 revs. per min. ; some machines have two speeds, one for smoothing
and a quicker one for polishing.
A smooth surface is impaned to the marble or stone by carborundum blocks,
which are of four grades, i.e., coarse, medium, fine and finishing. These are fixed
in turn in this order to the rubbing head ; the abrasive action of these blocks as
they rotate, together witq the water which is delivered through the hollow polishing
spindle, gives the smooth surface. This is followed by the final polishing process, the
fine carborundum block being replaced by the polishing disc, which is a metal plate
faced with felt ; oxide of tin, known as putty powder, is applied, in addition to water ;
the rotary action gradually imparts a high polish to the stone.
A marble .s lab, after being sawn, is smoothed and polished (or" glossed ") in the
following manner : The slab is set on the stone bench, the coarse carborundum block
is fitted to the rubbing head and the spindle is adjusted to the required height. The
motor is started, the water is turned on and the operator, holding the guiding handle,
gradually directs the rotating block over the whole surface. The pressure of the
carborundum block is increased or diminished by the operator lowering or raising
the handle. When the surface has been rubbed down to an even surface, the coarse
carborundum block is replaced by the medium block and the process is repeated.
After the fine and finishing blocks have been applied in a similar manner, the surface
should be very smooth. Any grit on the marble must now be removed, the polishing
disc is fixed, putty powder is sprinkled over the slab, and the surface is traversed as
described until a high polish is obtained.
A splash-board, not shown in the sketch, is used to protect the operator from the
slurry ; it is fitted to the bench between the slab and the operator and with its upper
Slabs longer than 9-ft. must be re-set on the bench to allow the untreated surface
to be dealt with. This is obviated if, instead of the fixed bench, a bogie-which
runs on a track-is available.
 STONE DRESSINGS TO OPENINGS
A fixed-height model of th,is machine, cheaper than the one described, has no rise
and fall main adjustment, but the polishing spindle has a 7-in. vertical movement.
(c) Disc Polislzer.-This has a long vertical rotary spindle attached at its upper
end by a universal joint to the motor above and with a 1 s-in. diameter disc at its
lower end. The spindle is telescopic to allow for the adjustment of the disc at the
required height, and the universal joint permits an area of approximately 7-ft.
diameter of marble or granite to be polished.
Moulded surfaces of marble cannot be smoothed and polished by these machines
and are dealt with by hand. Such work is smoothed or " grounded " by using different
grades of carborundum powder ; a piece of snake stone (\Vater of Ayr stone) is then
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applied to complete the smoothing process, after which the surface is polished by
applying putty powder on a felt" jack "or pad.
Granite surfaces, especially when they have been axed (see below), are some-
times smoothed by the application of steel shot and emery powder instead of the
carborundum blocks. During the first or slzotting process, the rough surface is
rendered perfectly flat by the abrasive action of the shot and water and the rotary
cast steel plate of the Jenny Lind Polisher head. The second process is called
emerying, as emery is used in lieu of shot; this completes the grinding operation.
All traces of the emery are removed, and the glossing or polishing operation is per-
formed with the felted disc and putty powder. Sometimes oil is rubbed into the
granite to give a rich gloss.
Instead of hand grinding and polishing moulded granite surfaces, these operations
may be performed by a pendulum or slider. A metal casting of the reverse shape of the
required granite section is made and attached to one end of a long rod which is
connected at the opposite end to a vertical member which is caused to swing sideways
like a pendulum. After the casting has been correctly placed on the moulded granite,
it is caused to swing to and fro as the pendulum swings ; shot, emery, putty powder
and water are applied in·turn during the process.
PNEUMATIC DRESSING AND CARVING PLANT.-This comprises an air compressor,
air receiver, cast iron main air pipe, flexible branch air pipes or hoses , pneumatic
hammers and chisels. The latter tools include the punch or puncheon, plain, broad
or flat, tooth (having serrated edges) and bush chisels ; the bush chisel consists of
several steel blades, having sharpened edges, bolted together, and is used for dressing
the roughest blocks. The tools are fitted into the pneumatic hammers and the latter
are attached to the flexible air hoses ; a cock is fitted near the end of each hose by
which the compressed air can be turned on or off by the operator. When the air is
admitted to the hammer, the piston within the latter strikes in rapid succession the
head of the shank of the tool ; the effect of this percussion action is therefore similar
to that obtained by the mason when he strikes a chisel with a mallet. Hence the
dressing operation is comparatively simple, as the operator is only required to turn
on the air, place the tool on the surface of the stone and guide it in the required
direction. These tools are very rapid in action and are capable of doing work ranging
from the heaviest dressing to elaborate carving. They are especially effective for
dressing intractable stone, such as granite and certain marble. The size of the plant
varies, the largest being capable of operating fifteen hammers and employing the same
number of masons.
Pneumatic hammers and machinery, such as the frame and carborundum saws,
have largely superseded hand-dressing of granite.
Where the latter is still employed, the operations are somewhat similar to those
described on pp. 35-38, Vol. I. The scappling hammer or pick is used for hammer-
faced and picked work ; fine picked work is produced by a fine-pointed pick or a
hammer having a serrated edge ; punched work is obtained by a punch or puncheon
which, unlike that shown at N, Fig. 19, Vol. I, is in the form of a hammer resembling
a blunt pick. Single axed work is done with an axe or hexagonal headed hammer
after the surface has been picked ; this produces parallel lines on the surface which
are barely visible in fine axed work. The finest surface given to a block of granite
before being smoothed and polished is produced by a hammer called a patent axe
after the face has been dressed with the ordinary axe ; the head of the patent axe
consists of sharp steel blades, one end of the head has a larger number and finer
blades than the other and is used after the end with the thicker blades has been employed.
HELICOIDAL WIRE SAWING PLANT.-This is used for quarrying stone and for
reducmg large blocks to a size suitable for the frame saw. It consists of a long wire
(of 1'\; .to }-in. diameter) which travels over and under several pulleys at a rate of
approximately 2oo-ft. per min. as it produces a vertical cut in the stone. The system
has not been commonly adopted in this country.
STONE DRESSINGS TO OPENINGS
Examples of dressings to openings additional to those illustrated m Vol. I
are shown in Figs. 37-42 inclusive.
Six elevations of entrances are shown in Fig. 37· The same treatment may
also be applied to window openings. Those at A, B, c, o and E show semi-
circular arches, and that at F is segmental. All of the arches have stepped
extradoses.
The voussoirs forming the semicircular arch at A have ears or crossettes.
The keystone extends to a string course. A satisfactory proportion of opening
is obtained if the 6o0 diagonal intersects the top of the transome, as shown
(see also c). The ashlar consists of alternate thin and thicker courses, that on
the left having rusticated joints (such as the channelled joint at A, Fig. 41) and
that on the right being flush-jointed.
In all of the examples, broken diagonal lines indicate the size and shape
of each voussoir, etc. Ambiguity ·is thus removed and the bonding is made
clear. A working drawing should' also have the amount of bed of each stone
specified by ringed figures (see Fig. 24, Vol. I).
The treatment at B gives a bold appearance which is particularly effective
for large openings. Plain courses alternate with those consisting of blocks
having a large projection. The latter; detailed at s, shows a rock-faced middle
portion of each block which is emphasized by the contrasting smooth or plain
finished mouldings. With certain exceptions, the joints are channelled; the
exceptions include the plain vertical joints necessary to limit the size of some
of the voussoirs. The courses above the springing are wider than those below,
and a moulded course at the impost, such as is shown on the left, may be
preferred to separate the two. The broken construction lines show that the
channelled joints and cyma mouldings of the voussoirs are parallel, and thus the
rusticated portions are tapered.
The opening at c shows a recessed jamb (see plan K). The arch is similarly
recessed and consists of two rings-note the value of the broken diagonal lines
as indicating this. The voussoirs of the outer ring is moulded as shown at M.
The bold appearance is here shown of the steps detailed in section at M,
Fig. 45·
Another example of a two-ringed arch is shown at D. This differs from c
in that the inner ring is moulded (see o) and the bed joints of its voussoirs
coincide with alternate bed joints of the outer ring voussoirs. The voussoirs
course with the ashlar shown on the left. For brick walls the voussoirs should
course with the brickwork as shown on the right.
 STONE DRE 5 S I NGS TO DOOR OPENINGS
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SECTION 'L'

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 STONE DRESSINGS TO OPENINGS
. The arch at E differs from the two preceding examples, as it is only a single-
nnged arch, each voussoir being moulded as shown at R. The general jointing is
chamfered (see P) and the vertical joints of the voussoirs may be also chamfered
as an alternative to the plain joints shown.
. The application of a stepped extradosed arch to a segmental headed opening
IS shown at F ; the voussoirs are shown coursing with brickwork on the left and,
as an alternative, with squared rubble walling on the right. The bed joint of the
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
lower voussoir or springer is below the springing line ; this is necessary in
order that the springer may be of satisfactory proportions.
Each of the openings shown in Fig. 37 may accommodate a pair of folding
doors and a transome light, such as are faintly indicated at A and c.
Examples of six square-headed door openings are illustrated in Fig. 38.
Enlarged details of this stonework are shown in Fig. 39·
The height of a classic door opening is at least twice its width, but this
proportion is not habitually followed . The example at B and c, Fig. 38, is in
accordance with tradition, whilst E and H show the height to be 4-ft. greater
than the width, a proportion which conforms to that of most of the standard
internal doors listed on p. 87, Vol. I.
. The doorway shown in elevation at A, Fig. 38, suitable for a house, is provided
With an entablature. The latter consists of a moulded architrave frieze and
cornice. The student is recommended to study a classic ent~blat~re, such as
that shown at A and B, Fig. 43, in order to become conversant with the proportions
of the traditional type. Whilst these general proportions are often departed
from in current practice, such divergence should be strictly limited. Two
alternative details of this entablature are shown at A and B, Fig. 39· That at A
conforms most closely to the elevation ; because of the cushion-shaped appear-
ance of the frieze, which is said to be pulvinated, the centre of the arc forming
t~e pulvination is obtained as shown at L, Fig. 41. A flat frieze is shown at B,
Ftg. _39 ; whilst this is of the same height as that at A, it is usual to make a
p~lvmated frieze three-9uarters of the height of the architrave and a plain
fneze equal to the architrave. In accordance with tradition, the width of an
architrave is about one-sixth the width of the opening, and the cornice is from
one and a quarter to one and a third the height of the architrave. Thus,
the classical proportions of this doorway would be as follows : Architrave,
i X 3-ft. 6-in. = 7-in. wide ; frieze, ! X 7-in. = sl-in. high (if pulvinated) and
7-in. (if plain) ; and cornice, } to 1 x 7-in. or about g-in. (see also G, Fig. 40,
and Land M, Fig. 41).
The elevation at A shows ashlar walling on the left and brickwork as an
alternative on the right. The moulded jambs may be coursed as shown on the
left, or the number of bed joints in the architrave mav be reduced as indicated
on the right ; a bond stone in the architrave, shown by broken lines at s, may be
used, or a good bond may be obtained if alternate jamb stones are shaped as shown
by full lines at D, Fig. 44· In order to minimize awkward cutting of the brickwork
at the cornice, the latter may be finished square as shown by broken lines at T.
266
A pedimented doorway 1 is shown in elevation at c and in section at B, Fig. 38.
f!. pediment is a triangular feature which crowns a doorway, window, gable, etc. ;
Its lower boundary being the horizontal corona and bedmould, and its sloping
bou.ndaries being the complete cornice ; the triangular space between these
honzontal and raking members is occupied by one or several stones and is
called the tympanum or core. A modification of this triangular pediment is the
segmental pediment, the cornice being curved to the shape of a segment.
The. pedime!"lt is often made excessively high. This is avoided, and a satisfactory
p~oportwn obtamed, if the geometrical construction shown at c is adhered to. Thus,
wtth ~ne end " a " of the fillet of the corona as centre and its whole length " ab "
as radms, an arc IS drawn to intersect the centre line at "c "· with " c" as centre and
" cb "as ~diu~ ~n arc is struck intersecting the centre line at" d " ; the latter should
be the pomt ot mtersectJOn of either the bottom of the raking corona as shown or the
bottom of the raking bedmould.
It will be observed that the raking cornice consists of the crown mould
comprising a cyma recta with fillet, the corona and bedmould. This is shown
more clearly in the enlarged detail at c, Fig. 39, where P equals Q. The jointing
of the stonework should be carefully studied. The lower end stone or springer
comprises portions of the cornice, the horizontal corona and bedmould ; it
courses with the adjacent ashlar, forming top and bottom horizontal bed joints,
a vertical joint at the end of the cornice, and the fourth boundary consists of a
vertical joint at the horizontal corona and bedmould which is continued as a
normal joint at the raking cornice ; this latter joint coincides with the intersection
between the bottom of the raking bedmould and the fillet of the horizontal
corona. The apex stone is also coursed in with the ashlar, the cornice being
stopped against the wall face and the upper bed coinciding with the horizontal
bed joint of th~ ashlar. A departure from the latter bed joint is usually made
if the stone pet.:.iment occurs in a brick wall ; here the projecting sloping surface
of each stone of the cornice is continued to the back and the brickwork is cut
to intersect this raking surface.
A detailed section through the architrave is shown at s, Fig. 39, and a portion
of the elevation is shown at R. The stonework at the principal entrance of an
important building may be enriched by carving. Many existing examples show
very elaborate enrichment, but owing to the high cost of such work, the present
tendency is to economize in this direction. Where such decoration is applied,
it is usual to limit it to the bedmould, one or two members of the architrave and
occasionally to the crown mould. An example of ornamentation is indicated at
R. Care should be taken to provide adequate material in the member for the
carver to produce the required ornament. Thus, the bead u at s, Fig. 39, formed
by the moulding machine (J, Fig. 36), is suitable for the carving of the bead and
real ornament shown at R ; similarly, the ovolo bedmould is suited to receive
the egg and dart ornament indicated in Fig. 42. An alternative to this architrave
1 This type is usually deferred to the third year of a course, and the pediment is there·
fore elaborated in Vol. IV.
 S T0 N E 0 RE SS N G S T0 0 00 1\
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 CORNICES
is detailed at T, Fig. 39· Whilst some of the close grained sandstones can be
finely carved, the limestone class is generally most suited for this purpose.
The architrave of the entrance D, Fig. 38, is detailed at D, Fig. 39· Note
that its outer members are returned on the plinth block, which latter must, of
course, have an adequate projection to receive it. The head of this architrave
(like that at E, c and H, Fig. 38) is formed of three stones with secret joggle
joints (see o, Fig. 25, Vol. I). An additional feature may be provided either at
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
u or v in the form of brackets or consoles similar to, but much shorter than, that
detailed in Fig. 42 and placed below an increased projecting cornice.
The entrance atE, Fig. 38, has a wide architrave which is detailed atE, Fig. 39·
The broad outer flat band is contin4ed to form the upper member of the plinth.
The shadow produced at the deep sinking emphasizes the rather bold curved
member.
The detail of the architrave at F and G, Fig. 38, is shown at F, Fig. 39· The
prominent moulded member is effective, but see the note below regarding pro-
tection of projecting masonry. It will be observed that the stonework courses
with the brickwork.
Principal doors of buildings of importance are frequently of bronze. The door,
with pediment and entablature, shown at F and G is an example. Consideration of
bronze details is deferred to the Advanced Course. Briefly, the bronze of the
entablature and pilaster is of t-in. thick cast bronze, and, for best work, the external
face of the door is formed with i·-in. thick bronze cast in the form of panels, and an
l-in. thick sheet bronze backing ; the door is 2-in. thick, with a space between the
facing and backing.
An example of a very wide architrave is shown at H, Fig. 38, and detailed
at Fig. 39·
G,
The necessary lead covering of cornices has been purposely omitted in order to
make the stone details as clear as possible. It cannot be too strongly emphasized
that all projecting stone members should be protected as shown in Fig. 74, Vol. I.
This is especially necessary in smoke-laden districts (see p. 97). Thus, for example,
in addition to the cornice shown at Band c, Fig. 38, the upper surface of the horizontal
corona should be given a very slight weathering and be covered with lead. The value
of the drip and throating should also be appreciated (see Fig. 43 and p. I I 5). The
modern tendency of omitting projecting courses, such as cornices, string courses and
sills-with their drips and throatings-has resulted in many recent buildings becoming
horribly disfigured within a very short time after erection. Such disfigurement is
very pronounced at door and window openings which have been finished simplv
with wide, .Plain but slightly projecting bands or fillets. Referring again to some of
the entrances illustrated in Fig. 38 and detailed in Fig. 39, it is seen that certain of the
details should be slightly modified unless protection by string courses, porticoes, etc.,
is afforded. Thus, for example, a small throat could with advantage be formed at E
(see broken lines at x) and F (Y to .he widened to allow for the small throat), Fig. 39·
Additional doorways are shown in Fig. 44, and, as already pointed out,
these door dressings can also be applied to windows.
Six examples of the stone treatment at windows are illustrated in Fig. 40
and detailed in Fig. 41.
The opening at A, Fig. 40, accommodates a pair of metal casements (see
272
Fig. 28, Vol. III) and a hopper light. The elongated channelled bed joints,
detailed at A, Fig. 41, are an effective contrast to the adjacent plain jointing.
The double-hung sashed window shown at c 'and o,
Fig. 40, has a stone
segmental head backed with a two-ringed rough brick arch, and the architrave
consists of alternate moulded and projecting plain blocks. This is detailed at C',
Fig. 41.
The opening at G, Fig. 40, shows an entablature. Traditional proportions
are indicated. Two alternative details are shown at L and M, Fig. 41.
The metal casement in a wood frame (see Fig. 28, Vol. III) shown at J.
and L, Fig. 40, is detailed at D, Fig. 41. The latter figure also shows two
alternative details of the window sill at J and K.
The openings at M and o, Fig. 40, are detailed atE and .G, Fig. 41.
An elevation and vertical section of a double-hung sashed window are shown
at J and K, Fig. 42. The stone dressings include an entablature with consoles
or brackcts.l The latter are often elaborately enriched with carving and usually
take the form of a scroll (resembling a partially unrolled scroll of parchment) or
volute. Detail A shows the side view of a console and one of several methods of
constructing a scroll is there shown and explained at H. The elevation is shown
at B and the architrave is detailed at N. An application of consoles to an entrance
is illustrated at H, Fig. 44·
CORNICES
Several cornices are illustrated in Fig. 43 as alternatives to those shown m
Vol. I.
The plan and elevation of a classic (Corinthian) entablature are shown at
A and B, Fig. 43· Many important modern buildings have been completed with
entablatures of proportions which conform very closely to those indicated in
this traditional example. 2 Students should study these proportions very closely
and be guided by them when designing stonework for upper features of buildings
and dressings at door and window openings.
The cornice may be provided with a gutter as shown by broken lines at A,
or be similar to that at N, or it may be weathered in the more usual manner as
shown at L. The outlet from the gutter, such as a lead branch pipe, would he
connected to a rain-water pipe fixed in an inconspicuous position ; in order to
avoid mutilation of the stonework, the outlet someti;nes takes the form of a
swan-neck bend connected to an internal rain-water pipe. Enrichment, in the
form of a carved bedmould, cymatium (occasionally), modillions (in the form of
horizontal scrolls) and sunk panels (often rose-shaped and therefore known as
roses), may be provided.
The sections at F, G, Hand J show cornices having a small projection. They
could also be used as string courses. The section and elevation at G show a
1 These are further illustrated in Vol. IV.
2 The proportions of a classic entablature are based upon the diameter of a column
just above its base. Details of an order, comprising columns, entablature, etc., are given
in Vol. IV.
 c R N c E s

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 STONE STEPS AND STAIRS
fluted band. A somewhat similar motif is used at the cornice K. Cornice L has
a relatively large projection-; the soffit of this type may be relieved by raised
panels or mutules.
The section at N shows a cornice complete with parapet, etc. An economy
in stone results when a cornice is of this compound type, as a relatively small
block is required as a crowning member.
It will be noticed that all of these cornices are throated to prevent staining
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
of the masonry below.
STONE STEPS AND STAIRS
The design and construction of wood stairs are described m pp. 78-97,
Vol. III, and there illustrated in Figs. 29-39 inclusive. As the terms, essential
requirements, proportions of steps, etc., are dealt with in that volume, and as
they apply equally well to stone steps and stairs, it is unnecessary to repeat
such information here, and students are therefore recommended to defer con-
sideration of the following until they have studied the principles of wood
stair construction.
The stone selected for steps and landings must be hard, strong and durable,
and it should not readily wear to a smooth and slippery surface. Certain of the
sandstones best satisfy these requirements, and "York" stone (see p. 89) is
usually specified.
STEPS are either ( 1) rectangular, (2) built-up, or (3) spandril in cross-section.
1. Rectangular Steps.- These are illustrated at H, J, K, L, M, N and o, Fig. 44,
Fig. 38 and in Vol. I. They are the strongest type. A flight of such solid steps
may be constructed with the front lower edge of one step supported on the top back
edge of that below (see Land N, Fig. 44), but the rebated or checked joint (similar
to that at G, Fig. 44) is the best. These steps may be provided with moulded
nosings (see G and H, Fig. 44, Fig. 37 and Fig. 38).
2. Built-up Steps (see E and P, Fig. 44).-The tread and riser of each step are
formed of relatively thin sawn slabs, and the construction is therefore economical.
They are not so strong as solid rectangular steps, and whilst occasionally used
without any bedding or backing (see P), they are more often applied as a facing
to concrete steps (see E). The minimum thickness of treads which are only
supported at the ends is 2-in. and this should be increased by at least !-in. for
every extra foot of unsupported length beyond 3-ft. Slabs which are less than
2-in. thick can be easily fractured, even when being handled before and during
fixing, and thin treads constructed as shown at E can readily snap by a weight
suddenly applied unless solidly bedded throughout.
Steps formed of stone treads only, known as skeleton stone steps, are sometimes
employed for short, narrow flights, which are not subjected to heavy traffic and
where the absence of risers is not objected to.
3· Spandril Steps (see A, B, c, D and E, Fig. 45).-Excepting the ends which
are built into the wall, these steps are approximately triangular in cross-section,
274
and are therefore lighter than the solid rectangular type. Such steps add greatly
to the appearance of a stair and the maximum headroom is obtained by their
use. The soffit may be flush (see A and B), broken (see c) or moulded (see D).
A splayed rebated joint is formed between each step, the splay of the rebate
being normal to the pitch of the. stair. To avoid.weak construction and damage
to the step at its back edge (where it is thinnest), it is usual to have a 2-in. splay
(see A) for stairs not exceeding 4-ft. in width, and this is increased by l-in. for
every additional foot in width.
TH!UlSHOLDs.-In addition to those illustrated in Vol. I, there are several
thresholds shown in Figs. 37, 38 and 44· An example of one in which built-up
steps are employed is shown at A, B, c, D and E, Fig. 44· The treads and risers
are solidly bedded and well jointed in cement mortar ( r cement to 3 sand). The
treads of all external steps should be given a slight fall to throw off the weather ;
the fall shown at E is l-in. The top edge of the nosing should be slightly rounded
off (it is sometimes chamfered), otherwise it may be easily damaged. The nosings
may be moulded; several examples of moulded nosings are shown at G, Fig. 44·
A, B, c, n, K, Land M, Fig. 45, Fig. 37 and Fig. 38. Solid rectangular steps may
also be used as an alternative. Alternative facings to the wall are shown, that on
the left being of ashlar with a brick backing, and on the right a brick cavity
wall is shown, having a Flemish garden wall facing (see B, Fig. r8).
The application of solid rectangular steps forming an unimportant entrance
is shown at L, M, Nand o, Fig. 44· The steps are built solidly into a wall at one
end and supported at the other by a dwarf wall (see Land M). The front lower
edge of one step is bedded in cement mortar on the top back edge of the step
below (set> N). Whilst this form of joint is good enough for a flight of this
description, it is not employed in first-class work as open joints appear if the
mortar bedding becomes defective. Note that the going (10-in.), plus twice the
rise (7-in.) as shown at N, equals 24-in. (see p. 82, Vol. III).
The detail at P shows the construction of built-up steps which could be
adopted as ail alternative to the above. The treads and risers are connected
together by means of three pairs of copper (or slate or other non-corrodible
material) cramps or dowels bedded in cement mortar.
The simple balustrade consists of r-in. square wrought iron balusters to
which a handrail of similar material is screwt:d (see K, Fig. 45), holes being
drilled through the handrail and the ends of the balusters (which would also be
tapped) to receive the screws ; one end of the rail is also built into the wall to
ensure greater rigidity. The balusters are secured to the steps and landing in a
manner shown at K and M, Fig. 45 ; dovetailed mortices are formed to receive
the ends (preferably ragged to give a key) of the balusters ; molten lead is then
run in, well caulked (consolidated when cool with a blunt chisel) and covered
flush with cement mortar to exclude water from the lead and thus prevent
discoloration of the stone. Grouted cement .is a cheaper alternative to lead.
As an alternative to the metal balustrade, the wall may be continued to a con-
venient height and finished with a coping,
 s T 0 N E s T E p s
NOTE: Tl\fAD• TWICE JI.ISEJI.
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S K E T C
Tttli.ES METHOD OF DE TAlL 'T'
SECTION 'rtf-' FIXING 8ALUSTERS
I I
I SKETCH OF
ENTRANCE COMPRISING
I COIUIICE RECTANGULAR STEPS
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ALTE~NATJYE TO
S E C T I o N ·s· P A R T P L A S E C T I 0 N 'V V' - ~ECTANGULAI\ STEPS
BUILT-UP S T E P5 REBATED RECTANGULAR WITH ~ ETU ((..NED N0 51 NGS DIA COPPER CRAMPS
PAII'.S PEl'. l'.llfl'.)
~!:],.))t, I "if-+~ ~~:.fc.~Q~~::LL:i!i_ f _ J> __L i!L _Eiii' T=x L::3fi!_T3 E.Jfu-{
NOTE: THE OOOP.,W"Y "T '}<: 'C' t, 'D' SHOWS A!.TfRNATIYf STONE 1.- Bf!JCI\. F"CINGS; THE JOINTS IN Ttl£ "P.,CHITMYE COUp.,jf WITH THOSE OF THE Bfi.ICI<.'HOM.
"R/~.JU8f1~f'l,',..t!iESW.C/ !'H~6~1U•l~bW~.~EI_II.EATMENTS OF THE ASHLM.. THA-T ON THE LEFT CONSISTIN<i CHIEFLY OF !GUM COUp.,jfS b THAT ON Ttl£
FIGURE 44
 STONE STAIRS
Stone steps arc used externally in areas to basements, heating chambers, etc.
Another application of rectangular steps is given at H, J and K, Fig. 44· The
elevation is that of the fat;ade of a small public building, such as offices or a bank.
Whilst this is not a common arrangement of steps for an entrance, it is given here
as an alternative to the more usual form shown at c, and it has an advantage in that
the balustrade is useful, especially to the infirm and older members of the public
who may visit the building. A detail of the steps is given at G ; these are of good
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
proportions, with the bottom of the front edges square rebated and the tread
nosings moulded ; these nosings are returned on the outer ends of the step
(see H and K). The steps and landing are built 6-in. into the main wall and are
supported on a wall at the outer ends. The landing consists of three stone slabs
(see H and J) connected together by jogglr. joints (see the section at H and also the
detail at F, Fig. 45). Each bottom step consists of an edging of stone blocks cut
to the section shown at G, with a 2 or 3-in. thick flag solidly bedded on a concrete
bed (see section at H). The metal balustrade is secured to the steps as described
on p. us. Alternative designs of the latter are shown in Fig. 45·
STAIRS.-Stone was commonly preferred to timber in the construction of
principal staircases of municipal and commercial, etc., buildings. This material
has been largely superseded and such stairs are now chiefly of reinforced concrete
construction (see p. rzo}. Where stone is still specified for this purpose, it is
generally in districts where suitable local sandstone is employed.
A stone open well stair is detailed in Fig. 45· The plan H shows twenty
steps, including landings, arranged round a 2-ft. 4-in. wide well. As shown in
the sections G a'1.d J, these steps are of the spandril type already described.
They are also known as cantilever or hanging steps, as each is fixed at one end
only, the other being free and finished with a returned moulded nosing as
detailed at A. The sketch at E shows the built-in end of a spandril step ; the
spandril soffit is stopped at the face of the wall (or plaster) and a square seating
is formed at the end which is built into the wall (which latter is preferably
constructed in cement mortar), the wall hold varying from 4! to 9-in. The
ends of these steps are bedded in cement and solidly fixed all round-especially
at their top surfaces-with sound pieces of slate, etc. set in cement ; the steps
are also jointed in mortar.
Each of the alternative spandril steps shown at B has its returned nosing con-
tinued to line with the face of the riser of the second step above it. Of good
appearance, they are stronger than those at A because of their increased thickness.
The steps at c form a broken soffit, the appearance of which is less satisfactory
than the above. The moulded soffit formed by the steps at D is attractive.
Alternative nosings are shown at c, K, L and M, the bold appearance of the
latter being especially effective (see c, Fig. 37 and H, Fig. 38.) Note that the
proportions of these steps agree with the rules stated on p. 82, Vol. III.
The half space landing consists of four slabs, joggle jointed, which are
solidly built into the walls. The thickness of this landing may be either 6! or
8:}-in. (seeR); whilst the latter gives a satisfactory finish on the underside where
it joins step I9, it results in a large increase in weight of each slab . The joggles
are stopped at the free ends at least, and thus only butt joints are exposed, as
shown at F. Each of the quarter space landings may consist of t\vo slabs, joggle
jointed, to facilitate handling and fixing.
The steps may be built-in as the walls are being constructed, or fixing may be
deferred until the walls have been built and the building is nearer completion. The
latter is tlie usual course adopted and risk of damage to the steps is thereby minimized ;
the pockets which receive the ends of the steps are formed and temporarily filled in
with bricks hid in sand as the wallin~r proceeds, which bricks are thereby easily
removed wh('n required. A storey-rod is used to ensure that the steps are built in at
the correct heights (the bottom one being fixed first) and the free ends of the steps
are securely strutted down to the floor ; these vertical wood struts must not be
removed until the work has set. If built-in as the general work proceeds, the steps
must be adequately protected with rough wood casings ; these must be well secured
and should be frequently examined, as a dislodged casing may result in a damaged
nosing.
The weight of wall tailing down the fixed ends of the steps must be adequate
to ensure stability of a cantilevered stair. The strength of the stair shown in
Fig. 45 would be considerably increased if, as shown at s, a mild steel beam was
provided to support the half space landing at its outer edge and a steel channel
or beam was introduced at the soffit of each flight and near to the free ends of
the steps. The detail s shows the connection between the landing beam (which
would have a 9-in. bearing on the walls) and the top flight channel. Such steel-
work is necessary for wide stairs, especially if subjected to heavy traffic.
Incidentally, it assists in preventing a total collapse of the stair in the case of
fire. If desired, such steelwork may be encased in concrete and either plastered or
finished with thin stone slabs bedded to the concrete, as shown at Il, Fig. 46.
BALUSTRADE.-Two alternative designs of wrought iron balustrades are shown
at G and J, Fig. 45, and alternative details of these are shown at K, Land 1\1. The
fixing of the balusters at K has been described on p. I I 5 ; as indicated, the dovetail
mortice which receives the baluster must be set back from the end face of the
step (unless the nosing is of the type shown at M). This reduces the effective
width of the stair, and to avoid this the balustrade may be of the design shown
at G and J where balusters of small section, connected at their lower ends to a
rt-in. by i-in. bar, alternate at intervals with x-in. square bracket balusters.
The latter are so called because they are connected to the ends of the steps in a
similar manner to that described, the balusters being curved to clear the nosings
(see also detail L); the cover plate shown may be used to prO\·ide a good finish
and it may be either bedded on cement or fixed by small screws secured to plugs
driven into holes drilled into the stone. This detail also shows the method of
fixing a wood handrail to a metal balustrade ; the upper ends of the balusters are
screwed to a r!-in. by ±-in. wrought iron bar and the handrail is secured to this
with screws, the latter being fixed from below at intervals between the balusters.
An alternative wood handrail, fixed in a similar manner, is shown at M. The
balustrade may be of bronze as an alternative to wrought iron (see also Il, Fig. 46).
The brick \Yalls of this staircase may he either plastered or faced with ashlar
 5 T 0 N E 0 p E N w E L L s T A R C A s E
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-----
~:::=-r' ) / SOFFIT

~/~~fO NOS!~

SOFFIT

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SPAND~I HE PS
WI Tit
MOULDED SOFFIT

INCHU
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FIGURE 45
SU.U FOI<. G,H l. J FEET
 "E I N F 0 RC E D C 0 N C ~ E T E ~ MAI\BLE STAI~CASE
SCMW 5ETWEEN ~.314• ~~~~M x 1.!4." THICK
&A-LUSTERS - --- 6RONZE HANDRAIL
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NON-SLIP TILE NOSING
(.AILTE~NATIVE TO 11 tt•) IV4w "IV4u ~ V4" THICK/ .~ ' IV211 >~ V4" CONTINUOUS
6RQNZE 8ALUSTE[(.. _..-. f>RONZE 5!1((..

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J• THICK MARBLE T~EAO
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BEDDING

\-+-----12 1 X 6 1 STRING 0 E T A I L
HANOIVdL rM ST~NG -,

'G.,

STRING
REINFOI'.<fD CONC~ETE

S f C T I 0 N a E E•
KEY PLAN OF PO~TION OF STAJ~

FIGURE 46
 279 MASONRY
of similar stone to that of the steps. If left expose<!. the brickwork would. be
finished with flush mortar joints. As shown, the floor covering can be of stone
slabs bedded on concrete.
If there is not sufficient width available for an open well stair, it would be
designed of the dog-leg type (seen, Fig. 29, Vol. III).
REINFORCED CONCRETE STAIRS.-It has been already stated that important
stairs, especially those required for public buildings, are now constructed of
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reinforced concrete and that this has largely replaced masonry for this purpose.
The reasons for this are : A reinforced concrete stair, suitably finished, ( 1) has
a more attractive appearance, (2) it may be more fire-resistant, (3) its width is less
restricted, as it can be designed to take heavy traffic over a large transverse span
without resorting to any intermt>diate support (such as walls which encroach
upon the hall), (4) the treads can be rendered non-slip (stone treads wear smooth
and may become dangerous), and (5) it can be more easily kept clean.
Although reinforced concrete design is deferred until the advanced years
of a course, a stair of contemporary construction is briefly referred to here in
order that a comparison may be made between stairs of traditional design and
those in which newer materials are employed.
A key part plan and cross-section of a portion of a flight of a typical open well
reinforced concrete stair are shown at c and D, Fig. 46. The section shows the
structure to be built into the wall at one end and supported by a string at the
other. The details show that the concrete (which resists the compression stresses)
is reinforced with !-in. diameter mild steel transverse bars (which resist the
tension stresses) at 7-in. centres; 1 \ -in. diameter longitudinal bars are placed
immediately over and wired to these transverse bars at 9-in. centres ; tr. -in.
diameter bars, called stirrups, are wired at 6-in. centres to the !-in. diameter
bars and l-in. diameter transverse bars placed near to the top corners of the
~oncrete steps ; the thickness of the concrere at K is 4!-in. ; the upper surface
of the concrete is shaped to suit the risers-two alternative forms being shown
at A. The concrete string is reinforced with four r-in . diameter steel longi-
tudinal (tension) bars and two similar (compression) bars near the top surface;
;}-in. diameter steel stirrups are wired to these bars at9-in. centres and at right
angles to the pitch of the stair. Note, the abo•ve sizes 't:ary according to the u·idth
of tl1e stair and the load to be supported, and are determined by calculation.
Because of its unattractive appearance a stair constructed entirely of
reinforced concrete would not be suitable for a public building in which it was
to be an important feature. Hence the structure is covered or veneered with
marble, tiles, terrazzo or other suitable materia!.
Detail A shows alternative forms of risers, one being vertical and the other
inclined. These risers are formed of ~-in . thick slabs of marble bedded to the
concrete. The tread at H is formed of a rl-in. thick slab of marble, solidly
bedded. As polished marble, especially when wet, has a slippery surface, non-
slip tile nosings, which are artificial products, are often incorporated with the
treads; that shown at J is grooved to give a key for the bedding. Care must be
taken to use a mortar for bedding which will not stain the marble.
The string and soffit are also shown covered with marble or quartzite (a
natural very hard stone, imported from Italy, and obtainable in several attractive
colours-seep. 97) slabs. The walls may also be covered \Yith l-in. thick marble,
etc., slabs.
As these covering materials are costly, the soffit may be finished with Keene's
or similar cement.
The string shown is of the " open " type ; " close " strings (see p. So,
Vol. III) may be employed.
Expensive veneers are only applied when the appearance is of importance.
Reinforced concrete stairs, such as are required for warehouses, etc., are often
left uncovered, the treads only being provided with non-slip nosings.
The stair shown in Fig. 46 is cast in situ, i.e., it is constructed on the site. It is
therefore necessary to provide a temporary wood support, called fornnvork or shutter-
ing, for this purpose. Briefly, this consists of butt-jointed boards or she~ts for the
soffit, fixed at the correct level and pitch to bearers supported hy struts. 1 h1s would
be continued to form a suitable frame or box for the string, and this would be strutted :
riser boards, etc., would also be fixed. The concrete is placed in position after the
reinforcement has been fixed, and the formwork is not removed until the concrete
has adequately set.
Concrete steps for narrow stairs are often pre-cast, i.e., are separately formed
in wood moulds of the required shape. These, when sufficiently set, are removed
and fixed as described for stone steps.
Details of the bronze balusters and handrails are shown at B. These are
alternative to those illustrated in Fig. 45 and are fixed as previously described.
NoTE. --The section through the string at B has been taken at a normal from the
intersection between the concrete tread and riser (bottom). The baluster has been
shown in section to illustrate more clearly the construction ; as this would be in the
centre of the tread, the distance I. would be approximately 4-in., and therefore the
bottom of the baluster is well clear of the top main reinforcement.
 CHAPTER ELEVEN
MILD STEEL ROOF TRUSSES
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Syllabus.-Mild steel roof trusses up to 4o-ft. 1 span, witlr alternative details .
MILD steel 2 is much stronger than timber, it is more fire-resisting and its
sections can be readily assembled to form comparatively simple connections.
It is principally for these reasons that mild steel is now employed extensively
for roof trusses of small and medium spans and for its supersedence of wood as
a material for trusses of large span .3 Whilst wood is still preferred to steel for
trusses of open (unceiled) roofs of certain buildings, well-designed steel trusses
for large spanned open roofs of buildings of the industrial, etc., type have a light
and satisfactory appearance, chiefly because of the small size of the members
and the simple joints. Mild steel roof trusses must be painted at intervals to
prevent corrosion.
A steel roof truss, like a wood king post roof truss (see p. 76, Vol. I), is a
triangulated structure. The principal rafters (abbreviated to "rafters") are
prevented from spreading by connecting their lower ends by a tie (main tie), and
struts and subsidiary ties are provided at intermediate points to afford adequate
bracing. Struts should be kept as short as possible. The centre line principle
is adopted throughout (seep. 122), and thus the point of attachment of each purlin
coincides with the intersection of the axes of thfY truss members. Secondary
stresses, such as bending moments in the rafters, are thereby avoided.
All of the members of a modern metal roof truss are of mild steel, and most, zf not
all, of them are angles (seeD and E, Fig. 77, Vol. I). Angles effectively resist both
compression and tension stresses ; they can be conveniently attached and they
are produced economically. Thus, whereas formerly T-bars were used for
rafters, either a single angle or two angles placed back to back are now
employed. Struts consist of either single or double angles, and either one or
two angles placed back to back are used for a main tie. Until comparatively
recently, it was a common practice to use single or double flat bars for a main tie,
as they were ' suitable for resisting tension stresses. However, owing to wind
pressure and the abnormal strain imposed during the transporting and erection
of trusses, members may be subjected to changes of stresses, and flats will not
1 In many syllabuses the span is limited to 30-ft.
s The manufacture and characteristics of mild steel and other metals are described
in Vol. IV.
3 An exception is the bow-string or similar laminated wood type of truss which is still
occasionally adopted for large spans.
280
resist compression . Flat main ties therefore tend to become buckled. If a
ceiling is to be provided, ceiling joists can be readily fixed to a main tie of double
angles (see F, Fig. 49), and this is an additional reason why they should be used
instead of flats, which latter are useless for this purpose unless metallic lathing
instead of wood laths is employed. Flat bars are still used, but less frequently
than formerly, for subsidiary tie members (see Fig. so); angles are preferred.
The members of a truss are connected together by means of rivets or bolts 1
and thin plates, called gussets.
The pitch of rivets is the distance between their centres. According to the
British Standard Specification for. " The Use of Structural Steel in Building,"
No. 449-1937, (a) the minimum pitch shall be not less than three times the
diameter of the rivets, (b) the maximum pitch is 6-in. for compression members
and 8-in. for tension members, and (c) the minimum distance from the centre
of any rivet or bolt to the end of a member or edge of a gusset shall be rl-in . and
rt-in. for l-in. and £-in. diameter rivets respectively. The size of the rivets and
bolts depends upon that of the members to be connected, thus l-in . diameter
rivets are commonly employed for angles and flats up to 2!-in. wide and !-in.
diameter rivets and bolts for larger members. When riveting is employed, a
member, even if subjected to a small stress, should be connected to a gusset
by at least two rivets. Riveting can thereby be facilitated by the placing of a
temporary bolt in the second hole, which is subsequently replaced by a rivet .
Further, if one of the rivets is defective the second prevents failure of the joint.
The thickness of gussets theoretically depends upon the bearing value of the
rivets employed. The minimum thickness is l-in. and these have been used
for the small truss detailed in Fig. 47 ; T5rin. gussets are used for roofs of larger
span up to at least 40-ft. and the thickness rarely exceeds l-in . even for very
large trusses. The size and shape vary according to the pitch of the rivets,
1 Welding, as an alternative to riveting and bolting, is a comparatively recent develop-
ment. Gussets are dispensed with and the members, all angles, are welded together. Thus,
referring to the detail at T, Fig. so, the ties and strut would be connected directly on to the
rafter by means of fillet welds. An electric current or gas (an oxy-acetylene flame) is
employed to melt a steel rod or wire (called an electrode) and the adjacent edges of the
members in such a manner that the molten metal from the electrode is deposited along the
points of contact and fused into them ,
 281 MILD STEEL ROOF TRUSSES
size and inclination of the connecting members and the appearance desired.
Several examples of gussets are given in Figs. 47-so and will be referred to later.
If a member consists of double angles, gussets are always placed between them.
Small trusses are fabricated (riveted or bolted together) at the works and
transported to the site. Owing to the difficulty of conveying larger trusses,
these are fabricated in parts at the works and assembled together on the job
(see the reference to Fig. so on p. 128). Sometimes trusses are made " piece
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small," i.e., the various members, cut to length and holed for the bolts or rivets,
are conveyed to the site and the trusses are there assembled.
Trusses are erected by a crane (or sheer legs) and connected by holding-down
bolts tu the building (see below). The distance between trusses up to 40-ft.
span varies from xo to xs-ft. Wider spacing results in heavy purlins and un-
economical sizes of members. The oitch of steel roof trusses, like those of timber
construction, depends upon the ~ature of the covering material and the
architectural effect desired.
Details of roof trusses up to 40-ft. span are given in Figs. 47-so. These
are typical only, and several alternative details are provided for reference. It
is appreciated that the sizes of the members are influenced hy the weight of the
covering material, 1 the distance between the trusses and purlins, the provision
or otherwise of a plastered ceiling, and the degree of exposure of the building
to wind pressure. Briefly, the sizes of the members, number and sizes of the
rivets, etc., are dependent upon the forces in the members. The trusses illustrated
in Figs. 47, 48, 49 and so have been designed to support ceilings, and in each
example the covering material is slates.
TRuss SUITABLE FOR A 20-FT. SPAN (see Fig. 47).-This is a slated roof,
having a pitch of 30°. The effective span (distance between the centres of
bearings) is 2o-ft. and the maximum distance between the trusses is 12-ft. It
is assumed that the building is of the single storied workshop type and the
external walls are only required to be 9-in. thick (see s). Increased bearings
for the trusses are provided by internal piers, as shown . If required to prevent
the transmission of moisture, the walls would have to be rough-casted (or similarly
treated) externally, or be increased in thickness as shown at c, Fig. 48, or be of
cavity construction (see Fig. 49).
Sound sandstone pads of sufficient thickness and area must be provided to
give a reliable and level bearing for the ends of the truss and to receive the
steel fixing bolts. The pads course with the brickwork. The bolts are called
ragged lewis bolts or rag bolts. 2 A sketch of one of these holding-down bolts is
sho·wn at B ; its thickness is equal to the diameter of the upper threaded shank
1 The weight of asbestos-cement ~Orl"l;lgated sheets is approximately 3!-Jb. per sq. ft.
and that of clay tiles may be as much as 14!-lb. per sq. ft. Thus, if the trusses are 12-ft.
apart and the purlins are at 8-ft. centres, the difference in weight of these covering materials
(ignoring that of the spars necessary for the tiles and not required for the sheets) over the
area concerned is approximately half a ton.
2 A " rag bolt," unlike a lewis bolt, is not tapered, and n:sembles an ordinary bolt
shank, part of which is jagged and part threaded.
I and the lower portion is tapered in its width ; its edges are jagged as shown to
afford a key for the fixing material, which is usually molten lead run in to secure
the bolt when placed in the hole in the padstone. The lead should be well caulked,
otherwise water may enter and set up corrosion which may split the padstone.
These bolts, which are provided with nuts, are obtainable in overall lengths of
4, 6, 9, 12 and xs-in. and off, i, i, x and x!-in. diameter. That shown at B
is suitable for the truss illustrated in Fig. so, but as indicated at c, Fig. 47,
smaller bolts will serve for this small truss. T wo are required at each end and
these are fixed in readiness to receive the truss.
All of the members consist of single angles. These and the gussets are only
t -in. thick, the minimum thickness stipulated in the aforementioned B.S.S.
No. 449· The preferred maximum unsupported length of the wood spars is
8-ft. (see p. 73, Vol. I), and therefore only one purlin is required at each side.
The centre line principle has been observed in setting out, and, to prevent
confusion, these lines have been shown to be those of the rivets.
Although the centre lines of members are taken when drawing force diagrams,
it should be pointed out that the details of a structural engineer's working dtawing,
on which the position of each rivet hole at every connection is .indicated, sh<?w the
intersecting lines of members to be what are te rmed gauge lmes, scratch lmes or
scratters. These are the setting out lines which are ' ' scratched " on the backs of
members at the fabricating shop and along which the centres of the holes for the
rivets are spaced. The following bracketed figures give the position (n:easured down
the back from the intersection between the two legs) of the gauge hnes for angles
having 2-in. (1}-in.-see H , Fig. 48), z:!-in. (d-in .), z!-in. (ti-in.-s.e e c , Fig. 47),
3-in. (t!-in.-see c), 3-f-in. (z-in.), 4-in. (z!-in.), etc. , legs. The settm_g out of the
details in Fig. so shows the intersecting lines to be those of the scratter hnes.
It will be observed that at A, Fig. 47, in order to obtain symmetry, the rafters
and inclined tension angles (known as diagonal ties) are fixed to the gusset plates
on one side, and that the main tension angle, called the main tie, and the struts
are fixed on the other. This results in a better balanced truss than if all the
members were fixed on the same side.
Details of the foot or shoe of the truss are shown at c, D and E. A short angle
cleat is fixed at each side of the gusset and these rest upon a bearing plate or
base plate or sole plate. Both the cleats and the bearing plate are holed at a
distance apart equal to that of the lewis bolts, i.e., 3!-in. (see E). The plates are
placed in position and the truss is hoisted and lowered until the holes in the
cleats are engaged by the shanks of the lewis bolts. The cleat holes are larger
than the diameter of the bolts (seen) to facilitate fixing and allow a slight margin
for any error in the setting out. This obviates an erection difficulty which
would be otherwise caused if such an allowance was not made and a slight in-
accuracy occurred in either the setting out of the lewis bolts or the position of
the holes in the cleats. The nuts are finally tightened with a spanner. The
section at E shows the rafter at one side of the gusset and the main tie at the other.
The details at the apex are shown at F and G. The ends of the rafters are
mitred and those of the diagonal ties are square cut. The wood ridge is secured
by two t -in. diameter bolts to two bent plates or flats which have been either
 5 T E E ,. L R 0 0 F T R u s s
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B b'
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NOTE: ALL TltE MEMIIEI'.S OF . THE TI!.USS ME V4' TltiCJ<.. AN<iLES.

ALL 11-IVETS ARE 5/8 1 DIA. All OUSSETS ME !if' THICK.
D E T A L '0'
llVI&' DIA. HOLE ~ 511' LEWIS BOLT

HALF-I'.OUNO TILE II.lOGE

1'•4' WOOD PUJI.LIN

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EAVES FAIO. SIDE
Y21h '. 2". ~· TENSION L.

2 - F T. C
~------------------------------------------------- 20'-0" ----------------------------------------------_,~

+-:___?___~___:_~-~-~-u-~--------------~-~~-~~-~-~~-·"'- "'- tl_s______E___J_~",'/-E _'m_>i_V_r_~M_:_.I ___ T___ '_'~_:_~---N------------i---FE_~J __________________________F_I_G_U_R_E__ 4__1-r

 282 MILD STEEL
bolted or riveted to the rafters, the former being preferred. A detail of one of
these plates before bending is shown at H. Care must be taken in setting out
that the bolts or rivets connecting these plates to the rafters do not foul the rivets
fixing the latter to the gusset.
The purlins are of wood, and each is bolted to a cleat riveted or bolted to
the rafter (see K). If riveted, the cleats are fixed at the works (or on the site
before the truss is erected). A detail of the cleat is shown at J. Joints between
purlins must occur at the trusses, and for such connections the cleats are 12-in.
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
long to enable two bolts being fixed at the end of each purlin (see Q, Fig. so).
The bolts now commonly used for fixing these wood members are called carriage
bolts, coach bolts or timber bolts. As shown at K, a carriage bolt has a flat cup
head and a square neck (portion of the shank next to the head). Washers are not
required.1 Square nuts are used. Alternative purlins are shown at N, s, T and
u, Fig. so.
The detail at L shows the connection between the main and diagonal ties and
the strut.
All the rivets are i-in. diameter. The pitch of the rivets is figured on the
Jrawings. The "1!-2!-in." pitch shown is common for this size of rivet. It
will also be noted that the sizes of the gussets are figured . A structural engineer's
working drawing shows all of these dimensions. Many of them have been
omitted in the following drawings in order to prevent a mass of figures from
obscuring the details.
TRUSS SUITABLE FOR A 30-FT. SPAN (see Fig. 48).-An outline of the truss is
shown at A, the rafters being equally divided by two purlins on each side, and
the main tie is also equally divided.
Like the previous example, each. member is a single angle, and to obtain a
suitable balance some members are fixed at the near side of the gussets and others
at the far side.
Details of the shoe are given at c, D and E. The main tie extends for the
full width of the base plate and secured to it by a countersunk rivet (see M,
Fig. 77, Vol. I) in order to give a level bearing. A short cleat is provided at the
opposite side of the gusset and countersunk riveted to the base plate. As shown
at D, two H -in. diameter holes are formed in the plate to receive the lewis boks.
Unlike that shown at c, Fig. 47, the gusset does not project below the main tie,
and this arrangement is therefore more suitable if a plastered ceiling without
cornices is to be provided.
The details at F and G are those at the heads of the struts. The method
adopted of ensuring that the rivets are at least the minimum distance from the
edges of the gussets, referred to on p. 121, is indicated (see also B).
The connections at the apex are shown at H, and those between the gusset,
main tie, struts and diagonal tie are shown at K . The section at J shows a strut
1 A hole, of diameter equal to that of the bolt, is bored in the wood purlin. The bolt
is inserted and the square-necked portion driven home. The latter prevents rotation of
the bolt when the nut is being tightened.
ROOF TRUSSES
on each side of the gusset. The size of these struts and the diagonal tie is that
of the smallest angles used in roof construction, i.e., 2-in. by 2-in. by i-in.
The purlins in this example are of steel (see F and G) . These are sometimes
preferred to the timber purlins shown in Fig. 47· It will be noted that the purlins
are fixed to the rafters by means of bolts. Rivets are never used for fixing these
continuous members, as riveting is not practicable after the trusses have been
fixed in position. It should also be observed that the centre line principle has
been complied with and that ·the nut comes centrally between the pair of rivets
below. Wood plates, called fillers, must be bolted at 2-ft. 6-in. to 3-ft. intervals
to the purlins as shown to provide fixings for the spars. They are in short
lengths. An alternative arrangement is shown at B, where the purlins are
reversed and the fillers are placed against their backs. Whilst this is as sound as
the type shown at F and G, the fillers are not so readily fixed. The wood plates,
not being in continuous lengths, can be laid on the purlins if fixed as shown at
F until required to be bolted, but such a temporary support is not available if
the purlins are arranged as shown at B. The latter detail is adopted if soffit
boarding is required and which is nailed direct to the fillers. The form of end
joint between steel purlins is described on p. 128.
The detail at the ridge shows an alternative but more costly arrangement
to that detailed at G, Fig. 47 ; this is usually adopted for the direct fixing of
asbestos-cement sheets (see Fig. 47, Vol. III). The steel members are continuous
and the spars are nailed to the fillers.
The usual type of tapered gutter is detailed at c and the external walls are
13!-in. thick.
TRUSS SUITABLE FOR 30 TO 40-FT. SPANS (see Fig. 49).-The setting out
of the truss is shown in the outline elevation at G. All the members, with
exception of the rafters, are of 2-in. by 2-in. by !-in. angles. The rafters, main
tie and main struts, consist of double angles with the gussets in between (see B).
The shoe is detailed at c, D and E. Both angles of the main tie are counter-
sunk riveted to the base plate. Two slotted holes are formed in the base plate
for the lewis bolts. These enlarged holes, as previously explained, are to facilitate
fixing and not, as sometimes imagined, to allow for expansion and contraction
due to temperature changes which, in such a small roof, are negligible. A sketch
of the shoe is given at B.
The wood ridge connection is similar to that shown at G, Fig. 47·
The double members (rafters, main tie and main struts) are stiffened and
held at the correct distance apart by the provision at intermediate points of
washer packings placed between them and connected by bolts or tacking rivets
(see A and H). The thickness of the washers equals that of the gussets, i .e.,
T~....--in. According to the B.S.S. No. 449, the pitch of these tacking rivets should
not exceed 3-ft. 6-in. when the members are in tension and 2-ft. 6-in. for com-
pression members. In very large roofs the thickness of these washers may be
as much as 2-in. to provide adequate space between the backs of the members
for painting.
 5 T E
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INCHES FIGURE 48
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LATitS
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SCALE

NOTE: SIZES OF MEM8EPS DEPEND UPON WEIGHT OF COVERING, DISTANCE BETWEEN TIWSSES t., PURLINS, PROVISION OF CEILING, fTC. FIGURE 50
 MILD STEEL
The vertical tie, called a king tie and connected at the apex and to the main
tie, is required as an intermediate support, if, as shown at F, a plastered ceiling is
to be provided. Otherwise it can be dispensed with. It is shown to be a flat bar.
As explained on p . 121, flats are likely to become damaged in the course of
transport and erection of the tmss, and a small angle is often preferred for this
reason. There is very little stress in this member (o·s-tons only) and only one bolt
is shown at each connection. If two-bolted or riveted connections are insisted upon
(seep. 121) the details would be modified to those shown at v andY, Fig. 50.
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A common method of fixing the wood ceiling joists is shown at F. The joists
are fitted tightly between the vertical legs of the angles of the main ties, the
ends being notched over the horizontal legs as shown. These are nailed to
runners provided near each truss and at mid-centres, and the runners are spiked
to hangers, the heads of which are nailed to purlins (if of wood) or fillers and
to the ridge. Runners and hangers are detailed in Fig. 38, Vol. I.
The remaining details will be understood from the description of the previous
tmsses. The rivets are !-in. diameter for the rafter angles and t-in. diameter
for the remaining members. All the gussets are -f'~r-in. thick. The external walls
are of cavity construction with 14-in. by 4!-in. piers at truss intervals.
TRUSS SUITABLE FOR A 40-FT SPAN (see Fig. 50).-The outline elevation at
A shows the setting out. Each raft-er is divided into four equal parts. The
struts are normal to the rafters and the foot of each main diagonal tie scratter
line meets the intersection between those of the 3-in. by 3-in. by -l1r-in. main
strut and main tie. When arriving at the sizes of the members it was assumed
that the roof covering was slates, that a plastered ceiling had to be supported,
and that the distance between trusses was 12-ft.
This is known as a Fink, French or Belgium truss and is of good design, each
half consisting of a symmetrical triangulated frame. The king tie is only necessary
if a ceiling is required and serves as an additional support for the main tie.
As stated on p. 122, the gauge or scratter lines and not the centre lines have
been drawn when setting out these details. This is in conformity with the usual
practice adopted by structural engineers when preparing working details showing
the position of the rivets, etc. The spacing of the rivets is fully dimensioned.
The rafters, main tie and diagonal ties, consist of double angles placed back to
back and between which the }-in. gussets are fixed.
The shoe is detailed at N, o and P. The padstone is 9-in. thick (or equal to
three courses of brickwork), as it has to accommodate two !-in. lewis bolts which
are 6-in. long (see B, Fig. 47). Two cleats are riveted to the gusset and these
are countersunk riveted to the bearing plate in which slotted holes for the fixing
bolts are provided. The section at P shows the double rafter and main tie
riveted to the gusset.
Trusses of this size cannot be conveniently transported as complete structures
from the works to the building site. Each truss is therefore fabricated in two
halves at the works and conveyed in parts to the building. Thus the left half
detailed in Fig ..so would be riveted together with the gusset plate at the apex
ROOF TRUSSES
connected as shown and holed in order that the right half may be readily bolted
or riveted to it subsequently. The gusset at the bottom of the diagonal tie will
be fixed and holed similarly, and the detached middle main tie will have a holed
gusset plate riveted at its centre to receive the lower end of the king tie. On
arrival on the site each truss is quickly assembled by (a) connecting the upper
ends of the rafter and diagonal tie of the right half to the apex gusset, (b) bolting
or riveting (according to the type of fixing designed for) the middle main tie to
the gusset at x and to the corresponding plate on the right half truss, and (c)
connecting the king rod to the apex and middle main tie gussets. If site riveting
is resorted to, all of these members are fixed together by means of temporary
service bolts before the final operation is carried out ; if they are to be bolted
connections, which are common, the nuts are not finally spannered until all
the bolts have been inserted. It will be observed that the diameter of the holes
is 1 \,-in. larger than that of the bolt or rivet shanks.
As the stress in the main tie decreases towards the centre, the middle portion
consists of smaller angles, as shown at x.
The king tie is sometimes omitted if the roof is to be open, i .e., no ceiling
is required.
The detail at z is somewhat similar to that at w, and, with exception of those
of the purlins, a description of it and the remaining details is unnecessary.
Four different types of purlins are shown at N, s, T and u. That connecting
the feet of the trusses (N) is similar to that detailed at F and G, Fig. 48, described
on p . 124. Members such as this may be provided at the shoes of each of the
trusses shown in Figs. 47, 48 and 49 if preferred to fixing the feet of the spars
to wall plates.
An alternative to the above is shown at u. Here the purlin is reversed and
the short plates are bolted at the back. For the reason stated on p. 124, this is
not so convenient for fixing the fillers.
The large wood purlin shown at s is fixed in a similar manner to that illus-
trated at K, Fig. 47, but the cleat leg fixed to the rafter is shorter, as the required
two bolts or rivets are provided when one is fixed to each of the angles of the
rafter. The purlins should be sufficiently long to span across two bays (24-ft.)
to allow their ends to come over alternate trusses. The cleats will be 12-in.
long at the purlin ends (see Q) and 6-in. long at the intermediate trusses. These
purlin joints should be staggered to ensure that all the joints do not come
over the same pairs of trusses. The type of end joint used for steel puriins,
like those in Figs. 48 and 49, and N and u, Fig. so, usually consists of a 3-in. hy
3-in. by l-in. angle cleat, twice bolted to the back of the rafter, to which each
puriin end is twice bolted.
The steel purlin at T is bolted to an angle cleat bolted or riveted to the two
angles of the rafter. A 3-in. by z-in. wood plate is carriage-bolted or coach-
screwed (seep. xz6, Vol. I) to it at 3-ft. intervals to provide a fixing for the spars.
This type of purlin, without the wood plate, is commonly employed for fixing
asbestos-cement or corrugated iron sheets (seeK, M and N, Fig. 47, Vol. III).
 CHAPTER TWELVE
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CARPENTRY
S:vllabus.-Extended description of the classification, structure, conversion, seasoning, preservation, defects, characteristics and uses of timbers ; preparation
of timber, and machines employed. Double and framed floors ; determination of sizes of joists ; floor finishes, including boards, blocks, plywood, par<luet, cork and
rubber. Stoothed, trussed, terra-cotta, concrete, plaster, asbestos-cement and glass partitions. Sound-proofing. Double and queen post roots ; lanu)lated trusses .
Timbering of deep trenches and centres up to ro-ft. span.

TIMBER grain and is relatively cheap. A list of some of the principal softwoods is given
A SHORT introduction appears on pp. 55-59, Vol. I. in Table I, and the regions from which they are obtained are shown in Fig. 4·
CLASSIFICATION.-Treesare classified (a) botanically and (b) commercially. The hardwoods belong to the broad-leaf class or Dicotyledonet:e, and include
(a) Botanical Classification.-Timbers are grouped into families, each family the oaks mahoganies beeches birches etc. Most hardwoods are deciduous,
being divided into genera (large classes) and each genus into several species i.e., the; shed their ieaves in 'autumn.' They are chiefly used for decorative
(smaller classes) of trees which closely resemble each other in essential features. purposes, as for panelling, veneering and furniture, and certain of them are
Thus, the classification of the pine family (botanical name Pinacece) is as selected for constructional use because of their high strength and durable
follows:-· qualities. Table II includes a number of the many hardwoods used com-
mercially, and their disposition is shown in Fig. 4·
Family.
As point..:d out in Vol. I, whilst the division of timbers into softwoods and
Genera. Species.
hardwoods is firmly established and universally recognized, it is conventional
Pinace:oe Abies (firs) Abies alba, white fir; A. balsamea, only, as some softwoods are harder than certain hardwoods.
(Pine) balsam fir, etc.
Larix (larches) Larix decidua, European larch; L.
STRUCTURE.-Wood has a complex cellular structure. The thin tubular
sibirica, Siberian larch, etc. cells vary in size and shape in different kinds of trees and their function is to
Picea (spruces) Picea abies, European spruce or white- (I) conduct water and soluble salts absorbed from the soil by the roots to the
wood; P. glauca, Canadian spruce,
etc. : leaves, (2) provide storage of food during the winter and (3) give strength to
Pinus (pines) Pinus strobus, yellow pine ; P . sylvestris,l the tree.
I etc. Scots pine or redwood, etc. A part log is shown in diagrammatic form at A, Fig. I. The chief structural
I ---·- ··-'-- -------·---·-- ·-··
~-~
parts are indicated at the cross, radial and tangential sections.
As shown, the Latin botanical name of each tree consists of two words, the The diameter of the trunk and branches of a tree is increased bv the addition
first defining the genus to which it belongs, and the second the particular species. of successive irregular concentric layers on the outside immediat~ly \Vithin the
These names are now standard in all countries and indicate definitely the natural bark. In the temperate climate of this country, and under normal conditions, a
relationships of the timbers. fresh ring of wood is produced yearly, and the term annual ring which is applied
(b) Commercial Classification.-Timbers used commercially are divided to it is therefore descriptive. In the tropics the growth does not always agree
into softwoods _and hardwoods. with annual periods and more than one ring may be formed annually ; the tenn
The softwoods are members of the conifer class or Coniferce, and include growth ring is then a better description. A cross-section through a log may
the pines, firs, spruces, etc. These cone-bearing trees have needle-like leaves, show a big variation in the thickness of the rings ; thus, a narrow ring formed
and, with few exceptions, are evergreens. Most of the timber used for con- during a droughty season may be adjacent to a relatively wide growth ring
structional work is of this class, as, in general, it is sufficiently strong for most produced under better climatic conditions. An irregularity in the thickness of
purposes, is easily worked on account of its softness and straightness in the a ring will he caw;ed if the tree is exposed to more sun on one side than the other.
288
 289 CARPENTRY
The growing season in this country is from April to September. During
this period new wood is produced by a thin layer of cells called the cambium and
situated between the bark and the outer growth ring. These cambial cells
divide and subdivide, forming new cells on the inner and outer sides. The
new inner cells gradually grow into the new wood (xylem) and the new outer
cells develop into new bark (bast) which conducts the food converted by the leaves
to the growing parts of the tree. The wood produced at the beginning of the
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growing season, known as the spring wood, is generally of an open nature owing
to the relatively large size of the cells and the thinness of their walls ; that formed
towards the end of the season, called the summer wood, is usually denser on
account of the cells being smaller and their walls thicker (see B, c and E, Fig. I).
Hence the contrasting alternate lighter and darker layers which clearly define
the growth rings in many timbers. Some woods, as shown at K, do not show a
sharp contrast between spring wood and summer wood.
A cross-section through a fully developed tree will, as a rule, show a com-
paratively dark coloured central portion or heartwood surrounded by a lighter
coloured zone called sap1vood. The heartwood content of a tree increases with
age. Thus, the log of an immature tree is chiefly composed of sapwood, the cells
of which are actively engaged in conducting mineral salt solutions from the soil
to the leaves and the sap or foodstuff manufactured from them. In course of
time this work is performed by the more recently formed growth rings and the
cells in the inner core become inactive, the heartwood acting as a mechanical
support of the tree only. Each year the inner ring of sapwood is converted into
heartwood, and as an additional outer growth ring has been formed during
this period, it follows that the proportion of sapwood remains practically constant.
Various subsfances, such as gum, resin and tannin, arc formed and deposited
in the heartwood cells. These substances influence the colour and increase the
durability of heartwood. There is no appreciable difference in strength between
sapwood and heartwood.
The structure of (a) softwood timbers is simple compared with that of (b)
hardwoods.
(a) Structure of Softwoods.-Approximately 90 per cent. of the wood consists
of comparatively long, vertical (when forming the trunk) tubular cells called
tracheids. A cross-section through a portion of a growth ring is shown at B, Fig. I.
This shows the honeycombed nature of the structure, with the tracheids arranged
in rows and separated at intervals by rays (see next column). The tracheids
are seen to be polygonal shaped when examined under the microscope. Most
of them are not visible to the naked eye, and as an example the tracheid shown
greatly enlarged at Pis only o·oo4-in. in diameter (see H). Those in the spring-
wood zone have thin walls and relatively large cavities (see E, H and P), whereas
the summer-wood cells have gradually diminishing cavities and thicker walls
(see c and c). The function of the spring-wood cells is to conduct water to the
leaves and the chief function of the summer-wood tracheids is to strengthen
the tree. The cells are approximately 3-mm. (about -! -in.) long, as shown at P;
the ends of the spring-wood cells are more rounded than those of the summer-
wood cells (compare c and E). The cells communicate with each other through
pits, of which there are many modifications. One form, known as a bordered
pit, is shown at c and E. Pits in adjacent cells are opposite to each other and
permit of the conduction of water, etc., from one tracheid to another. As shown,
a pit consists of a circular area of unthickened cell wall from the border of which
the wall projects to form a domical-shaped covering having a hole in the middle.
The continuous thin membrane is called the middle lamella, and this is thickened
at the centre to form the torus (see o). Another form of pit, called a single pit,
is shown at N and P.
The medullary rays, or simply rays, referred to in the preceding column,appear
as straight, narrow, radial bands across the grain (see A and P). In softwoods they are
hardly visible to the naked eye; thus, those of redwood vary from o·oos to
o·oiz-in. high. A ray consists of cellular tissue, called parenchyma. The cells
are thin-walled and rectangular in shape. The rays are irregularly distributed,
and each is usually only one cell wide and several cells high, as shown in the
tangential section at L where the rays can be seen in section. They serve
as storage accommodation for food which is transmitted through simple ray
pits to the ·adjacent vertical tracheids for distribution . As shown at P, these ray
pits are thin membranes which are either circular, rectangular or slit-like in
shape.
Resin ducts are present in certain softwoods, such as pitch pine, redwood,
spruce, yellow pine and Douglas fir (see B and L). These canals are present in
comparatively small numbers in the summer wood and in the rays. They
receive the resin (waste product) secreted by the cells immediately surrounding
them.
(b) Structure of Hardwoods.-This is more complicated than the structure
of softwoods. It chiefly comprises vessels, fibres, parenchyma and rays.
Vessels or Pores.-These are long vertical tubes composed of pipe-like open-
ended cells which extend down the trunk. Their function is similar to that of
the spring-wood tracheids of softwoods in that they conduct water from the
roots to the crown of the tree. The size of the pores varies in different woods,
thus a cross-section through a log of oak will show comparatively large pores
which are conspicuous to the naked' eye, the pores of beech· are barely visible
to the naked eye, and those of box are difficult to distinguish even with the aid
of a m:1gnifying glass. A pore is shown in section at M. The pits are smaller
than those in softwood tracheids.
Some hardwoods, such as oak, elm and ash, have the larger pores concen-
trated within the spring wood and the smaller pores distributed throughout the
summer wood ; these are called ring-porous woods, and an example is shown at J.
Hardwoods in which the pores are fairly uniformly diffused (scattered) over
the whole growth ring are said to be diffuse-porous, examples being mahogany,
beech and birch (see K); as shown, the pores gradually dec.rease in si?-e with a
maximum in the spring wood.
 s T u c T u E 0 F w 0 0 D

c~oss
W~--~
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c SECTDN ' F' G E

I

-n c
ENLAIV:iEMENT OF ENDSfoF
SUMME~WOOD ~ SPPJNGWOOO TF.ACHEIDS

O~G
OUTEP-.
CROSS
~ :~ G H'Q
P 0 ~ T 0 N A SHOWING STRUCTU~E ) / CROSS SECTIONS rr;OUGH
L 0 G 0 F I+ A 0 0 D OF SOFTWOOD SUMMERWOOD ~ SPPJNGWOOD Tf!..ACHEIDS

MYS IN sonwooos AJl:E

USUAlLY ONE CEll WIDE,
SEVEP-Al CELLS HIGH N.
SHOWN f. INVISIBLE TO THE
NAKED EYE. 51\DAD ~VS
INHAWWOODS m SEVEML

.•
CELLS WIDE; IN OM THEY MAY
EXCEED 20 WIDE f. BE SEYEIW
HUNDRED (AT LEAST I') HIGH•

J
C~OSS SECTIONS SHOWING ST~UCTUM OF A TANGENTIAL SECTION OF
~lNG PO~OUS HMDWOOO (OAK) tJ A DIFFUSE PO~U5 HAI\DWOOD SOFTWOOD SHOWING AAVS
D I M f N S I 0 N S G I V E A P P R0 X I M AT E S I Z E S ~ I ND I C A T E MA G N I F I C A T I 0 N FIGURE I
 291 CARPENT RY
When pores cease to act as water conductors they frequently become plugged
with sac-like growths called tyloses.
Softwoods are without pores, and therefore the presence of pores is a clear
indication that the timber is of the hardwood type.
Fibres.-These are narrow thick-walled cells, shorter ( I-mm.) but somewhat
resembling the summer-wood tracheids of softwoods. The bulk of the wood
consists of fibres, and their function is to provide strength to the tree. They
cannot be separately distinguished by the naked eye (seeM).
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Parenchyma or Soft Tissue.- This consists of thin-walled, rectangular cells
occurring as vertical strands surrounding the pores (see M}, as bands linking
up the pores and as fine lines separating the growth rings . They are visible
on cross-section as light coloured bands or patches in contrast to the darker
coloured masses of fibres. The function of the soft tissue is to store reserves
of food.
Rays.-These also store food materials. Unlike the softwood rays described
on p. 2, those in most hardwoods are several cells in width. These radiating
strands sometimes appear as distinct broad bands, about I 5 cells wide, separated
by indistinct finer rays, about 3 cells wide (as in oak and beech, see J and K},
or entirely as indistinct fine rays, about 3 cells wide, as in birch. The height
(as in oak) may exceed I-in., and the characteristic "silver grain" of quarter-
sawn oak is due to the presence of these very broad and high rays.
Identification.- The identification of the more commonly used timbers does not
present n:u~h difficulty to those experienced in the industry by observing such general
charactenst1cs as the colour, texture, smell, appearance of the growth rings, rays, etc.
Most t1mbers, however, can only be identified with certainty by a close examination
of the structure of a thin cross-section (cut by a sharp knife or chisel) through a hand
lens which has a magnification of about ten times the natural size. When more reliable
!nf~:>rmation is required, ~s is necessary to distinguish timbers which are closely allied,
1t 1~ necessary to . examme prepared slides of the specimens through a microscope
wh1ch has a mag~1ficat10n of twenty-five to thirty diameters. For this purpose it is
necessar.y to examme three secti~ms fro~? each specimen, i.e. , cross, radial and tangential,
th~ rad1al ~nd .tangential s~ct10ns beml?i necessary for the examination of the rays.
Bnefly , a shd e IS prepared m the followmg manner : A slice of the wood about !-in.
square and H',,,. -in . thick, is cut by a special knife called a microtome ·' the slice is
stai.ned by colo.ured alcohol and then pressed flat (mounted) on a pie~e of glass to
wh1ch an adhes1ve (Canada balsam) has been applied .
The structure of a specimen should be methodically examined under the micro-
~cope .. Thus, the group to ~hich it b.elo~gs !s first determined , absence of pores
md.1catmg a softwood ; the s1ze and d1stnbut10n of the rays, type of pits and any
resm ducts are diagnosed ; if a hard:wood (indicated by the presence of pores) the
g.roupmg of the larger pores (whether ring-porous or diffuse-porous) and the distribu-
tiOn of the sma.ller pores are not.ed, to~ether ~ith the character of the soft tissue , rays,
etc. .As the shde IS bemg stud1ed microscopically, a larger specimen of the wood is
cxamme~ and the general features such as the colour, weight, characteristics of the
growth nngs, etc., are observed.
The appearance of cut surfaces of timber is influenced by its structure, and
there are several terms used to express this appearance. These include ( 1) grain,
(z) texture and (3) figure.
I. Grain applies to the general direction of the fibres and cellular units in
relation to the longitudinal edges of a piece of wood or the vertical axis of a tree.
There are several kinds of grain, i.e., (a) straight grain, when the fibres are
parallel; (b) irregular grain, when the fibres are inclined; (c) wavy or curly grain,
when the fibres frequently change direction and produce alternating darker
and lighter wave-like stripes on the surface (such timber when split has a
corrugated surface) ; (d) spiral grain, when the fibres are arranged spirally ; (e)
interlocking grain, when the fibres in successive growth rings are inclined in
opposite directions; and (f) diagonal grain, when straight-grained timber has been
improperly converted so that the fibres are inclined to the longitudinal edges.
Regarding :-
(a) Straight-grained timber is relatively strong and easy to work. It has
only a plain figure (see p. s).
(b) Irregular-grained timber is relatively weak, is difficult to work, but gives
an attractive figure (see p. 5). The irregularity is often due to the presence
of knots.
(c) Wavy or curly grained timber is highly decorative on account of the
irregularly curved fibres.
(d) Spiral-grained timber is of reduced strength.
(e) Interlocking-grained timber may be subjected to excessive tw1stmg
when being seasoned, and is not easy to work . The strength is not seriously
affected. The figure produced is described on p. 5.
(f) Diagonal-grained timber is reduced in strength owing to faulty
conversion.
The term end grain refers to the arrangement of the exposed fibres on the
cross-cut surface.
Flat-sawn or plain-sawn timber is that whic::h has been converted (see pp. 5
and 6) so that the annual rings intersect the cut face over at least half its width at less
than 45°. It is inaccurately described as " flat grain " or " slash grain." Timber
can be converted quickly, cheaply and with the minimum waste by this method
of conversion.
Quarter or rift sawn timber (see p . 57, Vol. I) is that which has been con-
verted so that the annual rings intersect the cut face in any part at more than
45°. It shrinks less in width than flat-sawn timber and has less tendency to
warp and split. The terms " quarter grain," " edge grain," " vertical grain "
and " comb grain " are loosely applied to quarter-sawn timber.
When timber fails, due to its brittleness, it is often said to be " short in the
grain." This is an inaccurate application of grain, as the condition is not affected
by the direction of the fibres . Whilst it may be characteristic of certain timbers, it
is also due to improper seasoning and fungoid decay, such as dry rot (seep. I4)·
" Even grain " and " uneven grain " are other terms which are inaccurately
used (as they are not influenced by the direction of the fibres) to describe timber
whose growth rings are either uniform in width (" even ") or irregular in width
("uneven "). A more accurate expression is "growth rings of regular (or
irregular) width."
2. Texture applies to the size and order or arrangement of the cells. Thus, a
 TIMBER
hardwood of coarse texture has hlrge pores and/or broad rays (such as oak) and
that of fine texture (such as beech) has small pores and/or narrow rays. Examples
of intermediate grades are moderately coarse texture (Honduras mahogany) and
medium texture (birch). Most softwoods are fine textured on account of their small
cells, and some Russian redwood is especially so. Diffuse-porous hardwoods (such
as beech) and softwoods with growth rings having slight contrasting spring and
summer wood (such as white pine) are known as even-textured timber; ring-
porous hardwoods (such as elm) and softwoods having strongly contrasting
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zones of spring and summer wood (such as Douglas fir) are of uneven texture.
Sometimes softwoods are classified as " coarse grained " (or " coarse textured ")
or " fine grained" (or "fine textured") when their growth rings are wide and
narrow respectively ; such expressions are not correct, as the width of rings
does not affect either grain or texture ; they are best referred to as " wide " or
"narrow-ringed" timbers.
3· Figure is the pattern on the surface of timber formed by the arrangement
of the different tissues and influenced by the grain and ·colour. There is a big
variation in the quality of the figure ; thus, straight-grained timber has only a
plain figure, whereas suitably converted timber will show beautiful markings
when it is irregular, interlocked or wavy grained.
The nature of the figure is affected largely by the method of conversion, and
when the appearance of the timber is an important consideration, as for panelling
or furniture, the form of conversion adopted should expose the characteristic
elements to the best advantage. Thus, oak is quarter-sawn in order to disclose
relatively large sections of the conspicuous broad rays on the cut surface and
which give the richly ornamental figure known as silver grain ; pitch pine is
flat or tangentially sawn to expose the distinct growth rings of light coloured spring
wood and dark summer wood.
Conspicuous irregularities in the direction of the fibres usually give an
attractive figure. The following are examples : Irregular grain due to small
elevated patches on the growth rings produces blister figure, which is highly
decorative and common to sapele and pitch pine ; the irregular grain conforming
to-small depressions in the growth rings gives the characteristic bird's-eye figure of
rock maple; and the handsome figure resulting from irregular grain at the burrs
(swellings) (see A, Fig. 40) in walnut is called burr figure. Interlocked grain is
responsible for the stripe figure or ribbon figure peculiar to African mahogany and
Andaman Padauk when quarter-sawn and for the mottledfigure characteristic of black
bean, New Zealand kaurie, etc.; interlocked grain in Queensland maple, mahogany,
sapele and other tropical timbers is sometimes irregular, and the striped figure
is interrupted by longitudinal darker bands to form what is known as roe figure.
Wavy or curly grain may produce markings in walnut, sycamore, Cupan
mahogany, rock maple, Indian laurel, Australian blackwood, etc., known as
fiddle-back figure (so called as such decorated wood is usually selected for the
backs of violins) ; this is caused by alternate dense and lighter transverse bands
crossing the grain.
292
Highly decorative figure results from converted timber obtained from just
below a crotch (fork) (see A, Fig. 40) or at the stump (base) of a tree, the disturb<:d
curly grain producing a figure in mahogany, rock maple, etc., known as feather
curl (as it has the appearance of ostrich feathers) ; another modification as a
result of contorted grain sometimes seen in oak is appropriately called ram's
horn figure, the short waves forming a series of narrow transverse stripes.
Ripple marks are the transverse sections of rays seen on the cut surface of
some timbers (including sweet chestnut, sycamore, East Indian satinwood and
Honduras mahogany) and arranged regularly at intervals in straight lines across
the width.
Variations in colour affect the figure and increase the decorative value of
timber, i.e., the rich colour of walnut streaked with dark bands.
Pith-flecks are discoloured brown streaks or spots occasionally seen in birch,
Rhodesian teak, etc.
CONVERSION
The methods of converting (" breaking down") timber by (a) radial, rift or
quarter sawing, (b) tangential, flat or plain sawing and (c) slab sawing are described
on p. 57, Vol. I.
Machines are employed for felling trees on a large scale, although in this
country most tree felling is done by hand. One type of machine used for this
purpose is steam or electrically driven and resembles that shown at B, Fig. 2 ,
with the reciprocating saw blade horizontal.
The sawing up of a log into baulks (squared timber exceeding 6-in. by 6-in.),
planks (pieces from 2 to 6-in. thick and at least n-in. wide), flitches (pieces
not less than 4-in. by 12-in.), deals (pieces of softwood from 2 to 4-in. thick by
9 to under n-in. wide), battens (from 2 to 4-in. thick by 5 to 8-in. wide),
boards (under 2-in. thick by 4-in. and over in width) slices (thin wide pieces),
etc., is performed by machinery. This machinery is power driven.
Whilst steam, gas and internal combustion engines are used for this purpose, the
chief motive power is electricity. The power may be transmitted from its ~ource
either by shafting or, preferably, by a separate motor attached to each rnachme or
group of machines. The shafting (steel rods) .is suspended by hangers fi~ed to the
roof or ceiling ; rotary motion is imparted to the shafting by beltmg wh1ch passes
over pulleys connected to the shafting and the engine or mot.or, ~nd the motiOn. of
the shafting is transmitted by a belt to the machine. Shaftmg IS gradually hemg
dispensed with as machines with individual motors are installed ; such are known
as motorized machines.
Logs must first be cut into convenient lengths for handling. The recipro-
cating cross-cut saw, shown at B, Fig. 2, is suitable for this purpose.
The mechanically operated 9-ft. long blade has a lower cutting edge, like the
ordinary hand cross-cut saw, and during its reciprocating motion it cuts down-
wards with the inward stroke only. Logs up to 6-ft. diameter can be rapidly
cross-cut by this machine.
There are several types of woodworking machines used for converting logs
 293 CARPENTRY
w 0 0 D w 0 K N
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c
HO~IZONTAL LOG 8AND MILL CI~CULA~ SAW
after they have been cut into suitable lengths. These include the (I) horizontal
log band. mill, (2) vertical log band mill, (3) circular saw mill, (4) horizontal log
frame sawing machine, (5) vertical log frame sawing machine, (6) combined log
and deal frame and (7) band re-sawing machine. The following is a brief
description of these power-driven machines :-
I. HoRIZOl'TAL LoG BAND MILL (see A, Fi){. 2).-This consi~ts of a 6 to 10-in.
wide hand or continuous saw, having teeth on one edge, which movcs horizontally ·as
indicated by the arrows, and is maintained in tension over two large (4·~ to
7-ft. diameter) pulleys. The log is supported on a travelling carriage (running on
wheels fixed to the floor, or the carriage may he provided with wheels which run
on rails) and is fed end-on in the direction of arrow " 1 . ., The continuous cutting
action of the saw is capable of rapidly breaking down a log or haulk into panels,
flitches, boards, veneers, etc., by a succession of horizontal cuts, starting from the
top. The cross rail supporting the pulleys is lowered as required after each cut by
manipulation of the handwhcel. The rate of feed can be rap1dly vaned trom 10 to
So-ft. per min., and the rate of return may reach zoo-ft. per min.
2. VERTICAL LoG BAND !\11l.L. - As implied, the hand saw has a vertical travel
over two pulleys, one above and the other below the log, as it rapidly breaks down th('
log by a succession of vertic~! cuts. A lo,g carriage is prO\~ idcd., The diameter_ of the
pullt·ys varies from 5 to 9-tt. and the w1dth of the saw trom S to 16-m. It 1s well
~dapted for quartering lo1,rs and for accurately cutting wide hoards, etc., when h1gh
outputs are required.
Both the horizontal and vertical log hand mills are extensively employed and are
replacing other machines (such as th,· vertical frame sawing machine, n, Fig. 2)
because of the accuracy and 1\igh speed at which logs can he broken down, under
complete control, and with the minimum of waste n·sulting to the converted timber.
3· CmcULAH SAw Mit.!. (see c, Fig. 2) .-This consists of a vertical circular saw
(see pp. 24, 26 and 27) of 4 to 7-ft. diameter and a travelling table (running on rollers)
driven by a rack and pinion to feed the log end-on against the rotating saw as it forms a
G M A c H N E y
i<.ECIPJ(.OCATING FRAME
MILL VERTICAL Ffi..AME SAWING
vertical cut. It is also known as a rack feed saw bench, and is used for breaking down
different-sized logs, edging flitches, etc. The rate of feed varies from 9 to 40-ft.
per min., and the accelerated return of the table is I zo-ft. per min.
+· HoiUZONTAL LoG FRAME SAWING MACHINE.-This has a horizontal saw fixed
in a reciprocating (moving to and frd) frame which cuts, in both directions of the
stroke, horizontal slices off the log as it is moved forward on a metal table or log
carriage end-on towards the saw. It is used for sawing logs, usually of expens1ve
hardwoods, into boards, planks and panels where limited power only is available.
The rate of feed is relativelv low. The log can be examined after each cut, and thus
. . .
the sawing speed can be regulated as required.
5· VERTICAL LoG FRAME SAWING MACHINE (see D, F1g. 2).-Th1s compnses a
reciprocating frame containing a number of vertica.l saws, spaced as reqUired to a
minimum distance apart of !-in., which works w1th an up-and-down motwn to
convert the log into deals or boards as it is driven end-on through the frame. The
saws are only effective on the down-stroke. Most softwood logs were broken down
by this type of machine. Whilst several pieces are cut by one operation, the c<;m-
version is comparatively slow, and, as already stated, this machine is gradually bemg
superseded by the horizontal and vertical log band mills and band re-saws (see below)
where large outputs are required .
6. COMBINED LOG AND DEAL FRAME.-This is of a lighter but sim ila r type to the
vertical framto sawing machine D, and is used~ for rapidly cutting (known as _re-sawing)
deals and flitches into boards by one or more vertical saws which work w1th an up-
and-down motion as the timber is fed by means of horizontal and vertical fluted
rollers with adjustable down and side pressures. Only one deal at a time can be
dealt with in the " single " type, but the " double deal frame " converts two deals
at once. The 'saws are comparatively thin and thus a minimum wastage of wood resu_lts.
7· BAND RE-SAWING MACHINE.-This is simi lar to but lighter tha_n the verhcal
log band mill and is designed for the rapid (up to zso.lin. ft . per. f!llll.) re-sawmg
of deals, flitches and battens into boards and panels with the m1mmum w;tste of
wood owing to the thinness of the band saw.
Other machines are described on pp. 24-3 I.
 TIMBER
SEASONING
An introduction to this subject appears on pp. 55-57, Vol. I.
Timber from a recently felled tree contains moisture in the form of free
water in the cell cavities and absorbed water in the cell walls. Seasoning or
conditioning is the process concerned with the reduction (not total elimination)
of this moisture content (" m.c.") in the timber. Timber required for internal
use should be conditioned to a m.c. approximating to the average humidity of
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the room in which it is to be fixed (see below).
The m .c. is calculated as a percentage of the dry weight of the wood. It is
determined in the following manner :-
r. A small test piece or cross-section is cut off a sample of wood before
being seasoned. As the extreme ends of the piece may be drier than the
remainder, it is usual to cut the cross-sectional specimen at about I-ft. from
one end in order to obtain representative figures, and its length in the direction
of the grain need not exceed t-in. The section is at once weighed (usually on a
physical balance) and this is recorded as the wet weight.
2. The specimen is placed in an oven where it is subjected to a temperature
of I00° C. (2I2° F .) until the whole of the moisture has been withdrawn. It is
again weighed and recorded as the dry weight.
3· The percentage moisture is then calculated from the formula:-
.
(a ) M msture wet weight - dry weight
content per cent.= x Ioo,
dry weight
· I wet weight ..
or (b) M 01sture content per cent.= \ . - Ioo.
dry we1ght
1 )
, sawn timber is less liable to movement than that which has been plain sawn ;
Thus, as an example, suppose the specimen to be from a 7-in. by r-in. floor
board, t-in. long, having an initial or wet weight of 42-gm. and a final or dry
weight of 30-gm. (I -oz. approx.). The
42-30
m.c. = - -- x IOO =40 per cent. (a)
30
or m.c. = ( 42 - I) IOO = 40 per cent. (b)
30
The determination of the m.c. in kiln samples is referred to on p. IO. The
m.c. of samples of timber freshly cut from the log may vary from 50 per cent.
or more for hardwoods to over IOO per cent. for softwoods. Much of this moisture
must be removed, and the following moisture contents of timber required for
various purposes are recommended : 1 Interior joinery work, 9 to I4 per cent. ;
external joinery work (as for doors and windows), IS per cent. ; good class
carpentry work, 20 per cent. (maximum) and rough carpentry work, 25 per cent.
Although the mean m.c. of timber in centrally heated buildings is approximately
1 Full information appears in" Timber Seasoning," Forest Products Research Records,
No.4.
294
12 per cent., it is advisable to reduce the m.c. in timber to be used for panelling,
etc., adjacent to the heating radiators to at least 8 per cent. It is important to
note that timber which has less than 20 per cent. m.c. is not liable to become affected
by dry rot (see pp. I4-r6).
DEFECTS OR DEGRADES DUE TO SEASONING.-The'evaporation of the absorbed
water in the cell walls during the process of seasoning does not commence until
the whole of the free water in the cavities has disappeared. The term fibre
saturation point is applied when the last of the free water has been removed and
the cell walls are still saturated ; the m.c. at this stage varies from 25 to 30 per
cent. Shrinkage does not occur until after the free water has been totally
eliminated and the removal of the absorbed water commenced. Changes in
size and often in shape then occur, the maximum shrinkage taking place in the
tangential direction (i.e., in the direction of the growth rings). Tangential
shrinkage is generally approximately double radial shrinkage (i.e., at right angles
to the annual rings). Thus, approximate comparative figures show that the
average tangential shrinkage of timber per foot of original width increases from
-r'o to ~\y-in. when the m.c. decreases from I4 to 9 per cent., and the corresponding
radial shrinkage increases from r"o to -r"'o-in. Longitudinal shrinkage (i.e., in the
direction of the grain) is almost negligible. This unequal movement in the
several directions is due to the difference in structure of the wood ; thus, as the
ray cells lie in a radial direction (see A, Fig. I), and as cells do not vary appreciably
in length, it follows that the presence of ray cells is chiefly responsible for the
'relative reduction in radial shrinkage. The thicker the cell walls the greater
the shrinkage. From the foregoing it will be appreciated that : ( r) Quarter-
(2) denser timbers usually shrink and swell more than lighter wood; and (3)
spring wood is more static than the denser summer wood.
As stated in the preceding column, timber for internal joinery work should have
a m.c. as near as possible to the mean humidity of the air in the portion of the build-
ing in which it is to be permanently fixed. Otherwise, if comparatively dry wood
is exposed to a damp atmosphere it will absorb moisture and swell ; conversely,
if the m.c. in the timber is relatively high and the air of the room is warm and
dry, a certain amount of moisture will be evaporated and the timber will shrink.
This movement or working takes place when the humidity of the atmosphere
in a building is not constant, and serious defects may be caused by the alternating
shrinkage and expansion due to extreme fluctuating atmospheric conditions.
Such conditions are commonly met with in buildings in course of construction
and especially during the winter months when the humidity of the atmosphere
is relatively high. It is therefore advisable to defer as long as possible the fixing
of framed work, such as panelling and the laying of wood block and similar
flooring, until the building has been well dried. Every effort should be made
by artificial heating and other means to dry newly constructed buildings as
thoroughly as practicahle before at least the more e~pensive woodwork is
introduced.
 295 CARPENTRY
Defects due to seasoning include checking, splitting and warping. These
degrades are caused by shrinkage.
Checking is the longitudinal separation of the fibres which does not extend
throughout the whole cross-section of the wood. It is due to unequal drying.
As the moisture evaporates more rapidly from the surfaces, they tend to shrink
before the inner layers, and split6ng results. The various forms of checks are :-
(a) End Checks.- - These occur on the ends, especially if the pieces are large.
They are caused by the moisture evaporating more quickly through the end
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grain than other surfaces and the shrinkage being held back by the greater body
of wood. End checking can be minimized by painting the ends ; this reduces
the rate of end drying.
(b) Surface Checks, which form on the outer faces during the early stages
of seasoning. Later they may close and are only exposed on dressing the timber.
(c) Honey comb or Internal Checks.- These appear in the interior of the timber
if the drying conditions are too severe in the early stages. The separation of
the inner fibres is due to the shrinkage of the dried surface fibres being resisted
by the wetter core, and when the internal moisture dries out later the core fibres
are prevented from shrinking by the dry outer layers. A condition of stress
results, known as case-hardening, and this produces honeycombing.
Checks are usually much shorter than shakes (see p. 58, Vol. 1). The latter
are not seasoning defects.
Splitting is the separation of the fibres which extends through a piece of
timber from one face to another. Splits are sometimes called through checks.
Warping.-The various forms of this distortion are: Bow, cup, spring
and' twist.
(a) Bow and Cup are referred to on pp. 58 and 59, Vol. I.
(b) Spring or Springing.-This is a curvature of the edge of a piece of timber.
The face is not affected and is therefore flat.
(c) Twist or Wind.- This is a spiral distortion (winding) along the length of
a piece of timber.
Collapse.-This is a condition which may occur during the early stages of
seasoning very wet timber which may shrink unevenly andjor excessively. The
cells are flattened as a result of the partial vacuum created by the evapora.tion
of the water and its retarded replacement by air. Collapse can be prevented if
the timber is dried at low temperatures in the early stages.
Brashness or Brittleness may be caused to timber if it has been too rapidly
dried or been subjected to high temperature in the kiln ; such timber breaks with
a short fracture.
METHODS OF SEASONING.-There are three methods of eliminating excess
moisture from timber, i.e., (r) air seasoning, (2) kiln seasoning and (3) a com-
bination of air seasoning and kiln seasoning.
z. Air Seasoning or Natural Seasoning (see p . 56, Vol. 1).-The timber is
stac~ed either out of doors where the piles are roughly protected by temporary
slopmg roofs (each consisting of a double layer of low-grade sloping boards
which overhang the sides of the piles) to throw off the rain, or in an open shed
having a roof and one or more walls. The site or floor should be well drained
and covered with ashes or, preferably, concrete to prevent the growth of
vegetation. The width of a pile varies from 6 to 12-ft., the height may be up
to r6-ft. and the length depends upon that of the timber. Piles are best built
on steel beams or rails supported at intervals by 9-in. square concrete or brick
piers, 9-in. high, and three to four rows per width of pile; in the absence of
beams the pillars are spaced at about 2-ft. 6-in. centres. If piers are not used,
the timber in contact with the floor should be creosoted.
There are several methods of piling. Thus, that shown at c, Fig. 29, Vol. I,
is common for softwood baulks. A more effective arrangement, as it ensures a
better flow of air, is to reduce the number of baulks in every alternate layer.
The piles are sometimes arranged with the timbers inclined in the transverse
direction ; any water which may enter the pile is thus effectively drained. Con-
verted hardwood logs may be lagged or sticked as shown atE in the above Fig. 29,
the logs being stacked one above the other.l Boards may be piled as shown
in the kiln at A and B, Fig. 3 (this volume), the 1-in. piling sticks being of well-
seasoned softwood and spaced at from 2 to 6-ft. apart, depending upon the
thickness of the timber to be supported. Narrow boards are often stacked in
twos with about 1-in. space between each pair.
If timber is piled in the winter the evaporation of the moisture is gradual,
and excessive surface shrinkage and checking will not occur.
The rate of evaporation in air seasoning is comparatively slow in this country
and is only partly controlled. The degrade, such as checking, splitting and warping
(see preceding column), is relatively small because of the humidity of this climate.
Under average climatic conditions it is not possible in this country to reduce
the m.c. of timber by air seasoning to much below 20 per cent., although during
a prolonged spell of hot weather the m.c. may be reduced to 12 per cent. A_s
the average reduction is not sufficient for certain intetnal work (see p. 7), 1t
is clear that air conditioned timber to be used for good class joinery should be
dried still further by keeping it in a heated workshop or store before being
finally dressed or framed together until the required m.c. has been attained.
In order that the timber may be available for use immediately the m.c. has
been reduced by air seasoning to the required percentage, it is necessary to
determine the m.c. when the timber is piled and thereafter at suitable intervals.
The procedure for this purpose is similar to that described for kiln seasoning
and described on p. ro.
Length of Drying Period.-The time taken in air seasoning depends upon
the temperature and humidity of the atmosphere, efficient stacking, and :he
thickness and density of the timber. On the average it may be taken as a gmde
1 End checks are reduced by coating the ends with paint. Strips of wood nailed
across the ends of the planks (see E, Fig. 29, Vol. I) after shrinkage has occurred prevent
the extension of any splits which may have formed ; the strips should not be fixed before
contraction has taken place.
 TIMBER 296

T M E L N
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S E C T I 0 N
THIS K.ILN IS OF THE FORCED DRAUGHT
EXTERNAL FAN COMPARTMENT TYPE.
THE AIR. IS BROUGHT TO THE R.fQUIRED
TEMPERATURE & HUMIDITY BY THE HEATER
"F" WHICH CONTAINS STEAM PIPES AND E
SP'AAY JETS. THIS CONDITIONED AIR. IS
FOP..CED BY THE FAN U(jP ALONG THE
CENTRAL INLET DUCT 1J" & ENTERS THE
""LN THROU<iH THE OPENINGS AT FLOOR.
LEVEL. AFTEP.. CIRCULATING ~UNO THE
TIMBER, THE AIR. ENTERS THE SIDE RETURN
DUCTS 1 1\1 b "L' e- MTUR.NS TO UfN FOP-
RE-CJP..CULATION. AS MQUIREq EXHAUST
AIR IS EXPELLED THP..OUGH THE OUTLETS
"M' & FRESI+ AIR. IS ADMITTED AT THE
SIDE OF THE HEATEP-. P L A N
I I i I II I •I I •I I .I I •i> I ,lz I itA I iR
SCALi FEfl
FIGUI\E .3

that the m.c. in 1-in. thick softwood boards will be reduced to 20 per cent.
within two to three months, provided they are stacked in the spring, and 2-in.
thick pieces will dry to a similar amount within three or four months . Hard-
woods take longer to season, thus 1-in. pieces, if piled in the autumn, will take
about nine months to dry to 20 per cent. m.c. and 2-in. thick hardwoods will
take about a year to dry to the same amount. Any further reduction in m.c.
will, of course, take longer and depends upon the store or kiln to which the
timber is transferred.
The advantages of the process of air seasoning are : ( 1) It is relatively cheap
for small supplies; (2) it requires little attention; and (3) defects due to the process
are comparatively small. The disadvantages are: (r) The rate of drying is very
slow; (2) it cannot be rigidly controlled; (3) even under favourable conditions
the m.c. cannot be reduced to that required for certain internal joinery; (4) large
stacks of timber require considerable space ; (5) much capital is unproductive
for a lengthy period; and (6) damage to the timber may be caused by fungi and
insects.
2. Kiln Seasoning or Artificial Seasoning.-This method is employed on a
vast scale, as it ensures rapid drying of the timber to any required m.c. under
 297 CARPENTRY
controlled conditions. The timber is stacked in a kiln; of which there are several
types, and air, heated to the desired temperature and containing a certain amount
of moisture, is circulated through the piles. The air is heated by being passed
over steam pipes. This hot air, which accelerates the evaporation of moisture
from the timber, must contain a certain amount of moisture, otherwise splitting
and case-hardening of the wood will result owing to the rapid drying or
baking of the surface before the removal of the requisite amount of moisture
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from the interior. The necessary humidity of the air is obtained by the admission
of steam in the form of a spray, and this must be regulated carefully. Adequate
circulation of the air is essential, as stagnant air would take up moisture from the
timber and gradually become incapable of reducing the m .c. sufficiently Hence
the air should be of unifo:·m and sufficient velocity ; fresh air must be admitted,
and saturated or exhaust air must be removed as required.
Kilns are classified into (a) those in which the air is circulated by mechanical
means, such as fans, and known as Forced Draught Kilns, and (b) Natural Draught
Kilns in which the circulation of the air is due to differences of temperature which
cause the warmer and lighter air to rise and colder and denser air to fall.
(a) Forced Draught Kilns include (i) External Fan Compartment Kilns,
(ii) Overhead Internal Fan Compartment Kilns and (iii) Tunnel or Progressive
Kilns.
(a) (i) External Fan Compartment Kiln.-This is illustrated and briefly
described in Fig. 3· The timber is piled as shown, the layers being separated
by piling sticks, which are from I to Il-in. thick and spaced at from I to 3-ft.
apart, according to the thickness of the timber ; these sticks must be in true
vertical alignment, especially if the timber consists of thin boards, otherwise
the latter may become distorted. The piles are shown built up on bearers placed
on the floor. Alternatively, the timber may be piled on trucks; this is economical,
as the piling is done outside the kiln and therefore little time is wasted between
the removal of the trucks of dried timber and the charging of the kiln with
trucks of unseasoned stuff. It is desirable to leave a 2 to 3-in. space between
adjacent pieces of timber if it is thick, othenvise the boards are placed with
their edges close together. The face of a pile over the inlet duct is usually
inclined as shown at A, as this assists in distributing the warm air throughout the
pile. The width of the piles should not exceed 6-ft. ; wider stacks make uniform
drying difficult. As shown, the air is heated by steam pipes, humidified by
sprays and circulated in the direction of the arrows by a fan situated outside
the kiln. One difficulty is that of securing uniform circulation along the length
of the kiln ; short-circuiting at the end nearest the fan is prevented by the
provision of baffies along the air-inlet duct and the adjustment of the dampers
at the openings in the inlet and return ducts. This is a very good type of kiln
for general work.
Careful adjustment of the temperature and humidity of the air in the kiln must
be made and the moisture content of the stacked timber taken at intervals during the
drying process. This m.c. is determined by testing one or two representative sample
hoards, which are about 6-ft. long. The procedure is as follows : A small test piece
is cut from a sample board and its m.c. calculated by using either the formula (a)
or (b) as explained on p. 7. The m.c. of the test piece is assumed to be that of the
board. The wet weight of the sample board (less the test piece) is taken at the same
time and its dry weight calculated. Thus, taking the example given on p. 7 (where
the m .c. of the test piece is 40 per cent.), and assuming the wet weight of the sample
board is ro·5-lb., then the dry weight of the board is found from the formula (b), i.e.,
m.c. -_ {wet weight - r ) roo.
\ dry weight
.
Therefore, dry wetght wet weight· = ro-·5 =7·5-lb .
~· +r I"40
IOO
This dry weight is, of course, constant. The m .c. of this sample can now be deter-
mined at any time during the drying operation . For example, if seasoning has been
in operation some time and the sample board is removed from the pile and re-weighed,
current weight )
the current m.c. = ( d . h - r roo.
ry W Cig t
Thus, if the• current weight is 9!-lb., the
m.c. c:(97"5"75 - r)roo
= 0·3 x roo = 30 per cent.
The drying process has thus reduced the m.c. from 40 to 30 per cent. The sample
board is re-weighed at intervals until the m.c. has been reduced to that required (see
p. 7 for recommended moisture contents) to complete the process.
The sample boards should be conveniently placed in the pile, and in order that
they can be withdrawn readily it is usual to notch the lower edges of the piling sticks
above the boards for a width slightly in excess of that of a board.
The length of the drying period and the temperature and humidity of the air
depend upon such factors as the species, quality, behaviour (such as a ten~ency to
warp) and size of the timber, and the purpose for which it is to be used. Satisfactory
manipulation of the kiln is dependent upon the operator who must take these factors
into consideration when regulating the supply, temperature and humidity ?f .the
circulating air to suit the changing condition of the timber, as indicated by the penodtcal
testing for m .c. described above.
The temperature and relative humidity of the air in a kiln are ascertained by the
use of a dry-and-wet bulb thermometer. The dry bulb indicates the temperature
of the air, and the relative humidity is ascertained by referring the readings of both
bulbs to a humidity chart or table.
The man in charge of a kiln is guided by tables or kiln-drying schedules. Such
schedules 1 are evolved by a qualified operator as the result of his experience. of
handling many kinds of timbers and after taking into account the factors of spectes,
quality, etc., stated above. On page r r is an example of a schedule, the figures
being hypothetical only. .
Such a schedule is applied in the following manner : It is assumed that the timber
piled in the kiln can be appropriately seasoned by adherence to the sche?ule
and that the sample board (or the wettest of four sample boards-one on the mlet
side and one on the outlet side of each pile) has a m .c. of that referred to aboye,
i.e., 40 per cent. (or between 35 and 40 per cent.). The temperature and relative
humidity of the circulating air at the beginning of the drying process must ther.ef?re
be !20° F . and 75 per cent. respectively, the humidity being obtained by admttt.mg
steam through the jets to the kiln until the wet bulb regis.ters the appropnate
temperature, which in this case is r r2° F. The kiln must be gradually warmed up
to the dry bulb temperature of 120° F. whilst the humidity is kept constant at 75
1 Eight schedules recommended for 178 timbers appear in " Kiln-drying Schedules,"
Forest Products Research Records, No. 26,
 TIMBER 298
I Another type of internal fan kiln has the fans, heating pipes and sprays
Percentage Temperature . below the floor level.
Percentage
Moisture
Content of
Relative (a) (iii) Tunnel or Progressive Kiln.-This somewhat resembles the tunnel
Dry Wet Humidity.
Timber . Bulb. Bulb. kiln used for brick-burning and described on p. ro, Vol. II, in that the
kiln is in the form of a tunnel along which travel trucks piled with timber. The
o F. o F. maximum width of the kiln is 16-ft., it is from 6 to ro-ft. high and it may be
6o II5 109 8o
40 120 II2 75
roo-ft. or more in length. It is kept filled with loaded trucks which are gradually
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35 125 rrs 70
30 IJO II7 65
25 135 II9 6o
20 140 I2I 55
etc.
per cent.1 This temperature and humidity are maintained until the sample board
on re-weighing has its m .c. reduced to 35 per cent., when the temperature would then
be raised to I25 ° F . and the humidity decreased to 70 per cent. When the board ,
after re-weighing, has its m .c. lowered to 30 per cent., the corresponding temperature
and h';Jmidity would be altered to 130° F. and 65 per cent. respectively. These
operations are repeated until the m.c. of the timber has fallen to the required per-
centage, after which the kiln is gradually cooled and the humidity increased to about
6o per cent. before the timber is withdrawn from the kiln . The maximum tempera-
ture J?ay .reach r85 o F. and the humidity be reduced to 45 per cent., before the m.c. of
certam. timbers has been lowered to 14 per cent. Instruments for automatically
recordmg the temperature and humidity of the circulating air may be used ins.tead
of the ordinary dry-and-wet bulb thermometer. 2
(a) (ii) Overhead Internal Fan Compartment Kiln. 3-The maximum width is
r6!-ft., the maximum height (to the false wood ceiling which is suspended from
the roof) is 9 ft. and the length varies from ro to 40-ft. Uniform circulation
of the hot moist air is promoted by fans fixed centrally along the length of the
kiln above the false ceiling at 5-ft. intervals. The heat is provided by means of
r-in. internal diameter steam pipes which are distributed over the space above
the false ceiling on both sides of the fans. A r-in. steam spray pipe, perforated
with i-in. holes at 12-ih. intervals and fixed centrally and immediately below the
fans, provides the required moisture. The hot air is circulated from the top,
down the outer sides of the stacks, through the stacks, and up between the
stacks to the fans. A certain amount of the moist circulated air is allowed to
escape through outlets at the roof, and fresh air is admitted at the floor level
through openings in .a central duct. The temperature and humidity can be
automatically controlled. It is considered that this kiln is one of the most
efficient and economical types.
. . ~ It is sometimes advocated to warm up the kiln to approximately ro° F. above the
!n!t!al dry bulb temperature and maintain it for about two hours before lowering it to the
Initial temperature.
2 P~rt.able electrical 'fi'!Oisture meters are now available for rapidly and conveniently
determmmg the ~.c . of timber stacked in kilns . The small electrode of one t ype is simply
clamped to the timber and the m.c. is read directly on the dial of the meter. It is then
removed . Further readings are taken as required until the required m .c. is registered ono
the meter.
3 Full particulars of this kiln are given in" The Overhead Internal Fan Kiln," Forest
Products Research Laboratory Leaflet, No. ro,
moved forward at a uniform rate during the drying process. It is usual for one
truck of seasoned timber to be removed at the discharge end and one truck of
green timber to be added at the opposite end daily. Steam from sprays fixed
in a duct below the floor at the discharge end provides the requisite humidity.
The air, heated by steam or hot-water pipes placed below the floor for about
two-thirds of its length from the discharge end, rises between the timber and
circulates ·along the tunnel towards the inlet end before returning below the
floor for re-circulation. The flow of the hot moist air in the kiln is thus in the
opposite direction to the movement of the timber. Fresh air is admitted at the
discharge end and mixes with the re-circulated air. The air gradually decreases
in temperature and increases in humidity as it circulates round the timber towards
the inlet end, and hence it is sufficiently cool and moist when it comes into contact
with the unseasoned or green timber. Some of this moist air escapes at the
loading end and is discharged up a chimney which produces the necessary draught
to promote circulation. Alternatively, the circulation may be promoted by a fan
fixed in the duct. Whilst this kiln is economical, it is best suited for drying thin
timber of uniform size and quality. It is not used extensively in this country.
(b) Natural Draught Compartment Kuns.-This type of kiln is approximately
12-ft wide, 9-ft. high and 30-ft. long; it has a duct below the floor extending
the full width and length of the kiln. The timber may be piled as shown at A
and B, Fig. 3, or it may be stacked on trucks which remain stationary during the
process. A group of steam pipes for heating the air extends centrally along the
duct, and the necessary humidity is provided by steam from jets immediately
above it. The kiln is so called because the circulation depends upon natural
means ; thus, the air after traversing the hot pipes passes upwards between the
two piles and transversely through the piles, when it takes up moisture fro,m the
timber and, becoming denser, descends between the piles and the walls for
re-circulation. Fresh air as required enters the duct from the outside and an
equal amount of saturated 'air escapes at the floor level through vertical flues
situated in the side walls. This simple type of kiln is very economical, but the
circulation is uncertain and not easy to control. It is best suited for small-sized
timber which has been partly seasoned.
3· Combined Air and Kiln Seasoning.-lt is a common practice to reduce the
m.c. of timber to approximately 20 per cent. by air seasoning before ·subjecting
it to further treatment in a kiln . This considerably reduces the kiln-drying
period (see p. rz), especially for certain hardwoods. The kiln output is therefore
substantially increased.
 299
Len~:th of Drying Period.- This varies with the size characteristics and
q?ality of the timber. Approximately the time required' in a forced draught
kdn t~ reduce the m .c. of 2-in. thick timber from a maximum (green) to I2 per
cent. IS from one to two weeks for softwoods and three to twelve weeks for
hardwoods. These times are increased by about half if the timber is seasoned
in a natural draught kiln. Preliminary air seasoning to 20 per cent. m.c. reduces
the above kiln periods to approximately one-third. These figures should be
compared with those given for air-seasoning (see pp. 8 and 9).
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PRESERVATION
?ecay in timber ~sed for certain purposes can only be prevented if it is
s~bjected to an effective process of preservation. Thus, timber required for
piles, sleepers, fences and gates, wall plates and ends of floor joists built into
walls, floor fillets partially embedded in concrete, weather-boarding, etc., for
temporary buildings and unpainted external woodwork, should be treated with
some form of preserving agent.
. Fungi (pl_ants _of the mushroom tribe) are the principal cause of decay in
timber used m th1s country (see pp. I4-I6). This low form of life requires
food, a certain amount of moisture and oxygen for its growth, and the absence
o~ any one of these prevents decay. Thus the fungi cannot exist in timber if
e1t~er {1) the food supply in the farm of organic matter (of which timber is
chiefly composed) is poisoned by a suitable preservative such as is described
below, or (2) the timber is sufficiently seasoned (to a minimum m.c. of 20 per
c~nt.-see pp. 7 and IS) and maintained in a dry condition, or (3) air is excluded
{timber-such as wood piles-will not decay if kept permanently waterlogged).
Fungus deve_lops more quickly in warm weather than in cold, especially if the
temperature IS between 80° and 90° F.; most fungi will not grow if the tempera-
ture exc~eds IOS 0 ~- or is at freezing point. In addition to fungi, much
damage 1s done to t1mber by insects (see p. r6).
~ffe~tive preserv~tion depends upon the preservative employed and its
apphcatwn. An efficient preservative should be poisonous to fungi and insects
(but not ~o pers.ons han?ling it), permanent, able to penetrate sufficiently, .cheap
and ~eadlly avallable ; 1t should not corrode metal fastenings, etc., nor should
the timber be rendered more inflammable by its use.
Substances used for wood preservation include ( 1) oil preservatives such as
creosote and coal-tar, and (2) water soluble preservatives of which zinc chloride
sodium fluoride and magnesium silicofluoride are examples. ' Creosoting is the principal pressure-process, and, as is implied, creosote is
CREOSOTE I is the chief preservative used and is considered to be the most
effective for general application. It is a black or brownish oil and as stated on
P· 54, Vol. II, is produced by the distillation of coal-tar. C~eos~te has all of
the above requirements except that the inflammability is increased. It should
not be used for internal woodwork if its .characteristic smell is objected to.
Creosoted wood cannot be painted satisfactorily.
1 The Bri.tish Standard Specification , No. 144, includes a description of the tests which
may be apphed to creosote, · ·
CARPENTRY
CoAL-TAR as a preservative is not as effective as the creosote produced from
it. Tar is less poisonous, it does not penetrate the timber because of its viscosity,
it is blacker than creosote and is unsuitable for internal woodwork.
The water soluble preservatives referred to in the preceding column are not
satisfactory for external use, as they are liable to be removed from the timber by
rain. They are, however, very suitable for interior work, as they are com-
paratively odourless and colourless, and timber so preserved can be painted.
They are obtained in concentrated form and require to be diluted with water to
give from 2 to s per cent. solutions. Other preservatives of this class include
mercuric chloride (corrosive sublimate) and copper sulphate, but neither is
much used in this country as the former is highly poisonous to human beings,
the latter is not permanent, and both have a chemical action upon metals.
There are a number of patent preservatives available. Some of these consist
of poisonous chemicals (such as chlorinated phenols and naphthenic acids)
dissolved in volatile oils. When such a preservative agent is applied, the oil
evaporates and leaves the chemical in .the timber. Their high cost limits
their use.
The timber should be seasoned before being subjected to a preserving
process, as the presence of moisture impedes the penetration of the preservative.
The process of preservation is just as important as the preservative, and to
be effective the material must sufficiently penetrate the timber. The extent
of the penetration depends upon the conditions to which the timber is to be
subjected ; thus, timber which is to be submerged in water or embedded in the
·ground should be thoroughly well impregnated ,with the preservative, whilst
certain internal woodwork may be given adequate protection by surface treat-
ment only. Preservatives are applied by (I) pressure, (2) non-pressure and (3)
superficial processes.
1. PRESSURE PROCESSES.-There are several pressure processes and these
are generally adopted for treating timber on a large scale. Maximum penetra-
tion of the preservative results from pressure treatment. In each of the several
s
methods the timber is placed in a strong steel cylinder, to ro-ft. diameter and
IS to 2o-ft. long, and having a tight-fitting door at each end. The cylinder is
fixed horizontally at ground level, and a storage tank containing the preservative
(and steam coils for heating it) is connec!ed to it. The timber is either piled
directly in the cylinder or stacked in bogies and run into it.
the preservative used. There are two methods of applying the material, i.e.,
(a) full-cell process and (h) empty-cell process.
(a) Full-cell Process.-This is so called because the wood cells remain filled
with the preservative after the timber has been withdrawn from the cylinder ;
it is also known as the Bethel Process (after the patentee who introduced it about
a century ago). The first operation, after the cylinder has been piled with ·the
seasoned timber and the doors have been clamped, is the reduction of the air
pressure within the cylinder and the removal of the !lir and moisture from the
 TIMBER
cells of the timber by a vacuum pump; the vacuum may be up to 24-in. and is
maintained for one to two hours, depending upon the size and species of the
wood. The cylinder is then completely filled from the storage tank .with creosote
which has been heated to a temperature varying from I00° to 180° F ., and a
pressure of approximately Ioo-lh. per sq. in. is applied and maintained for about
two hours until the required quantity of creosote (as determined from the measur-
ing instruments on the storage tank) has been forced into the timber. The
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amount of creosote absorbed depends upon the kind and condition of the timber
and the use to which it is to be put, and varies from 3-lb. (for some hardwoods)
to 12-lb. per cub. ft. (for certain softwoods). Finally, the pressure is released,
the creosote is drained off, and a vacuum is again applied to withdraw excess
creosote from the timber before it is removed. This method is best suited for
piles and timber which is to be fixed in wet positions, and where exudation of the
creosote from the wood (known as " bleeding ") is not objected to.
(b) Empty-cell or Rueping Process.- This is very suitable for treating timber
required for building purposes, as it is effective, the wood is clean to handle on
account of the small amount of bleeding which takes place, and it is comparatively
cheap, as it only requires approximately so per cent. of creosote used in the full-
cell process. The timber in the cylinder is first subjected to a pressure of about
40-lb. per sq. in. of compressed air. This pressure is maintained whilst the
heated creosote is admitted and the cylinder has been completely filled, after
which about 10-lb. per sq. in. additional air pressure is applied for approximately
fifteen minutes. This causes the creosote to enter the cells of the timber and
compresses the air already in them. The pressure is then released and thus allows
the compressed air in the timber to expand and expel much of the creosote from
the cells. A partial vacuum is finally applied and this removes more creosote
from the timber. The cells are therefore free from preservative although their
walls have been well coated with the creosote.
Creosoting by the non-pressure process is described in the next column.
Burnettizing.-Pa tented by Burnett a little over one hundred years ago, this
pressure process is still fairly extensively emploved. It is somewhat similar to
creosoting, except that the preservative is zinc chloride, one of the water soluble
salts referred to on p. 12. The seasoned timber, after being subjected in the cylinder
to a vacuum for about an hour, is impregnated with the solution (1-lb. of the salt
to s-gals. of water) at a pressure of approximately IOo-lb. per sq. in. The process
takes about five hours to complete. It is cheaper than creosoting, but is less
effective on account of its lack of permanence. Open tank treatment (see next
column) is also resorted to.
. The Boucherie pressure process (in which unseasoned timber was impregnated
wtth a solutiOn of copper sulphate) and the Carboliz ing or Blythe's process (which
consisted of injecting creosote vapour and superheated steam into the timber, followed
by creosoting) are not now employed.
2. NoN-PRESSURE PROCESSES .- The treatment is known as steeping, or soaking
or open tank, and is adopted for relatively small quantities of timber when a
300
pressure plant is not available. The apparatus simply consists of a rectangular
watertight tank, open at the top, and from 2~· to s-ft. wide, 3 to 3!-ft. deep and
12 to IS-ft. long; a cylindrical storage reservoir of similar capacity is sometimes
provided in addition. There are three methods, i.e., (a) hot-and-cold steeping,
(b) hot steeping and (c) cold steeping.
(a) Hot-and-cold Steeping.-This is the most efficient of the non-pressure
processes. The open tank is preferably sunk in the ground to within a few inches
from the top to facilitate loading and unloading of the timber ; the storage
reservoir is fixed adjacent to it and at ground level. Provision for heating the
preservative in the open tank must be made. This preferably takes the form of
steam coils resting on the bottom of the tank and protected by horizontal bars
which support the timber; alternatively, the tank is fixed on top of a furnace
having a horizontal flue extending the full length of the tank and terminating
with a chimney stack.
Briefly, the preserving operation is conducted in the following manner:
The seasoned timber is stacked in the tank and held down by bars at the top ;
cold preservative, usually creosote, is run into the tank from the reservoir,
gradually heated to about 200° F . and maintained at this temperature for one
to two hours, after which it is allowed to cool (by turning off the steam or drawing
the fire), the liquid is pumped back into the reservoir, and the timber is removed.
During the heating period the air ip the cells of the timber expands and some of
it is expelled ; as the preservative cools, the air left in the timber contr~cts and
the partial vacuum created causes the liquid to be gradually absorbed I~to the
timber. Whilst not rbsolutely essential, the provision of the reservOir does
make it possible for the timber to be drained before removal and reduces the
loss of preservative whilst making the timber less objectionable to handle. The
operation only takes a day to complete.
An improvement on the above method is effected if, after cooling, the conte~ts
of the tank are re-heated and the timber is left to soak in the hot preservative
for an average period of two hours before removal. This causes m~ch of the
creosote absorbed during the cooling period to be expelled from the timber a11d
thus results in an economy of preservative used. .
for which
The ends of fence posts are effectively preserved by butt treatment,
only a metal barrel or drum, placed upon a crude fireplace, is required. The
posts are placed vertically in the drum with their pointed ends immersed to the
required depth in the cold creosote which is heated and then coole~ as above
described. Hot creosote is poured or brushed over the upper portiOns of the
timber whilst it is being soaked. To meet bigger demands, a long tank, sub-
divided into compartments to assist in keeping the posts upright, may be used.
Ends of floor joists which are to be built into walls may also be protected by
butt treatment in a similar manner. The apparatus may be either a drum or a
small tank, a useful addition being a pair of scaffold poles, fixed in ~he ground at
each side, to which a short cross-piece is lashed at a convenient height to afford
a support for the upper ends of the joists during treatment
 301 CAR P·E NT R Y
(b) Hot Steepinr:.-This process has hcen largely superseded by hot-and-cold
steeping, as the latter is more efficient, occupies less time and is more economical.
As is implied, the method consists of soaking the timber in a tank of hot pre-
servative for a varying period, depending upon a number of conditions, such as
the species, proposed use, etc.
(c) Cold Steeping.- This is not now advocated, it being even less effective than
hot steeping on account of the slow penetration of preservative which takes
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place. The rate of absorption varies, but an immersion of one week per inch
thickness of timber may be regarded as an average approximation.
Kya_nizingPmcess.-T~is is seldom adopted in this country, as the preservative,
mercunc chlonde (corrosive sublimate), used in the process is extremely poisonous
and therefore dangerous to workmen handling it. The timber is steeped in a 1 per
cent. solutiOn of mercuric chloride which is contained in a wood trough, as the pre-
servative has a corrosive action upon metal.
Powellizin_g or Powell Wood-p1·ocess .-The preservative used in this patent open-
tank syst~m IS a heated solution of which the chief ingredient is sugar. The timber
may be e~ther seasoned (if required for internal woodwork or furniture) or unseasoned
(for fencmg, sleepe_rs, etc.). The apparatus consists of a long (up to 1oo-ft.), open
tank or chamber With removable ends. The timber is piled on trolleys and run into
the tank , the ends are clamped (which make the tank watertight), the solution of
re qu.Ire~ stre~gt~ Is . Introduced and heated by steam pipes , and after several hours'
a~phcatwn this !~qUid Is removed, the unloading door is undamped and the timber is
wtth?rawn. Neither pre~sure nor va.cuum is required as the saccharine solution is
:eadtly absorbe.d by the timber. The process is very efficient. It is adopted chiefly
m those countnes where creosote is unobtainable and especially where sugar is grown.
It has not been employed extensively in this country.
3· SuPERFICIAL PROCESSES.-These include (a) dipping, (b) spraying and (c)
brush application. None of these surface treatments is as effective as the pressure
and open-tank systems, as the preservative only slightly penetrates the timber.
The wood must be seasoned, and the surface should be dry before application.
Greater penetration generally results if the preservative is applied hot, especially
if creosote is used.
(a) Dipping is the best surface treatment, except for timber already fixed in
position. The pieces of wood are simply dipped in a receptacle containing the
preservative ; the longer the immersion the better.
(b) Spraying .- The preservative is applied in the form of a fine spray as it is
forced through the nozzle of the appliance by compressed air. It is an effective
form of surface treatment, as a liberal amount of the solution can be applied and
the pressure makes possible the penetration of any cracks and crevices.
(c) Brush Application.-This is the most common method of treating existing
exposed woodwork with creosote or other preservative. The liquid should be
applied liberally with the brush and any cracks in the timber should have special
attention. At least two good coats should be given, the first coat being allowed
to dry before the second is brushed on . Where accessible the treatment should
be renewed every three years, especially if it is external work such as fencing,
weather-boarding, timber outbuildings, etc.
FIRE-RETARDING.-Whilst timber cannot be made fireproof, there are several
chemical solutions and proprietary paints available for rendering it fire-resisting.
One of the most effective fire-retardants is ammonium phosphate. The material
is applied by any of the methods described for preservation. The timber should
be well seasoned before treatment in order that maximum penetration may be
effected.
DEFECTS
Defects due to seasoning are referred to on pp. 7 and 8. Other defects are
described on p. 58, Vol. I. Defects caused by fungi and insects are described
below.
It has been stated on p. 12 that fungi are the chief cause of decay, that the
development of fungus is dependent upon food, moisture and oxygen, and that
the absence of one of these prevents decay. A suitable temperature is also
essential for fungoid growth. The principal decay of building timber is dry rot.
DRY RoT.-This disease, which is highly infectious, causes a tremendous
amount of destruction in timber. The decay is caused by several fungi, that
most frequently found in buildings being the Merulius lacrymans. Partially
seasoned wood fixed in a warm, damp and badly ventilated position is very liable
to attack by this fungus. The spores (germs or seeds) of the fungus develop
under the above favourable conditions and minute silky hollow threads or tubes
(called hyphre) are thrown out. These rapidly spread over the surface of the
wood as an open network or as a closely interlaced covering or sheet which is
grey coloured, relieved with blue andfor yellow patches. Under very damp
conditions especially, the hyphre may be arranged in cotton-wool like masses;
such a collection is known as a mycelium, and its colour ·is snowy-white with
occasional bright yellow patches. In course of time the mycelium develops into
a tough, fleshy substance called a fruit body. Each of these '' mushroom " growths
may exceed 1-ft. in diameter; it is of a brown or dark red colour with a white
edge, and its surface resembles a sponge, it being corrugated and pitted with
small holes. Countless numbers of spores are produced on the surface, and
these can be readily conveyed by air currents, rats, mice and insects and thus
infect timber far removed from the original site. The disease can also be spread
by infected tools and clothing. The fungus produces drops of water which hang
from its surface, hence the derivation of its specific name lacrymans, which
means " weeping." Another property of this fungus is its ability to produce
white or grey coloured strands which spread in all directions over timber, brick-
work, plaster and steel, and may pass through mortar joints and actually penetrate
thick walls consisting of soft bricks or stone. These strands, which may be up
to !-in. thick, are capable of conveying water from the damp original site of
the dry rot to comparatively dry timber, remotely situated, thereby providing
suitable conditions for the extension of the disease. Dry rot is transmitted from
one floor to another in this manner and so may spread to every part of a building
if the attack is vigorous and the conditions suitable.
During the development of the fungus the hyphre attack the fibres of the
wood and feed upon the substance of the cell walls, which are gradually broken
 TIMBER
down. The decayed wood becomes friable and falls to powder under pressure
by the fingers, it is dry (hence the name applied to the rot), the surface becomes
uneven, and cracks extend both with and across the grain to divide it into cubical
pieces. The colour is brown or dirty red, the wood is reduced in weight, it has
little strength and the member ultimately collapses. Sometimes the decay is
entirely internal and there is no external evidence of it.
Prevention.-The following precautions should be taken to prevent timber
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from becoming affected by dry rot .
I. All timber should be . sound, well-seasoned stuff of good quality. It is
important to note that timber having a moisture content of less than 20 per
cent. is unlikely to become attacked by the disease (see p. 7), and therefore
all timber required for building purposes should not exceed this percentage of
moisture content. Timber may have become infected during storage in the
holds of ships or when piled in timber yards, but adequate kiln seasoning destroys
such infection.
2. The timber must he kept dry, hence an additional reason why dampness
in buildings must be avoided. The absence of efficient damp proof courses and
site concrete has been a frequent cause of dry rot in ground-floor timbers ;
dampness due to defective eaves gutters, fall-pipes, roof coverings and drains
may cause decay. Gutter and flat-roof timbering has also been subjected to rot
because of the penetration of moisture through parapet walls. Infected firewood
stored in damp cellars or similar accommodation may be the means of introducing
the decay. Built-in timbers, such as wall plates, ends of floor joists etc. (especially
if the walls are of cavity construction-see p. 43, Vol. II), should be adequately
treated with a preservative ; embedded wood fillets used in solid flooring (see
Fig. 9, and B and c, Fig. 10) must be thoroughly preserved (prefera0ly under a
pressure process-see p. 12), and the whole of the concrete should be covered
with bitumen of a minimum thickness of t-in. before the floor boards are
fixed. A narrow band of bitumen should be applied to one face of an internal
wall which has a solid floor on one side and an open wood floor on the other.
3. Adequate circulation of fresh air round all timbers must be provided, as
stagnant moist air is particularly favourable to the growth of dry rot . Provision
must therefore be made for sufficient through ventilation under all wood floors,
especially ground and basement floors (see Fig. 32, Vol. I, and c, Fig. 20, Vol. II) .
The air bricks or gratings should have sufficient clea.r opening area (the British
Standard Specification, No. 493, requires a minimum total unobstructed area of
one-fifth area of air brick), and a minimum of rt-sq . in. of open area per foot
run ?f wall should be allowed ; this is obtained if 9-in. by 6 ·in. air bricks are
provided at 6-ft. intervals. Dead pockets of air must be avoided and cross-
currents of air must be induced, hence the need for honeycombed sleeper and
partition walls to allow the air currents through the vents in the outer walls to
be unobstructed. If a solid floor prevents this (such as a concrete scullery floor
at the rear of a wood living-room floor) it is advisable to embed 3 or 4-in. diameter
horizontal drain pipes during the laying of the concrete floor at 6-ft, intervals
302
between openings in the division wall and ventilators in the outer back wall. An
air brick or opening must be provided at each angle to obtain free circulation
at the corners. Through ventilation under wood floors of halls and corridors
is often omitted and is a frequent cause of dry rot. Air spaces round ends of
built-in floor joists should be provided (see s and u, Fig. 32, Vol. I). This also
applies to th.e lower ends of roof rafters, as extensive damage to roof timbers ·at
the eaves has been caused by solid beam-filling (especially when the walls are
thick and leaks through the roof covering have caused dampness) preventing
the circulation of air round the timber. Dry rot to wall panellings and skirtings
is also caused by dampness penetrating through outer walls, affecting the plugs
and grounds and spreading to the back of the exposed woodwork.
4· Site concrete should be well brushed and pieces of wood, shavings, etc.,
removed before the boarding of ground floors is fixed. Outbreaks have been
traced to affected debris of this description which is liable to dampness. Trench
and concrete sub-floor setting-out pegs should also be removed.
5. Linoleum and similar covering should not be laid on new wood floors,
especially wood-covered concrete floors, before they have had time to dry out.
Detection and Remedial Measures .-Dry rot may be recognized by the presence
of any or all of the following symptoms: (a) The appearance of the fungus
described on p. 14; (b) warping," cubical rot" (caused by cracks-see preceding
column) and other signs of infected timber already referred to; (c) decay or collapse
of timber members (the backs of skirtings and the underside of floor boards may
be extensively decayed-the latter being readily broken by stamping the heel
on them); (d) an objectionable musty smell indicating dampness; and (e) a
deposition of red-coloured powder (which teems with the spores) below a floor.
The curative measures necessary to eradicate the disease depend, of course,
upon its extent. Drastic steps must be taken in serious cases, and the various
operations must be thoroughly and carefully carried out if a recurrence and
extension of the disease are to be prevented. Thus, taking a bad case as an
example, the following would be the sequence of operations if an examination
of a ground floor disclosed the decay to be extensive and general.
r. The whole of the timber is removed. This includes the skirtings, floor
boards, joists, wall plates, plugs and grounds ; it may also be necessary to splay-
cut and remove the feet of architraves. This decayed or unsound timber is
carefully taken outside and immediately burnt. Any plaster behind which the
fungus may have spread must also be removed.
2. The faces of the walls below the floor, including the timber pockets and
the surface of the site concrete are well cleaned down with a wire brush . These
sweepings, in which the spores of the fungus will be present in countless numbers,
are carefully conveyed to and spread over the wood fire and destroyed.
If no site concrete exists (and there are many buildings without it), the top
4-in. or so of the earth is excavated, removed and buried; this earth is probably
teeming with the spores which have fallen from the affected timber, and its
removal should therefore be done with care to prevent droppings providing
 303 CARPENTRY
sources of infection. For the same reason, care should be taken to prevent
spores being carried about on the feet to other parts of the building. Some-
times the penetration of the fungus into the sleeper walls is such as to necessitate
their demolition and removal. The removal of such walls and the top soil is,
of course, done before the main walls are brushed down.
3· Sterilizing the surfaces of the walls and site concrete now follows. This
consists of applying a plumber's blow-lamp to the whole of the brushed surface.
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This destroys the spores, provided the flame when applied slowly and for a
sufficient time renders the surfaces hot to the touch . To ensure complete
success, however, it is advisable to follow this heat treatment by an application
of a reliable antiseptic solution, which should be liberally applied in two coats.
An antiseptic which is recommended is a 4 per cent. solution of sodium fluoride
(6-oz. of the crystals being dissolved in r-gal. of cold water) ; a 5 per cent.
solution of magnesium silicofluoride (!-lb. of the salt per gallon of water) is also
effective. Neither mercuric chloride (corrosive sublimate) nor zinc chloride
(blue vitriol) is now advocated, as the former is dangerous to handle and the
latter is only moderately efficient.
4· Necessary structural work, such as the insertion of a horizontal damp
proof course, the provision of air bricks or grates and holes in division walls to
ensure adequate through ventilation (see p. rs), the construction of sleeper walls
and the laying of site concrete, is carried out.
5· Finally, the new floor timbers, skirtings and feet of architraves (finished
with splayed joints) are fixed . The timber must be sound, well-seasoned stuff
of good qu01lity . The joists, underside of floor boards, backs of skirtings, wall
plates, plugs and grounds should be treated with a preservative (see p. 12).
Creosoting is the most effective treatment, but any of the water-soluble
preservatives (sodium fluoride, etc.) may be used if the smell of creosote is
objected to.
The above operations are costly and are only called for when the decay is
widespread. In a mild case it may be only necessary to remove the decayed
timber (together with at least r-ft. of the adjacent sound wood) and replace it
with sound preserved stuff after brush-treating as much as possible of the existing
timber with preservatives. Every suspected case must be closely examined ,and
dealt with on its merits. Any doubtful source of infection must be removed,
otherwise the disease will again develop and further expense will be entailed.
Experience shows that partial treatment · only is a waste of money and
materials, as subsequent extensive operations are usually necessary to effect a
permanent cure.
Another species of fungus which produces dry rot in building timbers is
Coniop?ora cerebella or Cellar Fungus. It only attacks wet timber, and the
decay IS usually confined to cellar, bathroom, etc. floors where there has been a
leakage of water, and to leaky roofs. Coniophora presents a less serious problem
than Merulius, as decay caused by it is at once arrested if the cause of the dampness
is attended to and the timber is allowed to dry. The decayed wood Is much
darker than that caused by Merulius and the cracks are mainly with the grain.
The strands of this fungus are brown or almost black, bunches of the mycelium
are absent, the hyphre may produce small patches of yellowish skin, and fruit
bodies are rarely seen in buildings. The characteristics of the two species are
thus different.
INSECT ATTACK.-Wood-boring beetles are the insects which cause most
damage to timber in this country, and of these the ( r) Death-watch Beetle,
the (2) Common Furniture Beetle and the (3) Lyctus Powder-post Beetle are
the most important.
r. Death-watch Beetle (Xestobium ru:fovillosum).-These chiefly attack well-
matured hardwoods in old buildings ; softwoods and recently seasoned timber
are rarely affected. The beetles lay their eggs in cracks and holes in the wood ;
white larvre (grubs) which hatch out of the eggs are about !-in. long when full-
grown, and after boring in the wood for one and a half or more years develop
about August into pupre (chrysalis) near to the surface of the wood ; whilst the
winged beetle is formed within a few weeks after pupation, it does not issue from
the wood until the following spring. Much destruction is caused during the larval
stage, as the grubs bore numerous tunnels of about i-in. diameter in the timber
and produce dust during the process. In advanced cases most of the interior
of the affected wood members are reduced to powder. Many thousands of
pounds have been expended within recent years upon restoring oak roofs of
churches and other ancient buildings (e.g., Westminster Hall) which have been
damaged very extensively by the ravages of the death-watch beetle.
The conditions of dampness and poor ventilation associated with dry rot
are also conducive to attack by the beetle. Hence any treatment of infested
structural timbers must include the provision of adequate general ventilation
and air spaces round built-in ends of members, and the remedy of defects causing
dampness. Badly infected timber must be removed and replaced by sound stuff
free from sapwood. There are a number of proprietary insecticides on the
market which are claimed to eradicate the beetle. The timber must be well
brushed down and vacuumed to remove as much dust as possible before the
solution is liberally applied by means of a brush or spray, and several applications
are necessary to ensure sufficient penetration ; creosote is sometimes used when
discoloration and smell are not objected to. Such treatment should be renewed
every three or four years.
2 . Common Furniture Beetle (Anobium punctatum ).-These attack both hard-
woods and softwoods, and especially old unpolished furniture and panelling.
The life-cycle and damage caused are somewhat similar to those of the death-
watch beetle, except that common furniture beetles emerge from the wood in
the summer, and the diameter of the bored holes is about -irin.
Insecticide treatment, as described above, is applied to prevent further damage
by this beetle.
3· Lyctus Powder-post Beetles(Lyctidte).-Grubs of these beetles cause exten-
sive damage to furniture, internal joinery work such as panelling, and timber
 TIMBER
piled in yards. The sapwood only of certain comparatively newly or partially
seasoned hardwoods (including ash, elm, oak and walnut) is subject to attack ;
softwoods are immune, and well-matured hardwoods in old buildings are not
affected. The presence of holes (up to about 11o,·-in. in diameter) on the surface
of the wood, and small piles of flour-like dust cast out from the holes (hence
the name of the beetle), are characteristic of infected timber. The beetles emerge
from the wood during the spring and summer ; eggs are laid in the pores of the
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304
CHARACTERISTICS AND USES OF TIMBER
There are several hundred species of commercial timbers. A selected number
of softwoods used in this country are classified in Table I, and some hardwoods
are listed in Table II. The map shown in Fig. 4 shows the distribution of most
of these timbers and may be a convenient reference. A large proportion of these
selected species are grown either in the British Isles, and known as Home-grown
Timbers, or within the British Empire and specified as Empire Timbers.1

sapwood and are hatched out within a fortnight into white larva: or grubs
(about !-in. long when fully grown), and these develop into pupa: and, finally,
beetles which issue from the timber within one to two years after the larval
stage.
There are several proprietary solutions available for treating infested timber
and which are brush-applied to the surface during the spring and summer, but
such insecticides are ineffective unless several applications are made. Proper
seasoning of the timber destroys any Lyctus present, but frequent inspection of
it should be made when stacked in the yard in order that any re-infestations may
be detected.
A few of the characteristics and uses are also given in these tables. The
weight of timber varies with the moisture content and the proportion of wood
tissue to voids; the greater the m.c. the greater the weight. The weights given
in the tables are the average when the m .c. is IS per cent. The m.c .. also influences
the strength of timber, and well-seasoned wood is stronger than that in the green
condition . Thus, for example, the maximum compressive strength of pitch
pine increases from approximately 3,700 to. 7,soo-lb. per sq. in . as the m.c.
decreases from 7 5 (its green condition) to I 2 per cent.
1 These are listed in " A H andbook of Home -grown Timber" and' ' Empire Timbers ,"
both publications of the Fort>st Products Rt'scarch Lahomtorv .

TABLE I
SOFTWOODS

WEIGHT
STANDARD NAME. BoTANICAL NAME. SOURCE. (lb. per CHARACTERISTICS. UsEs.
cub. ft.).

Cedar, Western Red Thuja plicata British Columbia, West- 24 Reddish brown, weathering to silver grey ; distinct C encral carpentry and .Jomery ;
(Pacific red cedar) ern U.S.A . growth rings ; straight grained, easy to wo rk ; decorative work, includin~:
very durable , brittle ; stains, paints and enam els p a ne IIi n g; roof shingles.
well. ·weather-boarding.
Fir, Douglas (British Pseudotsuga douglasii British Columbia, West- 33 Pink to light reddish brown ; well defined growth " C lear grade " : tirst-class
Columbia, Colum- ern U.S.A . rings and prominent figu re; straight grained with joinery , as for doors , windows,
bian and Oregon pine) P. taxijolia British Isles tendency to wavy or spiral grain ; difficult to
0 p anel I in g, pl ywood, floor
work, strong : available in large sections and long boarding and blocks .
lt'ngths ; stains hut does not paint well. " i\1erchantable grade " : car-
pentry. Home-grown (of in-
ferior quality) : rough board-
ing.
Hemlock, Western (grey Tsuga heterophylla British Columbia, West- 31 Pale brown ; distinct growth rings and good General joinery ; best quality
fir) ern U.S.A. figure ; usually straight grained, fairl y even for d ecorati\'c work, including
textured ; not durable when subjected to alternate panelling and furniture ;
drv and wet conditions ; stains, paints and flooring.
enamels well.
Kauri, New Zealand Agathis australis New Zealand Pale yellow to light brown ; straight and inter- G ood-class joinery, including
(Kauri pine) locked grain producing mottled figure; strong, floor boarding and blocks ;
very durable ; works easily ; stains, paints and mottled \'arieties for panel-
polishes well. ling, etc. Limited supply.
Kauri, Queensland Agathis palmerstonii Queensland, Australia 30 Similar to, but softer than, N .Z. Kauri. Good substitute for !\.Z. Kauri.
Larch, European Larix decidua Europe, including British 37 Reddish brown heartwood, vello\\>;sh white sap - Ca rpentry and heavy construc-
Isles 1 wood ; distinct growth rings ; straight grained ; tion; fencing, gates, wood
very durable, tough and strong; resinous; difficult buildings, piles , sleepers, scaf-
1
to work; stains and paints satisfactorily. Most folding.
L---------------------~---------------------L----------------------~------~--v~a~l~u~a~b~lc~h~orn~e~-~g~ro~w~n~s~o~f~tw~o~o~d~. --------------~---------------------------·
NoTE.-Some timbers are also known by those names appearing 1vithin the hrackets in the first column.
 CARPENTRY

TABLE !-continued

S 0 FT W 0 0 D S-continued
-·--- ----------.----------,-------------;---~---·---------------.------------

WEIGHT
STANDAIID NAME. BOTANICAL NAME. SouncE. (lb. per CHARACTERISTICS. USES.
1 cub. ft .).
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l -----------------------------------------------1----1---------------------------------l---~-------~-------- !
Pine, Jack (Banksian Pinus banhsiana Canada, Northern U .S.A. 31 Similar to red pine (see below); inclined to be Inferior carpentry, sleepers,
pine) knotty. boxes and crates. Similar to
low-grade redwood (see below).
Pine, Pitch Pinus palustris Southern U.S.A. Light red ; very distinct growth rings with large Good-class general carpentry
proportion of summer wood which gives bold and joinery ; church and school
effect, occasionally has an attractive blister furniture, office fittings,
figure ; straight grained ; very strong and dur- piles.
able, resinous, which affects ease of working;
even textured ; obtainable in long lengths ;
subject to heart shakes ; grain tends to show
through paint; varnishes well.
Pine, British Honduras Pinus caribcea Central America, West 44 Similar to pitch pine. Similar to pitch pine.
Pitch (slash, Cuban Indies. ·
and Nicaraguan pine)
Pine, Red (Canadian, Pinus resinosa South-Eastern Canada, 33 Light red or reddish yellow heartwood, creamy Similar to redwood .
Ottawa and Quebec Northern U.S.A. white sapwood ; generally straight grained,
red pine) easily worked to a smooth silky finish ; fairly
durable ; paints and stains well.
Pine, Siberian (Man- Pinus sibirica, etc. Siberia, Manchuria Simila•· to yellow pine (see below) . Internal joinery. A good sub-
chui'Wn and Korean stitute for yellow pine.
pine)
Pine, Sugar
Pine, Western
Pinus lambertiana
White Pinus monticola
California, U.S.A.
British Columbia, North-
Resembles Canadian yellow pine (see below). General internal joinery. I
Similar to yellow pine, but growth rings are Similar to yellow pine (see below).
(f.nger cone and Western U.S.A. narrower and it is slightly harder and stronger.
mountain pine)
Pine, Yellow (Canadian Pinus strobus Eastern Canada, .U.S.A. Pale straw to light reddish brown ; growth rings Good-class general internal
white, Canadian yellow, indistinct ; soft, straight grained, even textured, JOinery ; first quality expen-
Ottawa white, Quebec, easily worked to a smooth silky surface ; moder- sive and now used chiefly for
Weymouth and white ately durable ; stains, paints and polishes well. pattern-making, carving and
pine) similar special work. See
Siberian pine.
Redwood (Scots pine or Pinus syhestris British Isles, Norway, 33 Pale reddish brown heartwood, light yellowish Extensively used for general
fir in British Isles, Sweden, Finland, brown sapwood ; distinct growth rings ; straight carpentry and joinery. Quality
northern pine, red Poland,· Northern grained, easily worked to a clean finish; very not so reliable as formerly,
deal, yellow deal, Russia durable when preserved ; tough, strong, moder- as less care taken in selection
Memel fir, Norway fir, ately resinous ; stains, paints and polishes well. of trees, and Douglas fir IS
Polish fir, Swedish often preferred for first-class
pine, Baltic redwood) work.
Spruce, Canadian (white, Picea glauca (white) Eastern and Northern White ; growth rings distinct ; straight grained Better qualities used for
Quebec and New P. mariana (black) Canada, Eastern and easily worked, but knots liable to give cheaper JOinery ; roughest
Brunswick spruce) P. rubra (red) U.S .A. trouble; not durable; stains, paints and varnishes grade used for shuttering,
well ; red variety has reddish tinge and more scaffolding, packing cases.
pronounced figure.
Spruce, Sitka (silver Picea sitclzensis British Columbia, West- 29 White to pink ; mostly straight grained, occasion- Imported : good-class carpentry
spruce) ern U.S.A., British ally spiral grained ; easily worked when free from and joinery.
Isles knots, with satiny finish when planed ; tougher Home-grown : temporary work
I and superior In quality to better grades of
Canadian spruce ; obtainable in large sizes ;
such as shuttering.

---- - -----------------'------- -----__!________________:______!_~st~a~in~s~,--'p~a~in~ts'...:a~n~d~p~o~h~·s~h=es~w~e~Jl~._ _ _ _ _ _ ___!__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~-·

NoTE.-Some timbers are also known by those names appearing within the brackets in the first column .
 TIMBER 306
TABLE !-continued
S 0 FT W 0 0 D S-continued

WEIGHT
STANDARD NAME. BoTANICAL NAME. SouRCE. (lb. per CHARACTERISTICS. UsES.
cub. ft.).
Whitewood (white deal Picea abies Northern and Central Z7 Yellowish or pinkish white; distinct growth rings ; Internal carpentry and cheaper
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or fir, European spruce, Abies alba Europe, British Isles straight grained ; presence of many hard black joinery.
northern and Baltic knots affects working; smooth silky finish ; Rougher grades (includin g home-
whitewood) stains, paints, varnishes and polishes well. grown): temporary work,
packing cases.
Yew Taxus baccata British Isles 4Z Orange-brown heartwood, white sapwood ; distinct Limited supply available for
growth rings ; straight and .irregular grained, doors, panelling, floor blocks,
producing attractive figure ; strong, hard , furniture, gates.
durable ; stains and polishes well.

TABLE II
HARDWOODS

WEIGHT
STANDARD NAME. BOTANICAL NAME. SOURCE. (lb. per CHARACTERISTICS. UsES.
cub. ft.).
Ash Fraxinus excelsior British Isles 44 White to light brown ; ring porous, large pores Figured timber for decorative
(American and F . americana Eastern Canada, U .S .A. distinct ; growth rings distinct, rays indistinct ; work, furniture~ veneers, ply-
Japanese ash) F . mandshurica Japan straight and coarse grained and occasional wood. Chiefly for hammer,
decorative burrs ; very tough and elastic, not etc. shafts, hockey , etc. sticks,
durable when exposed ; stains, varnishes and motor, etc. body framework.
polishes well. American and Japanese similar
but inferior to home-grown.
Avodire Turraanthus ajricanus Gold Coast, Ivory Coast 35 Golden yellow ; growth rings not visible, rays Veqeers, plywood, panelling,
(olon, appayia) indistinct ; straight and interlocked grain pro- cabinet work. Used as a sub-
ducing rich mottled figure ; tough, strong, elastic. stitute for mahoganies (p. 21).
Balsa Ochroma Central America, West 7-Io Pinkish white with silky lustre ; soft and spongy . Sound and heat insulation.
Indies Lightest of commercial timbers.
Basswood Tilia glabra Canada (Quebec, Ontario 26 Creamy white to light brown ; fine texture ; not G eneral interior joinery ; bent
(American lime) and New Brunswick), durable when exposed. plywood cores.
U .S.A.
Bean, Black . Castanospermum australe Australia 49 Dark brown streaked with greyish brown ; usually Panelling and decorative work,
straight grained, but sometimes interlocked, giving both solid and as a veneer.
a beautiful mottled figure; durable; rather d ifficult
to work.
Beech Fagus sylvatica British Isles, White or pale brown ; diffuse porous, pores barely Block and parquet flooring,
Central Europe visible ; growth rings moderately distinct, rays furniture, doors, piles, wood-
(American beech) F. grandifolia South-East Canada, very distinct as flecks ; straight grained, fine working tools such as plane
North-East U.S.A . texture, works easily ; hard and very durable if stocks and mallets.
wet or dry ; stains and polishes well.
Beech, Southland . Nothofagus menziesii New Zealand Pinkish brown with silky lustre ; growth rings As above.
fairly distinct, rays invisible ; usually straight
grained and fine texture ; not durable when
exposed ; stains and polishes well.

I Plywood,
Birch Betula pubescens (white) Europe, including British White to light brown ; diffuse porous, pores barely doors, furniture, motor
B. pendula (silver) Isles visible; growth rings and rays barely visible; fairly bodies.
I straight grained, medium texture; strong, tough ;
not durable ; cuts with smooth, bright surface.
~'--~---------~--------------~------~----~----~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~------------------'
NoTE.-Some timbers are also known by those names appearing within the brackets in the first column.
 307 CARPENTRY
TABLE II-continued
H A R D W 0 0 D S-continued

WEIGHT
STANDARD NAME, BOTANICAL NAME. SouRCE. (lb. per CHARACTERISTICS. UsES.
cub. ft.).

Birch, Canadian Yellow Betula Iuten South-East Canada, New- 44 Light to dark reddish brown ; straight grained Plywood, flooring, furniture ;
(American, Quebec, foundland, North-East with occasional curly grain ; fine texture ; tough, aeroplane construction.
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black, curly and yellow U .S.A. hard wearing but not -durable when exposed.
birch) Japanese birch similar.
Blackwood, Australian At:acia mrlano:\·ylou Australia, Tasmania 45 Golden or reddish brown with darker streaks ; H igh-class JOmery, including
straight and wavy grain (fiddle-back); even panelling , cabinet work,
texture ; strong, durable ; polishes well. veneers.
Cedar, Central American Cedrela mrxirrmn Central America, 30 Closely related to true mahogany (Swietenia, see Panelling, furniture ; best grades
(British Honduras, West Indies p. 21); light red; ring porous, large pores for similar purposes to Hon-
Mexican, Nicaraguan, visible ; growth rings and rays barely visible ; duras mahogany ; cigar boxes.
Trinidad, West Indian straight grained, occasionally figured, but ripple
and cigar-box cedar) marks usually absent; characteristic scent ; easily
worked, durable; readily stains and polishes well.
Chestnut, Sweet (Spanish Castanea sati1·a Europe, including British 35 Light brown heartwood, sapwood lighter ; ring Fencing, gates, piles ; figured
chestnut) Isles porous ; resembling oak, but rays not visible timber for decorative work.
and therefore silver grain figure of oak is absent ;
splits readily; subject to heartshake.
Chestnut, American Castena dentata U.S.A. 35 .. Similar to, but coarler than, sweet chestnut. Similar to sweet chestnut.
Ebony Diospyros ebenum Ceylon, India 74 Black, or black with brown stripes; growth rings and Inlaying (to panelling, etc.),
Ebony, African D. crassijlora East Africa 70 rays invisible ; fine and even texture ; very hard veneers, cabinet work, piano
Ebony, Macassar D. macassar Celebes 64 and durable ; very difficult to work; polishes well. keys, etc.
Elm (English, Dutch, Ulmus procera (English) 35 English : reddish brown (wy ch, paler with green Weather-boarding, furniture,
wych and white elm) U. hollandica (Dutch) } British Isles 35 streaks) ; ring porous, large pores distinct ; piles, flooring (white).
U. glabra (wych) 43 growth rings and rays distinct ; irregular grain
U. america (white) Eastern Canada, Eastern 39 producing attractive wavy figure and coarse
U.S.A. texture ; tough ; difficult to work ; durable under
water ; wych is strongest ; white is usually
straight grained and not durable when exposed.
Eng (In) Dipterocarpus tuberculatus Burma 55 Dull greyish brown ; fairly straight grained, Carpentry, flooring, window
sometimes interlocked; hard, strong, durable; sills. Cheap substitute for
not easy to work. teak (p. 23).
Gaboon (okoume, Ga- Aucoumea klaineana Gabon, Spanish Guinea Light pinkish brown (paler than true mahogany- Veneers and plywood ; cheap
boon mahogany) (West Africa) Swietenia) ; diffuse porous, pores visible; growth furniture, and as inferior sub-
rings indistinct, rays invisible ; straight and inter· stitute for mahoganies.
locked grain ; not durable when exposed ; easily
worked; difficult to stain, but takes a good polish
Greenheart , Ocotera rodirei British Guiana, North 65 Olive green heartwood, pale yellow sapwood ; H eavy construction and m arine
Brazil straight grained ; very strong, tough, durable and work (as dock gates , piers,
difficult to work; tendency to split ; highly piles), stair treads, fishing
resistant to attack of sea-worms. rods, shafts of golf cluLs.
Greywood, Indian Silver Terminalia bialata Andaman Isles, India 43 Yellowish brown with irregular dark markings Superior decorative work such
(white chuglam) producing attractive marbled figure ; straight as for panelling, furniture,
grained ; strong, tough, moderately durable ; interior fittings, veneers, ply-
stains and polishes well. wood.
Guarea (black guarea) . Guarea thompsonii West Africa Related to true mahogany (Swietenia). Guarea : Superior JOmery, panelling,
Guarea, Scented (white G. cedrata · pinkish brown (not so dark as Honduras veneers, furniture . Substitute
guarea) mahogany) ; diffuse porous, pores just visible ; for mahoganies.
I growth rings and rays invisible ; straight and
'[ wavy grain with mottled figure, fine texture,
easily worked ; characteristic cedar-like scent.
1 S cented Guarea : similar, but slightly darker;
----------------------------~-----------------------'~~m~o~r~e~sc~e~n~t~e~d~an~d_t~e~x~t~u~re~l~es~s~fi~n~e~·------------~--------------------------~
Non:.-Some timbers are also known by those names appearing within the brackets in the .first column.
 TIMBER 308
TABLE II-continued
HARD W 0 0 D S-continued

WEIGHT
STANDARD NAME. BOTANICAL NAME. SouRCE. {lb. per CHARACTERISTICS. UsES.
cub. ft.).
Gurjun (apitong, kanyin, Dipterocarpus turbinatus Andaman Islands, Burma, 46 Red to dull greyish brown ; straight and inter- General constructional work,
keruing, yang) bridge decking,
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Ceylon, Siam, Malaya, locked grain, resinous; not easy to work ; hard, flooring,
Sarawak, Philippine durable. I wagon building.
Islands
Hornbeam Carpinus betulus Europe, including British 43 White ; usually cross-grained ; difficult to work ; Flooring, mallets,- mill-wheel
Isles very hard, strong and tough. cogs. Limited supply.
Iroko (odum, African Chlorophora excelsa West and East Africa 41 Light to dark brown ; interlocked grain producing Superior joinery (doors, windows,
teak, mvule) ribbon figure ; coarse but even texture ; strong, staircases, flooring, panelling),
very durable . furniture . Substitute for teak.
Jarrah Eucalyptus marginata Western Australia 56 Reddish brown heartwood, lighter sapwood ; gener- Carpentry, flooring, stair
ally straight grained, sometimes interlocked; treads, counter tops, piles,
very hard and durable ; may contain gum veins fencing, marine work, bridRe
which affect workability ; will take excellent decking.
polish, staining not required.
Karri Eucalyptus diversicolor Western Australia 59 Similar to jarrah ; slightly paler in colour and less Similar to jarrah.
durable.
Kokko (East Indian Albizzia lebbek Andaman Islands, Ceylon, 40 Dull brown with darker streaks ; somewhat re- Superior decorative work,
walnut) Indi.a sembles true walnut (see p. 24). including panelling and furni-
ture ; veneers.
Lauan, Red . Shorea negrosencis Philippine Islands 35 Pale to dark reddish brown ; diffuse porous with Substitutes for mahoganies.
Lauan, White Pentacme contorta distinct pores and white chalky resin ducts ; Plywood .
straight and irregular grain producing roe or
stripe figure. Allied to mahoganies.
Laurel, Indian Terminalia tomentosa Burma, Southern India 54 Light walnut brown to deep chocolate ; straight Superior solid and veneered
and irregular grain, attractive figure by dark panelling, furniture.
wavy streaks; coarse texture; hard, very strong
and durable ; not easy to work.
Lignum Vitre Guaiacum officinale West Indies, Tropical Dark greenish brown, nearly black ; interlocked grain, Turnery, mallet heads, trun-
Africa fine and uniform texture; very hard and durable ; cheons, bowls (" woods "),
very difficult to work. Heaviest commercial timber. electrical work (insulators).
Lime Tilia vulgaris Europe, including British 35 White to pinkish yellow ; growth rings and rays Wood carving, turnery, furni-
Isles not very distinct ; fine uniform texture, soft and ture, parts of musical instru-
easily worked. ments.
Mahogany ,African(Accra, Khaya ivorensis West Africa 30-45 Light pinkish brown to deep red ; diffuse porous, Good-class joinery, including
Benin, Duala, Cape K. anthotheca West Africa and Uganda pores distinct with gum deposits ; growth rings panelling, veneers, plywood,
Lopez and Lagos K. grandifoliola West Africa not visible, larger rays just visible ; straight and furniture and similar decora-
mahogany) interlocked grain p-roducing roe and striped tive work.
figure ; moderately durable ; polishes well.
Mahogany, Cuban (Span- Swietenia mahagoni West Indies 40-50 Rich reddish brown ; diffuse porous, distinct pores Superior joinery and decorative
ish, West Indian, Porto often containing white deposits ; straight, inter- work, such as panelling, ven-
Rico and Jamaican locked, irregular and wavy grain producing eers and furniture. Most
mahogany) variety of handsome figure such as blister, roe, valuable of the mahoganies,
stripe and fiddle-back ; ripple marks may be but very expensive and more
present but not so distinct as Ho11duras mahog- difficult to obtain.
any ; fine texture ; strong; shrinks and warps
little ; high polish readily obtained. Is a true
mahogany.
Mahogany, Honduras Swietenia macrophylla British Honduras, etc., 34 Similar to Cuban mahogany but colour usually lighter High . . cJassjoineryt including
(baywood, Central Central America, Brazil, and texture not so fine ; ripple marks distinct ; panelling, furniture, veneers
American mahogany) Peru dark-coloured gum deposits in pores common, and similar decorative work.
white deposits rare ; strong, durable, works easily ;
takes a good polish. Is a true mahogany.
NoTE .-Some timbers are also known by those names appearing within the brackets in the first column.
 309 CARPENTRY
TABLE 11-continued
HARD W 0 0 D S-continued

WEIGHT
STANDARD NAME. BoTANICAL NAME. SouRCE. (lb. per CHARACTERISTICS. UsES.
cub. ft.).
Makore (cherry ma- Mimusops heckelii West Africa 40-50 Pale pinkish brown to purplish brown ; straight Good-class decorative work such
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hogany) and interlocked grain produCing rich mottled as panelling, veneers and
figure with occasional dark veins ; polishes well. furniture. Excellent substi-
tute for the mahoganies.
Maple, Queensland Flindersia brayleyana Queensland, Australia 39 Light brown; similar to gaboon (p. 20), but darker, Panelling and decorative work,
(silkwood) and int,rlocked grain produces a beautiful stripe including veneers, furniture.
figure.
Maple, Rock (bird's-eye, Acer saccharum South-East Canada, Light ye1lowish-brown ; growth rings distinct as Flooring, stair treads, panelling,
blister, curly, fiddle- North-East U.S.A. dark lines, rays distinct ; straight, irregular and veneers, furniture.
back, hard, sugar and wavy grain producing bird's-eye, blister and
white maple) fiddle-back figure ; dense, tough, hard, strong,
not durable; difficult to work ; stains, paints,
enamels and polishes well.
Meranti, Red Shorea acuminata, etc. Malaya Similar to lauan (p. 21). Substitutes for mahoganies. Ply-
Meranti, White (yellow S. bracteolata Sarawak wood, veneers, interior join-
meranti) ery.
Myrtle, Tasmanian Nothofagus cunninghamii Tasmania; Victoria , Similar to Southland beech. Similar to Southland beech
Australia (p. 19).
Oak (English, peduncu- Quercus robur (ped,;nculata) Europe, including Great 43-53 English : Heartwood light yellow-brown to deep Decorative and superior joinery
late, sessile, durmast, Q . petrt£a (sessilijlora) Britain warm brown (known as " brown oak " when the (figured varieties), including
Austrian and Polish colour has been deepened by a fungus), sapwood panelling, veneers, plywood,
oak) lighter ; ring porous, spring wood pores distinct ; furniture ; carpentry such as
growth rings distinct, very distinct broad rays open roofs, beams ; fencing,
give characteristic beautiful " silver grain " effect posts, gates. English supply
when rift-sawn ; very durable, tough and strong ; limited.
gallic acid present corrodes ironwork ; polishes
well. Best of species.
Austrian (Wainscot): Straighter grained than
English and therefore slightly less distinctive
figure.
Russian (Riga, Memel, etc.) and Polish (Volhynia):
Stronger than Austrian but not so well figured ;
easier to work and cheaper.
Durmast (France) : Less strong and durable than
English.
Oak, American Red Quercus rubra, Q. borealis, Eastern Canada, U.S.A. 46 White oak somewhat similar to English oak and As above, but for inferior work.
etc. preferred to .red oak which is usually coarser and
Oak, American White Q. alba, etc. 48 inferior ; reddish brown heartwood sharply de-
fined from nearly white sapwood, colour not
uniform.
Oak, Japanese Quercus grosseserrata Japan 43-50 Lighter than Austrian oak (light brown tinged with Similar to Austrian oak but
grey rather than red), not so pronounced " silver more suitable for interior work
grain " and not so strong ; very even textured ; (such as panelling, flooring,
works easily to smooth finish. " furniture) than for external
·constructional work.
Oak, Silky Cardwellia sublimis Queensland, Australia Pinkish brown, similar to American red oak ; Panelling, veneering, furniture
characteristic " silver grain " figure resembling and similar decorative work.
true oak (hence the name); straight grain,
coarse even texture ; easily worked, moderately
durable ; stains and polishes well ; does not
respond to fuming.
NoTE.-Some timbers are also knO'Uin by those names appearing within the brackets in the first column.
 TIMBER 310
TABLE II-continued
H A R 0 W 0 0 D S-continued

WEIGHT
STANDARD NAME. BoTANICAL NAME. SOURCE. (lb. per CHARACTERISTICS. UsES.
cub. ft.).

Oak, Tasmanian (Victorian Eucalyptus obliqua, E. Tasmania 51 Light brown, resembling American or plain-sawn Flooring, furniture.
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oak , mountain ash) regnans, E. gigantea Australia (obliqua) English oak (p. 22), but lacks the "silver grain"
41 characteristic and is not durable when exposed.
(regnans)
45
(gigantea)
Obeche Triplochiton scleroxylon West Africa 24 White to pale straw ; interlocked grain producing General joinery, plywood, black-
striped figure, coarse even texture ; easily boards. Substitute for canary
worked ; not durable. whitewood (p. 24).
Olive, East African Olea hochstetteri Kenya 56 Light brown with dark greyish brown markings ; Flooring, panelling and similar
slightly interlocked grain, fine even texture ; decorative work.
strong, moderately durable ; difficult to work.
Padauk, Andaman . Pterocarpus dalbergioides Andaman Islands, India 49 Dark reddish brown ; interlocked grain producing Superior joinery and decorative
ribbon figure; difficult to work; strong, very work such as panelling, fittings,
hard, durable ; takes high polish. bank counter tops, furniture.
Padauk, Burma Pterocarpus macrocarpus Burma 54 Golden brown ; grain, etc., as above. As above.
Pyinkado Xylia dolabriformis Burma 62 Dull reddish brown ; straight and intetlocked grain ; Heavy constructional and marine
resinous ; very difficult to work ; exceedingly work; flooring.
strong, hard and durable.
Rosewood, Honduras Dalbergia stevensonii British Honduras 6o Purplish brown with irregular black markings High-class decorative work such
producing an attractive figure ; straight and as panelling, veneering, furni-
wavy grained; hard, dense, difficult to work; very ture.
durable ; polishes well.
Rosewood, Indian (Bom- Dalbergia latifolia India 54 Similar to Honduras rosewood ; interlocked figure As above, including parquet
bay blackwood) producing beautiful ribbon figure. flooring.
Sapele (sapele mahogany) Entandrophragma cylindri- East and West Africa Dark .reddish or purphsh brown ; interlocked and Superior decorative work as for
cum, etc. wavy grain producing attractive blister, roe, stripe panelling, interior fittings,
and fiddle-back figure ; cedar-like scent; very furniture, veneering.
hard and strong; moderately durable ; not easy
to work ; polishes well. Included amongst
commercial mahoganies.
Satinwood, East Indian Chloroxylon swietenia Ceylon, India 62 Golden yellow to dark brown heartwood, white As above .
(flowered satinwood) to yellow sapwood ; interlocked grain produc-
ing attractive ribbon and mottled figure ;
dense, hard, very durable ; difficult to work ;
fine, even, lustrous texture ; polishes well.
Satinwood, -West Indian Zanthoxylum fiavum West Indies, Florida s6 Resembles East Indian satinwood, but is not so As above.
(Jamaica satinwood) (U.S.A.) hard and is less durable.
Seraya, Red Shorea macroptera, etc. North Borneo 36 Similar to lauan (p. 21). Substitutes for mahoganies (p.
Seraya, Whtte Parashorea malaanonan, 35 21). Interior joinery, shop-
etc. fitting, veneers, plywood.
Sycamore (great maple, Acer pseudoplatanus British Isles 39 White or yellowish white ; distinct growth rings Superior decorative work, as for
plane) and rays ; straight and wavy grain producing panelling, furniture, choice
attractive rippled figure ; fine, lustrous texture ; veneers, table tops, dairy
strong, not durable ; works fairly easily; stains appliances. Supplies are
and polishes well. limited.
Teak Tectona grandis Burma, Java, Siam 41 Golden brown, occasionally with dark markings or Superior general joinery and
flecks ; ring porous ; growth rings and rays in- carpentry, marine work, ven-
distinct ; straight grained, not easily worked eers, plywood.
(saws, cutters, etc:, being dulled); strong, hard,
very durable ; fire-resistant.
NoTE.-Some timbers are also known by those names appearing within the brackets in the first column.
 311 CARPENTRY
TABLE II-continued
H A R D W 0 0 D 5-continued

WEIGHT
STANDARD NAME. BOTANICAL NAME. SOURCE. (lb. per CHARACTERISTICS. Usils.
cub. ft.).
Teak, Rhodesian Baikia!a plurijuga Northern and Southern 57 Reddish brown, occasionally with irregular black High-class flooring.
Rhodesia markings or flecks ; straight or slightly inter-
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locked grain ; difficult to work; very hard, strong

and durable. Not a true teak.
Walnut (English, Euro- Juglans r~({ia Europe, including British 41 Variable in colour, irregular dark veins on a greyish Superior decorative work, in-
pean, Black Stea, Isles brown background producing beautiful figure ; cluding panelling, furniture ;
French, Circassian and finely figured burrs and crotches ; hard, tough, burrs and crotches highly
Italian walnut) strong, moderately durable; fine texture; takes valued for veneers ; gun and
an excellent polish. rifle stocks.
Walnut, African (Benin Lovoa klaineana West Africa 35 Yellowish brown background with dark markings Superior decorative work and
and Nigerian walnut) (due to gum veins) ; interlocked grain produc- joinery.
ing ribbon or stripe figure. Not a true walnut.
Walnut, American Black Juglans nigra U.S.A. Similar to English walnut, but darker and more Similar to English walnut. Dimi-
uniform in colour. nishing supplies and demands.
Walnut, Queensland (Aus· Endiandra palmerstonii Queensland, Australia Light or pinkish brown to dark brown, with vari- Superior decorative work such
tralian walnut) coloured markings ; interlocked and wavy grain as panelling, veneers, furniture,
producing a broken striped figure ; difficult to plywood.
work (dulls tools).
Whitewood, Canary Lin'odendron tulipifenJ U.S.A. 32 Yellowish brown with greenish tinge ; diffuse Joinery, plywood. High cost
(American whitewood) porous, pores just visible ; growth rings distinct, restricting its use, obeche (p. 23)
rays indistinct; straight grained, easily worked ; being used as a substitute.
stains and polishes well.
NOTE.-Some timbers are also known by those names appearing within the brackets in the first column.
PREPARATION OF TIMBER 2! t~-ft. long and 2 to 3!-ft. wide. The revolving saw runs in a slot in the table: The
fence, which is parallel to the saw, can be readily adjusted, the distance between 1ts face
Hand tools used by the carpenter and joiner are described on pp. 126-IJO, and the saw being regulated to the width to which the tirriber is to be sawn. Some
Vol. I. The considerable use now made of woodworking machinery has machines have fixed tables, whilst others have " rising and falling " tables and fences
which can be canted through 45 °, the latter being useful for bevelling. This machine is
revolutionized those sections of the building industry in which timber is employed. extensively employed for general sawing purposes, such as sawing baulks into planks,
Machines have speeded up output and reduced costs, and comparatively little deals, etc. (known as deep-cutting), or into smaller scantlings (called fiat-cutting), ripping,
hand labour is needed in the well-equipped workshop, as practically all wood- edging and cross-cutting. Each piece of timber is pressed against the fence (unless
it is to be cross-cut), which has been adjusted to the required distance from the saw,
working processes normally required can be done by machinery. Certain of and fed towards the rotating saw ; the pressure is maintained as the timber slides forward
the heavier machines used in the conversion of timber have been described on the table during the cutting operation. The riving knife, which is immediately behind
on pp. 5 and 6. The following are some of the machines which are used in the the saw, widens the cut in the timber and thus prevents pressure on the saw.
Circular saws are made of crucible cast steel plates. The common form, shown at
preparation of timber: (1) Circular sawing machine, (2) band sawing machine, A and P, Fig. 6, and known as a plate saw, is a disc of uniform thickness or gauge through-
(3) planing and surfacing machine, (4) surface-planing and thicknessing machine, out, the thickness depending upon the size of the saw and the character of the wood to
be sawn; thus, the normal thickness of a saw of 24-in. diameter .is I2 B.W.G. (~pprox.
(5) panel planing and thicknessing machine, (6) moulding machine, (7) spindle T',,-in.) for hardwoods and 13 B.W.G. for softwoods, whilst the thickness of a 30-m: saw
moulder, (8) planing and matching machine, (9) mortising machine, (ro) tenon- is I I B.W.G. for hardwoods and 12 B.W.G. for softwoods. They are convemently
ing machine, (n) double-dimension saw bench, (12) dovetailing machine, divided into rip saws (those which cut with the grain) and -cross-cut saws (whic~ cut .acr?ss
the grain). As the fibres of the wood are parallel to the plane of the saw dunng nppmg
(13) lathe, (14) mitreing machine, (15) sand-papering machine, (16) universal and perpendicular during cross-cutting, and as timbers vary in hardness, it follows that
woodworker and ( 17) sharpening machines. the shape of the teeth differ in accordance with the work for which the saw is to be used.
Sketches of teeth of a rip saw are shown at B and c, Fig. 6, and those of a cross-cut saw
': CIRCULAR SAWING MACHINE OR CIRCULAR SAW HENCH (see G, Fig. 5).-This, are shown at D and E. The names of the various parts are indicated on the enlarged eleva-
wns1sts of a vertical circular saw, protected by a guard to which a riving knife is attached, tions G and M. The hook or rake is the inclination of the front or face of the tooth ; in all
and a metal guid~: or fence. The spindle of the saw is mounted on a frame having a fiat ripping saws the cutting polnt of a tooth is forward to form a forward hook (see G and M);
ml'tal tahlt·. The saw varies from 9 to 6o-in . in diameter and the table or bench is from the teeth of cross-cut saws have usually a backward rake (see E and D) and occasionally no
 M A p s H 0 w N G T rt E D S T R B U T I 0 N 0 F
T H E p ~ N c p A L 5 u L 0 N G T M B E ~ s
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~t;)·'
~fj'b ·"

·.- ... •

c H I N A

QUEENSLAND i<.MJRI
QUEENSLAND MAPLE
QUEENSLAND WALNUT
SILKY OAJ<..
8LACJ(.8EAN

NOTE: THE TIMBERS INDICATED AA.E SELECTED F~OM THOSE USED IN THE BRITISH- ISLES FOP-.. BUILDING PURP05ES. FIGURE 4
 313 CARPENTRY
w 0 0 D w 0 R K N G
SQUME CUTIERBLO<K C
·-...,!:~.,.;~~---, 1<-NIVES~
TASLE
CI'-CUL.AJ!-
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CUTTEMLO<i<.
SPINDLE MOULDE~
BAND SAWING MACHINE CI~CULA~ SAW BENCH
hook . The gullet must be sufficiently large and well rounded to remove the sawdust
rapidly during the cutting operation.
Set.-The setting of the teeth of hand saws to produce the cut or kerf of greater width
than the thickness of the blade is referred to on p . 127, Vol. I. A similar clearance or
set must be given to the body of a circular saw so as to eliminate friction, otherwise the
timber would bind on the saw, generating heat and causing the saw .t o wobble. This
clearance must be equal on each side if " pulling " to one side is to be avoided. Teeth
are either (a) spring set or (b) swage set.
(a) Spring Set or Side Set.- In this type the points of the teeth are bent over to the
right and left alternately. Only the extreme points are sprung ·over, as shown at F and H,
Fig. 6. The amount of set depends upon the nature of the timber. In general, hard-
woods req uire less set than softwoods, and the set is increased when wood of a woolly
and binding character is to be sawn. As a rule the set required for a 36-in. diameter saw
is about ~. -in . bare for cutting hardwoods and 6 \ -in. full for sawing softwoods. The tool
used for bending the points of the teeth is called a saw set. This is a small steel tool,
having several notches of various widtf:ls on each of its two edges, and provided with either
one or two handles. When setting, the notch in the tool corresponding to the thickness
of the saw plate is fitted over the point of the tooth and bent over in the required direction
as slight pressure is applied on the handle of the tool. Another tool, called a set gauge,
is used to measure and ensure the uniform projection of the teeth on each side of the saw.
This is a small piece of steel having a straight edge which is notched at the end by an
amount equal to the required set. When applying the set gauge, its straight edge is held
square along the centre line of the saw, and the point of the tooth should just touch the
notched top of the gauge ; any adjustment of the tooth is made by the saw set.
The top of each tooth of a rip saw is sharpened with a slight bevel, called the top
hn·el (see F and G ); this enables the outer and higher extreme point to lead in the saw
M A c H N E y
D~
~KNIVES
SI<.ETCH OF CUTTERSI.OCI<. OF
PlANING t, SUMACING
MACHINE AT 'H'
&ACI<. TASLE FENCE F!'.DNT TA6LE
PLANING C. SUIUACING MO~TISING MACHINE
MACHINE
FIGURE .5
cut. The front of each rip-saw tooth has little or no bevel, but ·both the front and back
of cross-cut teeth are bevelled on alternate sides.
Spring-set teeth are often used for ripping and cross-cutting. Setting of the teeth
can be done by the automatic saw sharpening machine described on p. 30.
(b) Swage Set.-The point of each tooth when swage set is pressed out so that it
slightly extends an equal distance on each side of the saw (see K and N, Fig. 6). Thus,
each tooth clears both sides of the saw, whereas in spring set every other tooth clears one
side and the alternate teeth the other. Two tools are used for swaging or spreading the
teeth, i.e., the swage and the side dresser or swage shaper. The former consists of a block
of steel having a slot to admit the saw blade, and an internal anvil and eccentric die; the top
of the tooth is pressed against the anvil, a handle is turned causing the die to apply pressure
on the face of the tooth as it spreads out the point. The side dresso:r ensures a- uniform
width across the points of the saw ; this steel tool has two metal dies between which the
point of each tooth is squeezed, the finished width being determined by an adjustable
steel plate which rests on top of the tooth .
Swage set is preferred for rip saws, log band saws, re-saws and frame saws. A faster
feed can be employed when a saw is swage set and not spring set.
The above cross cut and rip saws are of uniform thickness. Another form of circular
.cross-cut saw, known as a hollow-ground saw, is of uniform thickness at the centre (for
the diameter of the collar-see p. 27) and, after being reduced, gradually increases in
thickness towards the rim (see Q , Fig. 6). It is used for accurate work. The teeth
require no set.
The ground-off saw and the swage saw or bevelled saw are two other types of circular
saw which are not of uniform thickness throughout. Both are thinner at the rim than
at the centre, the ground-off saw (see R, Fig. 6) having a thin parallel rim of I to r;f-in.
width and increasing in thickness by a slight concave taper on one side only, and tht>
 PREPARATION OF TIMBER 314

s A w s R 0 T A R y c u T T E s
TOP &EVEL"' (ji\DOVE TO ft.ECEIVE HEADS OF
&OLTS USED TO SECU!t.E CUTTE~
S Q U A
~ 0 T A
C U T T
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8 L 0 C

SECTION 'LL'
P . . IO•N•T•H·~~.~C~I~==U~~·~
~SKT . ..p~ .. ·s~·W~
. JE• ~ c!::::::::::::::::l::::::::::::=~:iJI
P LAN S H0 WI NG S WA G ~ - S ET
Q SECTION THW HOLLOW-GroUND SAW "'- I p - S A W T E E T It A T 'C'

~ SECTION THF>O' (j~UHD-OFF SAW ~SCALE ~Of!. F.~.I+.I'.,M f. N INCHES

S SECTION THW CI~ULM SWAGE SAW NOTE : TI+E THICI'.NESS OF THE SAWS SHOWN A1 'P: ~ '1<.' f. 'S'IS EXAGGEAATED
I I • I II
SCALE FOI!.Tt.U
>I I ij
INCI+il FIGURE 6

swage saw {see s) is tapered on one side from the rim towards the edge of the collar. They
are either spring set or swage set. Both produce thin clean saw kerfs, and are used for
cutting thin boards only, the ground-off saw being chiefly used for cutting boards from
1'.; to ~ -in . thick and the swage saw for sawing boards up to ~-in. thick.
Tensioning.-A saw after continuous use becomes stretched at the rim ; if not attended
to it will fail to cut true and will run noisily. Therefore, in order to obtain efficient per-
formance, it is essential to examine the saw and recondition it when necessary. This
correction is obtained by a process of hammering known as "tensioning." The process
is usually confined to the middle half of the saw and the radial hammering method is one
of several which· produces satisfactory results. Thus, if concentric circles are chalked
off as shown by thin broken lines at A, Fig. 6, light hammering (by a round-faced or dog-
head hammer) is performed, working from the outside to the inside, i.e., from " 2 " to
" I " as indicated by the thick broken lines . The saw is hammered on an anvil, and both
sides of the saw are dealt with in this manner. This expands the metal over this area
and counteracts the expanding effect at the rim when the saw revolves at a high speed .
A saw to be tested for tension is laid horizontally on a table or anvil and is raised at
one edge. A metal straight edge is placed on the saw, extending from the centre to the
circumference. If correctly tensioned, the ends only of the straight edge should touch
the saw, and there should be a space between with a maximum at the centre. The whole
area is tested in this manner and the clearance between the saw and straight edge should
be uniform. Absence or deficiency of tension is indicated when the surface of the saw
between the ends of the straight edge touches, or almost touches the edge, and also if the
saw shows " round " under the straight edge.
Improper treatment of the saw whilst in operation may produce bright or blue coloured
bulges on the surface, known as lumps or blisters. The exact shape of these is determined
by the straight edge and marked ; the saw is placed on the anvil and the lumps are
removed by the gentle application of a round-faced or cross-face hammer.
A circular saw is fitted on the spindle of the machine between two collars (one b eing
" fast " and the other " loose ") and secured by a nut ; a " steady pin " proj ects from the
face of the fixed collar and engages in the small hole in the saw. The saw runs in a slot
in the table (see p. 24) . A packing must be placed in the slot on each side of the saw
between it and the table. A good type of packing consists of a thin strip of wood round
which spun yarn, afterwards oiled, is wound ; this is about 1-in. wide , and its length
extends from the collar to just short of the base of the teeth. The packing must just be
sufficiently tight for the purpose, excessive thickness being reduced by hammering on the
wrapping. Correct packing prevents deflection of the saw and ensures steadiness .
Speed.- The speed of a circular saw depends upon its type, size and class of wood to
be sawn. The most effective rim speed {that at the circumference of the saw) for general
purposes is Io,ooo-ft. per min . The rim speed, divided by the circumference of the
saw, gives the number of revolutions . Thus, for a 24-in . diameter saw the revolutions per
minute are J ,590 (1o,ooo 7 -rrd), and for a 36-in. saw, 1,o6o revs. per min .
2. BAND SAWING MACHINE (see A, Fig. 5).-This is similar to, but much lighter than,
 315 CARPENTRY
the vertical log band mill (p. 6) in that the band saw is strained over two pulleys placed
one above the other. The diameter of the pulleys is 30, 36, 42 or 48-in., a useful size for
general purposes being the 36-in . machine. The saw blade varies in width from t to I!-in.
The t.im~er is hand-fed on a 3-ft. square table which is about 3-ft. above the floor. This
machme IS used for shaping pieces by straight or circular cuts. The table may be canted
and locked in position when required for bevel cut ting.
. PLA~ING AND MOULDING MACHINES.-There is a big similarity between these two classes
o! machmes, as the function of both is to reduce each sawn piece of timber to accurate
SIZe and to produce a smooth and true finish to one or more surfaces. The planing machine
shaves or planes fiat surfaces, and, as implied, the moulding machine forms a moulded
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surface. Planing is achieved by steel knives or cutters. There are two kinds of cutters,
i.e., (a) rotary and (b) fixed.
(a) Rotary Cutters.-This type consists of knives bolted in a _steel block, called a
cutterblock, fixed on a rotating spindle, the latter being mounted on bearings. Cutter-
blocks are either square or circular in section.
A square cutte1-block is shown at T, Fig. 6, and has either four knives or cutters, one
bolted o~ eac!l face, or two knives mounted on a pair of opposite faces . A square cutter-
block! With the knives omitted, is shown in position at B, Fig. 5· A diagrammatic view
showm!? the cutting action of rotary cutters (in this case fixed above the timber) is shown
at u, Ftg: 6. As the cutterblock rotates at a high speed, the projecting edges of the knives
?Ut. shavmgs or chips from the advancing wood. The portion of wood, shown black,
mdtcates the chip which would be removed by knife "Y" as it rotates. It will be seen
~hat the planed surface is composed of waves or ripples ; the quality of the surface is
tmpr~ved as the number of knives or the speed of the spindle is increased. · acts as a four-cutter planing and thicknessing machine and is capable of planing all four
Ctrcu?ar cutterblocks are shown at c, D and E, Fig. 5 ; each carries two (as shown) or
mor~ km':es. The cutterblocks are placed horizontally in some machines (see E and H),
vertically m others (see B), and certain machines, such ·as moulding machines (see next
colun:n), have both horizontal and vertical cutterblocks . The cutting action of the knives
of a circular cutterblock is shown at E.
(b) Fixed Knives or Cutters.-These are fixed on certain machines, i.e., the planing
and matching machine (p. 29) , at the bottom and sides. They shave the wood and
produce a superior finish to the surfaces. The result is similar to that produced by the
h:m.d plane (see J, Fig. 67, Vol. I), but as the knives are fixed, the timber must be pressed
agamst them as it is guided rapidly past. The speedier the feed the better the finish.
Most planing machines are designed to perform additional labours, including mould-
ing, .thicknessing, grooving, beading, chamfering, etc. (see below). Whilst a · combined
pl~nmg .and moulding machine is an advantage in a workshop having a small mixed output,
It IS desuable to have an independent moulding machine when the output is large. Three
reasons for this are : (a) The fast feed speed required on a planing machine is not desir-
able on a moulder when the mouldings are required to have fine surfaces; (b) a common
cutterblock cannot be conveniently used for both purposes; and (c) the feed rollers best
for flat planing are not of the type most desirable for working mouldings.
3· PLANING AND SURFACING OR PLANING AND }OINTING MACHINE (see H, Fig. 5).-
This consists of back and front tables, a cutterblock and an adjustable fence. The over-
all length of the tables varies from 6 to Io-ft., the larger type of machine being capable
of planing timber of a maximum width of 30-in. An enlargement of the cutterblock,
containing two knives , is shown at D and a section is shown at E. The tables .can be adjusted
by the hand-wheels to enable the back table to support the timber and the front table to
regulate the depth of the cut. The section E shows a piece of timber partially planed as
the cutterblock rotates in the direction of the arrow at a speed of 4,000 revs. per min.
The cutterblock has a guard (not shown) to protect the operator. The fence can be canted
for chamfering and bevelling. This simple hand-fed machine is used for planing, surfac-
ing, jointing, bevelling, rebating and chamfering. If a face and edge of a piece of timber
are. to be planed, it is first placed flat and pressed against the table (or held down by two
springs similar to those shown at B) and passed over the rotating cutter ; the piece is then
edged in a similar manner with the dressed face against the fence.
This machine can also be obtained with a mechanical feed . This feed unit is super-
imposed over the table and consists of two endless travelling chains having projecting
steel points. These points grip the timber and guide it forward over the cutterblock.
The maximum rate of feed is 55-lin. ft . per min.
4· SURFACE-PLANING AND THICKNESSING MACHINE.-The object of this machine is
to reduce the timber to a parallel thickness in addition to planing its surfaces. It resembles
machine H with the addition of a second table, situated below the back and front tables. The
bottom table can be raised or lowered as required, the vertical distance between the upper
surface of the bottom table and the edge of the knife in the cutterblock (when immediately
below its centre) being equal to the required finished thickness of the timber. If a piece of
timber is to be thicknessed and planed on all four sides, an edge and one face are first planed
on the top table, as explained in the preceding column , after which the piece is placed with
the dressed face resting on the bottom table, and the upper face is dressed by the cutter-
block as the timber is fed mechanically by the rollers. The second edge is finally dressed
in a similar manner, a process known as widthing. The maximum size of timber which
can be dealt with is 30-in. by 9-in. and the maximum rate of feed is 46-lin. ft. per min.
5· PANEL PLANING AND THICKNESSING MACHINE.-One form of this powerful machine
consists of a table, a cutterblock having three, four or six knives, a mechanical feed of
rollers, pressure bars to hold the timber firmly down on the table and a chipbreaker to break
up and discharge the chippings. One of the heavier types is capable of dealing with
timber of 36-in. maximum width and up to 9-in. thick. The cutterblock, being above the
table, planes the upper face and reduces the thickness of the timber. The maximum rate
of feed is go-lin. ft . per min.
Another form of this machine is provided with two cutterblocks, a bottom one (at
table level) near the front, and a top cutterblock near the back. Two surfaces can be
dealt with at the same time , and thus the machine acts as a double surfacer. In addition,
two side vertical cutterblock~ can be fitted near the back end of the machine ; it thus
sides at once.
6. MouLDING MACHINE.-There are several types of machines used for forming
moulded surfaces. The cutterblocks and cutterheads are provided with cutters shaped
according to the moulded section of timber to be produced. A moulding of complicated
design will require more than one cutter to form it. Moulding machines may have either
four, five or six rotary cutterblocks. Thus, a six-cutter has the following at intervals,
commencing near the feed end : A bottom cutterblock, two side cutterblocks (one at each
side), a top cutterblock, a second top cutterblock or profile head, and a second bottom or
end cutterblock or beading head near the back end; this is suitable for large mouldings. A
five-cutter is similar but without either one of the bottom or top cutterblocks ; the side
cutterblocks may either precede or be between the two top cutterblocks. A four-cutter
has bottom and top cutterblocks and two side cutterblocks.
The feed is by means of two pairs of rollers (the first being fluted) through which
the timber is guided and propelled ; the rollers are driven by gearing controlled by a
three, four, six or nine speed gearbox, depending upon the type of machine. The timber
is pressed against the table and/or fence by pressures such as smooth rollers or pads over
or adjacent to the various cutters. A chipbreaker is provided. The maximum size of
timber which can be dealt with varies; thus, one type of six-cutter can deal with sections
up to 15-in. by 6-in., whilst another is designed to take a maximum size of 12-in. by
4-in. ; the capacity of some four-cutters is limited to 4-in. by 2-in. stuff.
There is a big variation in the feed-speeds ; thus, one six-cutter machine has a range of
speeds up to I6o-lin. ft. per min., whilst some four-cutters have a maximum feed-speed
of 45-lin . ft . per min. only. The speed depends upon many factors, such as the size,
kind and quality of ~he timber, number of cutters, quality of finish required, power
available, etc. As mouldings of high finish are usually required, it is customary to feed
the machines at much lower speeds than the maximum, othe_rwise ridges or " ripple
marks " (see u, Fig. 6) will be more pronounced.
The latest type of " high-speed " planing and moulding machine which can be built
up with either. four, five or six rotary cutterblocks in addition to fixed knives, has six
rates of speed varying from 25 to zoo-lin. ft . per min. The fixed knives, which produce
a high quality finish, consist of two bottom knives and two side knives, and are situated
between the first cutterblock and the side cutterblocks. It is necessary to use an automatic
feeding table in order to obtain the maximum output from this high-speed machine. This
may be zo-ft. long by 2 to z!-ft. wide, and has six grooved bottom rollers at intervals
along its length, with two top rollers at the planing machine end; it .has a fence along
one side and a sloping board along the other, on to which the pieces of ttmber are dropped
 PREPARATI ON OF TIMBER
and from which. they slide on to the rollers to be delivered to the moulding machine.
The f~e~ table IS connected to the feed mechanism of the moulding machine and its
speed 1s m excess of that of the machine.
_7· . SPINDLE MOULDER OR VERTICAL SPINDLE MOULDING MACHINE (see B, Fig. 5).-
Th1s IS a us~ful mac~in~ for forming mouldings on straight, curved or irregularly shaped
lengt~s of t1mbc_;r_; It IS ~l~o _used for planing, edging, recessing, tonguing, grooving,
tenonmg, dovetatlmg and JOmtmg. The cutterblock may be circular, as shown at c, o.r
s9uare, as shown at B. I.t is provided with ~- pair of straight fences and a pair of ring or
c_1rcular fences, a!l of wh1ch .can be moved and fixed in position on the table to suit the
t!mber; Two adjustable sp:mg pressures are fixed to the straight fences for holding the
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t1mber to the table an? agamst the fences. The spindle speeds are usually 3,ooo, 4,500
and 6,ooo revs. per '?m. It can rotate in either direction to suit the grain of the wood.
f!'. guard, not show~, IS fitted over the cutter spindle to protect the operator. This machine
IS . hand-fed ll:nd IS known as a single-spindle moulder. Another type has two cutter-
spmdles and IS hence called a double-spindle moulder. Both types can be mechanically
fed when large outputs are required, the maximum speed-rate being 45-lin. ft .
per min.
8. PLANING AND MATCHING MACHINE.-This very powerful machine which is at
least 20-ft. long. and 4!-ft. wide,_ is designed to produce large and speedy outputs of
accurately machmed floor boardmg, match-boarding, skirtings, etc. The maximum
outpu~ from the latest type can exceed 350-lin. ft. of tongued and grooved floor boarding
pe_r mmu~e, and .the ~xim':lm size of timber which the largest can deal with is 15-in. by
6~m. It IS prov1ded With e!ther four, five or six rotary cutterblocks. It has, in addition,
either two, three or fou~ honzontal fixed knives in a box immediately after the first bottom
cutterblock for prod~cmg a first-class finish to the face ; side fixed knives may also be
fixed next to the s1de cutterheads. Thev are positioned as described for moulding
machines (p. 28). · manipulated by the free hand to give the necessary short lateral movement of timber and
The cutterblocks fixed on the side vertical spindles which form the tongue and groove
on the _edges of floor and_ match-boarding are called the tonguing head and grooving head
respectively. The tongumg ~ead has either six or eight cutters ; each alternate cutter
forms. the edge and _upper portiOn of the tongue during rotation , and the remaining cutters
form !ts lower portiOn .. The _grooving head has either eight (four for edging and four for
groovmg) or twelve (s1x ed~mg and six grooving) cutters ; the straight edging cutters
plane the edge of the boardmg and alternate with the projecting grooving cutters or bits.
For t~ngued and grooved and single or double vee-jointed match-boarding (see L
and M, F1g. 44, Vol. I) the cutters of both the tonguing and grooving heads are shaped
to for:n the necessary cha'?fers. The b~ad at the tong~ed edge of the tongued and grooved
and smgle beaded matchmg (see N, F1g. 44, Vol. I) ts formed by the second horizontal
bottom cutterblock or beading head of the six-cutter machine · if the matching is double
beaded (see o) the second bead is shaped by the second top c'utterblock. Other labours
on the edges, suc_h as are required for the boards shown at Q, v and w, Fig. 34, Vol. I,
are formed by smtably shaped cutters in the side cutterblocks.
. On~ type of machine is fitted with eight feed rolls (18-in. in diameter), two pairs
!mmed!ately ~efore. the first cutterblock and two pairs before the side cutterblocks. It
IS prov1ded Wtth SUitable pressures. A shaving breaker is mounted below the fixed knives
to reduce the long shaving to small particles. · An automatic feeding table described on
p. 28; must be provided. ' shown at B (see preceding column) and another cutter spindle or boring tool mounted on
The rates of ~eed vary. ~hus, one machine has twelve distinct rates of feed varying
from ~2 to 350-lm. ft. per mm. Another has nine rates varying from 68 to 450-lin. ft.
per mm. Those used for production work only have minimum and maximum speeds
of 200 and 520-lin. ft. per min.
. A fout:-cutter planing an~ '?atching machine will be suitable for flooring, plain match-
mg and s1mple m<;mlded sk1rtmgs. Thus, for tongued and grooved boarding, the sawn
boa.rds ar~ successively (1) planed on the lower face by the bottom cutterblock, (2) given
a htgh fimsh by the fixed blades (~!though these are not always provided), (3) planed and
grooved on o_ne edge by the groovmg head, and tongued and reduced to the correct width
by the to~gumg he~d, and (4) fin~lly reduced to the required thickness by the top cutter-
block. F1v~ a_nd SIX cutter machmes are necessary for beaded matching, more elaborate
moulded sk1rtmgs, etc.
9· MoRTISING MACHINE (seeK, Fig. s).-This is used for mortising framing of doors,
316
windows, etc. The two cutting tools chiefly used are the hollow chisel and the chain
cutter. .
The hollow chisel mortiser, as shown at F, Fig. s, consists of a chisel in the form of a
tube, square in section, and an auger bit which revolves within the chisel. The normal
size of the chisel is up to 1-in. square (d· and 2-in. square chisels are used in the heavier
machines), and its lower end has a fine cutting edge. The chisel is attached to a spindle
and works with an up-and-down movement, and the stroke can be varied to give any depth
of mortise down to 8-in.
A chain cutter is an endless chain with links having cutting teeth on the outside.
The chain travels vertically at a high speed over a top sprocket (cogged) wheel fixed to
the spindle and a bottom guide wheel forming the lower end of a tension bar. The width
of the chain varies from ::l to 1!-in. and is capable of forming a mortise of 6-in. maximum
depth.
The movement of the chisel is controlled by the hand lever. The timber is fixed to
the table by one or two adjustable cramps. The table can be raised and lowered by a
central screw when operated by handwheel " 3 " ; it can be moved either backwards or
forwards by a screw operated by handwheel " 2," and longitudinally over the slide by
operating handwheel " 1."
Handwheels " 2 " and " 3 " are manipulated until the table is correctly positioned,
i.e., the position of the mortise marked on the cramped timber is brought immediately
under the chisel, which has been lowered until it almost touches the wood . Once the table
has been set it is not necessary to alter its transverse position and height, provided all the
timber is of the same scantling and the size and relative position of the mortises are
common.
Mortising is performed by the simplest type of hand-lever machines by lowering the
lever ; this drives the chisel through the wood. The lever is raised ; handwheel " 1 " is
the lever is again lowered. This is repellted until the mortise has been completed. If
the machine is of the automatic type, the reciprocal feed motion of the chisel is controlled
by the hand lever having automatic knocking-off and adjustable stops ; mortises of uniform
length are thus formed rapidly. In one type of automatic machine the feed of the chisel
is operated by a foot lever, and the movement of the chisel continues automatically until
the foot is released from the pedal of the lever.
In some machines the head carrying the hollow chisel can be quickly substituted for
the chain cutter head . The mortising machine shown at K may be fitted with a chain
cutter attachment in addition to the hollow chisel. Alternatively, a boring attachment,
consisting of a spindle carrying a rotating auger, can be fitted. A boring machine is a
form of mortiser, it being used to form circular holes for dowelling, etc. The auger, like
the hollow chisel, has a vertical movement and is controlled by a hand lever. Some
_multiple-boring machines carry four or more spindles which operate simultaneously by a
hand lever or foot treadle. A boring machine may also be of the horizontal type, the
auger spindle being placed at the side of the table ; this is a useful machine for recessing
and slot mortising, for which purpose the rise and fall tables, fitted with a fence, can be
moved horizontally.
Another form of vertical boring machine is known as a router or recessing machine or
overhead spindle moulder. This consists of a bench, a vertical cutter spindle similar to that
an adjustable horizontal arm overhanging the table. The overhead cutter spindle is used
for housing, recessing and trenching, as required for stair strings (to accommodate the
ends of treads and risers, see pp. 84 and 87), shelving, recessed panels, etc.
10. TENONING MACHINE.-The single and double tenoning of members of framing
is performed by a machine which has two horizontal rotary cutterblocks, two vertical
rotary scribing cutterblocks, a cross-cut saw and a table which travels on rollers. The
two tenoning cutterblocks, one below the other, are at right angles to the travel of the
table and carry two or four knives each ; they can be adjusted both vertically and hori-
zontally to suit the required thickness and length of the tenons. A cutter is fitted to the
end of each cutterblock to sever the fibres across the grain and form clean cuts at the
shoulders. The two vertical cutterblocks are adjustable for both top and bottom scribing.
The cross-cut saw is adjustable and cuts the end of the timber prior to or after being
tenoned and scribed. The sawing, tenoning and scribing are done in sequenc<t at· each
 317 CARPENTRY
travd of the table, the scribing being the last operation as a rule. An adJustable drunken
smc (so called because It appears .t'? wobble when rotating) is used for double tenoning ;
thrs Is attached to the bottom scnbmg spmdle and replaces the bottom scribing block.
r_r. DoURLE-DIMENSION SAW BENCH.-This is used for various classes of work (in-
cludmg nppmg, cross-cutting, mitreing, grooving, rebating, bevelling and cutting
compounJ angles) requiring accuracy in sawing to dimensions. The 44-in. by 40-in.
table can be canted to 45 . A revolving frame carries two saws (usually a rip saw and a
hollow ground cross~cut saw) ; that required for use is raised to the required height by
tu~nrm: a. wheel ; t~J~ operation lowers the other saw. The main fence can be accurately
'dJ usted m any pos1t10n and can be canted to 45 ° or swivelled to 30°. The front portion
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,,t_ th~ table can be moved laterally as required for cross-cutting, etc., and carries a
mrtremg and cross-cutting fence which is set to the required angle on reference to a
graduated are m~rked on the table or fence.
A single~dimension saw bench is similar to the above, but carries only one saw. This
saw can be Interchanged .
12. DovETAILING MACHINE.-Dovetailing of timber for drawers and similar work is
performed by an automatic single spindle dovetailing machine consisting of a vertical
or honzontal rotary cutting spindle, mounted on a slide, and a travelling table to which
the _trmber IS cra.mped. The movement of the table conforms with the reciprocating
motiOn of the spmdle as the latter enters and leaves the wood to form dovetails at the
required spacin\l". One type of multiple spindle dovetailing machine for repetition work
has a table (whrch accommodates two boards to be jointed at right angles to each other)
fitted With an auton:a~ic :nechanism for spacing the dovetails at the required pitch, and
a complete dovetail JOint IS formed as the table moves past a series of cutters.
I 3· LATHE.-This is used for wood turning, examples being turned balusters,
moulded newel caps and dr'?ps, legs of furniture, etc. The essential components are a
fast headstock and a loose ta1lstock. These may be fixed on a wood bench or on a metal
bed supported by legs. The headstock, usually fixed on the left-hand side carries a
short horizontal revolving spindle having a forked chuck to grip the timber a~d a three
or four speed pulley. The tailstock is at the opposite end of the bench or bed and has
a sliding horizontal spindle (carrying a tail centre which slightly penetrates and supports
the. e_nd of the timber), operated by a handwheel ; it can be moved and locked in any
posttwn along the bench.
The piece of wood to be turned is fixed horizontally be-tween the stocks. The shaping
of the wood IS performed by a chtsel or gouge of suitable shape which is fitted in a tool-
hol~er and held against the wood as it revolves at a high speed ; the cutting tool is held
statiOnary or traverses the ler.gth of the timber as required during the shaving process.
The tool, fixed m a holder and provided with an adjustable slide, may be used for turning
long preccs ; this is fitted to a sliding carriage which traverses the length of the bed.
_For hand turning the to'?! is held and manipulated by hand, supported by a rest,
vanous s1zes and shapes of ch1sels and gouges being used in the process.
14. MITREJI'G MACHINE._-This machine, used for cutting mitres and squaring edges
of _t1mbers, IS not power dnven. It consists of a pedestal which supports a table and a
kmfe whrch IS operated by a hand lever. The timber is placed on the table with one
edge against a pivoting fence which has been adjusted to the required angle' according
to a graduated arc marked on the table, and the edge is cut by the knife on a downward
stroke of the lever. · to a plate and passed horizontally under the rotary cutter to form t~e upper portiO':! of
IS. SAND-PAPERING MACHINE OR SANDER.-PJaned surfaces, especially if they have
been. prepared by rotary cutters, are uneven due to the presence of a series of ridges (see
u, F1g. 6, and p. 28). In order to eliminate these ripples and give a smooth finish it is
necessa~y to ap~ly an abrasive paper (glass or sand-paper) to the surfaces. The hand
apphcatwn of th1s abrasive is referred to on p. 129, Vol. I. This slow and tedious process
rs gradually bemg superseded by the machine. There are three classes of sanders, i.e. ,
(a) drum, (h) belt and (c) disc.
(a) Drum or Cylinder Sanders.-One type, suitable for large outputs, consists of three
horizontal drums which have a combined rotary and oscillating motion. Sand-paper is
fixed to each drum, coarse grade paper being used to cover the first drum, medium grade
the second and fine grade the third. These drums are superimposed over the feed
mechanism. which m ay consist of a travelling endless belt or eight rollers. The timber is
placed on The belt or feed rollers and suitable pressure bars or rollers ensure that it comes
into intimate contact with the abrasive. The minimum rate of feed is 27-lin. ft. per min.
One or more hoods are fitted over the drums and are connected by a pipe to an exhaust
fan which extracts the dust from the machine.
A smaller machine is provided with either one or two drums. . .
(b) Belt Sander.-This comprises a travelling table, 8-ft. long and a 6 or 8-m. wtde
endless belt above, which passes over two pulleys and travels the full length of _the table.
The timber is placed on the table, and the belt, with abrasive paper attached, IS pressed
down for close contact by means of a pad. This machine is suitable for medium outputs.
A smaller machine consists of a 7-ft. by 2-ft. table with two vertical rollers near the
ends, on which an 8-in. high belt travels. The timber is laid on the table and pressed
against the belt by hand.
(c) Disc Sander.-One type consists of a pillar which supports a short revolving spindle
at each end of which is a disc which varies from zo to 36-in. in diameter. A small table,
which can be canted, is fixed opposite to each disc. Abrasi~e paper is fixed to the outer
face of each disc and the work is held against it during rotatton.
A combined machine, known as a disc. and bobbin sander, carries a disc with a table, as
described above, and a vertical spindle called a bobbin . The latter operates in the centre
of a table and has a vertical recipmcating and rotary motion. Both tables can be canted.
The bobbin which is covered w ith abrasive paper, is useful for curved work.
16. UNJ~ERSAL WooDWORKER OR GENERAL }OINER.-This is a general utility machine
capable of satisfying the requirements of smaller establishments where different classes
of work are dealt with and the output is insufficient to justify the provision of separate
machinerv. .
One type consists of two sections. The front half comprises a horizontal rotary cutter-
block, front and back tables and adjustable fence (somewhat similar to those sho~vn at H,
Fig. s) for planing, surfacing, chamfering and jointing timber up to 12-in. _wtde . ~n
addition, a vertical rotary cutter spindle arranged ~o rise an_d fall as :eqUlred, _Is fi~ted m
the middle of the front table and thus resembles s, Frg. s ; this ts used tor mouldmg ctrcular
and irregularly shaped pieces of timber up to 3!-in. thick. A further addi~i'?n cons~sts
of a small rise and fall table in front of this half-section for hollow ch1sel mort1smg, bonng
and slot mortising ; the chisel is fixed horizontally to the end o~ the horizontal cutter-
block and overhangs the small table; the timber is fixed by ~ ve~t1cal cramp to t~e table ,
which can be moved longitudinally and transversely ; the chiSel 1s replaced by e1ther the
boring bit or slot mortising auger as required.
The back half of the machine consists of a rise and fall table, fence and a spindle to
which is attached either a circular saw or a horizontal rotary cutterblock. The maximum
size of saw is 24-in. diameter and will saw up to 9-in. deep ; cross-cutting, mitre!ng and
dimension sawing may be performed, as a steel plate to carry the t1mber and adJustable
fence can be fitted to slide in a groove along the edge of the table. When reqUI~ed for
tonguing, grooving, thicknessing and moulding, the saw IS replaced by :;t h<?nzontal
cutterblock (s-in. long) carrying suitable knives . The table IS lowered to bnng It to the
desired level below the cutterblock when the timber is to be moulded and th1cknessed ;
the timber is first surfaced on one side and edge, and then thicknessed or :noulded o_n
the upper and opposite side ; a power feed apparatus and pressures are prov1ded for th1s
purpose. The cutterblock is replaced b y a suitable tenoning cutterblock for formmg
tenons, the maximum length of which is s-in. ; the timber is fixed transversely by a cramp
the tenon ; the table , with plate and timber still attached, is then raised t? th~ requrred
height above the cutter over which the timber is passed to cut the o~pos1t~ srde of the
tenon. Tonguing and grooving are performed when the cutterblock, w~th SUlta~le cutters
attached, is rotated against the timber, which is fixed to the table at a SUitable he1ght. ~or
sand-papering, the cutterblock is replaced on the spindle by .a small drun: covere~ With
sand-paper, and the operation is performed with the table adJusted at a su1table herght.
17. SHARPENING MACHINES.-There are many machines for conditioning saws,
cutters, etc. These include-
Automatic Saw Sharpening Machine.-This is used for sharpening circular ~aws,
the sharpening and gulleting (re-cutting the gullets to the correct shape, see G, F1g. 6)
being done by a grinding machine which automatically grinds the whole profile o~ each
tooth at one operation. The teeth can be ground square ac_ross or a~ an_y desr~ed oev_el.
The grinding wheel, 8 or r2 -in. in diameter, is fitted to a spmdle whrch IS provtde_d w1th
 FLOORS
a rise and fall movement and may be canted to suit the hook or rake (see A, G and M, Fig. 6)
of the saw teeth. The shape of the teeth is governed by a cam operating the rise and
fall of the grinding wheel. Cams are varied in their shape to suit different sizes of teeth
and are easily interchanged. The saw is fed forward under the grinding wheel by a feed
pawl or finger which engages against the face of the tooth being ground. The stroke
of the pawl is adjustable to suit different pitches of teeth and positioning of the face of
the tooth under the grinding wheel. The saw is mounted on a spindle fitted with a self-
centering cone to suit the variation in diameter of the spindle hole in the centre of the
saw. This spindle is adjustable both vertically (to suit the diameter of the saw) and
horizontally, according to the varying rakes of saw teeth. The rate of feed is from 15
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
to 30 teeth per minute, according to the pitch of the teeth.
A similar machine is used for sharpening band saws. The saw during the grinding
operation is stretched horizontally and passes round two pulleys as it automatically
progresses forward to bring each tooth (or alternate teeth) under the frame holding the
grinding wheel.
Automatic Cutter Grinder.-This is used for grinding and shaping cutterblock and
planing knives. A knife is fixed horizontally to a travelling table which traverses to and
fro under a rotary emery wheel which grinds the knife to the required bevel. In another
type of machine the knives are not removed from the block, the spindle of which is
supported at each end of a table which travels longitudinally during the grinding operation.
1Vlortise Chain Cutter and Hollow Chisel Grinder.-This is a small machine for con-
ditioning the two cutting tools named. It is fixed to and driven by the mortising machine.
The chain cutter is passed on to a sprocket mounted on a horizontal slide along which
it passes to and fro under a specially shaped rotary emery wheel as the cutting teeth are
ground. The machine also carries a cone emery wheel for sharpening hollow chisels.
Grindstone.-This is a cylindrical disc, 3 to 4-ft. in diameter and 6-in. thick, of Derby-
shire grit or similar hard natural stone which is mounted on a spindle that is rotated
during the grinding operation. A finer stone disc, which gives a .keener edge, may also
be mounted on the spindle in addition to the coarse disc. These rotate in troughs which
contain water when wet grinding is required to prevent overheating. This machine is
useful for general grinding, especially large hand tools.
A suitable machine for grinding smaller hand-cutting tools, such as chisels, gouges
and planing irons, consists of a frame supporting a rotary spindle which carries four or
six emery or sandstone (or both) discs which are 12-in. in diameter and of varying thick-
ness. A water tap is fixed above each disc and a trough is provided below.
FLOORS
Single floors ai:e detailed in Vol. I, pp. 59-68. The other two types of boarded
and joisted floors there referred to, i.e., double and framed floors, will now be
described.
Attention is drawn to the fire-resisting types of contemporary construction in
which reinforced concrete floors (see Fig. 9 and B, Fig. ro) and hollow block or beam
floors (see c, Fig. ro) are extensively employed and in which the minimum amount
of timber is used.
DouBLE FLOORS.-It is usual to limit the clear span of softwood bridging
joists to r6-ft.1 and therefore when the width of a room exceeds this figure one
or more relatively large members, called binders, are introduced to act as inter-
mediate supports for the bridging joists. Economy in material thus results, and
the bridging joists, being much reduced in size, are more convenient to handle.
1 This depends upon the grade of timber used and the superimposed load to be carried
(see p. 32). Thus, if graded timber (j = r ,zoo-lb. per sq. in.) is used and the super-
imposed load is 90-lb. per sq. ft., 1 r-in. by 3-in. joists are necessary for a span of 16-ft.
Therefore this span is reduced if this load is exceeded in order that joists of stock size
may be used.
318
These binders are spaced at from 6 to ro-ft. centres and are placed across
the shortest span in order that their dimensions may be kept down to a minimum.
Mild steel has largely superseded timber as a material for binders (see below)
and Hitched beams, 1 formerly used for long binders supporting heavy loads,
are now at least obsolescent.
Plan, sections and details of a double floor are shown at A, B, c, D, E, F, c and
H, Fig. 7· The plan at A shows the floor divided into three bays by the provision
of two binders. Wood binders are still occasionally used, and they have there-
fore been detailed here (see below). With a view to reducing the over-all depth
of the floor to a minimum and effecting an economy in the brickwork (to the
extent of one or more courses), the bridging joists are cogged to the binders
(see E, F and H). The depth of the sinking should not exceed two-thirds the depth
of the bridging joists and their bearing need not exceed r-in. ;· whilst such
sinkings do not much reduce the strength of the binders, provided the workman-
ship is sound and the joists are a tight fit, the cutting and notching of bearing
timbers should be restricted as much as possible. The binders are shown
supported on stone pads. The latter provide sound bearings and effectively
transmit the loads to the brickwork below; 3-in. thick stone lintels are also
sometimes built-in above the ends of the binders. The necessary circulation
of air round the ends of the binders is assured if pockets are provided, as shown
at F and H.
Solid strutting of the bridging joists is sometimes resorted to, as shown at
A and B, but this can safely be dispensed with (seep. 68, Vol. I), especially when
the joists are cogged to the binders.
If the ceiling of the room is required to be flush with the soffit of the binders,
the necessary construction is as shown. Small fillets, not more than 2-in. by
r-in., are securely nailed to the sides of the binders (see E, F and H) and plugged
to the walls (seeD and G). As shown, the ends of the 4-in. by 2-in. ceiling joists
are notched to these fillets and nailed ; plasterers' laths, spaced at " finger-
distance" (about i-in.) apart, are nailed to the ceiling joists (see G).2 Short
pieces of thick laths, called counter-laths, are nailed at rs-in. centres to the
soffit of the binders (see E, H and s); such provision should be made when
timbers exceed 3-in. in width and so afford a proper key for the plaster (see A,
Fig. 8, which shows the plaster that has been pressed through the spaces
between the laths). Several alternative details, showing the ceiling attached direct
to the bridging joists, appear in Fig. 8 (see pp. 35 and 36).
The size of the wood binders shown is much in excess of the normal stock
sizes. The difficulty which may be experienced in obtaining sound timber of
large size is one of the reasons why, as stated above, steel has largely supplanted
wood as a material for floor members such as binders. A detail incorporating
1 A flitched beam consists of two wood joists (as shown at L, Fig. 8), with a wrought
iron or steel plate between, all bolted together.
2 As the subject of plastering is usually taken in the third year of a course, it is described
in Vol. IV.
 319 CARPENTRY
a rolled mild steel beam as a binder in lieu of a wood binder is shown at M, Fig. 7. weight of joist per square foot of floor =weight of joist +area of floor supported by
Mild steel is much stronger than timber (the safe strength in compression and it = 5 -c 3 ~ = z-lb. (approx.). Therefore, total dead load= 3 + z =s-Ib. per sq. ft.
2 24
tension of mild steel is 18,ooo-lb. per sq. in. and that of a good graded softwood Total load = superimposed load + dead weight
may not exceed 1,2oo-lb. per sq. in.) and therefore the size of the steel beam is so -/- 5 = ss-lb. per sq. ft.
Portion of floor supported by joist A' is abed (see broken lines) and its area
less than that of a wood binder; the 9-in. by 4-in. by 21-lb. steel beam shown
at M will support the same load as the 15-in. by 7-in. timber binder (compare = rst ft. X9-ft. = 27 9 sq. ft.
I2 24
M with E). One result of this reduction in size is the corresponding decrease Therefore, W (total load) = area x load per sq. ft.
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

in the amount of walling, equivalent in this case to approximately two courses

= 2 79 x 55 =64o-lb. (approx.).
of brickwork. 24
2. Bending Moment.-The load being uniformly distributed,
Second year students attending a complete course of instruction which includes
the subject of Building Science in addition to Building Construction, will probably M = WL
8
64ox9 XI2_ 86
8
· lb
- ' 40-111,. .
be taught to design simple rectangular beams, but the determination of sizes of rolled
steel beams is usually deferred to a later stage. The following examples are therefore
stated briefly and are included for reference purposes only. 3· Sizes. M =MR =JZ. Z is a measure of the shape of the section=b{·
DETERMINATION OF SIZES OF BRIDGING }OISTS AND BINDERS.-The Timber
Bye-laws of the London County Council apply to two classes of timber, i.e., " non- As already stated, J=8oo-lb. per sq. in. for ungraded timber and r,zoo-lb. per sq. in.
graded " and " grade I,zoo-lb. f"; .f is the permissible working stress. The per-
missible maximum compression and tension stresses due to bending (to which joists
for graded timber; for this example, assume f = I,OOO"Ib. per sq. in. Z =bf·
and binders are subjected) are therein stated to be 8oo and I ,zoo-lb. per sq. in. Assume b =z-in.
for non-graded and graded timbers respectively. The sizes of wood joists and
binders can be obtained by reference to tables. Thus, assuming the floor illustrated Therefore, 8,640 = I,ooo Xz6d2 ,and d =V 8,640 X - 3 _- = S'I-in., say 6-in.
at A, Fig. 7, is that of a residential building, the sizes of the bridging joists which 1,ooo
are spaced at I s!-in. centres with an. effective span (distance between bearings) of The size of the bridging joists shown at A, Fig. 7, is 6-in. x 2-in.
9-ft. are computed to be 6 ·4-in. by z-in. if of non-graded timber, and S ·4-in. by 2-in.
if of graded timber. Reference to the same tables shows _that the sizes of the binders, BINDER B'.
which have an effective span of I8-ft. and are spaced at 9-ft. centres, are IS-in. by r. Weight.-The portion of floor supported b y binder B' is efgh (see broken
9 ·4-in. if of non-graded timber, and I s-in. by 6-in. if the wood is of the graded class. lines) and its area is I7t x 9 =ISs-sq. ft. The dead weight equals that of the floor
The size of the bridging joists is determined by calculation as follows: (I) The boards and bridging joists (s-Ib. per sq. ft.--see above), together with the approximate
total weight (W) that one of the joists supports is obtained ; this equals the decided weight of the binder p(;r square foot of floor, ceiling joists and plaster. Assume,
live or superimposed load 1 plus the dead weight, 2 multiplied by the area of the for the purpose of obtaining its weight, that the size of the binder is IS-in. by 6-in.
floor supported by the member. (2) The bending moment (M) is found ; this Hence its weight = ~S x 6. x I8 x 30 = 338-lb. ; this, divided by the area of the floor
equals the moment of resistance (MR), and the latter equals the .product of the 12 I2
modulus of section (Z) and the permissible stress (.f). (3) Either the breadth (b)
or depth (d) of the joist is assumed and its second dimension then obtained. The size supported by the binder, equals the additional weight =33 8 =zt-Ib. (approx.) per
ISS
of the binders is ascertained in a similar manner. sq. ft. The additional weight of the 4-in. by 2-in. ceiling joists
Applying this to the floor shown at A, Fig. 7 : -
= ~(~~I:>_~L~.1~"_2_'_<_]~ + by area of floor = 2 I 0 = Ii-lb. per sq. ft.
BRIDGING jOIST A'. 12 I2 ISS
r. Weight.-Assume the superimposed load is so-lb. per sq. ft. The dead The approximate weight of !-in. thick plaster is 9-lb. per sq. ft. Hence the total.
weight of the timber can be obtained from Tables I and II, pp. I7-Z4); the general dead weight= 5 +2! +I! + 9 = I8-lb. per sq. ft. Superimposed load + dead weight
figure taken for softwoods is 30-lb. per cub. ft. (4I-Ib. for pitch pine) and = so+ I8 =68-lb. per sq. ft.
45-lb. per cub. ft. for hardwoods. If Ii-in. softwood boards are used, their weight
W =area x load per sq. ft.= ISS x 68 = I0,540-lb. (4·7 tons).
9 x ~- x 30-lb. = 3-lb. (approx.) per sq. ft. The bridging joists are spaced at IS!-in.
= -8
12 2. Bending Moment.-The load may be considered to be uniformly distributed.
centres, and therefore r-lin. ft. of joist A' supports 1-~} ft. xI-ft. =J!. sq. ft. of floor. Hence, M = ~L I0,540 x I8 (eff~ctive span) x I2 =zS4 ,sSo-in.lb.
12 24
Assume, for the purpose of obtaining its weight, that the size of the joist is 6-in. x 2-in.
bd2
Hence its weight= -~ x ~ xI x 30-lb. =zi-lb. per lin. ft . and the proportionate 3· Sizes. M =JZ =f6"
12 I2
j =I ,200-Jb. per sq. in. (graded timber--see preceding column). Assume d =I 5-in.
1 In accordance with the L.C.C. Timber Bye-laws, the minimum superimposed loads in
Therefore,
b X I 52
284,58o = I,zoo x - 6-
lb. per square foot are as follows : 40 for rooms of houses, So for offices (floors above
entrance floor), 90 for offices (entrance floor and· those below), ISO for workshops and z84,58o 6 . .
factories, zoo for warehouses and so for flat roofs (with not more than 20° inclination). b= - - - = 'J-m., say 7-m.
2 The dead weight includes the weight per square foot of the floor boards and the 45,000
equivalent weight per square foot of a bridging joist. · The size of the wood binders shown at A, Fig. 7, is xs-in. by 7-in.
 I i I 11 f ..1---riFT iE£·1fi±Jii±"ili9
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WALLS

I SUPPORTED &Y WOOD Of'.

v
STEEL &INDEI'J -SEE 'N.
- w- f-

...,.
A FMMED Fl'""'- CONSISTS
Of THREE SETS m JOISTS,
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

/ / NA/1\ElY, J!I'.ID61NG JOISTS

/,
fUJA
~LID STiW>:TIN ~OOING .ioo5' SUPPOI'.TED J!Y WOOD 01<.
~··~· ~Tf
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STEEL UINOEI'J WI!Kit /11\E
SECUJ'.EO TO STEEL GII'.DEI'.S
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-SEE 11

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/ ~--'-:-- ·'
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h,l/ i S!OHE PAD /'5 I

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B P L A N
M 4' •1°/4' ST~UTTING 11"•6' ~· OINDEK.

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E
A L T E ~ H A T E
D E T A I L ' W'

c
STONE PAD hiUH<i JOISTS 2••iV<J• ~IP.tJN<iS:
S E C T I 0 H ' Y- Y' 5 E C T I 0 H ·z- z·

D F

Non: rLootO. ~~.

CEIUHG JOISTS, ETC.
II.M'E J!EEN
OMITTED-~

R.

PADS
 321 CARPENTRY
If mild steel beams were employed instead of wood hinders, the size would he
9-in. by 4-in. by 21-lb. B.S .B. (British Standard Beam). This size is obtained as
follows : M =fZ. f (for mild steel) =8 tons per sq. in. Adopting the same M as
determined on p. 32, i.e., 284,s8o-in.-lh. = 127-in.-tons.
Therefore, 127 =8Z; hence Z =!t7 = 15 ·88-in.units.
Structural Steelwork Handbooks are available which contain tables giving data
of beams and other sections. Such data include the safe loads which steel beams
can support for given spans, moduli of section, etc. Reference to such a book shows
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
that a 9-in. by 4-in. by 21-lb. B.S .B. (which has a Z of 18·o3-in. units) will safely
support a distributed load of s ·3-tons for a span of 18-ft. This section has been
adopted and is shown at M, Fig. 7·
The section at M shows the steel binder with the bridging joists notched at
its upper flange and supported on 2-in. by 2-in. bearers which are secured to
the web of the binder by j-in. diameter bolts at 2-ft. 6-in. centres. In this detail,
unlike that at E, the bridging joists are lathed and plastered, and the binder is
suitably finished by firring (or cradling), lathing and plastering. Firring consists
of two vertical 1 or rf-in. thick pieces of wood nailed to the sides of each pair
of timber joists, and a similar firring fixed to the ends of the vertical members.
The plasterers' laths are nailed to this cradling (see s, which shows somewhat
similar cradling to a steel girder).
FRAMED OR TRIPLE FLOORS.-As implied1 a triple floor consists of three sets
of joists, i.e., bridging joists, binders and girders. In the past the binders and
girders were of wood and the former were framed or tenoned to the latter.
Girders are now made of steel, and, as already mentioned, this material has to a
large .extent replaced wood for binders. A framed floor may be adopted when
the narrowest span exceeds 24-ft. and the superimposed (live) load is relatively
heavy.
Plan, sections and details of a framed floor are shown at J, K, L, N, o, P, Q, R
and s, Fig. 7· The plan shows a portion of a large room, the width of which
is 25-ft. Steel girders span the room at ro-ft. centres. These support two
wood binders at one-third points (8-ft. 4-in. centres), and the latter carry the
bridging joists and ceiling joists. The details at P and Q show the binders notched
over the top flange of the girder and supported on 3!-in. by 3-in. by i-in. mild
steel angles secured to the web of the girder by ! -in. diameter rivets at 15-in.
centres. These angles also support the 3-in. by 2-in. bearers to which the
cradling is nailed. Attached brick piers are formed on the 9-in. thick inner
leaf of each of the long 16-in. cavity walls to provide adequate supports for the
concentrated loads transmitted by the steel girders which are bedded upon
hard stone pads. This construction and the steelwork are more clearly shown
in the sketch at R. The sketch at s shows the cradling and other details, the
former consisting of 2-in. by r!-in. firrings at 15-in. centres as fixings for the
laths (and plaster).
The details of the binders, bridging joists and ceiling joists are similar to
those of the double floor. Each 11-in. by 6-in. wood binder may consist of two
11-in. by 3-in. joists bolted together as shown at B and c, Fig. 8, the double
row of bolts being staggered ; the use of such stock sizes may be preferred if the
larger single members are not readily available. If desired, the binders may be
lowered and supported by wood bearers bolted to the steel girder ; the detail
at Q would then resemble that at M or, alternatively, as shown at F, Fig. 8.
The plastered ceiling may be attached direct to the bridging joists, and the
binders may then be dealt with as suggested in some of the details in Fig. 8.
If steel is used instead of wood for the binders, it can be shown by calcula-
tion (see p. 35) that the size of the steel binders need only be s-in. by 4!-in.
by zo-lb. B.S.B. The use of steel would greatly simplify the details, as
the 6-in. by 3-in. bridging joists would just be notched at both flanges of each
steel binder, and a flush ceiling would result by simply nailing the laths direct
to the joists. If the bridging joists are cut carefully and fitted tightly between
the webs of the binders, no other fixing need be provided for the former.
The advantages of steel over wood for girders will be appreciated when a com-
parison between the sizes of wood and steel members is made. Thus, a graded timber
girder required to support the same load as that taken by the rs-in. by s-in. by 42-lb.
B.S.B. would have to be approximately 20-in. by 12 in. or equivalent, and its weight
would be at least half a ton.
The sizes of the various members of the framed floor illustrated in Fig. 7
were determined in the following manner (see also p . 32).
BRIDGIN G }OIST C'.
I. Weight.-Assume the superimposed load is IOO-lb. per sq. ft . w~ight uf
•1-in. boards = 3-lb. per sq. ft. (seep. 32). Bridging joists are at 15-in. centres, hence
1-lin. ft. of joist supports ~ ft. x 1-ft. = ~ sq. ft. of floor. T o obtain its approxi-
12 4
mate weight, assume the size of joists to be 6-in. by 3-in. H ence its 'weight
=~ x ]__x 1 x 30-lb. = 3 ·7-lb. (approx.) per lin. ft., and the proportionate weight
12 12
of joist per sq. ft. of floor = 3 ·7 7 ~ = 3-lb. Total dead weight = 3 + 3 = 6-lb. per s<f. 'ft.
4
Total load = superimposed load + dead weight = 100 + 6 = 106-lb. per sq. ft. Portion
of floor supported by joist C' is jklm (see broken lines), and its area = S ft . x 8}-ft. = 12 5
4 12
sq. ft. Therefore, W = area x load per sq. ft.= 12 ~ x 106 = I, Ioo-lb. (approx.).
12
2 . Bending Moment.
M-WL_I,Ioo x 8! XI2_ 7 · lb
-8 - 8 - 13, so-m. •
3· Sizes.
Assume the timber is ungraded, with ! =Boo-lb. per sq. in. (see p . 32) and that
b = 3-in.
H ence,
a•
13,750 =8oo x ~·
d=,JJ3,75°=s·g-in., say 6-in.
400
The si~e of the bridging joists shown at], Fig. 7, is 6-in. x 3-in.
 FLOORS 322

D E T A L s 0 F D 0 U B L E F RA M E D F LOO P..S
9' ~ 2' JOISTS AT 15' CEIJTII.ES
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. , .FILlET_.;I-PLY

H J '118""'~
ANGLE IIE"'O
SOolf Fat- h.8.C,O, E t. F

b"0l? l
Ml" LINING J- PlY--..
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o E T "' I L ')(:! D E T "' I L 'L' D E T "' I L 'M' SC...Lf ~OJI. <l, Jot b J
1 II
FIGURE 8

BINDER D'. IO'OI-in.units. As already stated, ceiling joists would be unnecessary if steel
Weight.-The portion of floor supported by binder D' is nopq (see broken
I. beams were adopted.
lines) and its area is IO x 8J = 83!-sq. ft. The dead weight per square foot equals
that of the floor boards (3-lb.), bridging joists (3-lb.), binder (assuming size is GIRDER E'.
. b y 6 -m.;
. I- I-X .- 6 XIOX30 = IJ 8 ·carea
' I 38 Total M =(a) M due to load transmitted by two binders supported at one-third
II-m. o f fl oor =--=1·7-lb .,
) cetmgJO!Sts
·1· ..
I2 12 83-! points + (b) M due to weight of girder.
( 8 (number) x : 2 x ~x 8 x 3o 7 83;\ = 1 ·3-lb.) and plaster (9-lb.) = I8-lb. Super- WL 2X4'39X2SXI2
M(a)=6= .... 6 ~- · '
=439-m.ton.
imposed load +dead weight = roo+ 18 = I r8-lb. per sq. ft.
If a IS-in. by s-in. by 42-lb. B.S.B. was assumed, its weight =2s x 42 =o·47-tons.1
Therefore, W =83! x 118 =9,833-lb. (4·39-tons).
2. Bending Moment. Hence, M(b) = WL 0'47 X2S X 12 .
~8 = - -- 8- - - = 17·62-m.tons.

M = ~L = 2,83J ':91 (eff_e_~tive SJ:l~J1)~ x· I2 = 143 ,808 _in.lb. Total M =439 + 17·62 =4s6·62-in.tons. M =MR =JZ. /=8-tons per sq. in.

3· Sizes. Therefore, Z= 4s6·6z

-- 8 . ·
8- =s7·o -m.umts.

Assume graded timber, f = 1,2oo-lb. per sq. in. (p. 32) and d = 1 I-in. By reference to handbook, a suitable section is a I s-in. by s-in. by 42-lb. B.S.B.
(Z = S7'IJ-in.units) and this girder is shown in Fig. 7·
Hence, 0 = 1,200 Xbxu2
I43,88 ·6 --,
The double and framed floors shown in Fig. 7 have the ceilings flush with
b = 143,808 . .
- - - - =s·9-m., say 6-m. the soffit of the binders. Economy results if the ceiling joists are dispensed
24,200 with and the plasterers' laths are nailed directly to the bridging joists as shown in
The size of the binders shown at J, P, s, etc., Fig. 7, is r I-in. x 6-in. the several alternative details shown in Fig. 8 and described as follows.
If mild steel beams were employed instead of wood binders the size would
be d etermined as explained in connection with double floors and would be Detail A shows the bridging joists cogged to a wrought binder and the laths
s-in. by 4k-in. by 20-lb. B.S.B. Thus, adopting the same M of 143,8o8-in.lb. supporting the plaster nailed to the joists. To prevent unsightly shrinkage gaps,
. tons ) , z = M
(64 '2-m. f = 64
· '2 = 8 '03-Jn.UnitS.
. . s··
A SU!ta
. ble SeCtiOn. selected from a the binder may be grooved to receive the plaster, as shown on the left, or a small
steelwork handbook is that mentioned above, having a modulus of section of t The weight of the angles, cradling, etc., has been ignore(,),
 323 CARPENTRY
quadrant bead or cover mould may be introduced (see the right side of the binder).
The lower arrises of the binder may be chamfered or otherwise moulded.
Detail B shows the binder consisting of two undressed deals which are bolted
together at 2-ft. intervals, the upper bolts staggering with the lower. Two
methods of covering the binder are shown. That on the left shows a casing or
lining of !-in. dressed boarding secured to fillets nailed to the binder ; the
thickness of the fillets varies according to the over-all size and proportion of
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the binder desired. Alternatively, the lining may be fixed direct to the binder
as shown on the right. The joints between the side and soffit lining boards may
be either butt mitred, tongued mitred (see detail at G) or, preferably, lipped
mitred (see detail at H).
The whole of the casings illustrated in Fig. 8 should be prepared and cramped
on the bench to ensure tight-fitting joints.
An alternative casing, consisting of plywood, is shown at c and detailed at J.
The angle beads provide an effective finish at the arrises.
A mock beam or binder is shown at D. Short lengths of floor boards, or
equivalent, are nailed to alternate joists and the framed casing is fixed to these.
This construction does not, of course, strengthen the floor, but it is sometimes
adopted for dividing the ceiling into bays.
Detail E shows a wood casing fixed.to cradling pieces which are notched over
the flanges of the steel binder and nailed to the joists (see p. 34). The joints
between the three pieces forming this casing and that at D may be any one of
those mentioned above.
The detail at F is alternative to that shown at Q, Fig. 7 (see p. 34). The
binders are supported on continuous bearers which are notched over the upper
flange of the steel girder and bolted to its web. The sides of the bearers must be
counter-lathed as explained on p. 31.
FIRE-RESISTING FLOORs.-Reference is made on p . 3 I to the fire-resisting
types of floor construction 1 now employed, in which little, if any, timber is
used. Whilst a close study of such construction is outside the scope of the
second year curriculum, it is thought desirable to include some of its details
here in order that a comparison may be made between the older and relatively
modern types of floors.
A, Fig. 9, shows a part-plan of a typical floor of a steel-framed building on
which the steel members are indicated in outline. This is sometimes called a
triple floor, as it consists of three sets of beams, i.e., filler or primary, secondary
and main beams. The filler beams, usually spaced at not more than zt-ft. centres,
are encased in concrete and are either supported on, but not fixed to, the top
flanges of the secondary beams or are secured to the webs of the latter beams.
The secondary beams have steel angle cleats riveted or bolted at the ends, and
these cleats are secured in a similar manner to the webs of the t:nain beams. The
latter are either riveted or bolted to the steel pillars. Such connections may be
welded (see footnote top. IZI, Vol. II) in lieu of cleats and rivets or bolts. The
1 This construction is treated in greater detail in Vol. IV.
cross-section of a pillar is similar to that of a steel beam. In addition to the
filler beams, the secondary beams, main beams and pillars must be encased in
concrete or other suitable incombustible material. The sizes of the various steel
members depend upon the load to be supported, span, method of fixing, etc.
The method employed of determining the sizes of the beams is given briefly
in the examples on pp. 34 and 35.
Details of this floor are shown at B, c and the isometric sketch at n, !'ig. 9·
In lieu of filler beams encased in concrete, the floor may consist of hollow
concrete or fireclay blocks or beams supported on the concrete haunches of steel
beams. One example of such a floor is shown at c, Fig. IO. The steel bars are
provided to resist tension and shear stresses.
Another type of fire-resisting floor is shown at B, Fig. IO. This portion of a
reinforced concrete floor is known as a slab. Such a floor may resemble some-
what that shown at A, Fig. 9, with transverse bar reinforcement at close spacing
in lieu of filler beams. Another set of bars, called distributing or longitudinal
bars are placed at a greater distance apart immediately over and wired to the
transverse bars. Various forms of reinforcement--such as sheets of expanded
metal-are also used as an alternative to the above circular bars ; the expanded
metal resembles that shown at A, Fig. 16, Vol. II. The entire floor structure is
usually of reinforced concrete. Thus, the secondary and main beams are of
concrete, reinforced with steel bars, and the concrete pillars have similar but
vertical reinforcement ; the pillars may be square, rectangular, octagonal or
circular on plan.
FLOOR FINISHES.1- The following coverings will be described : (I) wood
boards, (2) wood blocks, (3) plywood, (4) parquet, (5) cork and (6) rubber.
1. Wood Boards.-A description of this flooring appears on pp. 62-65, Vol. I.
As stated, rift or quarter sawn narrow boards are preferred for first-class work,
stock nominal sizes varying from 2 to 4!-in. wide by 1 to x!-in. thick; the width
of stock softwood boards used for general work varies from 5 to 7-in. Stock
lengths vary from 2 to 16-ft. An attractive flooring is obtained by the use of
hardwood boards of random widths, but these must be well seasoned to the
correct moisture content if excessive shrinkage is to be avoided. Tongued and
grooved boards are chiefly employed ; most are squ'~re ended, but some of the
hardwood boards (e.g., Canadian yellow birch) are t . and g. at the ends.
A double floor (see " double boarded floors," p. 65, Vol. I), now much
favoured, consists of a sub-floor of 1-in. square edged (or t . and g.) softwood
boarding, laid diagonally, and covered with 2 to 3-in. wide hardwood boards
which are only !-in. thick. This thin and narrow covering, which has a very
attractive appearance, is known as strip flooring; the boards are t. and g. at the
edges and ends and are usually secret nailed. One advantage of a double floor
is that plastering can be completed and allowed to dry before the top flooring
is laid ; a common cause of damage to the finished floor is thus eliminated.
The timbers used for flooring include the following softwoods : Douglas
1 Magnesite, terrazzo, tiled, etc., floors are described in Vol. IV.
 NG
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 325
fir, whitewood, redwood, pitch pine, slash pine, western hemlock and kauri pine,
and the following hardwoods: English, American, Tasmanian and Japanese
oak, maple, birch, beech, teak, gurjun, jarrah, seraya and pyinkado. A brief
description of these is given in Tables·I and II.
Sub-floors of concrete which are finished with wood boards are referred to
on p. 65, Vol. I. The boards are shown nailed to splayed fillets or bearers
partially embedded in the concrete.
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CARPENTRY
The Bull Dog clip is of 2o-gauge sherardized sheet metal and is of H-section
(see o, Fig. 10). The standard clip has Ii-in. long legs, but if the screeding is
less than I!-in. thick, clips having Ii-in. long legs are obtainable.
They are fixed at the same distance apart and in a somewhat similar manner to
that described in the preceding column. Before insertion, the two ears are folded
over (see c, Fig. 10) and they are not raised until the floor is ready to receive the
bearers ; unimpeded use of the floor for walking, wheeling, etc. is thus permitted.

A more recent method of securing the bearers is to anchor them to the con-
crete by means of floor clips. Two patent floor clips are the " Spearpoint " and
the " Bull Dog," shown in Fig. 10 at A and o respectively.
The Spearpoint clip is made of 20-gauge mild steel, which is either galvanized
or sherardized to prevent corrosion. It is in one piece, having two spear-shaped
flanges or legs which are inserted into the concrete, a cross-piece and two upper
nailing flanges or ears between which the wood bearers are fixed. Each leg has
three projecting holed bosses which assist in increasing the bond between the
concrete and metal. It is obtainable with the ears bent down and in four sizes,
i.e., for I·!, 2, 3 and 4-in. wide bearers; the usual size employed for the average
floor is that designed to receive 2-in. square bearers. The clips are spaced in
rows at 14 to 16-in. centres, according to the thickness of the floor boards and
the weight to be supported, and at 16-in. centres along the rows.
The clips are fixed in the following manner : The legs of the clips are pressed
into the concrete within about half an hour after it has been laid and levelled, and
before its plasticity has disappeared. Either a plank or a templet (consisting of two
long boards with upper cross-pieces nailed at intervals) is used to ensure accurate
spacing of the clips in true alignment and the prevention of damage to the surface
of the green concrete by the workmen. The ears, being horizontal when the clips
are inserted, lie flat on the surface of the concrete and thus present no obstruction
to wheeling, etc. operations which are usually carried out when the concrete has
hardened. The plank or templet is marked along its edges a~ 16-in. intervals or other
required intervals, and the fixers standing upon it press the clips into the concrete
at the divisions. The broken lines at G, Fig. 9, represent a portion of a templet,
the width of which equals the distance between the edges of the extended ears in
adjacent rows . The clips are sometimes staggered. When the concrete has hardened,
the ears are prised by the claw of a hammer until they are vertical (see B, c and o,
Fig. 9. and A and B, Fig. 10). The bearers are placed in position between the ears
and first nailed through the slots; they are then levelled and, if necessary, packed
with small wedges between the underside of the bearers and the surface of tile con-
crete screeding, which may be somewhat irregular. The bearers are finally nailed
through the top holes and the floor boards laid in the usual way.
Complete circulation of air round the bearers is assured, as the central portion
of each clip is slightly above the concrete (see B, Fig. 9), although if the screeding
is imperfect the space between it and the bearers is filled with c~ment grout.
Thus, this method of fixing is an improvement upon that described in Vol. 1,
where partially embedded fillets are employed. Incidentally, the use of clips
results in a saving in the thickness of screed. It is emphasized that the concrete
must be dry before the bearers are fixed ; the latter should be sound and well
seasoned, and, as an extra precaution against the onset of dry rot, they should
be thoroughly creosoted before being fixed,
Two nails are driven through the upper holes of each ear into the bearers. End
joints between the bearers should coincide with the clips, and the lower hole
in each ear is to allow an additional nail being driven through at the bearer end.
An additional application is shown <1-t E, Fig. 20, Vol. II.
A further development is the " acoustic " type of floor clip. This has a pad
of rubber or other insulating material fixed on the cross-piece. The bearers thus
rest upon the pads, and a reduction in the transmission of sound through the
floor results.
2. Wood Blocks.-The following notes are supplementary to those on p. 65,
Vol. I. The tongued, grooved and dovetailed wood block shown here at E,
Fig. 10, is a type which is much favoured, as the dovetail provides a good key
for the hot mastic, and the inte~lock provided by the tongue and groove prevents
the loosening of block~ and the development of an uneven surface. The ends
are sometimes tongued and grooved. The sketch at F shows the blocks laid to
the basket-weave pattern on a concrete sub-floor, the surface of which must
be truly level ; another common design is the herringbone. The blocks forming
the borders are arranged in a variety of designs ; blocks which are stained a
different colour to that of the general flooring may be used for borders, or a contrast
may be afforded by the use of one or more rows of blocks of different timbers.
The border blocks are usually mitred at the corners as shown.
The blocks should be quartered (rift-sawn or edge-grained) to ensure the
maximum resistance to wearing action and the minimum expansion and con-
traction. They should be carefully kiln-dried to the required moisture content
(see p. 10), and it is very essential that the building in which. they are to be
fixed is as dry as possible if good results are to be obtained. Hence the fixing
of the blocks in a new building should be deferred until any abnormal moisture
in the structure and atmosphere has been removed. Further, the mastic will
not adhere to concrete which has not dried out. Adherence of the mastic to the
sub-floor is assisted if the surface of the concrete is well brushed to remove the
dust and then given a good coat of creosote.
A good test for determining the dryness of a concrete sub-floor is as follows :
Approximately 1-sq. ft. of the floor is covered with crystals of calcium chloride.
A sheet of glass is placed over them and its edges are sealed with putty. If the
crystals are unaffected after three days, the laying of the floor can be proceeded with ;
otherwise this should be delayed as the dissolving of the crystals indicates the presence
of moisture in the concrete.
Wood block flooring is sometimes laid on a cheap wood sub-floor. The
surface of the latter is generously covered with the adhesive, a portion at a time ;
 NAIL - -
:HOLES F L 0 R F N s H E 5 E T c
A •I" t, 2'/4'<1' HAf1JlWOOD (Jli~.MJ.PLE,C>.'<K,ETC.J FLOOI'.INCi

2'8EAREI'.S
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"8ULL DOG'
FLOO~ CLIP

~EINFORCED CONC~ETE FLOO~ J+OLLOW 8LOCJ<. FLOO~

WITJ+ 5EA~E"S 6 BOA~DING WITH 6EAR.E~S 6 50AR.DING

S E C T I 0 N

WOOD 5LOCK FLOO~ING PLYWOOD FLOO~ING

ON CONC~ETE SU6-f l 00~ ON WOOD SU5-FLOO~

PLASTEF.. Y4" HA"-DWOOD ---='j=.~~~22::::2:22'22'2LZ:::LZ2224~~~~;j_.--c;LUf

PA~LIET SLAB--~~~

.3/4" SOFTWOOD

J
K
INLAID PA~GUET FLOOR.ING R.U66Ef!.. FLOOR.IHG
INCHES

il 51
COF-11.. TILING S~.I.Lf FOil. a, C, F & G FEET FIGUR.E 10
 327 CARPENTRY
each block is then tapped into posttton and further secured with panel pins
which arc subsequently punched below the surface, and the small holes stopped
with special putty or wood mastic, coloured to conform to that of the wood.
The surface is finally planed (large surfaces being usually dressed with an
electrically driven portable machine planer), scraped, sand-papered, waxed and
polished.
3· Plywood (see G and H, ~ig. w).-This is a cheap covering of good appear-
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ance, consisting of squares and narrow strips (for borders) cut from boards of
3-ply (see pp. 97-103)· The stock sizes of the squares are 9, 12, 18 and 36-in.
and from i'\; to i-in. thick ; the thicker the surface veneer the better. Oak,
birch, walnut, maple and ash plywoods are suitable for this purpose. The
plywood can be obtained with the top veneer stained as required for its full
thickness. The squares are usually laid with the grain alternating or woods of
contrasting colours can be effectively employed.
The covering is laid on a sub-floor of boarding as shown, or this may consist
of sheets of i or !-in. softwood plywood (such as Oregon pine), a common size
being 48-in. wide and 84 to 96-in. long, depending upon the spacing of the
joists (see sub-floor at K). The plywood should be resin bonded (see p. 101)
for ground floor sub-floors as a precaution against effects from dampness ; the
sheets should be well nailed at the edges and at about 12-in. along each joist.
The square and strip covering should be well glued and panel pinned in the
centre and at about 4-in. intervals round the edges, although the adhesive is
sometimes omitted ; the pins are punched and the holes stopped as described
above. The surface should be well wax polished before use and this should
be maintained as a protection to the relatively thin top ~Veneer.
This is rather a noisy covering ; the " drumming " can be minimized if
strips of felt or similar insulating material are laid on the joists before the sub-
floor is fixed .
Existing boarded floors which have defective surfaces can be readily renovated
by covering them with plywood squares. If badly worn, the existing surface
should be machine planed or level:ed up with mastic before the new covering
is fixed. This covering is cheaper than a good carpet or linoleum (see
p. 41).
4· Parquet or Parquetry.-There are two kinds, i.e., (a) ordinary and (b)
inlaid.
(a) Ordinary Parquetry consists of thin, small pieces of richly decorative
hardwood (chiefly oak and teak) which are hot glued and panel pinned to a soft-
wood or plywood sub-floor, the pins being punched and the holes stopped as
described above. The thicknesses are !, i and !-in., the former being used in
most cases and the latter when likely to be subjected to heavy traffic. The
pieces are square-edged and arranged according to pattern ; sometimes timbers
of various colours are made to conform to elaborate designs.
It is advisable to introduce a layer of (.f1,;-in.) plywood between the softwood
boarded .sub-floor and the parquetry. The plywood boards are nailed to the
sub-floor, the joints between them are filled with wood mastic or putty, planed
off and sand-papered, and the parquetry is then fixed. The object of this inter-
mediate layer is to afford a perfectly level surface for the thin covering and
prevent any movement (expansion and shrinkage) and cupping of the softwood
boards being transmitted to the parquetry. Of course, this intermediate layer is
not required if the sub-floor is formed of the thicker plywood boards referred
to in the preceding column and if the joints between the latter are sealed.
(b) Inlaid or Plated Parquet (seeK, Fig. ro) is considered to be the best form
of this class of covering and consists of a surface veneer of richly figured and
coloured hardwood which is glued under great pressure to a softwood backing.
The veneer varies from 1';11 to !-in. in thickness and the backing is either l or
1-in. thick. It is cut into slabs of various shapes and sizes, blocks I to 2-ft.
square being common. These are glued and pinned to the softwood boarded
or plywood (see detail) sub-floor already described; the pins are punched and the
holes stopped.
Parquet flooring is surfaced and polished as described in the preceding column.
5. Cork.-This is now used extensively for both public and domestic build-
ings. It is attractive in appearance, durable if properly treated, non-slip even
when highly polished, resilient, noiseless, dustless, and can be readily cleaned.
It is obtained in the form of (a) tiles and (b) carpet.
(a) Cork Tiles are in squares of various sizes, stock sizes being 4, 6, 8, 9, 12,
18 and 24-in. ; special border strips are made, and these are from 1 to r8-in.
wide and 36-in. long. The thicknesses are !, /r;, i and l 6 -in. The colours
range from light brown to dark chocolate. The tiles may have tongued and ·
grooved edges or they may be square-edged.
They are laid on both wood and concrete floors. . If the former, the sub-
floor may be either softwood boards or plywood-see above. The sub-floor must
be free from surface irregularities, and it is usually covered with felt paper to
prevent any movement in the timber affecting the tiles, which are fixed with a
special bituminous mastic and nailed with panel pins at the corners. If, as
shown at J, Fig. 10, a concrete floor is to be covered, the screed (composed of
1 part cement to 3 parts sand) must be perfectly level, dry and free from dust ;
a similar adhesive is used. Skirtings, of various sections and lengths, are made
of this material ; these are fixed to grounds (see J) and their vertical joints are
usually made to coincide with those of the border strips or squ~res. .
After laying, the tiles, if square-edged, are surfaced to a umform level Wit~ a
planing or sand-papering machine ; tongued and grooved squ<Ires do not reqmre
this. They are then wax polished.
Manufacture.-These tiles are ma~e from the bark of ~n e vergreen species ~f
oak tree which grows in P_ortugal, Spam, France ~nd cou~tnes bordermg the. Medl-
ter·r anean. The bark, whtch grows to a great thtckness, ts removed every etght or
ten years, softened by boiling, scraped, ground, l?ressed_ (at 75~tons per sq. _ft.) a_nd
heated. The heat (which influences the colour) IS apphed whtlst the ~ork IS bemg
pressed and maintai~ed until th~ resi~ in it is released and binds the particles together
in a dense mass ; it 1s then cut mto ttles.
 FLOORS
(b) Cork Carpet is made in two grades and several qualities and thicknesses.
It differs from cork tiles in that the granules of cork when heated with linseed
oil, etc., are compressed by rolling on to a backing of canvas, and it is obtainable
in 6-ft. wide rolls which vary from 45 to 9o-ft. long. The colour also varies
according to the pigment added during the process. It is more absorbent than
the tiles and is therefore not so easy to keep clean.
Certain proprietary coverings are advertised as cork tiles and carpet, but
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they more resemble the characteristics of linoleum (see next column) in that
their composition (being a mixture of linseed oil, gum, sawdust and pigment,
in addition to ground cork) is different and they are harder and more noisy
of tread.
6. Rubber provides a durable, quiet, flexible, generally non-slip and dustless
floor cov(.;ring which is obtainable in a wide range of attractive colours. It is
used for entrance halls, corridors, banks, cinemas, theatres, reading rooms,
hospital wards, restaurants, etc.
There are two classes of rubber floor coverings, i.e., (a) sheet and (b) tiles.
(a) Sheet Rubber is obtainable in rolls up to 1oo-ft. long, 6-ft. wide and l-,
13.,, land i-in. thick; a minimum thickness of 1\ -in. is recommended for good
class work subjected to average traffic. It is divided into (i) ordinary, (ii) com-
bination of ordinary and sponge rubber and (iii) inlaid. The ordinary sheet
rubber is of the same material throughout. The second consists of a facing of
ordinary sheet rubber backed with sponge rubber. The inlaid variety is of tiles
of ordinary sheet rubber, cut to various shapes and of different colours, and
arranged to conform to an extensive _range of geometrical designs on a rubber
backing to which they are vulcanized (see next column). The sheets are
invisibly joined.
(b) Rubber Tiles are either cut from ordinary sheet rubber or are moulded.
They are of uniform thickness, are more resistant to wear and less liable to coil
than sheet rubber because of the extra pressure to which they are subjected in
the process of manufacture. Tiles are also made having a moulded facing
which is vulcanized to an asbestos-cement backing ; skirtings of this material
are also available.
Rubber may be laid on either a well seasoned wood or a concrete sub-floor.
A wood sub-floor must be adequately ventilated, otherwise dry rot may
occur. Plywood (see p. 40) provides an excellent foundation. If boarded,
any cupping of the boards or other irregularities must be removed by planing,
otherwise they will cause excessive wearing of the rubber covering ; for the
same reason, nails must be punched and the holes stopped.
If the sub-floor is of concrete, as shown at L, Fig. 10, the level surface of the
screed should be given a rough textured finish by the application of the wood
float ; this gives a good key for the adhesive. The surface must be free from
dust, and the concrete must be thoro~1ghly dry. Most specialist firms give a
guarantee for their work, but this will not be forthcoming unless these conditions
are complied with,
328
The rubber is secured to either type of sub-floor by a special adhesive of
rubber solution or a moisture-resisting compound.
Manufacture.-Rubber is obtained from the latex (a white to cream coloured
juice) tapped from certain trees grown in Malaya, Java, Sumatra, Ceylon, Borneo,
Brazil and elsewhere. The latex is present in the cells between the bark and cambium
of the tree. It is extracted by tapping, i.e., narrow inclined channels leading to a
vertical channel or cut are gouged in the bark. The released latex flows down these
into a cup fixed near to the ground. The contents of the cups are collected and
taken to the factory, where it is strained through sieves to remove any dirt and then
coagulated by the addition of acetic acid. It is then passed through washing rollers
to free it from impurities, after which the sheets are hung up to dry, smoked over
wood fires and finally packed into chests ready for export.
Whilst this crude rubber is the basic constituent of rubber flooring, other in-
gredients, i.e., fillerS (which have a toughening effect in addition to cheapening the
process), pigments (to influence the colour), sulphur (necessary for the hot vulcanizing
process), etc., are necessary. The crude rubber is reduced to a plastic. condition
by passing it repeatedly between heated rollers. It is then taken to the mrxer where
the various ingredients are gradually worked in and thcroughly incorporated by the
rollers, and passed between a second set of rollers from which it emerges in a thin
sheet. The sheets are now vulcanized, i.e., heated in the absence of air, and pressed.
This takes place in a press consisting of several steam heated platens (hollow plates)
between which the sheets are placed . The temperature ·of the plates varies from I00 °
to rsoo C ., and the duration of heating varies from a few minutes to three hours, depend-
ing upon the degree of hardness required and the composition of the rubber. Rubber
tiles are vulcanized in enclosed steel moulds.
CARPET.-There is a tenJency towards an increased use of the ordinary
woven fabric carpet as a covering material in preference to the hard and noisy
timber floor coverings mentioned at (r), (2), (3) and (4). This applies not only to
domestic buildings but also to public buildings, now that vacuum cleaning
plants are considered an essential part of their equipment, and the difficulty of
keeping carpets clean has thereby been overcome. A comparatively cheap
softwood boarded floor, together with an underlay of felt, is all that is necessary
if a " fitted carpet " (i.e., one that covers the whole area of the floor) is used.
If a hardwood surround to a centrally placed carpet is required, an effective
finish is obtained by covering the margin between the walls and the carpet
with !-in. thick plywood blocks or strips, as described in (3). This surround
should not be fixed to the softwood floor until the carpet has been in use for
several weeks and has thereby been stretched.
LINOLEUM AND CELLULOSE FLOORING are laid upon either timber or concrete
floors. Linoleum consists of a mixture of linseed oil, gum resins, cork dust, saw-
dust and pigments ; this mixture is spread on to a backing of jute canvas and hot
rolled. Cellulose flooring is made in the same manner and of similar materials,
except that the base is of gelatinized nitrocellulose instead of linseed oil and resin.
The British Standard Specification, No. 8ro, divides plain linoleum into three
types and nine thicknesses varying from 1·9 to 6·7 mm. (approx. -l:J to i-in.);
the rolls are 6-ft. wide . Cellulose flooring is in three grades-;\,, i and !-in.
thick-and is in 6!-ft. wide rolls. An adhesive should be used for securing
each covering to either type of floor. Concrete floors must be perfectly dry
before being covered, and a timber floor covered with such an impervious material
as linoleum must be adequately ventilated.
 329 CARPENTRY STOOTHED P A f\ T T 0 N
A 4' "'2' CEILING JOISTS
PARTITIONS
Partitions are walls, usually relatively thin and of light construction, which
are used to divide buildings into rooms, corridors and cubicles. Whilst their
essential purpose is to serve as divisions, partitions may also be utilized to
support the joists of floors, purlins and ceiling joists of roofs, etc., and as such
are load-bearing structures.
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The many materials used in the construction of partitions include (1) timber,
(2} clay and terra-cotta, (3) concrete, (4) plaster, (5) asbestos-cement, (6) glass
and (7) metal.
1. TIMBER PARTITIONS.-These include (a) stoothed and (b) trussed partitions.
(a) Stoothed Partitions.- These are also known as stoothings, or stud, quarter
or common partitions. This type is illustrated in Fig. 11 . It consists of vertical
members called studs or quarters, which are secured to two horizontal lengths of
timber, the upper being the head and the lower the sill. One or both sides may
be either lathed and plastered, or covered with boarding, plywood sheets, wall
boards, etc. y
E L E k T 0 N
The studs, usually of 4-in. by 2-in. and occasionally of 3-in. by 2-in. stuff,
art spaced at 14 to 16-in. centres for lathing and up to 2-ft. centres for boarding
I !II
5CALE FOI'. ,.
,; >I 41 5: 61 ,I II
FfK

or panelling. Short lengths of studs,· such as those above doors, are called -+-STU8
puncheons. The ends of the studs may be either stub-tenoned into the head and TENON

sill (see E and L), or housed, or, as shQwn at J, slotted over 1! or 1-in. by 1-in.
fillets nailed to the head and sill. In cheap work the sill is sometimes omitted
and the studs are nailed direct to the floor (see u). The studs are stiffened by
nogging pieces or noggings at vertical intervals of from 3 to 4-ft. These short E
pieces, 4 or 3-in. by 2 or It-in., are generally fitted more or less horizontally
and tightly between the studs, to which they are nailed (see o and c), or inclined D
as shown at Q ; alternatively, the noggings may consist of pairs of 2-in. by !-in.
continuous pieces let in flush with the faces of the studs (see T and H). The
wall studs may be packed out from the walls as shown at A, or securely plugged D E T A L "M" 0 E T A L "N"
to the walls. PLASTEP. LATitS
\ I
The width of the head and sill is the same as that of the studs and are pre- 3··~· MCHJTAAYE~
bn •l'lz II C.A.SJNG
ferably 3-in. thick. The former is securely nailed to the ceiling (or floor) joists '//'
4""3" 0001\ POST
and the sill is fixed to the floor. Sometimes these members have their ends built 3-PLY PAI-IEL"- STilE v/~
~ v>/
into the walls, but, apart from the difficulty in accomplishing this, it is un-
necessary if they are securely fixed as described. The head and sill are shown
F
D E T A I "' ~

L "P"
at right angles to the floor and ceiling joists. If the partition is to be fixed parallel
to the joists, it should be either placed immediately over a floor joist (or doubled
joist) or, where this is not possible, on short 6-in. by z-in. transverse bearers
housed at about 3-ft. centres between the pair of joists concerned; similar 4-in.
by 2-in. bearers between the joists of the ceiling or upper floor will serve as a
fixing for the head.
If provision has to be made for a door, as shown at A, the door posts should
he sufficiently rigid to resist the impact of the door and they should be continuous L {} A L T E ~ H A T E
E T "' I L "R11
1'1> I .1 I .1 I ~ I i1 I 1b I
SCALE FOil. DETAILS INCHIS

FIGU~E II
 PARTITIONS
from floor to floor (or ceiling). Those at A are of 4-in. by 3-in. stuff. The top
of each post is tenoned to the head and the foot is usually slot tenoned as shown
at K. The wedged tenoned joint shown at A, B and c affords an effective con-
nection between the door head and post. Ample space must, of course, be
allowed at the door opening to receive the casing, and either wedges are driven
or blocks are fixed between the casing and framing. A detailed part plan of the
door is shown at F • .
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This class of partition is in common use. Because of its lightness, it is
usefully employed when there is no supporting wall below. Its efficiency in
preventing the transmission of sound is at least equal to that of a solid 4!-in.
brick wall (see p. 48). Sanitary fittings, such as certain lavatory basins, and heavy
fixtures cannot, of course, be supported by this type of structure, and the hang-
ing of pictures presents a difficulty unless their means of support are secured to
studs or noggings. An additional disadvantage is its deficient fire-resisting
quality ; its capacity for harbouring vermin is a further defect, especially in
certain classes of property.
Examples of stoothings are shown in Figs. 14, 15 and 34·
Another form of this class of structure in which studs are employed is the brick-
nagged partition. This is practically obsolete. It consists of studs and panels of
brickwork between, the former being placed at three or four stretchers apart. The
studs are 4!-in. by 3-in. when the brickwork is 4!-in. thick, and of 3-in. square stuff
if the bricks are laid on edge. Nogging pieces or bonding strips, 4-in. by !-in., are
housed into the studs at 2 to 3-ft. vertical intervals. The object of the studs and
bonding strips is to increase the rigidity of thin brick walls, especially long and high
walls. This object can be more readily effected by the use of metal reinforcement,
and hence reinforced brickwork (see p . 45 , Vol. II) and the fire-resisting partitions
described on p . 45 have superseded the brick-nogged type.
(b) Trussed or Framed Partitions .-These are seldom employed nowadays
except for buildings of a temporary or semi-permanent character, or in those
countries where timber is abundant and can be readily and cheaply obtained.
Preference is now ·given to the use in this type of structure of materials of high
fire-resisting and insulating qualities, many of which can be speedily erected.
Trussed partitions are designed to be self-supporting. They may also be
required to carry one or more floors and ceilings. They are illustrated in Fig. 12.
A truss is a combination of members forming a rigid framework, and a
trussed partition is therefore a triangulated structure composed of at least a
head, sill, · posts, inclined members called braces or struts, and studs (with
noggings) spaced according to the nature of the covering material to be applied.
An intermediate horizontal member, called an intertie, is usually provided in
partitions exceeding 1o-ft. in height. In addition to transmitting a portion of
the load direct to the sills, an intertie has the effect of reducing the length and
consequently the scantlings of the braces and posts, and of increasing the rigidity
of the frame.
The partition at A supports two floors . In addition to the wood members
already described, it has two long wrought iron or mild steel rods which pass
330
through the sill, intertie and head. Both ends of each rod are tapped, i.e., screw-
threads are formed, and provided with nuts and washers. Close timber joints are
assured when the nuts are tightened.
The braces, being in compression, assist in transmitting the weight to the
walls. The sill, like a tie beam of a king post roof truss (see p . 76, Vol. 1),
forms a tie and is in tension. The head acts as a straining beam (see the queen
post roof truss in Fig. 18) for the braces, forms a fixing for the posts and studs,
and supports the floor joists which are cogged to it (see H, Fig. 7). In order to
avoid transverse stresses, the centre line principle should be observed wherever
possible when setting out the members at the joints (see details at c, E, F, K, o
and P. Satisfactory bearings for the sill, head and intertie are obtained if their
ends are supported on 3 to 6-in. thick hard stone pads, as shown.
The left side of the elevation at A shows a typical arrangement of the studs
when the partition is to be plastered. The edges of the braces should be
chamfered to reduce the width of the faces riext to the plaster to at least 3-in.
. in order that an adequate key for the plaster is obtained (seep. 31) . .For braces
of greater width than 4-in., laths are nailed centrally along each outer face; the
ordinary horizontal laths are nailed over these and bent down over the studs ·
the intertie is counter-lathed with short vertical pieces of laths spaced at rs-in:
centres. The right side of the elevation shows the partition boarded. For this
and similar treatment, such as plywood, etc. panelling, the studs and noggings
are so spaced to provide the necessary means for fixing the covering.
Alternative details showing the connection between an upper brace, post and
head are illustrated at c and D. The former shows the centre line principle of
setting out, the brace and post being respectively bridle jointed and mortised·
and tenoned. The alternative detail at D shows an additional member, a
straining piece, which is sometimes introduced to increase the rigidity at the
heads of the posts.
The detail at E shows the connection between the two portions of the post,
the lower brace and the intertie. The studs are stub-tenoned into the latter and
notched over 1-in. square fillets at the brace (see F). In cheap work the ends
of the studs are cut to the required bevel and nailed to the brace.
In the detail at F, the foot of the brace is bridle jointed to the sill and a !-in.
diameter wrought iron bolt is provided to make a rigid connection. The seating
block shown is preferred to the alternative of notching the underside of the sill
for the washer, as the latter would unduly weaken the sill . The section at G
shows the 1-in. square fillets which are nailed to the brace and over which the
ends of the studs are notched.
Just before the covering material is applied or fixed, the tension rods are
given a final tightening by applying a spanner to the nuts. This is to ensure
close joints, which may have opened slightly during the erection of the partition
and owing to shrinkage of the timbers .
In lieu of the tension rods, wrought iron straps, such as are shown at K, o
and Q, may be fixed at R, T and at the connection between the post and sill
 T R U s s E 0
DETAILS OF
PARTITION 11N
p A R T T 0 N s DETAILS
PA ~ T I T I 0 N
OF
ue•
SCALE ~0"' A FEET
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0
STUD
"-NOTCHED
OVcl'.
FILLET
L STU&-
TENONEO
/ TO SILL

I
I D f T A I L "l"

'?" "4" SILL

~
"'8~ACE
POST
SILL

Q
20'-0" - --'---''-"---="-'-"-<...v;,, A. D E T A L "A'"
TWO-TIER PARTITION U
!C£i zi IAIIIFTJF]do l li2 1 1t41
SCALE ~0"' 8 ~ EET SU.lE FOR. DETAILS FEET
FIGUF..E 12
 PARTITIO NS
respectively, in addition to similar straps at the corresponding connc.:tions of
the opposite post. Such straps are less effective than the rods owing to the
absence of provision for final tightening.
A sectional plan through a portion of the door, etc., is shown at H, and an
enlarged section of the match-boarding is shown at J. Ordinary t. and g. vee-
jointed boarding in narrow widths, or plywood sheets (as. shown in Fig. 40),
etc., may be preferred. As already mentioned (p. 43), the door casing must be
well secured to the posts and head (intertie), blocks as required being packed
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between.
A two-tier trussed partition, i.e., one that extends through two stories, is
shown at B. Provision is made for two side doors in the lower storey and a
central door in the upper. The partition supports three floors . Details are
shown at K, L, M, N, o, P and Q. The various metal straps may be omitted if
the three wrought iron or steel rods shown by ~roken lines at B (a central one
at the lower storey, which extends from the sill to the binder, and two at the
upper storey, from the binder to the head) are provided. There are several
alternatives to these details (e.g., a !-in. diameter bolt may be substituted for
the stirrup strap at Q-see Fig. 40, Vol. l-and in the same detail, and for economy,
a shaped cleat may be well nailed to a 4-in. by 4-in . post to form an abutment
for the brace) which are typical of timber jointing as applied to partitions and
framed carpentry generally. Also, as explained in connection with the design
of floors, the sizes of the various principal members of a truss vary according
to the load to be supported, span, etc.
Multi-ply boards and laminboards (pp. 98 and I 03) provide additional examples
of the use of timber for partitions and screens.
2. CLAY AND TERRA-COTTA BRICK AND BLOCK PARTITIONs.-Th e commonest
type of clay partition is, of course, the ordinary solid brick wall of 4!-in. (or
3-in. if laid on edge) or more in thickness. Whilst such walls are relatively
strong and fire-resisting, their weight precludes their use for partitions on upper
floors unless provision in the form of girders or lower walls is made for their
support. Hence several manufacturers have turned their attention to the pro-
duction of clay units, either bricks or blocks, which are comparatively light and
yet are sufficiently strong for the construction of non-load bearing partitions.
Lightness is obtained either by making them hollow and/or by using diatomaceous
earth which produces units having a very porous structure.
Examples of hollow bricks are illustrated at v and w, Fig. 5, Vol. II.
An example of a hollow block is shown here at A, Fig. I3. The tongues and
grooves on the beds assist in making the joints rigid and facilitate erection .
The grooved faces afford a good key for the plaster. Some blocks are made
without keyed faces, and these may be glazed on one or both sides in a variety of
colours for use as partitions in lavatories, etc. The sizes are specified in the
figure; solid blocks are also made which are only I!-in. thick. In general, the
blocks are built in either cement mortar or compo and are bonded in the usual
way with staggered vertical joints. A good form of hollow block is shown at y,
332
Fig. 5, Vol. II (see also pp. 17 and I9 of that volume). Hollow blocks are made
of gault clay, fireclay (these two are described on pp. I and I7, Vol. II), terra-
cotta (from carefully prepared clay or shale, moulded, dried, sometimes glazed,
and burnt) and diatomaceous earth.
The following are the merits of these blocks : Satisfactory mechanical
strength, lightness in weight, good heat and sound insulation, fireproof, non-
shrinkable and vermin proof. Those made of diatomaceous earth can be sawn
to required size and shape and provide a firm hold for nails and screws.
A patent pressed clay brick, manufactured by the London Brick Co. Ltd.,
and employed in the construction of partitions, is shown at M, Fig. I3· These
bricks are bedded in cement mortar (composed of I part Portland cement and
4 parts sand) in bonded courses with half-brick laps. When so constructed, the
diagonal grooves-of approximately i-in. depth-are in continuous alignment
from top to bottom. The -l-in . thick vertical joints are left free from mo~tar.
Short lengths (extending over two and a half courses) of I4-gauge galvamzed
mild steel wires a,re fixed in the diagonal grooves as the work proceeds and on
completion of each second course. The bent upper ends of the wires are hooked
over the bed grooves of the bricks, and their lower ends are hooked under the
preceding wires. Under normal circumstances, and for partitions up to IS~ft.
high, only single reinforcen1ent is required, i.e., the wires are run on each. side
of the wall from bottom to top and from left to right, as shown by broken hnes ;
double reinforcement is required for larger partitions, up to 30-ft. by 30-ft., the
wires being fixed in both grooves and on both sides, and thus running both right
and left. On completion of the laying of the bricks and fixing of the reinfor~e­
ment, both sides of the partition are rendered in cement mortar ?f I : 3 mix.
Although these partitions are only 2-in. thick, excluding the rendermg, they are
very strong and resistant to side pressure or vibration. These ~ricks ~e also
used for cavity walls consisting of two 2-in. thick leaves and a 2-m. cavity. In
such walls the diagonal wires are only fixed on the outer faces of the leaves
and normally only single reinforcement is required. In addition, it is recom-
mended that three rigid galvanized wrought iron wall ties be used per square
yard of walling . Both sides of the wall are rendered in cement mortar.
The construction of this patent partition is facilitated if a temporary " timber
liner" is fixed. That recommended consists of 3-in. by 2-in. studs fixed at 3 to
4-ft. apart, to which 3-in. by !-in. wood slats are nailed at. I3!.-in. cent~es.
The patent bricks are then built-up against the slats, and a savi?g m plumbi?g
thus results. If several partitions have to be constructed, the !mer may consist
of a frame of the above members which can be readily removed and erected.
3· PRE-CAST CoNCRETE SLAB AND BLOCK PARTITIONs.-The rela~ively :hin
units used for non-load bearing partitions, usually composed of ~Ightwei~ht
concrete (p. 29, Vol. II), are referred to as " slabs," whilst the thicker umts,
intended for the construction of external walls, load-bearing partitions, and the
backing of brickwork and masonry, are generally known as "blocks." .
Concrete slabs, whilst strong enough for the purpose, should be as hght as
 333 CARPENTRY
possible, otherwise special provision would he required for their support. Hence,
CLA Y.
C 0 N C ~ E T E, PLASTER,
a suitable material is lightweight concrete consisting of a mixture of Portland G LA S S, E T C. PARTITIONS
cement (or Portland blast-furnace cement or aluminous cement) and aggregates
such as clinker, coke breeze, pumice, foamed slag and expanded slate. These
aggregates are described on p. 29, Vol. II. The composition varies from 6 to 12
parts aggregate to I part cement by volume ; sand is sometimes added. The
aggregate must be crushed to pass through a }-in. sieve. Both solid and
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hollow slabs are made.

The solid type at B, Fig. I 3, is that referred to in the British Standard
Specification, No. 492-I933 ; there are many sizes, hut the standard dimen-
sions are 17;} and 23t-in. by 8~ and 11~-in. by 2, zt , 3 and 4-in. ; the radii
of the tongue and groove are / ,; and ~f",1 -in. respectively. The hollow type is
covered by the British Standard Specification, No. 728-1937, and the specified
sizes are similar to the above, with a minimum thickness of 2~-in. That at c
is one type of cellular slab ; others have rectangular voids and some have tongued CLAY CONCRETE PL"'STER
and grooved vertical edges.
3 11 PMTJTIOH (CLA-Y .BLOCK)
Slabs are made on a large scale by hand-operated machines of which tl)ere art• A~CHITIVIVE .34" PLASTE~
several t ypes. The concrete, machine mixed, is fed into a steel box of the mouldinJ;t
machine after a wood pallet has been placed inside on the bottom; after consolidation
by means of a steel plate, operated by a. hand lever, the pallet with the slab is auto-
matically ejected by operating a foot pedal and taken to the drying shed to fully
mature for preferably three months and not less than four weeks. Thorough maturing
is essential if cracks in partitions due to shrinkage of the concrete are to be avoided.
Lean mixes (i.e., when the concrete mix is not richer than I : 8) also reduce the
tendency for cracks to develop. Hollow slabs are m oulded in boxes containing
cores, and consolidation is effected by vibration of the pallet and by pressure applied
at the top and bottom ; the slabs are extruded over the cores. Approximately ont•
hundred and six slabs can be moulded per hour b y one type of machine. DETAILS DOORS
The concrete is also h and compacted with a metal tamper in lieu of the plate. ~· DIA. VERTICAl l. 3!11' DIA. HOF.IZONTAL
Alternatively, slabs are cast in wood frames and simply compacted with the back MILD STfEL RODS
of the shovel. fi.EINFOR<ED CONCRETE R18.S 13/4"
Concrete slabs are bedded and jointed in cement mortar. Plastering of the
surfaces (some slabs only require one coat of plaster on each side) completes
the partition.
The slabs can be readily cut with a bolster or broad chisel, and most (exclud-
ing clinker slabs) will firmly hold screws and nails.
Some concrete slabs, such as pumice, have good fire-resisting qualities, but ~

others (e.g., coke breeze) are combustible. Because of their porous nature, 'PHORPRES'
lightweight concrete slabs have a good heat insulation value, but they are not
GR.IP
BR.lCI<..
very resistant to the passage of sound. (LONDON !IRICK
COMPANY LTD.)
Pre-cast concrete blocks are made in a similar manner to the slabs. Gravel
and broken brick or stone are used as aggregates, in addition to those employed 1--2t11 'TURNALL'
BUILDING SLABS
for lightweight concrete. They are generally used for load-bearing partitions [TUP.NE~' S ASBESTOS
in addition to walls. The British Standard Specification, No. 834- 1939, applies CEMENT COMPANYj
to these blocks. Their standard dimensions are ni-in. by 8!-in. by 4, 4/\r, 4!,
81 and 9-in . ; blocks not exceeding 4t-in. in thickness may also be obtained in
2J¥-in. lengths. The mixture shall consist of not more than I : 6 by volume,
SCA-LE FOtt.. A;B,C,D.J,K,L,M t.H INCHES
METAL
l 'i"l",l " fSI'" I"d'"!,.FS
SCALE' FO~ E, F, G, It b 0 INCHES FIGU({E 13
 PARTITIONS
unlc~s the wehs of the blocks are r-m. or less in thickness when a I : 4! mix
may be used.
A relatively new concrete product which is being used to an increasing
extent for the manufacture of slab partitions is known as wood-wool cement or
fibrous wood cement. This consists of a mixture of wood-wool (wood shavings)
and Portland cement; gypsum may be added. Long shavings from 1J to !-in.
wide are coated with liquid cement, consolidated into slabs by means of a
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machine press, and are then stored to mature. These slabs are very light, the
average weight of the material being only about 30-lb. per cub. ft . ; brickwork
weighs from roo to 140-lb. per cub. ft. Further, the slabs have good heat and
sound insulation qualities, are highly fire-resistant (the cement coating serving
as a protection to the wood shavings), can be easily fixed and sawn, and provide
a good key for the plaster which is applied to the surfaces after fixing. The
slabs of Thermacoust,l illustrated at Nand v, Fig. 14, are made of this material,
their dimensions being 84-in. by 2Jl-in. by t, f, I, rt, 2, 2!, 3, 4 and 5-in.
The thicknesses recommended for partitions are 2 and 3-in. when the height does
not exceed 8 and ro-ft. respectively. The slabs are bedded and jointed in
ordinary lime mortar or, frequently, gypsum plaster, and the .vertical joints are
staggered. The surfaces are covered with two coats of plaster. Seep. 49·
Efficient slabs and blocks suitable for partitions are made of sawdust concrete,
so called because it is a mixture of cement and sawdust. Besides being light in
weight, these units have a satisfactory heat insulation value, they will take nails
and screws, and they can be readily cut or sawn. They have a tendency to expand
and shrink, and cracking or crazing of the plaster covering may result.
Another type of lightweight slab is made of aerated or foamed cement. This
material is produced by adding water to a mixture of cement and powdered
aluminium ; hydrogen gas is evolved, an increase in bulk results and the structure
becomes a mass of small voids separated by films of cement. A similar result is
achieved if a soapy liquid substance is used as the foaming agent and stirred
briskly with the cement.
Briefly, slabs of aerated cement are made in the following manner : Portland
cement and powdered aluminium in the proportion of I : I ,ooo by weight are mixed
and water is added . A metal mould is partially filled (to approximately one-third
its depth) with this liquid paste, which gradually rises to completely fill the mould.
The upper surface is trowelled smooth after any excess has been struck off · the
slab is then allowed to harden in the mould. ' method: The sheets of expanded metal are wired to i-in. diameter vertical
This is an excellent material for the construction of non-load bearing
partitions, although shrinkage cracks will occur if the slabs are not thoroughly
matured.
Time and labour are saved in erecting concrete slab partitions if temporary
wood liners or frames are employed as described on p. 45, the horizontal slats
being fixed at centres to suit the height of the slabs. Otherwise each slab has to
be carefully plumbed.
1 Proprietors: The Cementation Co. Ltd.
334
4· PLASTER SLAB PARTITIONS.-These are made of calcium sulphate (burnt
gypsum .or plaster of Paris). This is mixed with water, and sand may be added
to the mix. The slabs are made by casting the material in wood or metal moulds.
They set very quickly. One form of slab is shown at o, Fig. 13. Whilst many
slabs are cast without tongues and grooves, the rigidity of partitions is increased
if such provision is made. The vertical edges are also sometimes tongued and
grooved. In order to decrease their weight, many of the thicker slabs at least
are cellular and resemble that shown at c. Sawdust is also sometimes added to
reduce their density.
There is a big range of sizes, but those specified at D are common. The
slabs are bedded and jointed in lime mortar; hair (r-Ib. of hair to 3-cub. ft. of
lime) and plaster of Paris (usually ro per cent.) may be added. Those cast in
metal moulds are smooth faced and are not subsequently covered with plaster.
When the partitions are to be plastered, the plaster slabs are cast with keyed
or rough surfaces and only one coat of plaster is normally required. The slabs
can be readily sawn. Plaster slabs are less subjected to shrinkage cracks than
concrete slabs.
Wood liners, described on p. 45, may be used effectively in the erection of
plaster slab partitions.
Fixing of Concrete and Plaster Slabs.-Special precautions should be taken
to ensure sound fixing at doors, windows and walls. ·Two door details are shown
at E and F, Fig. 13, and two wall details are given at G and H. Detail E shows
the door frame rebated to receive the end of the partition consisting of slabs
with square vertical edges, such as those at A, c and D. If the slabs are like B,
a small wood fillet may be fixed to the door frame, as shown at F, and this engages
in the grooves of the slabs. Alternatively, metal ties with turned-up ends screwed
to the post may be built in at some of the bed joints. Certain slabs, such as
those composed of coke breeze, pumice, wood-wool, etc., are well spiked to the
frames. At G, a chase has been cut in the main wall to receive the ends of the
slabs, and at H, two fillets are plugged to the wall, and between them the
tongues of the slabs (similar to B) are fitted. See also v, w and x, Fig. 14.
Reinforced Plaster Partitions.-There are several methods of forming thin
partitions which consist of expanded metal (resembling that at A, Fig. 16, Vol. II)
or similar metal reinforcement, covered with plaster. The following is one
mild steel rods which are spaced at about 16-in. intervals and securely fixed
at their ends to the floor and ceiling. Similar rods, at 20-in. centres, are then
wired horizontally to the vertical rod~ (on the opposite side to the expanded
metal) after their ends have been built into the side walls (or screwed to door,
etc., frames) . One side is plastered, and when this has set a coat of plaster is
applied to the other side. These coats are well scratched before setting, and a
second coat is then applied to each.
5· ASBESTOS-CEMENT PARTITIONs.-A portion of a sheet of asbestos-cement (see
pp. 120 and 121) which is used in the construction of partitions and flat roofs is
 335 CARPENTRY
shown at'N. Fig. 13. It consists of two flat sheets of asbestos-cement, each approxi-
mately lz-in. thick, attached to an inner corrugated sheet (approx. i-in. thick) of
similar material. The sheets are jointed in cement mortar and can be painted or
distempered as required. This forms a light, durable, fire-resisting and well
insulated partition. It is manufactured by the Turner's Asbestos-Cement Co.
This company also produces flat sheets of asbestos-cement which are given
a textured finish in five patterns. The sizes are 8 and 4-ft. by 4-ft. by t-in .
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thick. They are butt-jointed and screwed at 12-in. intervals to the studs (r6
to 24-in. centres) and noggings (4-ft. centres) of stoothed partitions, or they can
be secured to brick, etc., walls to which 2-in. by !-in. battens are plugged to
receive the screws. The sheets can be painted or distempered.
In addition, this company manufactures wall board-8-ft. by 4-ft. by t-in.
thick-which is mainly composed of asbestos-cement fibre. These boards are
secured to studs, noggings, etc., as described above, the screws (with washers)
being spaced at 9-in. at the edges and 12-in. at the intermediate supports.
6. GLASS BRICK PARTITIONs.-The details at J, K and L, Fig. 13, were pre-
pared from particulars supplied by the manufacturers, J. A. King & Co. Ltd.
The section at J shows a portion of a partition composed of 8-in. by 8-in. by
r! -in. solid glass bricks which are grooved on all four edges to permit of slender
horizontal and vertical reinforced concrete ribs at the joints. All grooved edges
are painted with a light-reflecting paint and then treated with a special bitumastic
compound applied hot. This insulation is to permit of expansion and contraction
between the glass and concrete. The vertical and horizontal face joints are at
least i-in. thick. Mild steel rod~ are embedded in the concrete at the joints;
the size of this reinforcement varies, but for normal work the horizontal and
vertical rods are ! and t -in. diameter respectively, and they are wired at the
intersections. The bricks are plain on one face with an attractive " flemish "
pattern on the other.
The section at L shows a portion of a partition consisting of glass units or
lenses with horizontal and vertical reinforced concrete joints. It is a double-
glazed parition, each unit being hollow and having two !-in. thick pieces rebated
at all edges. These edges are treated as above. The dimensions of the lenses are
8-in. by 8-in. and 6-in. by 6-in. by r!-in. when fixed. The joints are only
§-in. thick.
The above are two .examples of " Glascrete " construction. Such semi-
transparent partitions are being employed for corridors, staircase wells, ;etc., in
contemporary buildings.
Another form of glass brick is shown at x, Fig. 5, Vol. II.
7· METAL PARTITIONS.-Mild steel and bronze are two of several metals
which are used in the manufacture of partitions. These may be designed to
consist of a series of panels, secured to posts, walls, etc., or the whole of both
surfaces may be flush : some of the panels may be prepared for glazing. The
panels vary from r-} to 2-in. thick and may be of 2o-gauge mild steel or l to
l-in. thick bronze : the thickness of the steel for the posts may be increased to
18-gauge. A sectional plan of a steel post and portions of adjacent panels are
shown at o, Fig. 13. The panels are sometimes packed with insulating material
(see below). Partitions may also be constructed of bronze or nickel alloys
extruded over wood panels or cores; this construction is detailed in Vol. IV.
SOUND-PROOFING
Sound insulation, or the prevention of sound transmission from one part
of a structure to another, is an important subject and one which presents several
difficult and complicated problems. As an introduction to the subject it is only
possible in this volume to indicate briefly some of the methods employed to
improve the sound insulation of some of the types of construction which are
included in a second year syllabus, i.e, partitions and wood floors.
Sound may be air-borne or it may originate by direct contact with the
structure. Speech and music are examples of air-borne sound, and the second
or impact type includes noises produced when walking, hammering, or banging
doors.
As sound is readily transmitted through cracks, partially filled mortar joints,
badly fitting doors and windows, etc., it follows that good insulation cannot be
obtained unless sound construction is maintained throughout. For the same
reason there should be no gaps between the vertical edges of a cross-partition
(such as that shown at B, Fig. 14) and the adjacent main walls or partitions.
Nor should there be a space between the head and sill of the partition and the
floors.
Sound travels considerable distances along solid walls, and is thereby trans-
mitted from one room to another in a building. It follows, therefore, that division
walls or partitions should be isolated from adjacent main walls. This can be
effected by using continuous pads (see p. sr) at the edges of the partitions.
Insulation at the head and sill of a partition also assists in preventing the trans-
mission of sound from one boundary(such as a floor)to another (see pp. 49 and 51).
In general, the transmission of air-borne sound through walls and floors
decreases as their weight increases. A thick, well constructed brick or masonry
wall is therefore effective in resisting the transmission of sound. However, the
modern tendency is to construct relatively thin walls and light internal partitions,
and this has led to an increased application of insulating materials which,
because of their porous nature, absorb sound and partially reduce the volume
transmitted.
A large number of proprietary materials are now obtainable which are claimed
to have high sound-absorbing powers. One of the oldest is slag wool, a very
light fibrous fireproof material produced by the blowing of steam through molten
blast-furnace slag. It may be applied to floors and partitions in a loose condition,
when it is called pugging, or it can be obtained in quilt or blanket form and in
slabs. -The quilted kind consists of slag wool which is sewn between specially
prepared paper; it is obtained in 3-ft. wide rolls, is ± to 1-in. thick, and is
 SOUND -PROOF ING
applied under floor hoards, between studs of partitions, etc. The slabs ha\·e
a }-in. thick facing of plaster and a hacking of slag wool which is at least 1-in.
thick; these are nailed direct to studs, the underside of joists, etc. Wall boards
form another class of insulating material. These are sheets of wood fibre
(shavings) cemented together under pressure, -~ to 1-in. thick, 3 to 4-ft. wide
and 6 to 14-ft. long Celotex, Insulite, Lloy d Board and Tentest are examples of
this material. Wall board composed of asbestos-cement (see pp. 120-121) and
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supplied in 8-ft. by 8-ft. by i-in . sheets is used for sound-proofing ; this is an
excellent fire-resisting material. As stated on p . 48, insulating material is also
sold in quilt or blanket form; Cabot's Quilt, consisting of cured eel-grass stitched
between strong kraft (brown) paper is one of the best knO\vn and is obtainable
in 3-ft. wide rolls of )t-in. (single-ply), !-in. (double-ply) and ~ -in . (triple-ply)
thickness; this is applied like the quilted form of slag wool. Hair felt is another
good insulating material, but this is not vermin-proof . An additional type of
sound insulator is the wood-wool cement slab described on p. 47· Application
of some of these is described below.
When used normally, these materials only offer partial insulation. Complete
insulation can only be obtained at a cost which is almost prohibitive. As nails
provide paths along which sound is conducted, it follows that the nailing of wall
boards to joists, studs, battens, etc., should be reduced to a minimum.
A partition formed of two leaves with a cavity between has approximately
double the insulation of a non-cavity partition of equal thickness to the combined
leaves, provided the leaves are not connected together by ties. The wider the cavity
the greater the insulation. Whilst wall ties are essential to ensure the stability
of external cavity walls (see pp. 40-44, Vol. II), it will be appreciated that
sound is transmitted through the ties from one leaf to the other and the good
sound-resisti ng quality of this class of wall is accordingly somewhat reduced.
An independent ceiling and a suspended ceiling (i.e ., one supported by light
metal hangers fixed to the wood floor joists or in the concrete floor) are effective
in preventing the transmission of sound (see L, Fig. 14). Floating floors (i.e. ,
those consisting of light reinforced concrete slabs supported on rubber insulating
pads fixed to structural concrete sub-floors) provide further example3 of efficient
insulating construction.
Rubber, cork and thick carpet coverings (see pp. 40 and 41) are effective in
reducing the amount of sound transmitted through floors.
Fig. 14 illustrates typical sound-proof details which incorporate some of the
featun;s and materials described above. Certain .of these cannot be adopted
generally because of their expense. The need for insulating materials will be
reduced in a well-planned building in which rooms used as offices (where type-
writers are employed), or those accommodating machinery or in which noisy
operations are carried out, are arranged in a group and isolated from rooms
where quiet conditions are essential. Careful siting of lifts, selection of
noiseless fittings (such as flushing cisterns), etc., will also effect a reduction
in the amount of insulating material required,
A key plan and section of a portion of a building are shmm at A and R, Fig. 14 .
The detail at 1-1 is typical of the construction which has been employed for
many years . The insulating material consists of 2 to 3-in. thickness of slag \\'ool
on thin plywood or rough boarding supported on fillets naile~ to the jc~ists.
The thick arrows sho\v the inadequacy of this treatment, sound bemg transmstted
to adjacent rooms through the thin brick \\all, at each joist, and at the gap
between the wall and wall joist.
The insulation is rendered more effective if, as shown at J, narrow strips of
insulating board are placed between the floor boards and joists. In lieu of the
wood fillets, narrow l-in. thick strips of the insulating material may be nailed
to the joists and used to support the light insulating ho~rds . .
The detail at K shows an expensive but more effiCient method of reducmg
the transmission of sound. Three insulating layers are used. Quilt, such as
that shown at p may be used instead of the top layer of insulating boards. Plaster-
ing applied to ;he lower layer increases the efficiency . Impact sound is isolated
from the wall if, as shown, the skirting is kept clear of the floor and bedded on a
rubber, asbestos or felt insulating strip . Alternatively, the bottom edge ~f the
skirting may be bevelled, as indicated at L, in order that contact .bet\\ een It ~n~i
the floor is reduced to a minimum : in practice this precaution ss of no avasl sf
the skirting shrinks and the resulting gap is subsequently covered with a quadrant,
etc., fillet to exclude draughts.
The separate ceiling at L, although costly, is most effective . The floor is
strutted (although the value of this is overrated) as described in Vol. I, and. the
insulating layer above it is continued up the \\'all and secured to grounds or
vertical battens plugged to the wall.
A portion of a stoothing (see Fig . II) is shown at N. Both sides of it are
covered with slabs of Thermacoust (seep. 47) which are plastered.
Detail o shows a modified form of stud partition. The discontinuity produced
by the staggered studs is partially effective even if the insulating boards shown
are not used and the studs are simply lathed and plastered.
An efficient sound insulated partition is shown at P. The quilt is nailed to
the studs. A saving in cost, with little reduction in efficiency, results if two
instead of three layers of quilt are applied. Hair felt is also used instead of the
quilt, and whilst this is a: very good insulating material (provided it is sufficiently
thick-prefer ably r~in.), felt harbours vermin.
An effective but expensive type of partition, incorporating fou~ la~er~ of
insulating material is shown at Q. Floors may be also constructed on thts prmctple .
Quilts may be used in lieu of the two inner layers (for partitions) or the three
upper layers (for floors) of boards. Another good class of partition is sho:vn
at w; loose insulating boards may be used instead of the central layers of qmlt.
The open grained material (seep. 47) of the thick slabs shown at v, together
with the wide cavity (which must not be bridged by metal ties) produces an
efficient insulated partition.
Typical details at the head and sill of stud partitions are shmm at 11 . ~. T
 s 0 u N D p R 0 0 F D E T A L s

LL r----

A c D- e--
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SECTION SHOWING INADEQUATE INSULATION OF FlOOR £- I

Bt ru
WALL. SOUND PATH-S ARE INDICATED BY TH-ICK. ARROWS
I

I:
SECTION
PLASTE~
ALTERNATE DETAILS AT 'F~ THAT AT 'R' SHOWS A FLOOR
J
Sl<.lfi.TIN<i
2'•'¥4' <i~OUND
SIMILAR TO "J~ WITH CEILING INSULATING BOAF-DS, b HEAD OF
'11.' INSULATING j'ADS G BOAMS PARTITION AT 'X~ THAT AT'S' SHOWS HEAD OF P"'F-TITION "G'
G P l ... H
G CEILING II-ISULATING BOARDS SECUI!.ED TO FILLETS ITT 15" CENTRES
tt.. E y P l A N e, SECTION
0 F PART 0 F &UILDIN<i

T
21 •1' FILLET
THIS FlOOR INSULATION IS MORE EFFECTIVE THAN THAT AT
'H; BUT TRANSMISSION OF SOUND THI!.OU<JH WALL NOT '-EDUCED

o .. ,!!tJj('Nf:
PLAN OF STAGGERED STUD PARTITION Will+
ALTERNATE DETAILS AT 'E~ TH"'T J;T 'T' SHOWS SECTION 'M' OF
FLOOR •t• t- Sill OF P"'R.TITION 'X~ THE PARTITION AT 'U" IS
SHOWN PJ;AALLEL TO THE JOISTS ~ INSULATED Ff!.OM THE FLOOR.

PLMTE!t.. FINISHED INSULATING BOITMS

v
INCREASED EFFICIENCY RESULTS BECAUSE OF THE THREE FlOOR
INSULATING lAYEI!.S, THE THICKER WALL & THE SKIRTING INSULATION

L p
PLAN OF lATHED 6 PLASTERED ST~ERED STUD
PAIUITION WITit INTERMEOI,..TE QUILT HAN<iiNG
4" • 2" STUDS Z'• I" MTTENS
'11.' INSUL!tTINU &q~II.OS_~ ---._._,,,.,.,-J''-=;::'11.' PLASm.

\\ ~ I
I 1'-4"-
2"•3/4'
FILLET
'
' '-"'---4--.z.___.""'--
-"'
4'•2' CEILIN<:i JOISTS <
C:::: 'lz' PLASTER
SOUND TRANSMISSION IS EFFECTIVELY REDUCED BECAUSE OF THE PLAN OF STUD PARTITION SHOWING FOUR LAYERS
INDEPENDENT CEILING 6 TH-E INSULATION OF THE FlOOII. & WALL OF INSULATIN<i 80AMS b Yz" PLASTER FINISit 0 E T L •o•
A L ·r E It- N A T I V E ALTE II-NATE
D E T A l S A T '<I' DETAILS SC!tLE FOI'. DETAilS FEET
A T "C"
FIGURE l4
 D 0 u B L E 0 0 F ROOFS
and u. The precautions which are taken to isolate the partitions from the floors
should be noted ; thus, the insulating pad at u is wider than the wood sill of the
4" x 2" SPARS AT 15" partition, and this prevents contact between the floor boards and the sill.
Two methods of providing discontinuity are shown at v and w. Each leaf
of the former partition is let into a chase in the main wall. Whilst this increases
the stability of the partition, a rigid connection is avoided because of the presence
of the brown paper, and thus cracking of the partition is prevented if any unequal
A
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movement between it and the wall occurs. Alternatively, the chases may be
packed with insulated quilt to prevent the transmission of sound. The caulking
of the edges of the partitions shown at w is also effective in preventing the
formation of sound paths.
As dry rot has occurred when sheets of wood fibrous insulating material have
not been adequately ventilated-such as the inner boards at Q and in the class of
partition at w-eare should be taken to ensure that only those boards not liable to
decomposition are used in unventilated positions. Such defects are not likely to
occur if sheets composed of asbestos, slag wool or similar inert material are used in
unventilated cavities.
Doors are V\.llnerable to the transmission of sound from one room to another.
They should be tight-fitting and as thick as possible One type of door is shown
at x. This is of the flush type (see Fig. 2S) and consists of a skeleton wood frame
(stiles and rails) covered at each side with a sheet of asbestos or similar insulating
material, faced with plywood ; if desired, the latter may be dispensed with and
thicker sheets of asbestos (subsequently painted) employed. A good insulator,
B such as granulated cork, is packed to form a core. A sound-proof door in which
granulated cork is employed is illustrated at E and J, Fig. 2s. Draught strips,
rubber or felt, are shown fixed at the rebate of the casing at X, Fig. q. A
draught excluder fixed at the bottom of the door will increase its efficiency.
Any space between the casing and the partition should be filled with an
insulating strip, as shown, or be tightly caulked with quilt.
Windows present a difficulty, and it is not possible to render them capable
of totally excluding noise from heavy street traffic, etc. They should be close
fitting, and therefore casements are more effective than the double hung sashed
type. Double glazing is recommended and thick glass (such as !-in. thick plate)
should be used. Thus the window will consist of two solid frames, each glazed,
D E T A I L S - '5' with a 2 to 6-in. cavity between. The outer frame should be insulated from the
inner, quilt pads or insulating strips being used between. These windows are
SCALE fOI'. DETAILS Ff fT preferably of the fixed type ; when such are employed, artificial ventilation must
be provided for the rooms concerned.
ROOFS
Single, double and framed roofs are described on pp. 68-8I, Vol. I.
DouBLE RooFs.-Two examples of a double or purlin roof, not previously
considered, are illustrated here in Figs. IS and 16.
That detailed in Fig. IS is often employed for roofs of houses in which attics

T C ~ S ~ 0 W I N G
FIGURE 15 C 0 N S T R U C T I 0 H
 339 CARPENTRY
for bedrooms or other purposes are provided. It is steeply pitched at an
angle (55°) which gives a very satisfactory appearance, and is especially suitable
if the covering is plain tiles (see o and Fig. 41); little difficulty is experienced in
obtaining the necessary height of rooms when the roof has such a pitch. It consists
of spars, supported by two sets of purlins, and lower or principal collars. The
spars and these collars are spaced at rs-in centres. There is, in addition, a
second set of collars supporting the upper pair of purlins ; these collars are
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provided at every third, fourth 'Or fifth pair of spars, to which they are securely
nailed and preferably dovetail halved jointed (seep. 73, Vol. 1). The portion of
roof between the collars is triangulated by braces or struts, birdsmouthed to the
purlins, and a central runner nailed to the ceiling joists and placed immediately
over a stout stoothed partition (see Fig. u). Hangers and runners are provided
as intermediate supports to the ceiling (seep. 72, Vol. 1), the former being spiked
to the purlins and runners. Alternatively, the hangers may be placed with their
edges adjacent to and notched over the purlins and runners, and nailed to the
spars, etc. It will be noted that, like the upper collars, the braces and hangers
are spaced at every third, fourth or fifth spar apart.
To ensure complete rigidity, it is advisable to provide an adequate support
for the partition in the form of double floor joists, as shown at A, or a single
joist of sufficient thickness.
The sketch at F shows more clearly much of the construction described above.
The section at A shows two alternative methods of treating the sides of the
room. The shape of such a room is improved if, as illustrated on the right, a
studded partition is fixed along the side below the purlin. The space between
the out~r wall, roof and partition may be utilized for storage. The door is detailed
at E. Ashlaring is the term applied when studding is used for this purpose, especi-
ally when the floor is at the level of the eaves. A dormer window 1 is shown in
broken outline on the left. If required, studding may also be employed here
below the lower purlin, returned studded ends being provided at the window ;
the plastered face of the side studding would then be as indicated by the partly
broken line at G.
It is explained in Vol. I that it is usual to limit the unsupported length of
purlins to r6-ft. and that roof trusses are provided when this span is exceeded.
Whilst this conforms to the general practice, it is possible to dispense with roof
trusses, provided some suitable alternative construction is adopted. The double
roof shown at A, Fig. r6, is an example of a structure of moderate span in which
roof trusses are not employed, although the distance between the cross walls
is assumed to be 28-ft. This shows two alternative means of support for the
purlins, i.e., a trussed purlin at c and a mild steel beam with a partition at D.
As shown at A, the central portion of the roof is so constructed as to provide
bedroom, etc., accommodation which is lit by means of windows in the
gable walls. Collars are placed at a sufficient height to give adequate headroom,
and the partitions and ceiling are either lathed and plastered 0r covered with wall
1 Donner windows are detailed in Vol. IV.
board (as shown), match-boarding, plywood, etc. If this space is only to
be used for storage, the collars may be lowered to the position shown by broken
lines at Y.
An elevation of a little more than half of the trussed purlin is shown at B.
This is of lattice construction consisting of two longitudinal members called
booms, compression members or braces or struts, and tension members in the
form of steel or wrought iron rods. The top boom is, in effect, a purliri, placed
vertically, which supports the spars birdsmouthed to it. The lower boom
supports the ceiling, floor joists and partition (see v). In addition, the trussed
purlin supports part of the load from the lower purlin, which is transmitted to
it by bearers placed at approximately 7-ft. 2-in. centres (see B, c, Q and u).
These bearers are nailed to the spars at one end (see u) and to the braces at the
other (see Q). The structure is triangulated hereabouts by 4-in. by 2-in. struts
nailed to the spars (see u) and oblique mortised and tenoned to the lower boom
(see v).
The studs provided at the trussed purlin are indicated at B by broken lines
in order not to confuse the detail ; these are fixed as explained on pp. 42 and 43·
Details of the trussed purlin are shown at P, Q, R, s, T, u, v and x. Some
of them are very similar to those described in connection with trussed partitions
(pp. 43 and45), the centre-line principle being observed in settingoutthemembers.
The detail at P shows the structure to be supported on a pad stone at each
end, and the foot of the brace is bridle jointed and well spiked (or bolted) to the
lower boom. The detail at Q shows the bearer supported by a cleat notched to
receive it and nailed to the side of the brace and purlin ; a triangular block,
nailed to the back of the brace and to the bearer, assists in making a rigid con-
nection. The opposite end of the bearer is spiked to the side ofthe spar (see u);
a dovetail halved joint (see z, Fig. 36, Vol. I) may be used. The upper end of
each end brace is tenoned to the purlin (see R), and a block, well spiked to the
purlin, increases the abutment. Details at the ends of the middle braces are
shown at s and T . Details at the ends of the rods are shown at R, s, T and x;
the rods are provided with nuts anP. washers at their lower ends (see sand x), and
details at R and T show the heads and washers. The rods are finally tightened
after the trussed purlin has been erected and the roof covering fixed. The
detail at v shows the ends of the floor joists dovetail housed (see M, Fig. 34,
Vol. I) to the lower boom, and the ceiling joists are notched over a fillet well
spiked to the boom.
The alternative support for the purlins is shown at D and detailed at w.
The latter shows a section of a mild steel beam, which has a bearing at each
end on a pad stone built into the cross wall, and to which the 4-in. by 3-in.
sill of the stud partition is secured by !-in. diameter bolts staggered at 2 to 3-ft.
centres. Cradling (see pp. 34 and 36) is fixed for the plasterers' laths. The ends
of the floor and ceiling joists have a 4-in. bearing on the sill to which the lower
ends of the 4-in. by 2-in. struts are birdsmouthed. The top ends of the struts are
secured to the spars, as are also the 4-in. by 2-in. bearers; the construction is
 ROOFS
0 0 u B L E
SUM FO!'. DfTMJ:.I mr
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SECTION HtRO' ROOF t.TC. SftOWING TRUSSED PURLIN
AT~ b STEEL &EAM AT •a AS ALTERNATE SUPPORTS
therefore similar to that shown at u. The opposite ends of the beaiers are
supported on cleats fixed to the studs (see D). These struts and bearers are
provided at every third, fourth or fifth spar.
LAMINATED WooD TRUSSES.-This form of truss is so called as its members
are built up of thin timbers. It is only employed when the covering material is
light in weight, such as corrugated sheets or large tiles of asbestos-cement (see
pp. 122 and 123) or corrugated iron sheets. Roof construction of this type is most
efficient and economical. These trusses are often used for farm buildings (stables,
byres, sheds, etc.) and huts, and also for so-called semi-permanent buildings,
including certain schools.
Two examples are illustrated in Fig. 17. That at A is suitable for a span
preferably not exceeding 20-ft. Details are given at B, c, D and E. These show li~ht
scantlings which are simply securely spiked together at the joints. Each principal
rafter consists of two s-in. by r!-in . timbers and the main tie comprises two
lengths of 6-in. by 1!-in. stuff. The struts and secondary ties are single members
and pass between each of these double members. The joint at the apex is made
rigid by nailing a 1-in. thick board at each side (see c). This may be longer,
as shown at L, and 1-in. boarding nailed at both sides at the feet in addition to
340
0 0 F
0 E T A L "I<.' FIGURE 16
either 2-in . thick middle boards or short packing pieces (see B) increase the
rigidity of the structure. The spacing of the purlins depends upon the size
of the covering, which for abestos-cement sheets is usually 3-ft. centres.
Provision must be made to prevent the purlins from tilting. Hence the upper
ends of the struts and subsidiary ties are continued as shown at c and D (the
purlins being omitted from the former for the sake of clarity) ; cleats are
provided as side supports of the intermediate purlins, preferably as shown at J
or, alternatively, as at K .
Mild steel plates, as shown at E, provide good bearings for the trusses.
A detail at the eaves is shown at E. A deep fascia, plugged to the wall and
nailed to the wall plate, etc., is adopted to cover the ends of the main ties. As
the external wall is only 9-in. thick, and in order to prevent dampness, the external
face is covered with two coats of cement and sand mixture or rough-casted 1 as
indicated. An enlarged eaves detail is provided at K, Fig. 47·
It is emphasized that the rigidity of the structure can only be satisfactory
provided the members are well spiked at all joints.
These trusses are spaced at from 7 to 1o-ft. apart, depending upon the weight
' Plastering is specified in Vol. IV.
 341 CARPENTRY
A M N A T E D w
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l-+-'-'~~--'-'-'""---"""-''------10'·0'-----~...-J
PART ELEVATION OF A TRUSS
SUITABLE FOR A 20-FT. SPAN
Ncm: MEMaffi.S MUST BE WEll SPJIW) AT All JOINTS
I 4
FliT
of the covering material, span of roof, size of members, quality of the timber,
etc. No intervening spars are required when large sheets, such as those stated on p. 53,
are used as a covering material. A lining to the roof may be provided, if required.
Thus, asbestos-cement plain sheets, wall boards, match-boarding, etc., may be
nailed to the underside of the purlins, and such may be fixed to vertical
battens plugged to the walls. If a plastered ceiling is necessary, ceiling
joists must be provided to span the building and be supported by the walls at
truss level.
A part elevation of this type of truss, but for a larger span, is shown at L
and detailed at M, N and P. The construction is similar to that described on p. 53·
Cleats or blocks are shown at the heads of all struts and the feet of the shorter
ones, but these are often omitted to minimize labour and therefore cost. In
order to provide a firm fixing for the 1-in. outer boards nailed at the feet, either
2-in. thick middle boards or packing pieces must be nailed between the
principals and main ties. Thorough spiking is essential. The eaves is shown
projecting beyond an I 1-in. cavity wall.
QUEEN PosT RoOF.-The king post roof truss, illustrated in Fig. 40, Vol. I,
0 0 D T u s s
r.s•-o•------'"'--""--'--"'--"-'-"-=-'--=~ · 1
PA~T ELEVATION OF A TRUSS
SUITABLE FOR A 30-FT. SPAN
FIGURE 11
is suitable for spans not exceeding 30-ft. For greater spans up to •s-ft., and
if timber is to be employed, the queen post roof truss is the most suitable type.
Few of these are now used, as mild steel roof trusses are generally preferred (see
pp. I2I-I28, VoL II).
The queen post roof truss is illustrated in Fig. 18. The key plan at A
shows these at 10-ft. centres, the walls being strengthened by piers to receive
them. A part elevation is shown at c (the end of the tie beam being shown by
full lines) and the outline indicating the setting out is given at B. A comparison
between this truss and that of the king post shows that it has two posts, called
queen posts, and two additional horizontal members, i.e., a straining beam between
the heads of the posts and a straining sill between their feet ; the truss also
supports an additional pair of purlins. The posts support the tie beam at one-
third points (see B). Many of the details are the same as those of the king post
truss, and need not be repeated ·here. Except for the upper purlin, the
centre-line principle is adopted in setting out the truss ; as shown at F, this
purlin is above the centre in order to avoid awkward cutting at the head of
the queen post,
 Q u E E N p 0 s T 0 0 F
NOTE: MILD STEEL ROOF Tf(..USSES -SEE FIG. 5Q VOL. 2- HAYf
LAMElY SUPEJ(..SEDED THOSE OF TIMBEJ1.. CONSTJ(..UCTION
E E

A SEE FIGUJ(..E 4Q VOLUME ONE FOR DET.-'!IL5 OF THE JOINTS

AT THE ST~UTS, FEET OF P~INCIPAL MFTE~S, ETC.
~ E
" N
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1' • 6' STMINING 6

• 3' • 9' LONG CLEAT

1' • 6' [OUT OF] QUEEN POST

D E T A 'F'

c QUEEN
POST

3/4' DIA-. BOLT, 24' LONG

• 2' CEILING JOISTS II' • 6' TIE BEA-M • 2' STIVdNING SILL

201-0
P A ~ T E L E V A T o N
E C T I "» H-'
FEET SCALE FOJ<. G
 343 CARPENTRY
An enlarged sketch detail of the connections at F is shown at G. The straining
beam, which is in compression, as it resists the thrusts from the principal rafters,
is bevel housed and tenoned to the queen post. An increased bearing is provided
by the cleat which is bevel housed to the queen post. The principal rafter is
tenoned to the post, which, like the king post, is shaped to provide a bevelled
shoulder and a sound abutment. The strength of the joint is increased by a
t-in. thick 3-way steel strap at each side, secured by bolts. The head of the
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post is bevelled to suit the purlin, and a cleat provides a satisfactory bearing for
the latter.
The straining sill, which assists in counteracting the thrust from the struts,
should be fitted tightly between the feet of the posts and nailed to the tie
beam.
It is usual to form the tie beam of two pieces because of the difficulty and
expense of obtaining single pieces of such large size. A suitable lapped joint
between two pieces is shown by broken lines at c. It is a splayed scarf joint >vith
folding wedges and a mild steel fish plate. The length of the joint must be at
least three times the depth of the beam. This is a better form of scarfed joint
for this purpose than that shown at R, Fig. 37, Vol. I, as the folding wedges
when driven in draw the two pieces tightly together.
A section through the roof is shown ~at D. Small fillets are nailed to the tie
beam to support the ceiling joists. The total weight of the plastered ceiling,
including joists, is approximately 2-tons, and if a ceiling is not required, the
thickness of the members of the truss can be reduced to 4-in. The space between
the queen posts is sometimes used to provide storage, etc., accommodation, the
joists forming the floor being supported. on the tie beams ; allowance for the
additional weight of the floor, together with the superimposed load (that supported
by the floor) must, of course, be made when deciding upon the scantlings of the
truss members .
The tiling details are drawn to a larger scale in Fig. 44·
If subjected to high wind pressure and non-uniform loading of the floor
(if provided), this type of truss is liable to become distorted because of the non-
triangulated portion hounded by the posts, tie beam artd straining beam.
Deformation is not likely to occur if the joints are soundly constructed.
Additional rigidity can be obtained by triangulating this rectangular portion
with two diagonal braces, each extending from the foot of the queen post to the
opposite corner formed by the straining beam and queen post.
Mild steel roof trusses, suitable for relatively small spans, are illustrated in
Figs. 47, 48, 49 and so, Vol. II.
TEMPORARY TIMBERING
The use of timbers for the temporary support of trenches and newly con-
structed arches is dealt with in Vol. I. The following is an extended description
of these two forms of construction .
TIMBERING OF EXCAVATIONS
Whilst this work is not carried out by carpenters, but by those actually
engaged on the digging operations, it is convenient to include it here.
Reference should be made to the typical methods of supporting the sides of
shallow trenches described on pp. 82 and 83, Vol. I. The various members
there mentioned are also used for deep trenches. These include poling boards,
walings, struts and sheeting.
The object of the timbering is, of course, to retain the sides of the excavations
and thereby (a) provide safe conditions for the men engaged upon the digging
operations and the subsequent construction of the drains, foundations, walls,
etc., and (b) prevent damage occurring to adjacent buildings, road surfaces, and
drain, gas, water, etc., pipes.
Several methods of timbering employed for comparatively deep trenches
are illustrated in Fig. 19. These are typical only. The sizes and disposition of
the members are subject to considerable variation, according to the nature of
the soil, the earth pressure to be resisted, the time occupied between the com-
mencement of the work and the filling in of the excavations, and the stock of
timber which is readily available.
As mentioned in Vol. I, there are many kinds of soils, varying from a sound
rock in a cutting through which no timbering is required, to silt or mud in which
excavations can only be made with difficulty and after close boarding or the
equivalent has been provided. Extreme conditions may exist on one site, and
therefore a common system of timbering cannot always be adopted throughout.
Earth pressures are also variable. Thus, a dense clay when subjected to
heavy rain may expand and exert a considerable pressure on the struts in a
newly timbered excavation, but the same soil may shrink in dry weather to such
an extent as to cause the timbering to collapse if precautions-such as the
tightening of the struts-are not taken. In most soils the pressure does not
increase with the depth of the excavation, and therefore in a deep cutting in
soil which is the same throughout, the size and spacing of the timbers :it the
bottom need only be the same as those provided near the surface.
Trenches which are to remain open for a long time usually require more
poling boards and larger walings and struts than· those cuttings which are to
be refilled quickly. The less the distance apart of the struts, the smaller the
sizes of the walings and struts required.
The timbers are roughly sawn, and the following are commonly used :
Spruce for poling boards and runnets (see p. 58); pitch pine or Douglas fir
for large squared members such as walings, struts and props ; larch for circular
struts and props ; and beech or pitch pine for wedges.
TRENCHES IN MoDERATELY FIRM GROUND (see A, B and c, Fig. 19).-The
section at B is that of a trench in which a drain is to be constructed and shows
approximately 4-ft. depth of loamy soil or dry chalk, which does not require
close or heavy timbering, overlying a bed of loose gravel which needs to be
timbered more closely.
 TEMPORARY
The upper 7-in. by 1~-in. poling boards, placed at 1-ft. 6-in. centres (see c)
are held in position by a single waling along the centre, and they are accordingly
known as middling boards. Struts are placed between the walings at a minimum
distance of 6-ft. so as not to unduly impede the digging operations.
The lower set also consists of middling boards. These are wider than those
in the upper " setting," although the narrow boards may also be employed,
provided the distance between them is that considered to be necessary, i.e.,
6-in.
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A pair of walings, together with their struts, is known as a frame, and it is
advisable to support these by vertical props or puncheons, wedged between the
walings at or near the ends of the struts. Puncheons are necessary, especially
in deep excavations where the ground is uncertain, to prevent the walings from
dropping. They are often dispensed with when the ground is reasonably firm
and the trench is to be left open for only a short while. In this example, each
puncheon is placed between the walings and continued with a short piece
supported on a sole plate, partially embedded in the ground, to distribute the
weight. As shown more clearly at D, a pair of driving wedges (or a pair of folding
wedges as used for centering, see Fig. zo) are used to tighten the lower puncheon,
and the upper puncheon is brought tightly up to the top waling by driving
wedges between its foot and the lower waling (see A).
A platform or staging, necessary to receive the soil as the excavation proceeds,
is shown at B, c (by broken lines) and a portion at A. This necessary provision
is referred to in the next column .
The following is the usual procedure adopted in fixing this type of timbering :
The ground is excavated to a sufficient depth to allow the top setting to be fixed.
A waling is placed along each side in the correct relative position and supported
by temporary puncheons. A pa-ir of middling boards is placed between the
walings and the sides of the excavation at approximately 6-ft. centres. Small
wood packing pieces are placed between the boards and ·the walings, and these
pieces are aftervvards replaced by small wedges called pages. A strut is
fitted between the walings opposite each pair of boards and tightened by driving
in wedges at one side only. The rest of the polings are now placed in position
between the walings and soil and forced tightly against the sides of the excavation
by driving down pages between the boards and walings. The excavation is
continued to the required depth and timbered as described above. If the tops
of the middling boards of the lower setting are level with the feet of those above,
all of the former can be placed in position by forcing their lower ends into the
ground and nailing them at the top to the boards above. The walings and
struts of the bottom setting are then placed and wedged, and the puncheons
are finally fitted and wedged.
The struts should be tightly wedged, although care should be taken not to
disturb the sides of the excavation by overdriving the wedges.
The timbering should be occasionally examined and an¥ slack wedges and
pages, due to the shrinkage of the soil, etc., tightened. If the struts show signs
TIMBERING 344
of bending, due to thP- extra pressure caused by the expansion of the soil during
very wet weather, the wedges should be eased as required.
The sketch at A shows more clearly the timber details. It also illustrates a
portion of the drain, embedded upon con.crete, which is laid to the required fall
in a narrow and shallow trench excavated at the bottom of the main trench (see
p. 75 and Fig. 29, Vol. II ).
Middling boards are only suitable for trenchel(l dug in comparatively good
ground.
TRENCHES IN DOUBTFUL GROUND (see F, G and H).-These illustrate the use
of poling boards, called tucking boards, which are used for excavations in loose
soil, such as made-up ground (soil, etc. which has been tipped into hollows in
the ground and levelled over) and soft clay. The section shows a relatively
wide trench required for a sewer, ·and three settings of boards are employed.
The boards in each setting are secured at both ends between walings.
Each of the middle and lower walings has a continuous wood fillet nailed to
it level with its upper edge (see v) ; this is called a liner, and its thickness
equals that of the boards. The upper boards are " toed " into the soil
behind the liners of the middle walings until their feet are approximately level
with the underside of the walings. Pages are driven down at the top between
the boards and walings and, as required, at the bottom between the liners and
boards (see H and v) . The boards forming the second setting are "tucked"
into position (hence their name) by placing them diagonally and fitting their
heads between the waling and the feet of the upper boards, and forcing
their bottom ends into the soil behind the liner nailed to the lower waling until
they assume a vertical position. Pages are inserted to fasten any loose boards.
The boards in the bottom setting are placed and held in a similar manner. The
walings are supported by puncheons and the struts are tightened by wedges,
as described in the preceding column.
To facilitate the handling and fixing of heavy struts, it is customary to nail
short strips of boards at their ends (see E, G and H). These are called lips or
lipping blocks. The struts are placed in position with their lips supported on
the walings, and wedges are then driven in horizontally between one end of
each strut and the waling. Temporary props may be used in lieu of lips.
Two platforms are shown in the section at G . There is a limit to which men
can conveniently throw the excavated soil. This limit is considered to be s-ft.
Hence platforms or stages to receive the soil must be provided at approximately
s-ft. vertical intervals, and the top stage should preferably be not more than
4-ft. below the surface in order that the earth deposited on it may be thrown well
away from the sides of the trench . Platforms consist of stout planks placed
upon struts which are either cleated (see L) or propped. An edging to a platform,
as shown, assists in retaining the heap of deposited material, but this is often
omitted. They are usually arranged on alternate sides (see G and L) and staggered,
as shown by broken lines at F and M. The soil excavated from the lower level of
a deep trench is therefore shovelled from one platform to another until finally
 345 CARPENTRY
disposed of at the ground level. Thus, at F and G the earth would be thrown on
to the bottom platform (known as the first lift or throw), a man working on this
platform shovels the material on to the top platform (or second ltft) from which it
is thrown out of the trench. In large excavations the soil is often shovelled into
receptacles which are lifted by a crane and deposited where required on the site
or emptied direct into a lorry in which it is conveyed to the nearest convenient tip.
TRENCHES IN LoosE AND IOR WATERLOGGED SmL.-Great care must be
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exercised to prevent the caving in of trenches formed in bad ground. The soils
which come under this class are soft plastic clay, certain conditions of sand, silt,
wet chalk and peat. Damp sand is not difficult, but it can be most troublesome
if it is in a very wet condition or is fine and dry. The latter is not easy to confine,
as it readily " flows" through small spaces between timbers; the escape of such
loose material may cause settlement and the total collapse of the timbering.
Such bad ground is retained by either (a) horizontal sheeting or (b) vertical
timbers called runners.
(a) Sheeting (see L and M).-The section at L shows a stratum of wet sand
between two beds of moderately firm ground. This, therefore, shows the applica-
tion of a composite system of timbering.
The lower portion is timbered with middling boards, as described on p . 57,
and the upper setting may also consist of these boards. As an alternative, how-
ever, poling boards with two frames instead of one have been shown as the
support in the upper setting.
The sheeting is fixed in easy stages, as described on p. 83, Vol. I. Any
small openings between the boards, as at T, should be stemmed by the packing of
wads of grass or straw between the timbers. Whilst this does not stop the flow
of water, it does prevent the infiltration of particles of sand. Puncheons should
be used, as indicated. The sides of the trench are shown battered, a practice
which is sometimes adopted if there is a tendency for the soil to shrink. Whilst
this does not prevent the struts from working loose, it does tend to prevent the
collapse of the timbering. Careful supervision is necessary, and the strut wedges
must be adjusted as required.
(b) Runners (see N and P).-These are generally preferred to sheeting,
especially for deep excavations in bad ground. Runners are roughly sawn timbers
from 2 to 3-in. thick, 6 to 9-in. wide and up to zo-ft. long. They may be square
edged, as shown at P, rebated, or tongued and grooved (see Q). Rebated runners
are very effective for close timbering, but the t. and g. type is not now favoured,
as the grooves and tongues are readily damaged and small stones are apt to clog
the grooves and impede the driving operation. The lower ends or toes are
bevelled and shaped as shown to give a cutting edge ; this facilitates insertion
and forces each runner against the edge of that previously driven. These runners
are driven in by blows from a heavy mallet, and their heads are often bound with
hoop iron to protect them from damage. The toes are also sometimes shod with
steel or hoop iron, especially if the runners are to be driven through a hard
stratum.
In the section at N, the upper 4-ft. of soil is moderately firm and is supported
by a setting of middling boards. But below this, wet clay or soil which lacks
cohesion necessitates the employment of close timbering. Horizontal continuous
guides, consisting of two 3-in . by xt or 2-in. stuff, are nailed to the top lips
with a space between through which the runners are passed. The top frame
for the runners is fixed, the walings being packed out from the sides to enable
the runners to pass down behind them. The runners are driven down, one at a
time, as far as possible without exerting such force as would damage their heads.
The excavation is then proceeded with, leaving about 9 to 12-in. of their lower
ends buried. Driving is recommenced, followed by the removal of more soil.
When the excavation has been lowered to some 4-ft. below the top runner frame,
a second frame is fixed and puncheoned ; the lower walings serve as an additional
guide and ensure the vertical driving of the runners. The latter are driven in
this manner until the necessary depth is reached, frames being fitted at about 4-ft.
intervals. In some soils, the runners, because of their weight, can be forced
into the ground for several feet before driving is resorted to. The sides of the
excavation must always be supported, and hence the importance of not exposing
the feet of the runners. A partially driven runner is shown at N and P, the toe
of which is about a foot below the bottom of the intermediate cutting indicated
by a broken line at R ; the pile must be driven farther before more soil is excavated.
Pages are inserted behind the walings as required (see N). These and the strut
wedges are slightly eased to facilitate the driving and prevent disturbance of
the walings and struts. It is often necessary to provide scaffolding for the men
when driving the runners. Such may be dispensed with if the ground will permit
the employment of an upper setting of middling boards and correspondingly
reduced length of runners. If the runners are required to extend for the full
depth of the excavation, the top frame is fixed at the surface, and the continuous
guides are strutted at some 2 or 3-ft. above the ground.
Drainage.-The admission of water to trenches will add discomfort to the men
working in them (and thereby affect adversely the quality of the work) and may cause
the timbering to collapse by converting the soil (such as loamy clay or chalk) into a
liquid consistency. Steps should therefore be taken to exclude surface water, and
remove any which would otherwise accumulate in the trenches. Surface water is
dealt with by cutting small channels or grips which are given a fall away from t~e
excavations. A trench in a waterlogged soil is usually drained by means of a gnp
cut at the bottom and along one side of the excavation, and given a fall towards a
convenient point where a hole or sump is formed to receive the water which is
removed by pumping.
LARGE EXCAVATIONS (see s).-This shows the application of timbering to
the sides of an excavation such as is required for the construction of the base-
ment of a large building. Mechanized plant is now available for the general or
bulk excavation of such sites. As much of the ground as possible is excavated,
the sides being sloped off at a steep inclination (see thick broken line). The
excavation near the sides is then proceeded with; the vertical faces being supported
temporarily by middling boards, etc., depending upon the nature of the soil.
 T M B E N G 0 F E X c A v A T 0 N s
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NOTE: THE SIZES, 1\1\MN<;EMENT 1- SPACING OF TIM6EIIS VAP-.Y CONSIOEM6LY ACCOP-.OIN<J TO NATUI',f OF SOIL, EAP-.Tit PI',ESIUR.E. IWAILASLE STOCK, ETC. /) -/ H

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SECTION LEV;I,TION S E C T I SECTION SHOWING
TIMl!ERING ETC. OF
TRENCI+ T M8 E R. I N G I N C L UD I NG R.ENCH Tl A-N EXCAVATION FOR
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SCALE~ A-,&, C.F.G.IH.M.Nt.P SCALf FOI'...O,E,Q.'V ~fET FIGURE 19

 347 CARPENTRY
These are supported by walings which, in turn, are maintained in position by
inclined struts or shores. The feet of the latter abut against stout timber sole
pieces, or wood platforms, well anchored into the ground.
Sometimes patent interlocking sheet piling of steel is used instead of timber.
These are driven in, like runners, trenches are excavated, the retaining walls are
constructed and the bulk excavation is then carried out.
The sides of smaller general or site excavations are often supported by runners,
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walings and long baulk timber horizontal struts propped vertically at intervals.
These methods are described more fully in Vol. IV.
CENTERING
Centres up to 6-ft. span are described on pp. 83-85, Vol. I. Most syllabuses
of Building Construction, Second Stage, include centering suitable for spans not
exceeding 1o-ft., and typical examples of these are illustrated in Fig. 20 of this
volutne.
The construction of centres differs widely according to the shape, span,
width of soffit and the material of which the arches are to be constructed, in
addition to the scantlings of the timber available.
A centre must be of sufficient strength to temporarily support the load to be
imposed without distortion, and it must therefore be designed to resist the com-
pression and tension stresses set up during and after the construction of the arch
(see p. 62). Being a temporary structure, it must be economical in material
and capable of quick construction. Folding wedges must be provided to permit
of vertical adjustment, such as the slight raising or lowering of the centre into
correct position prior to the construction of the arch, and for its subsequent
easing and striking with the minimum vibration.
CENTRES FOR PoiNTED ARcHEs.-An example, suitable for the Venetian arch
illustrated at L, Fig. 19, Vol. II, is shown at M and N, Fig. 20. Each rib, to
which laggings are fixed, is well nailed to upper and lower ties or stretchers. The
construction is similar to that shown for the semicircular arch at J, Fig. 43, Vol. I.
CENTRE FOR CIRCULAR OR BULL'S-EYE ARcH (see E, F and G).-This operting is
to receive a fixed or pivoted light, the frame of which is fixed in the recesS. The
lower half of the brickwork is constructed as explained on p. 51, Vol. II. ·This
must be allowed to set before the centre is placed in position. The centre
consists of two portions, one for the external purpose-made arch and the other
for the rough arch, 1 and it rests upon wedges supported by struts. It will
be noted that no laggings are used for the external arch, as they are not
required when the width of soffit is only 4!-in. Neither have they been employed
for the inner arch on account of the small span. If necessary, a short cross-brace
may be nailed centrally to the underside of the upper ties. The outer portion
1. The lower ~alf of this rough arch need only consist of one ring (see sketch G) if
the mternal face IS to be plastered ; otherwise it may be formed of two rings as suggested
by the broken lin~s at E.
consists of a pair of ribs nailed to upper and lower ties; sometimes only one
rib is used for such a small span. Because of the greater width of soffit the
inner centre requires two ribs, placed at approximately 7-in. centres, nailed to
two pairs of ties. In lieu of struts the wedges of each portion may be supported
on a ring of bricks laid dry on the lower half of the arches.
The elevation of the inner portion of the centre has been omitted at E ; but
for the sizes of the members this is similar to that of the outer portion shown.
CENTRE FOR SEMICIRCULAR ARCH WITH ORDERS.-The centre illustrated at
A, B and c, Fig. 20, is suitable for the head of the entrance shown at A, Fig. 19,
Vol. II. In effect, this is a compound structure consisting of a centre for each
of the four rings. The centre for the inner ring, which is first erected, is similar
to that shown at J, Fig. 43, Vol. I. Laggings, as shown, are sometimes used, but
as the soffit is only 4!-in. wide it is usual to dispense with them and employ a
centre similar to those shown for rings 2 and 3 ; when the span is small the
latter type may be further simplified by the omission of one of the ribs. As
indicated on the plan B, the centres for rings 2 and 3 may be of the type shown
for the outer arch at G, described above. The centre for the outer ring 4
is of the type shown at M, Fig. 43, Vol. I, and needs no further description;
here again the laggings may be omitted.
Because of the projecting tiled impost (see A, Fig. 19, Vol. II), the lower
ties are slightly above the centre to which the voussoirs of each ring radiate.
It is therefore desirable to use a short centre block for each wood ring
centre, with a space between each (see broken lines on plan) to permit of
the use of radius rods or lines, as described on p . 24, Vol. I. In order to simplify
the drawing, these blocks have been omitted from section n-n.
Some bricklayers prefer to bring into use each ring centre only as required.
Thus, that needed for ring " 2 " would not be placed into position until ring
" 1 " was built, and the outer centre would not be placed on its supports until
after the construction of ring " 3·" This provides for greater accessibility and
there is less likelihood of the brick voussoirs being stained from extruded mortar
during construction. This also enables the individual adjustment of the centres
preparatory to the construction of each ring, as the upper bearers would not be
continuous, as shown, but each centre would have a short bearer nailed to each
end of the lower ties, with small wedges between it and the lower continuous
bearer.
CENTRE FOR SEMICIRCULAR STONE ARCH (see J and K).-This arch is similar
to that shown at A, Fig. 37, Vol. II, the span being increased to ro-ft. in order to
illustrate a centre having the maximum span stated in the syllabus. The con-
struction closely resembles that of the centre shown at M, Nand o, Fig. 43, Vol. I.
Each built-up rib of 9-in. by r!-in. stuff is connected at its feet by two 7-in.
by r!-in. ties. Two inclined struts or braces and a vertical central strut or post
are provided in addition to an inclined cross-brace and a horizontal cross-brace.
The members must be well nailed at the joints to ensure rigidity. Two stout
laggings per voussoir are shown, Setting wedges may be used (two are shown
 E N G
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ELE ATI
II. I 8 F 0

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ELEVATION ELEVATI 0 N •
F0 R S EM I - E l L I P T I C A l A "C H SHOWN AT "J~ FIG. 19
STONE ARCft SIMILAR
SHOWN AT 'N. FIGUfU Jp· •rn FIGURE 20
 349 CARPENTRY
supporting the second voussoir at J) instead of laggings, four (two supported on
each rib) small hardwood wedges being required per voussoir. As each stone
voussoir is accurately dressed to the required shape, the centre merely serves as
a support and need not necessarily be cut to the true shape of the soffit if setting
wedges are used to bring individual voussoirs to the correct bedding position.
It has been stated on p. 6o that a well designed centre must be capable of
resisting the stresses produced during the construction of the arch. These
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stresses vary as the work proceeds. Thus, in the early stages of construction,
the weight of the haunches is partially resisted by the ribs and the inclined
compression members or struts ; the load tends to distort the ribs by thrusting
their lower ends inwards and their upper ends upwards, and the downward
forces acting along the struts tend to depress the lower end of the central vertical
post or strut. The latter, being well nailed to the rib at its top end, resists
these forces and at the same time restrains the upward thrust through the ribs ;
the post is in tension. During the construction of the upper portion of the arch
the additional weight has a tendency to depress the crown and force the lower
I ends of the ribs outwards. This is resisted by the ties (which are now in tension)
and the struts. In effect, the centre acts in a similar manner to a king post roof
truss, the ribs (like the principal rafters of the truss) are in compression, the
inclined struts are in compression, the lower ties resemble the tie beam of the
truss as they are in tension, and the central post (functioning like the king post
of ~he truss) is in tension.
CENTRE FOR SEMI-ELLIPTICAL ARCH (see Q and s).-The arch is illustrated
at J, Fig. 19, Vol. II. The construction follows closely that described on p. 6o.
The joints between the pieces forming the built-up ribs are normal to the curve.
The struts may also be fixed as normals to the intrados (see thick broken line)
as an alternative to those shown. Close lagging is shown as a contrast to the
open lagging indicated in the other examples. The geometrical construction of
the intrados and extrados is described on p. 52, Vol. II.
For spans exceeding 14-ft. the larger members of the centres are usually
framed together like a roof truss, and the joints are made rigid by the employ-
ment of ! -in. diameter bolts in lieu of nails. These are detailed in Vol. IV.
 CHAPTER THIRTEEN
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JOINERY
SJ;llabus.-Doors, including fanlight~, semicircular headed, gla:z:ed and ~ush. Windows, includ.ing semicircular headed boxed frame with sliding sashes, boxed frame
wtth1 thre.e l.tghts, and metal. Statrs ; ~erms ; types ; e~senttal reqmrements ; step proport~ons ; construction and detailing of straight flight, dog-leg and open
well s~atrs, open and sohd balustrades, wmders; spectal steps. Manufacture, charactensttcs and uses of plywood, laminboards blockboards battenboards and
composite boards.
DOORS
PANELLED and other types of doors are described on pp. 86-107, Vol. I, and
students should re-examine the details of the joints between the members of
frames and doors before studying the types described below, i.e., (a) doors with
fanlights, (b) semicircular headed doors, (c) glazed doors and (d) flush doors.
(a) DOORS WITH FANLIGHTS OR TRANSOME LIGHTS (see Figs. 21 and 22) .-
The former shows at A, B and c a two-panelled door with a glazed upper portion,
called a fanlight or transome light. The essential object of a fanlight is to provide
lighting to an outer lobby, hall, etc., and occasionally it is required to serve as a
means of ventilation. The horizontal member separating the door and fan-
light is called a transome, each end of which is double tenoned to the frame.
This fanlight is fixed, the seven pieces of glass being secured between small
hardwood outer beads (tongued and grooved to the head, transome and posts
of the frame), small inner beads (screwed to the frame) and two narrow curved
glazing bars to which two curved glazing beads are subsequently screwed (see
details at K, L and M). The glass is bedded in putty before the inner beads are
fixed in order to exclude water.
The curved glazing bars and beads are bent in the following manner : The pieces
to be bent are first placed in a steam chest or oven where the wood is softened and
rendered pliable by the action of steam. This softening process takes approximately
three-quarters of an hour per inch thickness of wood. Immediately each piece is
removed from the chest, it is curved over a stout wood templet, shaped as required,
and a second shaped templet or caul is placed over it. All three are tightly clamped
to.gether and lef~ until th~ P.iece has dried out. As the pieces are apt to spring back
s~tghtly ~fter bemg bent, 1~ Is advtsable to allow for this and use lengths of timber a
httle thicker than the fimshed thickness ; the pieces, after being bent are then
worked to the required section." ' sash (see details at K and L). The front edge of the transome has a narrow
1 Consideration of the open well type of stairs is often deferred until the third year
of the course.
2 The following publications of the Forest Products Research Laboratorv give
much valuable information upon wood bending: "The Practice of Wood Ben'ding"
"Methods of Bending Wood by Hand " and~" Machinery and Equipment used f~r
Rending Wood."
350
' '
The transome is weathered, grooved, throated and rebated (see M) . The
door has two equal ~-in. panels, bolection moulded on the external side and
chamfered stuck moulded on the other (see M, N and P). There are, of course,
many alternative finishes to panels. Thus, stuck mouldings on both sides are
shown at M, Fig. 22, and at o in the same figure a planted mould is shown on
one side and a stuck mould on the other ; further finishes may be selected from
those shown in Figs. 48, so, 52, etc., Vol. I. .
It will be observed that a wood architrave is not required when the frame
projects slightly beyond the face of the plaster (seeK). As shown, the frame must
be grooved to receive the plaster, otherwise shrinkage gaps will occur. Two
further examples are shown at K and P, Fig. 22.
In order to prevent the access of water at the floor level, a hardwood threshold
is securely screwed to the floor. Any water blown in is caught by the groove
and escapes through two bore-holes, indicated by broken lines. The weather
board throws water, streaming down the door, clear of the threshold (see p. 98,
Vol. I). Alternative details are shown at M and R, Fig. 22, and J, Fig. 24. Small
triangular blocks are sometimes placed at intervals between weather boards
which are thin and have a relatively big projection (seeM, Fig. 22, and J, Fig. 24).
The hardwood threshold shown at R, Fig. 22, somewhat resembles a window sill
detail ; it is most effective but costly.
The stonework of this entrance is detailed at A, Fig. 39, Vol. II.
Small scale sections showing various types of fanlights are shown at A, H
and c, Fig. 22.
That at A, like the fanlight in Fig. 21, is fixed, the glass being received in a
raised panel flush with the posts of the frame.
It is seldom that a fanlight is required to open, but if it is, the sash may be
either bottom-hung (as shown at B), top-hung (as shown at c) or pivoted (as
illustrated in Fig. 62, Vol. I).
Details of the former type are shown at N and o. The bottom rail of the
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 353 JOINERY
sash is fixed to the transome by a pair of hinges. The head of the frame and the
top rail of the sash must be slightly splayed, as shown, to permit of the necessary
opening clearance. One of several types of gear available for opening and
closing the fanlight consists of a small ratchet wheel and bar arrangement, the
small wheel fitting and the bar being fixed at one side (preferably the " hanging
side " of the door) at the top of the sash and to the frame respectively, and
operated by a cord. The details show the usual rebates and capillary grooves
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
(described on p . III, etc., Vol. I) necessary to exclude water and draughts
between the sash and frame. The front edge of the transome is sunk-panelled
as an alternative to that at L .
The top-hung transome light at c is detailed at P and Q. The sash is fixed
to the head of the frame by a pair of hinges and opens outwards. A casement
peg stay (see Fig. 59, Vol. I) will serve to maintain the sash in an open position ;
alternatively, a patent opener similar to that described above may be preferred.
The transome is moulded, as shown, as a further alternative to those at L and o.
All three transomes may be throated, as shown at M, Fig. 21.
The glass may be secured by either putty, as shown at P and Q, or beads
(bedded in putty and secured with small brass screws with cups), as shown
at K, L, Nand o.
(b) SEMICIRCULAR HEADED DooR (see Fig. 23).-The construction of the head
of the frame is detailed at D, E and F. These show it built-up of two ribs or
" thicknesses," glued and either screwed together or secured by ! or ;}-in.
hardwood pins or dowels ; the outer rib consists of three pieces and the inner
of two pieces. The joints at the springing between the posts and the head are
formed of hammer-headed key tenons. These tenons are shaped on the posts and
the head is morticed to receive them and the glued wedges (see F). When the
two wedges are tightly driven in at each joint the shoulders are brought close
together and exceptionally strong joints result. The maintenance of a tight fit
is further assured if two small glued shoulder tongues (see footnote to p. 72),
as shown, are employed, but these are often dispensed with. These springing
joints may be formed .of loose hammer-headed keys similar to that used at
the crown of the door (see J, K and L} or by handrail screw bolts (see Q, Fig. 26)
and hardwood dowels, but these are less effective than the tenon shown at F.
The construction of the head of the door is shown at J, K and L. The· head
consists of two pieces which are jointed at the crown. The joints between the
stiles and the head are similar to those of the frame, the hammer-headed tenons
being. formed on the stiles; the upper tapered portion of the tenon (and mortice)
is commonly cut square (and not radial as shown) to facilitate the entry of the
tenon. It will be observed, however, that these radial joints are slightly (1!-in.)
above the springing. This is necessary because of the presence of the top rail
which is, of course, tenoned into the stiles. Very weak joints would result if
they coincided with the springing. Shoulder tongues are not necessary because
of the reduced thickness of the framing. A hammer-headed key joint is shown
at the crown. This is tightened up by means of the four small glued wedges.
A handrail screw bolt and dowels or pins may be used in lieu of the key (see Q,
Fig. 26).
One or more of the central panels of the door may be glazed, as shown
at A, B and c, antique glass (tinted glass) being specified. The small glazing
bars are stub-tenoned (see K) . Enlarged details of the door are shown at
G and H. These indicate an entire absence of mouldings, the arrises of the rails,
muntins, stiles, frame, etc., being pencil-rounded, i.e., rounded off by sand-
papering. The small simple architrave conforms. A weather board is not
considered to improve the appearance of a door, and in this example it has been
omitted, as it is assumed that the door opens into an outer lobby. A weather ·
board and threshold, as illustrated in Figs. 21 and 22, are, however, necessary
to exclude water if the entrance is in an exposed position and if the door opens
directly into a living-room or hall.
This entrance is also illustrated at A, B and c, Fig. 19, Vol. II. Because of
the reduced thickness of the splayed brick jambs at the door frame, it is especially
necessary for the brickwork to be constructed of sound materials and workman-
ship if dampness is to be avoided. Under certain conditions, such as excessive
exposure, it may be desirable to increase the thickness by 4! -in. for the full
width of the lobby.
(c) GLAZED OR SASH DooRs (see Fig. 24).- These are wholly or partially
glazed and are adopted to light lobbies, halls, corridors, landings, etc., occasion-
ally to supplement the lighting provided by windows, or to make the interior
of one room visible from another. Several designs, most of which are of doors
now mass-produced on a large scale, are illustrated at A to H inclusive.
The joints between the stiles and rails of the door framing are either
morticed and tenoned or dowelled (see p. 98, Vol. I ). The joints between the
glazing bars are usually tenoned and scribed (seep. 108, Vol. I).
The details on this and other sheets show architraves, panel moulds, etc., of
various shapes and sizes. The reason for this is to provide for reference a wide
range of sections. and it must not be assumed, therefore, that any particular moulding
is the most appropriate for the detail concerned. Further, whilst for the above reason,
two different architraves are shown in each of the details K, T and P , it is customary
in practice to adopt a common section throughout a building or for similar rooms
on the same floor. Glass shown fixed with glazing beads may be secured with sprigs
and putty, and vice versa.
The five horizontal panels of the door A are of glass. The detail at J shows
the glass bedded in putty and beaded. The weather board is alternative to those
shown in Figs. 21 and 22, and the wrought iron water bar, caulked with lead and
covered with cement (see p. 98, Vol. I) is alternative to a hardwood threshold.
It is again noted that persons are more apt to trip over a bar, which has only a
small projection, than over the more conspicuous thick wood threshold.
The fifteen glass-panelled door at B is detailed at K. The small half-round
architrave is shown with a plinth block to provide a suitable finish for the skirting.
Alternatively, if a thicker skirting is used, as shown by the broken line, the blocks
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 355 JOINERY
may be dispensed with and the skirting finished with a curved end against
the casing ; the feet of the architrave would then be mitred to the upper splayed
edge of the skirting. The ovolo moulded glazing bead conforms with the stuck
moulding on the opposite side.
Each of the eighteen glazed panels of the door at c is proportioned in accord-
ance with the construction shown at T, Fig. 6o, Vol. I, i.e., the height equals the
hypotenuse of a square which has a length of side equal to the width of the pane.
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Three alternative details of the wide bottom rail are shown at M, N and o. That
at N shows a compound rail, the lower portion being sunk-chamfered both sides
and tenoned into the upper. Alternatively, as shown at M, the lower rail may be
tenoned into the upper and finished flush on one side with a double bead, and
having a similar beaded mould inserted in the other. The alternative finish at
o shows a narrow !-in. thick panel. As an internal door should be kept !-in.
from the floor to allow it to swing clear of a carpet with underfelt, draughts may
be minimized if, as shown at N, a splayed hardwood slip is well screwed to the
floor; this is an alternative to that shown with rounded edges at J, Fig. 52,
Vol. I. Of course, such provision is not necessary if the doors are hung with
skew butt hinges (see z, Fig. 45, Vol. I). The details at M and N show the glass
fixed with glazing beads ; as an alternative, the glass at o is shown sprigged and
puttied.
The single panel of the door at D is of glass. The detail at L shows that archi-
traves have been dispensed with and the projecting casing finished with rounded
edges. The casing is grooved to receive the plaster and at or £-in. stop is nailed
to it. Because of the large size of the sheet, -i'A·-in. polished plate glass has been
specified.
The upper panel only of the door at E is glazed ; a detail is provided at s.
A portion of the door at F is glazed. The detail at T shows a thick (x-in.
nominal) panel finished with large bolection mouldings on both sides. The
glazed sash, divided into four small panes, is grooved on its outer edges and
engaged in the panel. The architrave at the bottom of the detail is shown
finished on the splay of the skirting. Alternatively, the latter may have the same
projection and a similar moulding as the architrave, to provide a mitred joint.
The old-fashioned diminished stile door, still occasionally used, is illustrated
at G. It has either one or two wood panels at the bottom, and the upper portion
is glazed. In order to provide the maximum area of glass, the width of the
upper portions of the stiles which receive it is decreased. Hence the terms
diminishing stiles and gun-stock stiles which are applied to these vertical members.
The joint between the middle rail and stile is shown at R, the latter being
diminished from 4! to 3-in. nominal. The development in this sketch presents
a somewhat peculiar appearance due to the opposite shoulders not being parallel.
If required, a stuck moulding of width equal to the depth of the glazing rebate
could be worked on the rails and stiles, and parallel shoulders would result.
A vertical section through the middle rail is shown at Q, and a detail at one of
the jambs above this rail is illustrated at P.
An external entrance is shown at H. The brickwork at the jambs has three
1~-in. deep recesses (see inset plan) which are continued at the head formed of
purpose-made voussoirs. The door has an octagonal shaped glazed panel
divided by glazing bars. A detail of this door and frame is shown at u . It is
somewhat similar to that at T, except that it is bolection moulded on one side
only and the thick panel is raised and fielded. Being an external door, the gl~s
is tinted or otherwise obscured. In the detail it is assumed that the frame is
set back slightly from the inner recess. If, as shown in the part plan at H, the
door is set farther back, the detail at the frame will be similar to either of those
shown at P, Fig. 21, K and P, Fig. 22, or G, Fig. 23 .
The door illustrated in Fig. 23 is partially glazed, as is also the flush door at
c, Fig. 25. .
(d) FLUSH DooRs (see Fig. 25).-These doors, faced with plywbod, 1 are
described on pp. 94 and 95, Vol. I. A selected few of the various types are
illustrated at A to E inclusive. Most of these are mass-produced. The standard
sizes are 6-ft., 6-ft. 4-in., 6-ft. 6-in., 6-ft. 8-in ., 6-ft. xo-in. and 7-ft. high, 2-ft.,
2-ft. 4-in., 2-ft. 6-in., 2-ft. 8-in., 2-ft. xo-in . and 3-ft. wide and x! to 2-in.
thick.
A flush door may consist of either a skeleton or hollow frame covered both
sides with plywood (see A, B, c and E), or it may have a solid core throughout
with plywood facings (see n) . Most mass-produced flush doors are of the
skeleton framed type, chiefly because of the great economy in the amount of
timber which results.
The hollow framed flush door shown at A is detailed at F . The frame con-
sists of 4-in. by x!-in. (nominal) stiles, top ·and bottom rails, and 2-in. by x!-in.
intermediate rails at 6 to g-in. centres ; alternatively, 3-in. wide intermediate
rails at approximately x-ft. centres may be employed. The top and bottom rails are
tenoned and glued to the stiles, the tenons preferably extending the full width
of the stiles as shown at Q. The intermediate rails are glued, tenoned and
cramped into the continuous grooves formed in the stiles (see F and R). Ventila-
tion holes, as shown, should be provided to ensure a thorough circulation of air
within the framing ; care should be taken to see that those in the top rail are
not subsequently "stopped" with putty by the painter. For good class doors
the plywood facings should be ;f-in. thick ; -,''r.--in. 3-ply is only employed on
cheap doors. Edging slips, especially on the striking stiles, are necessary. Several
forms of these are shown at F, Hand J. If, as shown at G, no such provision is
made and the plywood is continued to the outer edges of the stiles, the plywood
is readily damaged by splintering, especially if the door swells on account of the
absorption of moisture, and a tight fit between it and the casing results. Edging
slips are fixed on all edges of good class doors. A lock block should be provided,
as shown at A, to allow for the insertion of a mortise lock. The position of this
should be indicated on the outside, otherwise a block is provided at each side,
1 A description of the manufacture, characteristics and uses of plywood, laminboard
and blackboard is given on pp. 97-IOJ.
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 357 JOINERY
as shown at E ; in mass-produced doors these lock pieces are increased in
length in order that the position of the lock may not be unduly restricted. The
wide architrave (which should be in at least two pieces, if it exceeds 6-in., to
prevent splitting if shrinkage occurs) is shown at A with rounded corners. To
prevent opening at the mitres the joints should be either cross-tongued (see
footnote top. 72), or the horizontal member should be tenoned into the verticals
and screwed from the hack.
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The framed flush door shown at B and G is that referred to in the specifica-
tion " War Emergency British Standard 459 : 1942." 1 The object of the
specification is to ensure an economy in the use of timber. As shown, the
skeleton framing consists of very light members, i.e., 1!-in. by 1-in. stiles, top
and bottom rails, i-in. vertical ribs at not more than s-in. apart housed l-in.
into the outer rails, and l-in. (minimum) wide horizontal ribs, not exceeding
12-in. apart, glued to the vertical ribs and stiles. The top and bottom rails may
he either dovetailed into the stiles, or the latter may be double tenoned into the
rails, or the corners may be combed jointed, i.e., corrugated metal saw-edge
fasteners (see Fig. 66, Vol. I) are driven in. The framing is reinforced with
1-in. wide blocks at the hinges and lock block. Each side is covered with ply-
wood of a minimum thickness of {'6--in. This covering is shown at G finished
flush with the edge; as explained on p. 68, this may result in the fraying of the
edges of the plywood. As a protection against damage, an external door has a
9-in. by le,-in. (3-ply, resin-bonded) kicking plate fixed at the bottom at each
side. This plate or ledge has its top edge bevelled.
The semicircular headed door at c, detailed at K, has a small glazed
panel. The head of the door framing may be in two pieces only, 'Yith the
central joint combed or cross tongued; or alternatively, it may be built/up
in two thicknesses like the frame at D, Fig. 23, described on p. ' 66.
The joints between the head and the stiles may be either tenoned,
as shown, or they may be combed jointed; hammer-headed key joints (see
Fig. 23) are not necessary, as the joints are not exposed to view and because
of the stiffening effect of the plywood facings. The treatment at the edges
shown at K is an alternative to the details at F, Hand J. The outer veneer only
of the 3-ply facing covers the framing. This veneer may be highly decorative.
Its edges are vulnerable to damage, especially at the striking stile, and,• as
shown, they are bevelled to minimize this tendency. The detail of the glazed
panel is similar to those shown in Fig. 24. The top of the skirting is assumed
to be moulded with a fillet and curve similar to the architrave ; this results in a
mitre and a satisfactory finish (see c).
The solid or laminated core type of flush door is shown at D and detailed at
H. The laminre are only -;5c-in. wide and this detail therefore shows an applica-
tion of laminboard (see P' 103). Blackboards (the laminre are not greater than
1-in. wide, see p. 103) are also used as cores. The tongued edging slips are also
dovetailed to receive the edges of the plywood facings which, after being glued,
1 By courtesy of the British Standards Institution.
are sprung into position and pressed. In order to provide a contrast in colour,
these slips may be of a different wood to the plywood facings . An effective
appearance results if the section of the skirting is similar to the outer splay of
the simple architrave ; the resulting mitres are shown in the elevation at D.
This is a good type of door, although heavy, and is more highly fire-resisting
and sound-insulating than the skeleton framed variety (see p. 5 I).
Another form of fire-resisting and sound-insulating door is shown at E and
detailed at J, compressed granulated cork being filled between the members of
the skeleton frame (see p . 5 I). A lock block is shown at each side, and therefore
either stile may be hung.
The timbers used in the manufacture of mass-produced flush doors include
alder, beech, birch, Columbian or Oregon pine, Canadian red pine and gaboon.
These are usually painted or stained. The outer veneers of the plywood facings
of superior doors are generally of hardwood, of which there is a large variety
used. They are often left in their natural colours, the decorative effect depending
upon the grain and texture of the woods. Oak, walnut, mahogany, Indian silver
greywood, sycamore, Indian laurel, black bean and ash are a few of the many
hardwoods used for this purpose. An outer veneer may consist of a single sheet
or it may comprise several inlaid pieces arranged in squares or rectangles. Cross-
bandings (narrow inlaid strips) of a dark wood-such as black bean-are effectively
used to divide lighter coloured woods into panels.
WINDOWS
A description of casements, dead lights, window with cased frame and
vertical sliding sashes, window with pivoted sash and window with horizontal
sliding sash is given on pp. I07-122, Vol. I. The following types are dealt with
here : (a) Window having a semicircular headed cased frame and vertical sliding
sashes, (b) three-light windows and (c) metal windows.
(a) WINDOW WITH . SEMICIRCULAR HEADED CASED FRAME AND VERTICAL
SLIDING SASHES (see Fig. 26).-The elevation, section and plan at A, B and c
show a large wihdow of this type fixed in an opening in a brick wall with stone
dressings.
With the exception of the head, the construction of the frame is similar to
that described on pp. II3 and II4, illustrated in Figs. 6o and 61, Vol. I. The
usual construction of a semicircular head is shown here at E, F and R, Fig. 26.
The soffit lining is built-up in two thicknesses of 2-in. thick segments, divided
by the parting bead, sawn to the required curve and glued and screwed together
to overlap with joints normal to the curve. The inner and outer linings are
glued and blocked to the soffit lining, the tongues and grooves (indicated by
broken lines at R) being often omitted because of the thickness of the head, which
exceeds that of the tongued pulley stiles. In lieu of the tongued edges shown,
the pulley stiles are sometimes square edged ; the edges are well painted to protect
them before the stiles are nailed to the linings ; the inner lining is slightly
 F L u s H 0 0 0 s
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 359 JOINERY
rebated to receive the square edge of the stile and the outer edge of the latter
is butt jointed and nailed to the outer lining. The upper ends of the pulley stiles
are rebated and continued above the springing line to receive the lower ends of
the head. The members are glued, well screwed from the back and blocked.
Attenti:m is drawn to the projection of the end of the curved head beyond the
face of the pulley stile (see E). The purpose of this ·! -in. stop is to restrict the
upward run of the bottom sash and thus prevent it being jammed in the head ;
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it also prevents damage to the glass in the upper sash which may otherwise occur
if the latter was forced tightly against the crown of the frame. The joints between
the segments of the inner and outer linings are either tongued and grooved or
cross tongued and grooved; G shows a t. and g. springing joint in an inner
lining ; the ends of the wider outer linings are similarly shaped, although the
tongues are usually stopped short of the outer edge. The parting slip is suspended
from the block shown at !':.
An alternative curved soffit lining consists of a veneer (a thin sheet of wood, l to
}-in. thick and a little wider than the finished soffit, planed on the face and prepared
on the ba.ck with a toothing plane to surface it for glue), shaped over a cylinder and
backed ~Ith ~taves (narrow pieces of wood slightly longer than the width of the soffit,
I to 1!-m.. wide and of equal thickness). The cylinder resembles a centre consisting
of two bUI!t-up. ribs, cut to the semicircular curve and closely lagged; the back
of the laggmgs IS planed to a true curve of the required radius of the soffit. The
yeneer, face downwards, is secured at one end of the cylinder by a stave placed across
It ~nd screwed at both ends to the cylinder. The veneer is gradually bent over the
cyhnder, temporary staves being screwed across it to the cylinder at required intervals
and at the opposite end. The whole of the back is now staved. Commencing at
one end, t.he staves are glued to the veneer and to each other, and the ends, having
been previOusly holed, are screwed temporarily to the cylinder. After the glue has
thoroughly dried the ve~eered soffit is removed by unscrewing the ends of the staves,
sawn to the ~eqUlred width and then screwed to the pulley stile as explained above.
Before bendmg, hardwood veneers must be softened by steaming or by soaking in
hot water ; softwood veneers can usually be bent dry.
Details of the top sash are shown at J and K. The sash, indicated by thick
lines, has a semicircular head in one thickness which comprises two segments
jointed at the crown and either at the springing o or, preferably, above it
(especially if the pulleys are fixed just below the springing line) as indicated by
the broken radial line at P. These butt joints are formed with handrail bolts,
so called because they are invariably used to ensure tight fitting joints between
portions of handrails; they are also applied more widely. A handrail bolt is
illustrated at Q, and consists of a square nut, a round slotted nut (as it has five
or six shallow slots cut in its outer edge) and a washer, in addition to the bolt
which has screwed ends. Details showing the application of this bolt at the
crown joint in the sash are shown at L and M. A hole, slightly larger than the
diameter of the shank, is bored centrally in each of the adjacent ends of the
segments for the bolt. Two holes are also made from the top, one just sufficiently
large to receive the square nut and the other for the washer and slotted nut.
The joint is formed in the following manner : The square nut is placed in its
hole and the bolt is inserted and screwed on to the nut until half of its length
only projects. After gluing the ends, the washer and slotted nut are put into
the hole in the other segment and the free end of the bolt is slipped into the
drilled hole. The bolt is next tightened by means of.a handrail punch (a chisel
with its edged end slightly curved) or similar tool, which is engaged in the notches
of the slotted nut in turn as it is caused to rotate, and this is continued until
the ends of the segments are brought together and a tight joint ensues. The
joint is strengthened by means of a cross tongue 1 which is grooved into the ends
at the rebate side; this prevents the pieces of timber from twisting. Two or
three small (,~,,-in. diameter) hardwood dowels serve the same purpose. A
sketch ~f the springing joint with projecting bolt and tongue is shown at H.
Enlarged details at the head, jamb and sill are shown at R, s and T. These
are self-explanatory, especially if those in Figs. 6o and 61, Vol. I, have been
studied. It will be observed that : ( 1) Thick pulley stiles are employed (which
take most of the weight of the large sashes), (2) the pulley stiles and soffit lining
are slightly rebated to receive the inner beads (this ensures the correct re-fixing
of the beads and a free run for the bottom sash on being replaced after cord
replacements), (3) the outside of the groove for the water bar at T is in line with
the inside of the outer lining (and thus water passing along a defective bedding
joint will only affect a small portion of the wood sill), (4) a deeper draught bead
than the inner beads is employed to enable the lower sash to be raised slightly
to permit of ventilation at the meeting rails (if the width of the draught bead is
still further increased, the bottom rail of the sash should be correspondingly
deeper to ensure, as shown, the margin between the top of the sash and the
bead being equal to those shown at R and s) and (5) this draught bead and the
bottom rail are bevelled to prevent vibration of the sash by ensuring a tight fit
between it and the parting bead (the slight clearance shown between the sashes,
outer lining and beads is to allow for three coats of paint).
Segmental-headed Windows.-The heads of the frame and sash of a window
curved to the form of a segment having a relatively large rise may be constructed
as described above, the number of joints depending upon the span and the
amount of the rise. If, however, the rise is small, it is usual to provide the window
with a square head, as indicated by broken lines at B, Fig. 27. The construction
of the head, with its inner, outer and soffit linings, is as shown in Figs. 6o and
61, Vol. I, except that the outer lining of the head is of wider stuff and swept
to the curve of the segment. Thus, whereas the external appearance of the
head is segmental (parallel to the intrados of the arch), that internally is the same
as a square head above which a lintel and not an arch is provided to support the
wall over the opening. The head of the sash is as shown at E, Fig. 27, the
lower edge of the top rail being shaped to the sweep of the outer lining. This
rail is tenoned and wedged to the stile of the sash as indicated.
1 Cross tongues are about !-in thick and so called because they are cut across the grain
of the squared end of the board from which they are made. Cross tongues are stronger
than feather tongues (used for similar purposes), as the latter are cut diagonally across the
grain.
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 JOINERY
(b) THREE-LIGHT CASED WINDOWS (see Fig. 27).-Like casements (see
B, Fig. 56, Vol. I), windows with vertical sliding sashes may each consist of two
or more lights or pairs of sashes separated by vertical members, called mullions.
A wide opening may be divided into three lights, and as shown at A, B and c,
it is usual to make the central pair of sashes wider than the adjacent side lights.
In some such windows all of the sashes are made to open, and others have fixed
side lights with opening central sashes.
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In the part elevation at A, the side lights are fixed, being screwed to the frame,
and the central pair of sashes only are free to move. As the mullions are solid
(see detail at G) the weights for the central sashes must be accommodated in
the fram~ at the jambs. Four pairs of pulleys are therefore required, four
pulleys for each of the top and bottom hung sashes. At A the weights for the
bottom central sash are shown in full to make them conspicuous, and portions
of the sash cords are indicated by broken lines. The cords from the sashes to
the weights pass over the pulleys fixed at the top of the mullions and those
secured to the head of the pulley stiles at the jambs. The pulleys must be
fixed as high as possible, and to permit of this a portion is removed from the
top of each pulley cover or face plate. The cords between the pulleys pass
immediately under the head of the frame at the side lights, those fixed to the
top sash being accommodated in grooves in the top rails of the two upper side
sashes, and the other two cords are hidden from view when, as shown at D,
grooved cover beads are screwed (in order that they inay be removed readily
when broken cords require attention) to the heads of the side lights.
The solid mullions, which vary from rt to 2-in. in thickness, are double
tongued or housed to the outer lining (see G), rebated to receive the inner beads
and grooved for the parting beads. The side boxes are constructed in the
usual manner, i.e., the r!-in. pulley stile is tongued (see p. 70) to the r-in.
inner and outer linings, a t-in. back lining (often omitted) completes the box,
and a t-in. parting slip is provided to separate the weights (see F).
The head is usually solid (see D) with an outer lining (or it is the full width
of the frame and an outer bead is planted on). The mullions (G) are tenoned
and wedged to the head, and the pulley stiles (F) are housed into the latter.
An alternative arrangement for hanging the central sashes consists of the
provision of cased or framed mullions in lieu of the solid mullions, and solid
3-in. thick jamb posts instead of the built-up side boxes. The mullions resemble
that shown at J, except that the internal width need only be 2-in. and the thick-
ness of the stiles next to the fixed side lights may be reduced to r-in.
The whole of the sashes of the window at B are made to open. The boxes
at the jambs are as shown at F. The mullions are double boxed or cased, i.e.,
arranged to accommodate two sets of weights as shown at B and detailed at H.
In each mullion the weights of the central sashes are separated from those of the
side sashes by a !-in. dividing strip, and the top and bottom weights of each
sash are separated by the usual t-in. parting slip. The finished width of the
mullions is 8-in,
The part elevation of the window at c also shows each light to consist of
sliding sashes. A detail of one of the cased mullions is given at J. It accom-
modates two large weights, one to balance the sum of half of the weights of the
central and side bottom sashes and the other to counterbalance half of the
adjacent top sashes.1 A pulley is fixed at the top of each weight, and four
pulleys are screwed to, and near the head of, the pulley stiles of each mullion-
one for each of the adjacent top and bottom sashes. Each cord passes under the
weight pulley, over the two mullion pulleys and fixed to both of the central and
side top (or bottom) sashes (see broken lines at c). Cylindrical cast iron weights
are preferred, but if heavy weights are unobtainable from stock, specially cast
lead weights are employed. This is an alternative arrangement for hanging the
sashes to that shown at B and H and results in a reduction of 2-in. in the width
of the mullions. The constmction of the side boxes is as shown at F.
If brick or stone mullions are employed, it is usual for each light to consist
of a separate cased frame of normal constmction (see Fig. 6o, Vol. 1), although
types B and care sometimes preferred.
(c) METAL WINDOWS.-These are 'included in this chapter, as many windows
of this type are used in conjunction with wood frames and are fixed to the latter
by the joiner.
The metals used in the manufacture of these windows are mild steel, bronze
and other alloys. Undoubtedly bronze windows are the best, as they are mst-
proof and are finished with a good surface of a pleasing colour which, if kept
clean, improves with age. They are, however, relatively expensive, and for this
reason their use is restricted. Since 1920 there has been a big demand for steel
windows in lieu of wood casements. There are several forms, including fixed
lights, casements opening outwards, inwards and pivoted, etc.
Most manufacturers produce what is known as the" standard metal window,"
made in several sizes from steel of the same thickness rolled to a common
section. They have been used extensively for houses and small buildings, and
it is this window, in its simplest form, which has been illustrated in Fig. 28. A
fixed light consists of a frame only, and a casement has a sash which is attadled
to the frame by means of two hinges. The details show that the frame and sash
are of i-in. thick metal and their sections are identical in size and shape. They
are of Z-section, r-in. deep with !-in. wide flanges, one of the latter having a
slight projection beyond the web to allow the sash and frame to overlap !-in.
both internally and externally. The horizontal and vertical members of the
frame and sash are solidly welded at the corners. Sashes are made with and
without !-in. by !-in. by i-in. glazing bars or astragals of T-section, the bars
being threaded and. locked at the intersections. That at A is of the horizontal
bar type, for, unlike the sash at E, vertical bars are not provided.
The hinges usually preferred are of the extension type (see Fig. 59, Vol. I),
as, when fully extended, the 4 to s-in. clearance resulting between the sash and
the frame enables the outside of the glass to be cleaned from the inside. These
1 See note on p. 118, Vol. I, regarding the determination of weights for sashes.
 T H E E L G H T c A s E D w N D 0 w s
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IItCHES NOTE : NOMINAl SIZES ARE SPECIFIED. DETAILS BEING Dfi..A.WN TO FINISHED SIZES. SEE FIGS. 60 6 61, VOL!. FIGURE 21
 JOINERY
steel hinges arc provided at the top and bottom of a sash (see A, E, G, H and K,
Fig. 28), the fixed arm being riveted or welded to the frame and the moving arm
(rotating on a hard-wearing pin of phosphor-bronze or stainless steel) is fixed
to the sash. The sketch at M shows the position of the partially extended hinge
relative to the frame and sash.
The sash is provided with a casement fastener, or two-point handle, and a
casement stay. These are of bronze or gunmetal.
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A two-point handle is shown in the two small-scale elevations at A and E and the
plan at N. It is mounted on a pin attached to a back plate which is riveted or welded
to the inner flange of the sash, and is so called because of the points formed at the
nose by the notches {see N). As shown, a thin bronze striking plate (about r-in .
by J-in.) is secured to the inner flange of the frame . Its object is to prevent the nose
of the handle contacting the flange and damaging the paint. When the position of
the nose is as. shown1 a tight fit between the sash and frame should result ; the clear-
ance shown ts exaggerated to make the details clear. As noted, ventilation can be
afforded by engaging the flange of the frame (and striking plate) in either notch " r "
or" 2 " ; an opening up to r-in. in width can thus be maintained.
Additi?nal ventilation can, of course, be obtained by applying the casement
stay. Thrs II_lay be a peg stay (seeD, Fig. 59, Vol. I), when a pin plate or bracket is
fixed to the mner flange of the horizontal member of the frame . The objection to
this stay is the damage to glass which may be caused if the sash is blown violently
~gainst the wall in ~he event 'of the window being left open without the pin engaging
m one of the holes m the bar. A better form is the sliding stay (consisting of a hori-
zontal arm fixed to the sash which slides through a pivoted fitting at the free end of a
ro~ting bracket fixed to the frame), as this, whilst permitting the sash to be main-
tamed at any angle up to 90°, always keeps it under restraint.
FIXING.-The metal frame may be fixed direct to the wall, or it may be
screwed to a wood frame or surround.
The window shown at A, B and c, and detailed at G, H, 1 and K, is fixed direct.
Eight (1"n-in. diameter) countersunk holes are provided in the web of the frame
to receive the fixing screws (see A). If it is to be fixed to masonry, terra-cotta
or concrete, ! or g-in. diameter holes are cut in the jambs, head and sill opposite
the holes in the frame. These are preferably plugged with lead, although hard-
wood plugs or rawlplugs are more often used. The window is then placed in
correct position and the frame is screwed to the plugs. The frame is finally
grouted in and pointed with cement mortar, or bedded and pointed with mastic.
The details at G and H shows these fixings. As mentioned above, the jambs may
be plugged and screwed in this manner. The details . at J and K show an
altern.ative method of fixing the frame by means of 4-in. by *-in. by! or i-in. lugs
(provided by the manufacturers) which are bent-up 1-in. Holes are cut in the
jambs of the wall at the correct position, and the lugs are inserted and firmly
cemented in. The frame is secured to the lugs by !-in. diameter fixing bolts.
The above method conforms to the best practice, as windows should never
he fixed in position until the roughest work has been completed. Otherwise
dl,Ull.age may be caused, not only superficially from daubs of set mortar, etc.,
but to distortion of sashes which can only be straightened with difficulty and
often cause subsequent leakage between them and the frames.
It is, however, the usual practice in cheaper work to build-in the metal
windows as the construction of the walls proceeds, especially if the walls are of
brick. Typical fixing details of a built-in frame are shown at J and K, already
referred to. The lugs are bolted to the frame and the window is placed in
position. It is kept level and plumb as the building of the wall proceeds, and
the lugs are securely built-in with mortar. The lugs are shown bedded in the
horizontal joints (see A, 1 and K). Cutting of the bricks, stone, etc., must be
resorted to when the joints do not coincide with the lugs . Lugs are also built-in
at brick heads and sills.
A vulnerable part of a metal . window which opens outwards is the outer
flange of the top horizontal sash member where it contacts the frame . In an
exposed position water may enter here even if the sash is tight fitting. It is
::tdvisable, therefore, to throat the underside of the head and adopt wide external
jambs by fixing the windows well away from and not nearer than 2-in. to the
face of the wall. The more elaborate type of window has a metal projecting
strip, fixed to the top of the frame just above the sash, which serves as a
protection.
Criticism is directed against metal windows fixed direct in certain types of
buildings because of the mean appearance presented by the narrow frames.
This is emphasized if the colour of the painted windows contrasts with that of
the adjacent walling. Hence, as shown at D, E and F and detailed at L, N, o, P and
Q, metal windows are often fixed in wood frames. The latter are rebated, or
double rebated as shown, to receive the metal frames . The steel frame is bedded
in mastic, and this must be well done to prevent the entrance of water between
the two frames. The metal frame is then screwed to the surround, 1'\-in.
diameter .holes being provided in the former for this purpose.
Putty is used for glazing standard metal windows . Ordinary putty (whiting
ground in raw linseed oil) alone is useless for this purpose, as it will "run," and
gold size is added to it to enable it to set. Small metal dowels or sprigs (i-in.
diameter) are sometimes used to retain temporarily the panes of glass until
the putty has set (see G, H and N). Holes ( i-in. diameter) are provided to receive
these. Alternatively, thin metal clips provided at each corner of a pane and
fixed to the sash serve the same purpose. These are bent against the glass
before the puttying is completed.
Metal windows quickly corrode unless suitably treated. Spraying them
with zinc after the surface has been thoroughly cleaned and roughened by sand-
blasting is one of several rust-proofing processes which has been adopted on a
large scale.
Steel windows compare favourably with wood casements in excluding
weather. Unlike those made of wood, metal windows are not, of course, affected
by atmospheric changes and consequently they do not jam (see p. 78), a defect
common to certain wood casements due to swelling. Steel windows are very
durable, especially if rust-proofed. The standard types are economical in price.
Perhaps the chief demerit of the standard steel window is its poor appearance,
due to the small size of the frame and sash members. If, in order to counteract
 M E T A L w N 0 0 w s
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SASH

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K E X T E N S I 0 N I+ I N G E D E T A L 'Y' D E T A L
N 0T E: T H E S E C T I 0 N t. SIZE OF 8 0 T H
FRAME
THICi<.NESS
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AI<-E
THE
IDENTICAL
M I LO STEEL
(., 1 ft E
I S lf8~ FIGURE 28
 JOINERY
this, the metal windows are fixed in wood frames the total cost exceeds that of
ordinary wood casements with frames. Unless steel windows have been rust-
proofed, they corrode very rapidly and assume an ugly appearance because of the
resulting damaged paintwork. Improper fixing of the glass will cause the lower
rail of the sash to jam on the bottom of the frame, and a strained sash will result
in the development of leaks between it and the frame.
Some standard heights and widths of metal windows are given in Fig. 28.
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These are the overall sizes of the frames, as indicated in B and c. These
units can be coupled together to form composite windows of large si.ze having
metal mullions, transomes, etc. Such a window may also consist of several
standard metal frames and sashes fixed in a wood surround with wood mullions
and, if required, wood transomes. There are also special types of metal windows
suitable for schools, hospitals, commercial buildings, etc. These, together
with leaded lights and metal doors, are detailed in Vol. IV.
STAIRS
The materials used in the construction of stairs are stone, steel, wrought
iron, cast iron, reinforced concrete, reinforced brickwork, and wood. The
former type has been detailed in Chapter X , Vol. II, and the latter will be
considered here.
A stair is a set of steps leading from one floor to another. A continuous
series of steps forms a flight, and there may be two or more flights, separated
by flat portions called landings, between two floors. A stair, together with the
part of the building accommodating it, is known as the staircase. The horizontal
portion of a step, calleda tread, is usually connected to a vertical riser and these
are supported by inclined boards termed strings.
TERMS.-The following definitions of terms are arranged in alphabetical
order for ready reference. Some of them are amplified in later paragraphs.
Apron, Apron Lining or Fascia (see G, Fig. 32, and c, G, M and N, Fig. 36)
is a board which covers the trimmer, etc. joist of a landing, providing a suitable
finish to it and the adjacent plaster.
Balusters (see Figs. 29, 32, 33, 34, 36 and 38) are short vertical bars which
support the handrail and protect the open side or sides of a stair.
Balustrade or Banister .-An open balustrade comprises the balusters, hand-
rail, string and newels (if any) (see Figs. 29, 32, 33, 34 and 36). A solid balustrade
consists of panelling in lieu of balusters (see M, Fig. 29, Fig. 35, H and o, Fig.
36 and Fig. 37).
Bearers.- Inclined 4-in. by 2-in. or 4-in. by 3-in . members which support
the steps and to which the laths of a plastered soffit are nailed. Those which
serve as intermediate supports are also called carriage-pieces, rough carriages,
rough strings (as they are not dressed) or spring-trees (see Figs. 30, 31, 32, 36
and 38). The short supporting members placed immediately below winders
(see p. So and Fig. 38) are also called bearers,
Blocks are fixed to the upper edges of bearers and provide additional support
to the treads (see Fig. 38). The term is also applied to the small pieces of wood
of triangular section which are glued to the inner angles between treads and
risers or strings (see F, Fig. 30, Figs. 31, 32, etc.).
Brackets or Rough Brackets are more commonly employed and serve the same
purpose as blocks, the x-in. thick pieces of wood being nailed alternately to the
sides of the bearers (see Figs. 30, 31, 32 and 36).
Bull-nosed Step.-See " Steps."
Caps.-See " Newels."
Cappings are cover mouldings planted on the upper edges of strings (see F,
Fig. 32, and J and K, Fig. 34), handrails (see D, Fig. 35), panelling (see B and c,
Fig. 35) and newels.
Carriages.-See " Bearers."
Commode Step.-See " Steps."
Cover Fillets are small members fixed to the underside of outer strings and
trimmers to provide a satisfactory finish to the adjacent plaster (see. G, Fig. 32,
N, Fig. 34 and M and N, Fig. 36).
Curtail Step.-See " Steps."
Dancing or Balancing Steps.-See " Steps."
Dog-leg Stair.-See p. 87.
Drop.-See " Newels."
Easing is a curved upper portion connecting two strings of different inclina-
tions or a string with a skirting (see c, Fig. 30 and B and G, Fig. 38).
Flier.-See " Steps."
Flight.-A continuous set of steps extending from floor to floor, or floor to
landing, or landing to landing.
Going or Run of a step is the horizontal distance between the faces of two
consecutive risers (see F, Fig. 30, D, Fig. 31 and F, Fig. 32) and the going of a
flight is the horizontal distance between the face of the bottom riser of the
flight and that of the top riser.
Handrails, provided to afford assistance and a safeguard, are fixed at a con-
venient height to walls (see c, H and J, Fig. 30) or at the top of balustrades (see
Figs. 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37 and F, Fig. 39); they should be of a satisfactory
size and shape to enable them being easily grasped by the hand ; of the many
designs, the simple mop-stick handrail illustrated at F, Fig. 39, is one of the most
effective.
Headroom is the height measured vertically from the line of nosings (see
p. 79) to the lower outer edge of the apron (see c, Fig. 30) or to the soffit of a
flight immediately above it. This should not be less than 6-ft. 6-in.
Landing is a platform between two flights provided to serve as a rest and,
when required, to make effective provision for turning a stair ; it also denotes
the portion of the floor adjacent to the top of a stair. A quarter-space landing
is one on which a quarter-turn has to be made between the end of one flight and
the beginning of the next (see Figs. 29, 36 and 37). If the landing extends for
 STAIRS
the combined width of both flights and a complete half-turn is necessary, it is
known as a half-space landing (see Figs. 29, 32, 34 and 35).
Line of Nosings is that drawn to touch the projecting edges or nosings of the
treads (see c, Fig. 30 and D, Fig. 31).
Margin is the portion of a close string (see p. 8o) between its upper edge
and the line of nosings (seeD, Fig. 31). This term is also applied to the portions
of treads and risers between the strings and the carpet or other covering.
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Newels or Newel Posts (see Figs. 29, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38 and 39) are sub-
stantial vertical members placed at the ends of flights to support the strings,
handrails, trimmers and bearers. The upper moulded end is called the· cap
and the projecting lower end is known as a drop.
Nosing (see Figs. 30, 31, 32, etc.).-This is the front edge of a tread which
projects beyond the face of the riser below it ; it is also applied to the projecting
upper member of an apron (see c, Fig. 32).
Nosing Line (see H, Fig. 31).-Drawn on a string for setting-out the steps and
is the line set out at the required distance from, and parailel to, its upper edge
along which is marked the intersecting points between the treads and vertical
faces of the risers (see p. 84). It must not be confused with the" line of nosings"
(see above) which is nearer to the upper edge.
Open Well Stair.-See p. 93.
Pitch or Slope is the angle between the line of nosings and the floor or landing.
Pitch-board or Step-mould is used for setting out the steps on the strings and
is a thin wood triangular templet (pattern or set square). One of its sides is
equal to the going, that at right angles to this is equil to the rise, and the
remaining side gives the pitch of the stairs. That shown at E, Fig. 3 1 has, in
addition, a" margin templet "(although its width is actually the distance between
the edge of the string and the nosing line, see H), and a thin strip at right angles
to it is maintained against the edge of the string and assists in ensuring accuracy
in setting out. Two additional patterns, called a tread templet and a riser templet
are required to set out the housings (see p. 84) of the treads and risers respec-
tively (see F and G, Fig. 31); the width of the tread templet equals the thickness
of the tread and that of the wedge, whilst the width of the riser templet is equal
to the combined thickness of the riser and wedge. The application of these
templets is shown at H (see also p. 84).
Rise of a step is the vertical distance between the tops of two consecutive
treads (see F, Figs. 30 and 32), and the rise of a flight is the total height from
floor to floor, or floor to landing, or landing to landing.
Riser is the front member of a step which is connected to the tread (see F,
Fig. 30, etc.).
Run.-See "Going."
Scotia is a concave mould used to provide an additional finish to the nosing
of a tread (see D, Fig. 3 I). A scotia board is cut from a relatively wide board
and used at nosings of treads forming buii-nosed and similar rounded bottom
steps (see Fig. 39).
366
Soffit or Planceer is the under surface of a stair which is often plastered {sec
c, Fig. 30, E, Fig. 32 and D, Fig. 36).
Spandrel or Spandril is the triangular surface, either plastered or panelled,
between an outer string and the floor (see c, Fig. 32).
Splayed Step.-See "Steps."
Stair.-As stated on p. 78, this consists of a set of steps which leads from
one floor to another. Stairs are classified as follows :-
(a) Straight Flight Stairs.
(b) Turning Stairs, including (i) quarter-turn, half-turn, three-quarter-turn
and bifurcated, and (ii) newel and geometrical.
(a) Straight Flight Stair (see A, Fig. 29 and Fig. 30).-This continues
throughout its entire length in one direction and may consist of a single flight
only or two or. more flights in its length which are separated by iandings.
(b) (i) Quarter-turn Stair (seeD, E, F and G, Fig. 29).-This type changes
its direction either to the left or right, the turn being affected either by a quarter-
space landing or by winders (see p. 8o).
Half-turn Stair (see B, c, H, J, K and L, Fig. 29) has its direction reversed
either by a half-space landing (as at B, c, H and K), or a quarter-space landing
and winders, or two quarter-space landings and a short flight (as at J), or com-
pletely by winders (as at L), etc.
Three-quarter-turn Stair has its direction changed three times with its upper
flight crossing the bottom one.
Bifurcated Stair (seeM, Fig. 29) is a type common in public buildings in which
it appears as a prominent feature. The bottom wide flight is divided at a landing
into two narrower flights which branch off to the right and left. That shown
is also known as a double quarter-turn stai1· ; if each side flight is continued
with an additional quarter-turn (as shown by broken lines at N), the complete
structure is called a double half-turn stair.
(b) (ii) Newel Stair (see B, c, n, E, H, J and N, Fig. 29) has a newel at the foot and
head of each flight of the stair. The newels are therefore a conspicuous feature.
Geometrical or Continuous Stair (see F, G, K, L and o, Fig. 29).-Both the
strings and handrails are continuous and are set out in accordance with geometrical
principles. A newel may, for reasons of design, be introduced at the bottom and
top of such a stair, but is not an essential part of the construction. Those
at G and L are also called winding stm:rs. Geometrical stairs, circular on plan
and with the steps radiating from the centre, are called circular or spiral or
helical stairs ; the wall string of a circular stair may be octagonal on plan as an
alternative to the more expensive circular form. An elliptical stair is of this
type, the plan of its outer string being in the form of an ellipse with its wall
string parallel to it.
Stairs in class (b) include the dog-leg (see B and H, Fig. 29 and Figs. 32,
34 and 35) and open well (see c, J, K and L, Fig. 29 and Figs. 36 and 37).
Staircase.-This, as previously stated, includes a stair and the part of the
building which encloses it,
 JOINERY
Stairway is the opening or space occupied by the stair.
Step.-As applied here, it consists of a tread and riser 1 supported by strings.
The following are the types of step employed: Bull-nosed step (see D, Fig. 29
and B, G, H and J, Fig. 39) is situated at the bottom of a flight, projects beyond
the face of a newel or newels and has one or both ends rounded . A commode
step (see step " I " at F and L, Fig. 29) has a curved riser and tread nosing. A
curtail, round or scroll step (see F, Fig. 29, and c, K, Land M, Fig. 39) has one or
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both ends which are semicircular or spiral on plan. Dancing or balancing steps
are winders (see below) which do not radiate from a common centre-two
of this type are shown by broken lines at J', Fig. 29. Fliers are those which are
chiefly employed; they are of uniform width and are rectangular on plan, i.e.,
all of those shown in Fig. 30; diminished fliers are those immediately adjacent
to dancing steps, the width tapering towards the outer string (see J', Fig. 29).
A splayed step has one or both ends splayed as shown at A, Fig. 39·
Winders are tapering steps, such as those which radiate from a point usually
situated at the centre of a newel (see Fig. 38) and those which comprise a
geometrical stair of the type shown at G and L, Fig. 29; because of its shape
the central of three winders is called a kite winder (see also E, Fig. 29).
Storey Rod, Post or Lath is a dressed piece of wood, of approximately r!-in.
square, or 2-in. by !-in. scantling, sufficiently long to extend from floor to floor,
on which is marked the exact floor to floor height of the part of the building
which is to receive the stair ; this rod is accurately and equally divided into the
requisite number of steps and is then used in their setting out (see p. 84).
Strings or Stringers are the inclined members which support the steps. The
following are some of the various forms : A close or housed string has both top
and bottom edges parallel and the treads and risers are housed into it (see A,
B, c, E, H and J, Fig. 29, and Figs. 30, 31, etc.). A cut or open string or notch
board has its lower edge parallel to the pitch of the stair and its upper edge is
cut or notched to receive the ends of the treads and ristrs (see D, F, G, K and L,
Fig. 29 and N, Fig. 39). A rough string is a carriage-piece or bearer. Those
fixed to walls are called wall or inner strings and are usually close strings ;. those
on the outside are known as outer strings and may be of either the close or open type.
Tread is the horizontal member which forms the upper surface of a step
(see F, Fig. 30, etc.).
Walking Line represents the average line of travel taken by a person when
ascending or descending a stair, and is usually taken to be r-ft. 6-in. from the
centre of the handrail or newel (seeD, Fig. 38).
Well or Well-hole is the space between the outer strings of the several flights
of a stair (see c, J, K and L, Fig. 29 and E, Fig. 36) known as an open well stair.
Winders.-See " Steps ."
Several of the above definitions will be amplified on the following pages.
1 There have been several recent examples of principal stairs constructed in office
etc., buildings , which resemble ladders in so far as risers have bee~ omitted and the wood
treads have been connected direct to steel strings.
EssENTIAL REQUIREMENTS.-A well-designed stair should comply with the
following requirements :-
I. It should be constructed of sound materials and workmanship, the treads
and risers being properly tongued and grooved together, wedged, glue blocked
and adequately supported. The strings should be well secured to walls, newels,
trimmers, etc. A bearer or carriage, of sufficient size, should be provided if the
stair is 3-ft. wide, with an additional bearer for every 15-in. in width, otherwise
excessive deflection will occur and the stair will creak.
2. Its ascent should be relatively easy, and the proportions of treads and
risers should conform to the rules stated on p. 82. The pitch must not exceed
45° if undue fatigue is to be avoided, and it should not be less than 25° in order
to prevent a tedious ascent and the occupation of excessive space.
3. The whole of the risers must be of the same height, and the treads 1 should
be of uniform width if accidents are to be avoided.
4· It should be well lighted, especially at turnings. A solid balustraded stair
(see Fig3. 35 and 37) requires a larger window than one with balusters, as the
former offers a. greater obstruction to light. When electricity is available, two-
way switches (which enable a light to be controlled from two points) should be
provided at the head and foot of the stair.
5. The maximum number of steps in a flight is preferably twelve ; this
is especially desirable for stairs used by invalids and the aged ; stairs in public
buildings should conform to this. Such limitation requires the provision of
landings, but when space is restricted these cannot be provided and hence the
number of steps often exceeds the desired maximum, as seen in Fig. 30.
What would otherwise be a half-space landing should not be divided into
two quarter-space landings by a single riser ; such an arrangement has been a
frequent cause of accidents, especially to unaccustomed users.
6. It must be of adequate width. A satisfactory width for the average-sized
house is 3-ft. from wall to wall, or wall to centre of outer string. A narrower
stair has a mean appearance and the conveyance of large pieces of furniture,
luggage, etc. is likely to damage its balustrade and walls. The width of landings
should be at least equal to that of the steps ; an increased width is preferable,
as the appearance is thereby enhanced and the removal of large objects expedited
with less likelihood of damage to the structure.
7· Adequate headroom must be provided. As already mentioned, the
minimum headroom, measured vertically from the outer lower edge of an
apron to the line of nosings, should be 6-ft. 6-in. ; an alternative measurement
is 6-ft. at right angles from the line of nosings to this edge of the apron.
This minimum height cannot always be obtained, and as a result large
furniture can only be negotiated with difficulty ; when this height is unduly
restricted, injury may be caused to tall persons, especiallywhen descending the stairs.
1 This rule is sometimes departed from and the bottom three or four steps are made
slightly wider than the rest, the increase being gradual with a maximum width at the
first tread.
 T y p E s 0 F s T A R c A s E s
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FIGURE 29
SCALI
8 IF URCATED STAI ft..
 JOINERY
S. Winders, unless they are of the type shown at G and L, Fig. zg, or are
arranged as dancing steps (see J', Fig. zg), may be a source of danger, especially
to young children, and they should therefore be avoided. This is not always
possible when the going is greatly restricted, and winders may then have to be
utilized either at the top or, preferably, at the bottom of a flight; in cramped
positions there may be no alternative to the provision of winders at both the
head and foot of a flight.
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realized that occasionally in practice a very restricted going · of a flight is
unavoidable and strict compliance is not then possible.
The nosing is, of course, additional to the going, and the projection of the
tread beyond the face of the riser should preferably not exceed the thickness of
the tread, as an excessive projection may cause a person to trip when ascending.
A stair with very narrow treads cannot be descended comfortably, as more than
the usual care has to be taken to clear the nosing with the heel to obtain adequate

When used, it is usual to divide what would otherwise be a quarter-space foothold on the tread below. For this reason the preferred minimum going is g-in.
landing into three winders, as shown in Fig. 38. If four are used, as shown by A satisfactory proportion for house stairs is a 10-in. going 1 and a 6! to 7-in. rise.
broken lines at H', Fig. 29, the average width of each tread is inadequate; if In public buildings, where the stairs are a prominent feature and ample space
two only are provided, as shown at B', Fig. zg, the average width of the treads is usually available, it is common to employ a 12-in. going and a sl to 6-in. rise.
is excessive, they are difficult to carpet, and the corner between the riser, lower STAIR DESIGN.-The essential requirements specified on pp. 8o and 82 should
tread and. wall string is not easy to clean. be kept in mind when designing a stair. The type of stair decided upon depends
g. The height of a raking handrail (i.e., panillel to the pitch) should be a good deal upon the size and shape of the stairway.
2-ft. 7!-in. measured vertically from the line of nosings to the top of the handrail The number of steps to be decided upon is governed to a large extent by the
(or 2-ft. measured normally from the line of nosings), and that of a horizontal total going available. If the height from floor to floor is fixed, as it usually is,
handrail should be 3-ft. (see c, Figs. 30 and 32, and c and o, Fig. 36). and the going is unrestricted, the number of steps is determined in the following
IO. A stair should be in such a position that it can be conveniently approached manner: Assuming· that the proposed rise is to be between 6! and 7-in., say
from the lower rooms and afford a ready access to the upper rooms. Doors 6!-in. (which, as stated above, is satisfactory for a house stair), the number of
should be situated at least I-ft. from the li.ead and foot of a stair. A door which risers equals the height divided by 6!. Thus, if the floor to floor height is
opens immediately off a top step is least desirable as it creates a potential danger,
g-ft. 3-in. {III-in.), the number of steps equals !-~-1 =I6 or I7· Adopting
especially to visitors : and there is, of course, less risk of a collision occurring 6!
between a person hurriedly descending a stair and one leaving a room through . . I u-in.
h I fi h 6 "
t e atter gure, t e exact nse ts ----- ---- = 17-m. The gomg . . 'II then
a door which is not directly adjacent to a bottom step. WI
I7
STEP PROPORTIONs.-A well-designed stair, even when the floor space is
limited, should entail the minimum expenditure of energy in its ascent, and
= 23-in.- (2 x 6-:t": -in.)= 23-in.- I3 117 -in. = g-H-in., say Io-in. It should be
noted that the number of treads is one less than that of the risers, as the surface
it must therefore be neither steep nor inadequately pitched (see 2, p. 8o ).
of the upper floor forms the tread for the top step.
The step of the average person measures approximately 23-in. and it has been If the going of the flight is so restricted that the minimum going of
computed that about twice the effort is required in climbing to walking hori- g-in . (see above) can only be adopted, then the number of steps equals
zontally. The following two rules, based apparently upon the foregoing, have
been proved by experience to give a satisfactory ratio between the rise and · 7 23-in.-
II I-m. ---- --- g-m.
-- =IS or I6. Adoptmg · IS as t h e numb er, t h e nse
· of
going of a step : 2
1. Going plus twice rise equals 23 to 24-in. each step= -----
III-lll. =7-r\ -m. Th'1s WI'11 b e sat1s f actory, as 1t
0
•
0
. con f orms t o rue
I I,
2. With a I2-in. going and a s!-in. rise as a basic ratio, for every inch deducted IS
from the going half an inch is added to the rise, i.e., IZ-in. going and s!-in. i.e., g-in.+ (z x 7T6rin.) = 9-in; + I4t-in . = 23-t-in.
rise, I 1-in. going and 6 in. rise, Io-in. going and 6!-in. rise, g-in. going and This matter is again referred to on pp. 83 and g3.
7-in. rise, etc. The construction of straight flight, dog-leg and open well stairs will now
Rule 2 therefore agrees with rule I in so far as the going plus twice rise be considered in detail.
equals 23-in. in each case. Rule I has been complied with in all of the stairs
illustrated in Figs. 29-39 inclusive. STRAIGHT FLIGHT STAIR
Another common rule is : Going multiplied by rise equals 66-in. It will
This is detailed in Fig. 30.
be seen that this does not agree with rule 2 when the going is less than n-in.
The ground floor and first floor plans of a small house are shown at A and B.
Whilst a stair conforming to either rule will give satisfactory results, and
it is therefore desirable to be guided by them when designing a stair, it will be 1 See footnote " 1 " on p . 83 .
 STRAIGHT
Owing to the restricted width available, the straight flight stair shown is the onlv
type which can be adopted ; an excess in the preferred maximum number ~f
steps in a flight (see requirement 5, p. So) is unavoidable . Useful storage
accommodation is afforded when, as shown, the space under the stairs is utilized
as a cupboard. The foot and head of the stair are approximately 1-ft. from
the living-room and bedroom No. I doors respectively (see requ irement 10, p. Sz).
Enlarged plan, longitudinal and cross-sectional elevations of the stair are
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shown at o, c and E.
CoNSTRUCTION OF STEPS.-Owing to the limited going of the flight, the
minimum width of tread (9-in. going I, seep. Sz) has been adopted, and it will
he seen that only fourteen steps can be provided if requirement 10 is complied
with. As the height from floor to floor is 8-ft. 9-in. (see c), the rise of step
8-ft. 9-in.
equaIs - 1 •
=7rm. This proportion of step agrees with rule 1, i.e.,
14
9-in. + (2 x 7!-in.) = 24-in.
The nominal thickness of the treads should not be less than 1!-in.2 and that
of the risers is usually 1-in. The enlarged detail at F shows one good method
of connecting the treads to the risers, both edges of the latter being tongued
into the grooved treads and screwed (preferably) as shown, or nailed.
The nosing, as previously explained (p. Sz), should not project more than the
thickness of the tread. This simple nosing- the square edges are just sand-
papered- is all that is necessary for this type of stair ; if the stair, having nosings
as shown, is not to be carpeted, it is advisable for the treads to be of hardwood
(such as teak or oak) and not softwood, as the edges are apt to be damaged;
incidentally, as felt pads are usually used to protect a carpet, such relatively
sharp upper edges do not damage a carpet. Another good method of jointing
treads and risers is shown at E, Fig. 35, where the treads are tongued at their
inner edges into the risers; this also shows an alternative simple nosing.
Another nosing is shown at o, Fig. 3 1, a scotia or cavetto mould being used ;
as this moulding is fitted into the grooved tread, there is no need for the riser
to be tongued ; alternatively, the top outer edge of the riser is tongued to fit
the grooved tread, and the moulding is just glued and sprigged to the tread.
A common nosing is the half-round, such as is indicated in Fig. 39· A cheap
and second-rate method of jointing is shown at P, Fig. 30; here the members
are just butt-jointed and nailed together, hence any shrinkage of the risers. and
especially the treads, results in unsightly gaps occurring through which dust passes.
The treads and risers are supported by two 14-in. by 1!-in. wall strings
which are securely plugged to the walls (see c, o, E and detail at c) . A 2 to 3-in.
wide margin is provided and, as shown at G, the upper edge of the string is
rounded and rebated to provide a simple but effective finish between it and the
1 This 9-in . going has also been adopted in m ost of the illustrated examples on account
of the restricted size of drawing sheet.
2 Wood treads of stairs for offices, etc., subjected to heavv traffic are sometimes r! to
2-in. thick, · -
FLIGHT STAIR 370
plaster. As the width of the stair is 3-ft., •t is desirable to use an intermediate
support in the form of a 4-in. by 3-in. (or z-in.) bearer or carriage-piece; this
is birdsmouth notched and nailed to a short fillet at the foot (or it may be
continued through the floor and notched to a deep conveniently placed floor
joist) and similarly secured to the wall plate at the head. In order that the
carriage-piece may afford the maximum support, 1-in. thick short pieces of
wood (often pieces of floor board), called rough brackets, and shaped as shown
at c, are nailed to the sides with their upper edges cut square and brought
tightly up to the underside of the treads to which they are nailed ; these brackets
are fixed alternately to the bearer as shown (see also c, Fig. 31). As an alterna-
tive to these brackets, triangular blocks are nailed on the upper edge of the
carriage as shown at A and G, Fig. 38. In the illustrated examples, the inner
edges of the treads or risers (depending upon the type of joint) are shown resting
upon the carriages, but sometimes the latter are slightly notched to receive the
steps.
In addition to strengthening a stair, these carriage-pieces serve as an inter-
mediate fixing for the laths when, as in this case, the soffit is to be plastered
(see c and E). It is a common practice, especially in inferior work, to omit these
intermediate bearers, even when the width of the stair is 3-ft., and as a result
the stairs creak owing to the deflection, and defects in the plaster arise.3
The wall strings are shown to be 14-in. by 1!-in. (see c). This width is
necessary if the soffit is plastered and the laths are to be nailed to the 1ower
edges of the string (see E). An alternative form of construction is shown at A,
Band c, Fig. 31, where narrower strings (11-in. or 10-in. by It-in.) are employed,
together with two additional 4-in. by z-in . bearers. These narrow strings,
without the two additional bearers are adequate if the soffit is not plastered.
The ends of the treads and risers are housed into the wall strings, the amount
of housing varying from ito !-in.-usually t-in. (see G, Fig. 30). The grooves,
trenches or housings to receive these ends are tapered and are of sufficient width
to permit of the insertion of tapered wedges, preferably of hardwood. These
wedges (see L, Fig. 31), after being dipped in glue, are driven in from the back.
The tread wedges thus bring the treads tightly against the upper cuts of the
housings, and the riser wedges cause the faces of the risers to fit tight against
the outer vertical housing (see c, Fig. 30, c, o and H, Fig. 31, F, Fig. 32, etc.).
Additional rigidity is obtained by the provision of small triangular blocks,
termed glue blocks, which are glued in at the inner angles formed between the
treads and risers. These are spaced at 3 or 4-in. apart (see c, F and G, Fig. 30,
and A, B, c and o, Fig. 31, etc.). They are also glued to the strings and treads,
and occasionally at the angles between the risers and the strings.
The construction of the upper floor at the landing is shown at c, D and E.
the ends of the joists being supported on a wall plate. The 1!-in. thick nosing
3 If no intermediate bearer is provided and the soffit is to be plastered, the laths are
not fixed transversely but are parallel to the pitch and are nailed direct to the innt'r
edges of the steps, as shown by broken lines in Fig. 33 ·
 371
forming the top step is either tongued and grooved or splay jointed to the
adjacent floor board(s); see c, Fig. 32.
HANDHAIL.·· -A handrail should be of suitable size and shape in order that
it may be readily grasped hy the hand, and it should be fixed at a convenient
height ; sharp arrises on a moulded handrail must be avoided to prevent injury
to a person's hand, especially during a rapid descent of a stair. Two forms of
handrail are shown at c and these arc detailed at H and J. The former is a very
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JOINERY
the plan the required fourteen steps are set out. It is advisable t<i number each step
on p lan as shown and also on the section during its development. The dtr~ctt~m
" up "should be indicated on the plan at the foot of the stairs ; this removes ambtgutty
and facilitates the reading of a drawing, especially when a stair consists of seyeral
flights. The rest of the details can be completed without much difficulty, an adJust-
able set square being useful for drawing the stt·ing, line of nosings (to "check for
accuracy) and handrail. The importance of cnsuril1g adequate headroom is again
emphasized.
Setting Out and Construction £n ~Vorkshop . - The fixing and trimming (if any)
of the floor joists will have been completed and the floor boards laid before the con-

common wall handrail and is securely plugged to the wall ; it is usually ~f
pitch pine or a hardwood. That shown at 1 is of hardwood, circular in section,
and is screwed to a continuous stainless steel bar which is set-scre\ved to metal
brackets, secured at approximateiy 4-ft. intervals to plugs. As this latter hand-
rail projects at least 3-in. from the plaster, it is not a suitable form for narrow
stairs (see p. 93). As shown at c, the height from the line of nosings to the
top of the handrail is 2-ft. 7t-in.
HEADROOM.-Adequate headroom is most important, and it is an essential
which is occasionally overlooked. As stated on p. 8o, it should be at least
6-ft. 6-in. In this example the upper floor is continued over the "lobby"
(see A) and the space thus available is utilized to provide a cupboard or fixed
wardrobe to e1ch of the bedrooms Nos . r and z (see B). Such provision does
not encroach upon the headroom, which is 6-ft. g-in. (see c). As shown, the
partition across the stair is a stoothing consisting of 4-in. by 2-in. vertical studs,
secured to the floor and ceiling joists, and lathed and plastered both sides (see
p. 42) ; the partition between the cupboards is a similar stoothing, but the
studs need only be 3-in. by 2-in. at I s-in. centres.
CUPBOARD UNDER S\AIR.-It is usual to utilize the space under the stair by
providing useful storage accommodation as shown at A, c and D. The door,
of course, opens outwards. The lintel above it is shown supporting brickwork;
alternatively, four 4-in. by 2-in. short vertical studs may be used, nailed to the
lintel and wall plate. A low stoothed partition consisting of three 3-in. by 2-in.
studs is fixed to block out a corner which would be otherwise difficult to keep
clean and a portion of the floor which would serve no useful purpose. Floor
boards between this partition and the bottom of the stair may be omitted to
provide ventilation to the stair timber. A suitable finish is afforded by plastering
the interior or by fixing wall boards (see pp. 48 and 49) to the walls, partition
and soffit.
Setting Out on Paper.- In setting out the stair on paper the student should first
draw the plan, the nosings (or faces of risers) being spaced by the accurate application
of the s.cale.. The longitudinal section is then developed from the plan. The height
shown 10 thts. section can be expeditiously divided into the requisite number of steps
m the followmg manner : Draw a line representing the landing level at 8-ft. 9-in.
above the ground floor. Using any convenient scale, place it at an angle on the
paper wtth the zero division intersecting the landing (or ground floor) and the
fourteenth division coinciding with the ground floor level (or landing, depending
up~n. the end from which the scale reads), and carefully tick off the intermediate
dJvtswns I to 13 inclusive. Hcrizontal lines drawn through these points give the
treads, and when connected with the vertical lines developed from the divisions on
struction of the stairs is commenced. As there is usually some discrepancy between
the dimensions taken from a plan and those of the building, it is necessary to obtain
the exact total rise and going of a stair from the actual building. A storey rod (see
p. So) is used for this purpose. To obtain the correct height from floor to floor,
the rod, resting on the ground floor, is held vertically (a plumb-bob being used to
ensure this) against the end of one of the wall landing joists. The height of the
upper floor boards is carefully marked on the rod and the word " rise " is written
below it ; the point where the suspended bob touches the floor is marked. This
height is checked by taking a measurement near to the opposite wall.
The position of the face of the bottom riser is marked on the ground floor (or wall)
and the horizontal distance between this and the " bob " point preYiously marked is
measured and marked on another face of the storey rod, and the word " going " is
written on it. On being taken to the shop, the " rise " face of the rod is divided by
compasses into fourteen equal parts, being the number of risers required . The
distance that the face of the top riser is to be from the edge of the landing is marked
from one end of the " going " face of the rod , and the net going is then d ivided into
thirteen equal parts. The subsequent operations depend upon whether the strings
are to be trenched or housed by (a) hand or by (b) machine.
(a) Hand Trenching.-A pitch-board, a t read templet and a riser templet are
required for setting out a string for the trenchings or housings. One form of pitch-
board is shown at E, Fig. 3 I. It consists of a thin wood set square having a rise
and going equal to the dimensions taken from the storey rod ; this is tongued into
a thicker board of width equal to the required margin and this is housed to a wood
base at right angles. A tread templet is shown at F, it is shaped to the required nosing
and of a tapered width equal to the thickness of a tread and wedge. Similarly, the
riser templet G is equal in w idth to the combined thickness of a riser and wedge.
The length of the strings should be slig!-.tly in excess of the pitch edge (see E) multi-
plied by the number of steps, together with the portions required to meet the top
and bottom skirtings; the ends of the strings are afterwards trimmed off to accurate
length on the job and the skirtings fitted to them .
A brief description of the setting out is given at H , Fig. 3 I . After the string has been
dressed the nosing line is pencil marked at the required distance from the upper
edge. The compasses are set to the length of the pitch edge and fourteen divis ions
are pricked off along this line. Commencing at one end, and with the base of the
pitch-board pressed against this edge of the string, the outside of the first riser and
going is kn!le marked along the " rise " and " going " edges. Still maintaining the
board in this position, the riser templet is placed against it with the corner of end b
coinciding with b' marked on the board, and the back or wedge-l ine is marked ; the
tread templet is then placed as shown against the board with its mark a at the a'
point of the pitch-board, and the nosing and underside or tread wedge-iine marked.
The pitch-board is then slid along the string and the housing for the next step is
marked off in a similar manner.
Three or four holes are sunk wirh a brace and bit near the nosing of each step
and tangential to the outer faces, and the wood between is chiselled out ; this permits
of the use of the tenon saw for forming cuts along the marked line.s , after which the
remaining core is removed by n chisel and the bottom o f the trenchings finally kvelled
with a router plane to give a k-in. sinking (see G, Fig. 30). The second string is then
set out and the housings formed as described.
(b) Machine T rencJiing .-Simple appliances are now available for the rapid setting
out and complete trenching of straight strings. l\llachines, called stair trenchers, are
 STRAIGHT FL G HT 5 T A I R
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THE HEICiHT fi'.OM FLOOI'. TO FLOOI<. IS 8 1 - 9' - SH 'C ~ IF i4 HEPS

AI'.E EMPLOYED, THf RISf Of .fACI+ STEP IS 8 1· 9 " + 14 •11'2" - SEE ' F~
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~ THE GOINCi OF THf FliCiHT IS 13/9' • 91-9' - SEE PlAN 'O~
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6fOR.OOM NO 3 0001'.
KEY G~OUNO FLOO~ P L ~N FIRST FLOOF.. PL.-.,N
OF SEMI · DETAC~ED ~OUSi
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.(Sff 'I>~ FIGURE Jl.)
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Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

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ALTE~NATIVE DETAIL TO "N PLA-N OF STP..ING GIVING

SHOWING MOULD AT NOSING S<:ALE FOil.. D, £, F,G.t+ t. J INCHES MET~OO OF SETTING OUT
1:•'1'~·1""'~ I •1.~~ ,I •I• I FOR TP..EADS AND P..ISEP-..S
FIGURE .31 SCALf FOI'. A,8 ~ C FfET'
 DOG-LEG
also obtainable , the latest type of which will cut the t renches of two strings in less
time than it normallv takes a man to ·set out one.
A simple device ~onsists of a metal grooved templct which is graduated to permit
of its adjustment to the required rise and going. The only setting out line required
is that shown at M (see H , F ig. 31) wh ich is pen cil marked at the required distance
from the lower or back edge of the string . T h e tcmplet is chimped to the str ing
in the desired position, and the trenches for the fi rst riser and tread are routed out
by means of a cutter which is easily m anipulated between the slotted or grooved
guides. A pencil mark is then m ade at the intersection between the gauge line M
and the top of the tread cut, the t emplet is slid along until the outside of the riser
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
guide intersects this mark, the appliance is again clamped and the trenches for the
riser and tread of the second step a re routed. This is repeated until the trenching
of the string is completed.
A similar device can be attach ed to a spindle moulder (see B, Fig. 5 and p . 29) and
the trenching o f a string can b e automatically co:Y~p lcted at on e setting .
The stair trencher referred to above consists, briefl y, of a vertical cutter spindle,
the cutter of which travels within guides (adjusted ·to the required going and rise)
as it forms the trenches in both strings during a continuous operation.
There are several methods employed in assembling the various parts of a stair,
depending upon local practice, if mass-produced, etc. In one method all of the treads
are first fixed to the strings, followed by the risers. In another each step, with its
tread and riser, is framed together ; the steps are then fitted in the trenches of one
string, after which the second string is fitted and cramped.
Briefly, the sequence of ope rations in the first method are : After the strings
have been trenched and the treads and risers h ave been prepared (i .e., tongued,
grooved, nosed , cut square to correct length and dressed), the first and last treads
are housed into the corresponding trenches of both strings, cramped after being
tested for squareness, nailed and wedged . The strings are now placed with their
front or upper edges resting on the bench, and the remaining treads are inserted
between the trenches, each . being tested, cramped and glue wedged in turn. After
the outer enUs of the wedges have been removed as required, the risers are inserted
and wedged . The treads and risers are then screwed (in best work-see F, Fig. 30)
or nailed anp glue blocks are fitted to the inner angles. The treads may also b e skew
screwed or na\led to the string . Scbtia mouldings, if required, are glued and sprigged
to the treads. · at F, Fig. 32. The inclined risers are an alternative to the more usual vertical
In the second method the steps are made separately before. being fixed to the
strings. One simple appliance, called a cradle, which is employed to ensure that
the riser is fitted at right angles to the tread, consists of two angle brackets, each
being a 3-in. by 2-in. by r8-in . long wood bearer to which a shorter piece of similar
scantling is securely fixed vertically and squarely at one end ; each upright or leg is
notched on its inner edge where it joins the horizontal bearer, the size and shape of
the notch being sin;iilar to the nosing of the tread (and scotia, if needed) ; the brackets
are screwed to t'* top of the b ench, at about 2-ft . apart, the h orizontal members
being parallel to.' each ether and at right angles to the base of a try square used for
ensuring squaren'ess. The tread, outer face downwards , is placed on the bearers with
the nosing engaged in the notches of the uprights. The upper tongued edge of the
riser is glued and fitted into the groove of the tread as the riser is held against the
uprights. The blocks are then glued and fitted to the inner angle. If required,
the scotia is glued and inserted before the riser is fitted. When the glue is sufficiently
dry, the step is carefully removed and allowed to set. After all the steps have been
formed in this manner, the next operation is to fix them to the strings. A string, with its
trenched face uppermost, is placed on the bench and each step is placed vertically
with its lower end fitted into the trench. When all the steps have been housed,
the second string is placed in position with the upper ends of the steps engaging
in the trenches. The stair is then cramped ; if the flight is assembled on a ben ch
specially equipped for this purpose, the cramps employed will be of the overhead
type; otherwise ordinary T-cramps are used. The treads and risers are now wedged,
care being taken to see that each tread is driven tightly against the trench nosing
before the tread wedge, well glued, is driven home. To ensure that none of the
nosings are out of winding, a straight edge is applied to them and any nosing not
STAIR 374
touching it is driven tighter as required. Glue blocks are fitted between the truds
and strings, and treads are screwed to risers, etc., as described above. The top
nosing is neatly tongued and grooved or splay jointed to the adjacent floor boards
after the stair h as been fixed.
As previously m entioned, the stair is well secured by nailing the strings to plugs
which have been driven into the joints of the brickwork. The 4-in. by 3-in. bearer
or carriage (see c, Fig. 30) is then hirdsmouthed and securely nailed to the fillet
at the foot and the wall plate at the htad . The r-in. rough brackets are sawn to
shape and each is well s piked to the side of the bearer after its upper edge has
been glued and fitted to the underside of the tread .
The ends of the strings are cut t() the required length-any easings having been
previously formed-and the skirtings are neatly fitted i:o them. Attention is drawn
to the note at G, Fig. 30, t o the effect that the moulding on the skirting should con-
form to that on the string, and its thickness should be equal to the projection of the
string beyond the face of the plaster. A clumsy finish frequently results because of
inattention to this detail.
Fixing of the handrail to the wall , at the required height, completes the stair.
DOG-LEG STAIR
This is so called because of its appearance in sectional elevation. It is a
convenient form when the going is restricted and sufficient space equal to the
combined width of two flights only is available . It is illustrated at B and H,
Fig. 29, and in Figs. 32, 33, 34 and 35·
Small scale plans of a house showing the application of this type of stair are
given at A and B, Fig. 32, and a larger scale plan and ·sections are shown at c,
D and E. . Reference to the isometric sketch of this stair at A, Fig. 34, will give
a better idea of its appearance. It will be seen that the balustrade of the upper
flight is immediately over that of the lower.
STEPS.- A detail of the steps· and a note upon their proportions are given
form already described and give an attractive appearance to the stair, especially
if a simple nosing is employed. The edge of the nosing is parallel to the riser,
the slope of ~hich should not be too ·flat, otherwise the projection of the nosing
beyond the bottom of the face of the riser will be excessive (see p. 82). The
jointing, housing, wedging, blocking and bracketing of the steps are as
described for the straight flight stair. The bottom splayed step is detailed at D
and E, Fig. 39·
STRINGS AND NEWELS.--The outer ends of the steps are housed into the outer
strings, the thickness of which is usually t in. more than that of the wall strings,
i.e., 2-in. As the stair is 3-ft. wide and the upper flight at least has a plastered
soffit, the upper string is necessarily wide (see L, Fig. 34), but the lower outer
string need only be ro-in . (nominal) wide (see F, Fig. 32), as the spandrel is
panelled (see c). This outer string of the upper flight may be in one piece,
rs-in. wide (see M, Fig. 34), or it may consist of two tongued and grooved
pieces (see B and L, Fig. 34) ; for narrower stairs, when a rough carriage is not
required, the laths of the plastered soffit may be nailed direct to the steps and
parallel to the pitch (shown by broken lines in the detail in Fig. 33). Both
outer strings are secured to 4-in. by 4-in. newels placed at the foot ;md head of
 375 JOINERY
each flight. The strength of the stair depends a good deal upon the rigidity of
these newels and the method of jointing the strings to them. The bottom newel
is continued through the floor and well nailed or bolted to a 3-in. thick joist
(see also c, Fig. 36). The central newel is continued to the floor (see c, Fig. 32)
to which it is nailed; whilst this is a common practice, greater rigidity is obtained
if it is continued through the floor and secured to a convenient joist ; this newel
is also notched to the trimmer joist to which it is securely nailed or bolted (see
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
also Fig. 33). The upper newel is also notched to the 9-in. by 3-in. trimmer
(see c and G, Fig. 32).
Details of the draw-pinned joints between the newel and the strings at B,
Fig. 34, are given in Fig. 33 · These show at the end of each string two oblique
haunch tenons which are fitted into morti8es formed in the newel and secured
by a pin or hardwood dowel at each tenon. The tenons are formed in the centre
of the strings (see sketch in Fig. 33), and if the tenon holes for the dowels are
bored slightly nearer to the shoulders than the distance the newel holes is from
the edge of the newel, a tight fit between the shoulders and the newel will be
assured when the slightly tapered glued dowels are driven in. An alternative
but inferior joint, adopted in cheap work, is to form barefaced tenons on the
outside of the strings with shoulders on the inside.
Note that the nosings of the treads are set slightly back from the edges of
the newels.
LANDINGS.-The half-space landing is constructed of 4-in. by 2-in. joists,
supported by the wall at one end and dovetail housed at the other to a 7-in.
by 3-in. trimmer which spans the opening and is carried by the walls (see c
and D, Fig. 32, Fig. 33 and A, Fig. 34); the narrow top tread of the lower flight
is rebated over the trimmer and is tongued and grooved to the floor board. The
construction at the top landing is similar (see c, n, E and G, Fig. 32), but one end
of the 9-in. by 3-in. trimmer joist is tusk tenoned into a 9-in. by 4-in. joist (see Q
at B) supported on the wall between the dining-room and hall and that dividing the
vestibule and stair; this latter joist also supports the 4-in. by 2-in. vertical studs
forming the small box-room partition (see also A, Fig. 34 and p . 42). The 4-in.
by 2-in. bearer or rough carriage of the lower flight is well nailed at the foot to
the floor and joist below, and its upper end is birdsmouthed and nailed to a
4-in. by 3-in. pitching piece or trimmer which is tenoned to the newel at one
end and supported by the wall at the other (see c). The upper carriage is well
secured to the trinuners.
HANDRAIL.-The handrail for the upper flight is housed, tenoned and
dowelled (draw-pinned) to the two newels (see c, Fig. 32 and Fig. 33). The
interception of the upper end of the lower handrail by the upper outer string
is unavoidable. Besides the unsatisfactory appearance thus presented, the
absence of a handrail at the top of this flight is inconvenient, if not dangerous,
and therefore an additional handrail (similar to that shown at H, Fig. 30) is
sometimes fixed to the wall at the lower flight. The handrail of the balustrade
provided at the top of the landing is 3-ft, hi~h (see p. 82) and is fixed between
a 4-in. by 4-in. newel and a 4-in. by 2-in. newel (known as a half-newel) plugged
to the wall (see c and E, Fig. 32).
Alternative details of the balustrade are shown in Fig. 34· Sections through
handrails are indicated at E and F. The strings at L and M have already been
referred to ; the cover fillet at the lower edgt: of the string at L provides a suitable
finish to the plaster, the groove being sufficiently deep to cover the ends of the
laths which are nailed to the string ; this has a better appearance than the cheaper
alternative at M, where the string is grooved to receive the laths and plaster.
An alternative finish, suitable when the laths are fixed direct to the steps, is
shown in section in Fig. 33· The appearance is also improved if a capping is
fixed to the upper edge of each string ; two simple cappings are shown at J
and K, Fig. 34; the strings shown in Fig. 33 are without cappings.
It will be noted that in all these details no unsightly gaps will be caused
if the timber shrinks.
Two plain, but effective, solid moulded caps to the newels are shown at c
and D, Fig. 34, and a drop, similar to c, is shown at N.
BALUSTERS.-The 2-in. by I t -in. balusters shown in Fig. 32 are detailed at
G and H, Fig. 34· They are usually spaced at 3 to 4-in. apart and arranged so
that one is central at the intersection between the lower handrail and the upper
string. If square balusters are used, they should be out of not less than It-in.
stuff (see A and B, Fig. 38), as I-in. square balusters look spindly when dressed.
Balm:ters may be either housed (as at E, Fig. 34) or tenoned (as at F) into hand-
rails, and housed (see J) or tenoned (see K) into the cappings or strings (see also
Fig. 33). A continuous groove is sometimes formed in the underside of the
handrail and the upper ends of the balusters are slid into it. Alternatively,
especially when the balustrade is to be painted, a continuous groove is formed
in the upper edge of the string ; after the balusters have been fixed, the portions
of the groove between them are filled in. For inferior work, and owing to the
difficulty of housing <?r tenoning the balusters, they are cut to the pitch of the
handrails and strings and simply nailed to them.
Additional balustrade details are illustrated in Figs. 35, 36, 37, 38 and 39·
Bronze or similar metal balustrades are sometimes employed for wood
stairs. Some details of this type are shown at K, L and M, Fig. 45, Vol. II,
and could be applied here if modified to show the bottom of each baluster
secured to a continuous bar (or provided with a flange) and screwed to the
string, etc.
A detail showing a suitable finish to the upper floor, where the balustrade
is returned to the wall, is shown at G, Fig. 32. The trimmer is covered with an
apron lining, which is sloped to conform to the risers, and tongued and grooved
to the nosing and cover fillet; the lining may be of 3-ply. As the nosing is only
slightly set back from the edge of the newel, it is advisable to provide small
packing pieces as shown ; a solid bearing for the balustrade is thus afforded.
The nosing is rebated over the trimmer and either tongued and grooved or
splay-jointed to the floor bo<trd, Note that there is a slight margin between the
 0 0 G L E G s T A
NOTE: THE CUP&OAW " H' SHOWN ON THE PlAN 'A'
HAS SEEN OMITTED AT "C' /., 'D' IN Oft.DER.
TO SHOW THE CONSTRUCTION WHEN THE
LOWER. MLUSTII.ADf IS CONTINUOUS. IF BEDROOM
THIS CUPBOARD IS PROVIDED, A HALF N0.2. L..
NEWEL WOUlD BE FIXED AT up~ .! &ED~OOM
~-- ~ N~l.
r./
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A B
KEY GROUND FLOO~ PL~N FII'..ST ~LOOR. P L AN
OF DET,.CHEO ltOUSE 4' •4" NEWEL- -- I"''TTIlJJITlllLllTIL/:1.U. l i!.T illii iiTOC!
SCAL£ J'Oit.. A l. 8 ~HT

2' • ll'z' l> A u T

(1'4''•13hl'l

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• 1...
9118'
\
X 1118' OUTER. STI'.INc::i
I
4" •4' NfWfl

APRON
I
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II
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I 4'• 2' /)!AlF) NEWEL

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10 11 )(2" b
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1'718' R I OUTER. STR.ING

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It A L F UP . !
I
9- - ~ ~-:: ~- -- ~IR......,_,...-::-:-~--:c;-:';l.,..-;-,..,.....,..,_....,!'-';,.,-;~;,;;;:
------ - _ _ _ _ _ --..J.,.

.../[
::0
~==_l
.::,~
THE HEIGHT FR.OM fLOOR. TO FLOOR. IS 91-4' -HE 11C11• USINCi
l
IS STEPS, THE RISE OF E...CH IS 91-4' + 15 =1'115' -SEE "F'. AS
SHOWN AT "F~ TH£. GOING IS 9' l. THIS CONFOI'.MS TO THE RUlE
'TWICE R.ISE PLUS CiOING EQUALS 23' TO 24' ~ G
SCALE FOJt.. F l. Ci
•.
_ _______ ___ ___ ____ __ _ __ __ _ __ . INCf+ES
2'14' • I'/ 8' COVEt<. FILLET
~~o =j§~ c1. ~~cc::::~~:f ~::=c'4[
SCALii FOR. C, D ~ f FEET D E 'J"
FIGURE 32
 377 JOINERY B A L U STP--ADE D E T A L S
edge (adjacent to the plaster) of the cover fillet and the edge of the newel. I i
SCALE
I I ,f I d I Ai I J
INCHES
Alternative apron details are shown at M and N, Fig. 36.
The spandrel and the area between the long newel, wall, floor and the
plastered soffit of the upper flight are shown panelled (see c and o, Fig. 32).
Alternatively, these two areas may he filled in with coke breeze blocks (see F,
Fig. 36) and plastered, or they may be stoothed (vertical studs and plaster).
If an access door is provided (see note at o ), the space under the stair can be
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used to accommodate gas and electric meters, fuse and switchboards, boxes, etc.
The isometric sketch of this staircase (Fig. 34) shows a portion of the window
placed in the external cavity wall. This must be large enough to light both the
staircase and hall. Additional lighting to the latter is provided by the glazed
door and screen, and, if necessary, the door into the kitchen may be partially
glazed with figured or similar glass. The cupboard " H " has been omitted
for the reason stated below the title of Fig. 32.
Setting Out and Constntction.-Much of the description on pp. 84 and 87 is
applicable. In addition to the net height and going, the position of the half-space
landing trimmer will be noted on the storey rod, the width of stairway will be taken
and the angles between the walls will be checked.
Tf a cradle is used to frame the treads and risers together (see p . 87), the two
legs will be inclined to conform to the slope of the risers. The strings are fitted to the
newels at the shop, they arc then dissembled, transported to the job and finally fixed
after any necessary adjustments have been made.

CONTEMPORARY TREATMENT.-A more modern treatment of this dog-leg LANDING·

stair is shown in the isometric sketch A, Fig. 35· The balustrades illustrated in SEE 18~

~
FIGURE 3
the previous figures are of the open type, i.e., balusters are employed. These
open balustrades are not always favoured, principally on account of the extra
labour entailed in dusting, cleaning and polishing. To meet this objection an JOI 0/1, 11'<2' CLOSE OUTER STJ'J/GS
DOUBLE HAUNCH TENONED fl
increasing number of stairs is constructed with solid or panelled balustrades. DOWELLED TO NEWEL
This latter form of balustrade is particularly effective when applied to dog-leg
~
ECTION SHOWING ~
stairs because of its improved appearance compared with the somewhat ugly NISit JoT LOWER -
DGE OF STI!JNG WHEN ••• • •
effect produced by the upper outer string intercepting the lower open balustrade. \ \ SOFFIT IS PLASTERED •• ••

As this is a matter of opinion, students may draw their own conclusions by com- ,.'1131
paring the sketch of the open-balustraded dog-leg stair in Fig. 34 with that of TRIMMER
the solid-halustraded type illustrated at A, Fig. 35· It must be emphasized,
however, that solid balustrades obstruct a good deal of natural light and will cause
the interior of a building (especially the hall) to be dark unless larger windows
are provided than those which are adequate when open balustrades are employed.
The whole treatment is simple, and therefore elaborately moulded nosings,
handrails, etc., must be avoided. The steps may be constructed as shown at
F, Fig. 32, or as illustrated atE, Fig. 35, where two alternative nosings are indicated.
They are housed and wedged in the usual manner (see F). The strings, which
are undressed, are secured to two rough 4-in. by 3-in. posts which are continued E l E V A T I 0 N ~ SI<.ETCI+
and securely fixed to the ground floor and landing trimmers. The ends of the SH 0 WI N G J 0 I NT S 8 E T WE E N
I+ A N 0 R A I L, ST R I NG 5 l NEWEL
strings are barefaced tenoned to the posts (see J). Note at F that the outer strings
are not in the same vertical plane, the inner faces being flush with those of the
FIGURE 33
 s T A D E T A L s
ALTE~N.AtTE DETA I LS
OF BALUSTR-ADE

~~~~~~ ---- CAP~~======~~

C D
------+-- ~4"~~"
N E W E L -~--'------
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2~' x2%'
H-A-N ORAl

J
23/8' . 1'/811
CAPPING

s- L
OUTE"
SI<.ETCH OF STRING
DOGLEG STAI" IN TWO PIECES
DETAILED IN
FIGURE 32
2'.14" • life'
~'<c"'t----+-- C0 V E R
f--'-'---"'--J'--l~~u..:...i.)J F I L L ET
A
II ::::;2d N_o_R_o_P_~ ___ FI_Gu_~_E_-'4__,.;
 0 0 G L E G s T A R
I ,· I'· • I 1
SCALE FO"' SKHCf+

3 - PLY P"'NELLING
s FLUSH
00011.

B
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A L T E R N A T I V
D E T A I L S

D E T A L •pu

c JI.EL...TIVE
POSITION

u 2.
OF OUTER
I STRING OF
I UPPEJI. FLIGHT

I
I
I

11• x 2•

I
OUTI!R
TRINf

s
"
D 0 G l E
w I T It
E T c
A
N L E D 8ALUST~ADE
A
E F
'/
G 2 11 X :!.Ia" COVE I'.IP 0 E T A L "M" D E T A L •o•
&UTT JOINT

311 )(.311 0 E T A L 'S"

4' • fila"
EOGING
STUO

HAMFEJI.EO JOINT

J H ALTERNATIVE
·--..:...:..........;D:.......:f:.....~T A I L S 'N" D T A
 OPEN WELL
posts to provide fixings for the boards of 3-ply. The posts are connected at the
top by a 3-in. by 3-in. head (see D and A). Two vertical 3-in. by 3-in. studs are
stub-tenoned to the head and strings. Both sides of this framing are covered
with 3-ply (see A, D, F, H and J). The manufacture and characteristics of this
material are described on pp. 97-103. Two alternative joints between the ply-
wood boards are shown -at G and H . The former shows the boards to be butt
or square jointed ; the thin wood strip which covers the joint is secured by
panel pins which are punched and the holes made good with suitably coloured
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wood mastic or stopping to render them inconspicuous. When chamfer jointed
(H), the boards are panel pinned, and these fixings are concealed in a similar
manner ; this joint can be safely employed under normal conditions, as the
better graded plywoods shrink very little (see p. 102).
The handrail at the top flight is shown at D. Whilst this simple treatment is
effective in appearance, it is rather wide, and therefore a tapering handrail, such
as that at F, Fig. 34, is sometimes adopted; alternatively, a chromium plated
circular tube, or one similar to J, Fig. 30, secured by short vertical standards
to the rail at D, may be used. The handrail for the lower flight, indicated at A,
Fig. 35, is of circular section as above ; this is bent at the ends and screwed to
the newels ; two additional intermediate brackets would be required. The rail
at D is continued down the post at the half-space landing, and a similar edging
is fixed to the longer post (see J) in order to protect the edges of the plywood
and provide a suitable finish.
The difficulty of making a good finish between the plywood and the steps is
overcome if thin, narrow margin fillets are planted on the face, and these short
horizontal and vertical pieces are mitred (see A, E and F, Fig. 35).
The bottom step is bull-nosed (as shown) or splayed (see Fig. 39).
If desired the walls of the stairway may be panelled to conform with this
balustrading.1 As shown at A, the height of this dado panelling is the same as
that of the handrail, the capping (see detail at B), of similar projection and depth
as the handrail, lining through with the window board. This detail shows the
plywood and capping to be fixed to 2-in. by !-in. grounds plugged to the wall.
The skirting is of the same size and section as the margin fillets.
An alternative detail to B is shown at c. Here the panelling consists of 3-ply
panels with top and bottom rails and stiles, the top rail being finished with a
plain splayed capping. The balustrade should be similarly treated to conform
(see Fig. 37).
The sketch at A, Fig. 35, shows that the flush door is in keeping with the general
design. A detail of a laminboard (see p. 70) door is given at K. The architrave
may be as shown or, alternatively, the section may be the same as that of the
simple skirting. Another.example of a plywood covered balustrade is shown
at o', Fig. 29, and serves as a contrast to the traditional framed panelling at N'.
1 Panelling is more fully detailed and described in Vol. IV, as this subject is generally
deferred until the third and fourth years of the course. It is only briefly referred to here
in order to draw attention to recent developments and to enable students to make a
comparative analysis.
STAIR 380
OPEN WELL STAIR
The open well stair has a space or well between the outer strings, and in this
respect it differs from the dog-leg stair. This separation of the strings greatly
enhances the appearance of the stair. More space, of course, is needed to
accommodate it, but the extra width over that required for the dog-leg stair
need not exceed 6-in., and when planning a staircase it is well worth while trying
to obtain this additional width because of the satisfactory results which can be
achieved.
Key plans of a house showing the application of an open well stair appear
at A and B, Fig. 36. Enlarged plans of the stair are shown at E and F, and two
sections developed from them are illustrated at c and D .
Much of the construction is similar to that already described. T he plan at
E shows three flights, each 3-ft. wide, with two quarter-space landings.
But for the presence of the door to bedroom No. 5 (see B and E) , an alternative
arrangement would be somewhat similar to that shown at c , Fig. 29, wh~ re a h~lf­
space landing is provided. This latter arrangem ent , however, would m ake tmpossible
the provision of the cloakroom.
The going of each step is 9-in. As the height from floor to floor is 9-ft. 6-in.
(see D) and there are sixteen steps, the rise of each ~quais 9-ft. 6-in. + r6 = 7 k-in.
Thus the going, plus twice the rise, equals 23i-in. (see rule I, p. 82).
Three of the newels are bolted to joists at the ground level, and the balustrade
is continued at the first floor to two newels and a half newel having shaped
drops similar to the caps. The headroom is approximately 7-ft. 4-in. if, as
shown at c, the balustrade is returned with the newels in line with the centre
of the dining-room door. Although the soffits of the middle and top flights are
plastered (see D), only ro-in . wide outer strings need be used, provided three
bearers are employed at each short flight (see c, D and E). A simple but satis-
factory treatment results (see o ), which detail shows a slight projection of the
string beyond the face of the plaster ; wider strings would give a less effective
appearance. One rough carriage or bearer is only required at the bottom flight,
as this soffit is not plastered.
Details of the balustrade are shown at J, M and o . Note the simple treatment
of the handrail consisting of two members. A rail to which the balusters are
tenoned is also fixed to the floor of the landing (see M), and a 2-in. by ~-in .
fillet is used to cover the floor board, etc. The newel caps and drops are
octagonal shaped oui"of the solid.
CLOAK ROOM.-The plans at A and F show that some of the space under
the stair has been utilized to form a cloakroom in which there is a lavatory basin
and a water closet. The partitions consist of 2-in. thick concrete or r! to 2-in.
thick plaster slabs (see also c and D , and pp. 45 and 47) which are jointed in
mortar and nailed to the floor, newels, etc.; stoothings may be used as an
alternative. A metal window provides the necessary lighting and ventilation
(see also Fig. 37). The water closet and flushing cistern (shown at F and by
 0 p

LOUNGE
Tl. tEl> ! Lil>

'-OOF II.OOF
IEDit.OOM. &10"--0M &fDJ\OOM
NO. I. N0.2. N0.3.

~ E Y G
PL ... N
~ 0 U N 0
OF
F L 0 0
l+OUSE
~ B F I ~I T F L 0 0 "'
p L ... N
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SCA\f F-0'- 1.. t. &

A L T E 1'. N A T V E 8 A l U S T R A 0 E S A T 'T'

J K L
T ·-r
~~====~~~Jt~,·.:::~~
IIALUITMOf i
T
0 D
1

~
I
I

0 E T A I l 'U' DETAIL ' W' D ET A I L 'Y'

0 E T,A, I 'V' 0 ET A I L "X' 0 ETA I L 'Z'

SCA-LE FOR OETMLS
§¥®i#H1 .I ~ I I 7J?'I 4 I
p L A N 'R R' 0 SC,ArLE FOP.. C,D,E,F,G to H P L A N 'S S' FIGURE
 WINDERS
SKETCH- broken lines at D) are similar to those shown at D, Fig. 32, Vol. II, because
0 F of the restricted headroom.
0 P E N The open balustrades illustrated in these sections and in previous figures
show plain vertical balusters, spaced at 3 or 4-in. apart. Whilst such simple
W E L L treatment of this type of balustrade is generally preferred, the balusters can be
S T A I R arranged to give a big variety in design. One design is shown at G, Fig. 36, and
this is an alternative to the elevation of the balustrade at T (see D). Details of
this alternative balustrade are given at K and N. With the exception of that housed
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AS DETAILED IN
FJGU~E36, WITH into the moulded handrail, the whole of the balusters are out of It-in. square
PANELLED 5ALUS- stuff, the vertical members being stub-tenoned into the horizontal members.
TRAOE OF THE
The application of a solid panelled balustrade to this open well stair is shown
at H, Fig. 36. This is an example of framed panelling 1 and is an alternative to
TYPE SHOWN
the type illustrated in Fig. 35. It shows the balustrade at T divided into three
AT UH'~
panels. A detail is given at L; the ~-in. thick panels (which may also be of
plywood) are framed to top and bottom rails, in addition to vertical members
called stiles ; the handrail consists of a moulded member surmounting a rail
into which the top rail of the panelling is housed. The caps and drops of the
newels, moulded from the solid, are more elaborate than those shown hitherto,
hut a simpler design may, of course, be adopted if preferred.
Some idea of the general appearance of the open well stair detailed in Fig.
36, but with a solid balustrade conforming to the detail at L, may be obtained by
reference to the axonometric sketch shown in Fig. 37· When designing a
balustrade of this type, it is sometimes difficult to obtain panels of uniform
width, although a slight re-adjustment of the position of the newels will assist
in avoiding a big variation . Note that a portion of the large window is shown.
The need for increased natural lighting when a stair has a solid balustrade is
stated on pp. So and 90.
The use of laminboard (seep. 103) for the construction of solid balustrades
is likely to increase. A detail incorporating this relatively new material is shown
at F, Fig. 39· The old-fashioned plain mop-stick handrail has been included,
as this affords a firm grip; a moulded rail similar to that at L, Fig. 36, would be
equally suitable. The laminboard would be housed into the newels and string.

WINDERS
Attention is drawn to the references to winders on pp. So and S2. The
plan of a portion of a stair, having three winders at the foot, is shown at D, Fig.
3S. Two sections, an elevation developed from the plan, and a sketch of the
necessary framing are also shown.
Treads should be of uniform width, and the going at the " walking line "
(which is usually taken to be along an arc struck from the centre of the newel
at 1-ft. 6-in. radius) should be at least equal to that of the fliers, i.e., 9-in. One
method of setting out the winders on plan is briefly described below D,

.31
1 See footnote to p. 93·
l"l"ll'l"i a! .il
SCALE •' FIGURE
 JOINERY w N D E R s
It will he seen at G, that the 4-in. hy 2-in. hearer or carriage cannot he con-
tinued to the floor but is supported by a trimmer which is secured to the newel
and built into the wall. Therefore, other means of support must be obtained
P~ASTEit. t. CAPPINu$
for the winders; hence the provision of a bearer immediately below each of the TO STit.INuS H...VE &ffN
risers of the second and third steps. As shown at A, c and D, a 3-in. (or 4-in.) OMITTED

hy z-in. hearer, marked " 1," is housed into the newel and wall string, and its
EMING OF
outer face is in line with that of the riser of step " 2 " immediately above it WALL STfi.ING
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

(see also G). Similarly, the outer face of bearer " 2 " is directly below that of
the third riser. The treads, because of their maximum width, have to be jointed; A B
these are preferably ploughed and tongued (known also as " cross-tongued ")
joints and are shown at A and c and by faint lines at D ; they are similar to those
detailed at D and E, Fig. 39· The short returned wall string is tongued and grooved
and nailed to the main wall string, the upper edge of which is cut to a curve or
easing. These strings must be increased in width to accommodate the winder
treads, and the joints between the boards used to build up the string are also
ploughed and tongued (see B, c and G).

SPECIAL STEPS
The bottom step at least of a stair. is often specially shaped. This adds
greatly to its appearance. Several of these finishes are illustrated in Fig. 39·
SPLAYED STEP.-The application of this step is shown in the part plan and
elevation at A and is detailed at D and E. . The bottom step projects beyond the
c
newel. Its riser is in three pieces, the vertical edges of which are mitred, ploughed
(grooved) and glued hardwood tongued. The nosing of the tread is shaped to
conform. The outer ends of the two bottom steps at J, Fig. 29, are splayed and
constructed in this manner, and both ends of the two steps at the foot of the
central flight at N are similarly treated (see also c, Fig. 29, D, Fig. 32 and A,
4' • 2' JE,O.It.f~ '4'
Fig. 34)·
2'
A splayed step may also be formed by constructing the riser as described Tii.IANGU~fl.

below. fON" 211 OUTER

BuLL-NOSED STEP (see part plan and elevation at B and the details at G, H
and J).-The round end of the step consists of the riser (which is in one piece FOit. TJO.EADS, ii.ISfl\1 t, WEDGES
4' • 2' &E...fl.ffl.
and has its thickness reduced near the end to enable it to be bent round a wood
4' •4' NEWEL
block shaped to the required quadrant curve), a shaped scotia board (if required)
and the tread shaped at the end to conform. The curved portion of the riser is t, TONCiUED JOINTS
called a veneer, as it serves as a thin covering to the block. Its reduced thickness
depends upon the curve ; the sharper the curve, the thinner the veneer ; in the
G
given example the thickness is approximately 1 \,-in., although for clarity this s K. E T c
has been exaggerated in the details. The block strengthens the riser and pre- s H 0 w N G
vents the veneer from being damaged. This block must not be in one piece F ~A M N (j
only, as this would t'end to shrink to such an extent as to leave a space between
A T F 0 0 T
it and the veneer ; the latter would then be readily damaged because of lack of
support. Accordingly, the block is built-up of three or more pieces, and, in 0 F s T
"'
SCMI FEET FIGU~E 38
 5 p E c A L 5 T E p 5 SPECIAL STEPS
,-,3.
~
order to reduce still further the liability to shrinkage, the pieces are arranged
2.
E::=::::'.::t: -.:.~~---·If ·-- ----:--:1[
SC.-,LE FOil. D,E t..F INCHES
"cross-grained," i.e., the grain of one is opposite to that of the adjacent piece
I' (see J and p. 102).
D
I.

0 r f T A I L S
The step is constructed in the following manner : The block is built-up to the
It- t-P ~ 'P'
required' height by gluing and screwing or nailing the pieces together, the top and
A bottom surfaces arc planed flat and the block is cut to shape, as shown at H and J;
E L E V AT I 0 ~

F
('f<.l)ff'-
the block is double rebated, one edge being square cut and the opposite edge (nearest

l~toUGHED
J
~2 ?"
to the newel) being bevelled cut or dovetailed. The riser (which should be of care-
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

fully selected straight-grained timber, free from knots) is then prepared by marking
4"•4• )
NEWEL
P L A N
J...:::J
TONGUED JOINTS
&

DETAIL OF
off the position of the bevelled and square cuts, the length of the veneer being found
by placing the dovetailed edge of the block opposite to the corresponding mark on
the riser and revolving the block on the back of the riser until the square edge of the
s p L y E D SOLID BALUSTRADE block rebate touches the riser, which position is then marked ; an extra 1-in. is
measured on the riser to provide room for the pair of folding wedges. A marking
gauge (see 4, Fig. 67, VoL I) is now used and the thickness of the veneer marked on
Ilh" WALL STRING the riser. Cuts are m ade across the hack of the riser to form the shoulders, and the
chisel and router plane are used to remove the core and form the veneer. The cutting
of the veneer is often done on the circular saw and sometimes on the band saw. The
shape of the veneered end of the riser, before it has been fixed to the block, is shown
s,-r-r r by broken lines at J. The back of the veneer and the outer face of the block is then
roughened by the toothing plane or file to give a key for the glue. The latter is now
liberally applied to the back of the veneer (after its face has been wetted with boiling
B J water) and the face of the block. With the dovetailed shoulder of the veneer engaging
in the dovetailed rebate on the block, the riser is pressed against the block ; the glued
wedges are inserted and driven home in order to b ed the veneer tightly on the block,
and the latter is secured to the riser by means of screws from the back, the notches
for these h aving been previously prepared.
The scotia board, after being reduced in w idth and shaped, is screwed to the
riser and tread.
I' It- I S E 1<. The foot of the newel is notched out, as shown , and the riser is screwed to it.
0 N 'S'
A bull-nosed step is also illustrated at D, Fig. 29, A, Fig. 35 and F, Fig. 36.
N 0 s E D CuRTAIL STEP (see c, K, 1. and 1\1). -The construction of this semicircular
VENEERED PORTION OF "-ISER ended step is similar to that described above. The back of the block is some-
BEFO"-E BEING SC"-EWEO TO
THE 8UILT -UP !!LOCI<. times shaped as shown at u (see L) and a vertical fillet (shown crossed by diagonals)
BEVELLED is screwed to it and the newel. The end of a curtail step may also be of a spiral
T-UP 8LOCI<. form (see the bottom step at o, Fig. 29). Because of the side projection of this
T step it should not be used if the width of the floor at the side is restricted.
c
WEDGES · .....-.

CuT STRING (seeN).- This has been included to show the difference between
it and all of the close strings illustrated. The upper edge of the string is notched
out to receive the treads, and the moulded nosings are returned . There are
usually two balusters per step, with a face of one vertically over a riser. This
form of string is considered in detail in Vol. IV, as _is the commode step (see F ,
Fig. 29) which has a curved ris~r built up with narrow vertical strips covered
with a veneer.
c L Stone steps and stairs are detailed in Figs. 44 and 45, Vol. II, and described on
pp. 115 and 117. Details of a reinforced concrete step are given in Fig. 46,
ELEVATION Vol. II.
S C A L E S
SHOWING CUT PLYWOOD
OUTER. STI'-.ING, N I I I
FORA,8,CLN
------,p- r====>!
FHT
~ETUI\NED TP-EAD -----'"'<:::-~ J"Hlttlilllhl A brief description of the manufacture of plywood is given in Vol. I. As
N 0 S I N G S, N E W E L, FO~t. Gi,H,J.K,L t.M INCHES
plywood is now one of the most important building materials, and its use, already
CUI\TAIL STEP I
~ BALUSTEP-.5
FIGURE 39
 JOINERY
extensive, is likely to be still further increased in the future, a more detailed
description of its manufacture, characteristics, uses and types is given below.
PLYWOOD or RECONSTRUCTED WOOD or LAMINATED WOOD is a compound
wood made up of several thin layers or plies or veneers, glued together under
pressure, and usually arranged so that the grain of one layer is at right angles
to the grain of an adjacent layer or layers.
A sheet or board of plywood usually consists of an odd number of plies,
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i.e., "3-ply," "s-ply," etc. Those which have more than three layers are
known as multi-ply boards-see c and D, Fig. 40 (s-ply) and E (7-ply) ; the
number of layers may be increased as desired, but boards having more than
nine plies have to be specially ordered.
A 3-ply board consists of two outer or face plies with a middle core. It is
important to observe that these plies are cross-grained, i.e., the grain of the core
of a 3-ply board is at right angles to that of each of the face plies (see B to E,
Fig. 40, and pp. roo and 102). The thickness of the veneers varies; a l.r-in. thick
3-ply board will consist of three ,\-in. veneers and is an example of an equal ply
board (see B); a !-in. thick board, with the same number o"f plies, has a !-in.
core and two ,J-g-in. face veneers and is known as a stout heart board. An example
of a stout heart 5-ply board is shown at D ;· this f-in. thick board has two
2·s-mm.1 thick face plies, a 6-mm. cen1;ral ply and two 4-mm. intermediate
layers or cross bandings. Examples of equal ply boards are shown at c and E.
MANUFACTURE OF PLYWOOD.-The various processes are: (r) Preparation
of logs, (2) conversion, (3) trimming, (4) drying, (5) gluing, (6) pressing, (7)
re-drying and (8) finishing.
r. Preparation of Logs.-Logs of certain timber, such as alder, beech, Gaboon
mahogany and oak, are first either steamed or boiled to render them pliable.
This softening of the fibres takes place in large covered-in concrete pits contain-
ing water heated by hot-water pipes situated on the floor ; the logs are kept
submerged for at least two days-depending upon the size and hardness-
until thoroughly saturated. Other timbers, including British Columbia pine and
European birch (Finnish, Polish and Russian), do not require this preliminary
treatment. The logs are then cross-cut into lengths (7 or 8-ft. or according
to the size of the converting machine), the bark is removed by hand or machine
(called a barking lathe), hard knots are cut out 0 and any irregularities removed.·
2. Conversion.-The prepared logs are now converted into veneers by either
(a) rotary veneer cutters or (b) veneer slicing machines.
(a) Rotary Cutting Method.-More than 90 per cent. of veneers are cut by
this method. A rotary veneer cutter or peeler is a powerful lathe with a very
sharp fixed knife slightly longer than the log (see J and K, Fig. 40). The log,
prepared as described, is conveyed by a crane to the peeler, lowered and then
1 Tjle thickness of plywood imported from continental countries is specified in terms
of millimetres ; thus, boards from Russia, Finland and Poland are referred to .as being
J, 4, 6, 9-mm. etc., thick. A millimetre =oo·039-in., hence 7-mm. ='0 "27-in. (approxi-
mately ±-in.). American, Canadian and English plywood is specified as 1 ' 6 -in., :1-in.,
1 t-in., etc., thick boards.
clamped between two centres or chucks which penetrate the ends of the timber
at the " centres " previously marked. The horizontal log is revolved and a
continuous ribbon of veneer, uniform in thickness, is cut by the knife and
emerges-like a roll of paper being unrolled- between it and the pressure or
nose bar. This bar prevents the wood from splitting, and the distance between
it and the knife is regulated according to the thickness of the veneer. Logs
converted in this manner should be of large (not less than ro-in.) diameter,
straight grained and reasonably free from knots and other defects ; the diameter
of Gaboon mahogany and Douglas fir (both extensively used for plywood)
logs varies from 2 to 6-ft. or more. The veneer deteriorates in quality as the
log unrolls owing to the increase in the size and number of the knots towards
the centre. Hence the veneer is sometimes increased in thickness as the peeling
proceeds and is used for cores, the thinner and better veneers being used as
face plies. The peeling process is continued until the diameter of the log has
been reduced to about 6-in.
A modification of rotary cutting, used to produce highly decorative veneers
from rarer woods, is known as the half-round or stay-log cutting method. The
log is divided longitudinaliy by means of a circular saw, a half log is secured to
a strong bar fixed between the centres of the rotary cutter and with its sawn
face against ·the long knife . Thus, commencing from the heart, a series of
veneers is produced as the half log swings round and descends on to the knife.
As the conversion is not tangential to the annual rings, the resulting figure is
generally richer than that produced by the first method.
(b) Slicing Methods.-Decorative veneers are obtained from certain valuable
richly figured rare timbers by slicing in order that the attractive figure may be shown
to greater advantage than that produced by the rotary cutter. Burls, crotches and
stumps (see A, Fig. 40 and p . s) are often converted in this manner. There are
two types of machine used for this purpose, i.e., the (i) horizontal veneer slicer and
the (ii) vertical veneer slicer.
(i) Horizontal Veneer Slicing.-The slicer is a heavy, powerful machine which
has a fixed bed in addition to a wide knife with pressure bar in a movable frame.
The Jog is divided into two down its length, and one-half is fixed to the bed with the
sawn face uppermost and level. The knife cuts the veneer to the required thickness
as the frame is forced forward over the fixed timber. During the slicing process
the veneer passes up'hards between the knife and pressure bar and over the frame.
On completion of the cut the knife is returned to its original starting point and the
timber is automatically raised by an amount equal to the thickness of the veneer.
This process is repeated until the half-log has been converted. · The thickness of the
veneers varies according to requirements and the nature of the wood, but ,'8 , ·,to, 3 \
and 4'~ -in. thick veneers are common. In addition to burls, crotches, etc., boles of
satinwood, sycamore, teak, walnut and several other timbers are sliced, as rotary
cutting is apt to cause splitting. Each veneer is numbered as it leaves the machine
and stacked in that order. This ensures correct matching (seep. Ioo). Flitches are
also converted into veneers by slicing.
(ii) Vertical VeneerSlicing.-This machine has a fixed knife and the Jog is secured
to a movable bed. The slicing operation is therefore the reverse to that described
above, the veneers being produced as the bed travels along the knife.
The abow methods are known as flat cut and the veneers show a straight grain
on each side of the central heart. Whilst avodire, silver greywood, Cuban and
Honduras mahogany, sapele, and timbers (such as oak) which have the medullary
rays well developed, are sliced as above described, more highly figured veneers are
 p L y w· o 0 D E T c
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CR.OSS SECTION
LOG IN ROTHY
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T H I C 1<.

SH OWING
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SHOWING SAWCUTS
PARTS OF
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01= PLYWOOD B T T E N B 0 D FIGURE 40
 JOINERY
produce? when the timber is radially sliced, i.e., the logs are first quartered and each
quarter 1~ placed at an angle on the slicer.
Formerly veneers were sawn by either the band or circular saw. Whilst sawing
has been largely superseded by slicing, certain few timbers-such as black bean and
Afncan mahogany (for curl veneers)-~are sawn, as they are difficult to slice.
. 3· Trimming.-As the continuous veneer emerges from the peeler, it either
~~~ds on to a spindle which is afterwards taken to the trimming machine, or
tt IS conveyed to the latter along a table which may be some zoo-ft. in length.
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The trimming machine is called a clipper or guillotine as it consists of a long knife
which slides vertically in a frame fixed abo\'e and across the conveyor table.
The hand of Yeneer passes under this knife and is cut transversely into widths 1
on eac~ d~scent of the knife. Some cutters work automatically ; in another type
the kmfe IS caused to drop as the operator in charge of the machine depresses a
foot pedal.
In many manufactories the veneers are cut to standard widths and these
depend upon the sizes of the presses (see p. ro2). Any serious defects, such as
splits and large dead knots, arc eliminated by cutting off the defective sections.
4 · D1ying.- Veneers for good class work must now he dried to a pre-
determined moisture content, varying from 4 to ro per. cent. This is known as
the d1 y-cernented process. 2 There are many types of dryers. One of the latest,
m·er 1oo-ft. long, is heated by hot watet or steam pipes and the air is circulated
by fans. The veneers are passed in at one end between rollers which propel
them at the desired speed- depending upon the thickness of the veneers, desired
moisture content, etc.-through the chamber towards the exit, where they are
cooled before emerging and then removed by hand . This operation only
occupies approximately a quarter of an hour.
Jointing .-Veneers required for large panels, sliced decorative veneers and those
used for cores are jointed in the following manner : The edges must be perfectly
strmght and clean to ensure a close joint. Hence the veneers are piled to a thickness
of about 1-111 . •. clamped together, and the edge of the pile is sawn by a circular saw
and spmdle w1th cutterblock-the latter producing a good finish ; in one m achine
the ven eers are held flat on a fixed bed by a heavy clamp and a travelling circular
saw, fo llowed by a cutter block of the spindle, traverses the pile to effect the cut.
The two veneers to be jointed have their opposing edges painted with glue. The
sheets are placed flat on the table of the jointing machine, one type of which consists
of a se n es of narrow rollers operatmg over a heated plate and in front of which is a
sm all rotati ng wheel which dips into a trough containing a solution of formaldehyde.
The sheets are fed towards the machine over the solution wheel which moistens the
.g lued edges , and as they are drawn through the m achine between the rollers and
plate the edges are forced together to form a tight joint.
In another type of machine, called a taping machine, a narrow strip of gummed
perforated tape (krc!ft la1Je) 1s passed over a heated roller which moistens the glue
and 1s pressed over the JOmt by a second heated roller. Sufficient glue is thereby
force? between the joint. This tape is subsequently removed by damping and
scrapmg.
R epairiug.-Defects, such as pitch pockets and large unsound knots (especially
1 The length is in the direction of the grain and the width is tangential to the grain.
" Some Russian manufacturers still practise the wet-glued process i.e., the sheets are
not dried prior to gluing ; the sheets having a high m.c. are glued,' assembled and hot
pn·ssPd . Such pl ywood boards are only suitable for inferior work,
those liable to become loose) must be remo\·cd and replaced with sound veneer. This
operation is known as patrhing or plugf.{ing. The defective portions are removed by a
metal hand punch of oval, circular, etc., section which is smartly tapped to give clean
cuts. These spaces are immediately filled in with plugs or patches of sound veneer
of similar size, shape , colour and grain so as to render the repairs as inconspicuous
as possible. The patches have their edges glued prior to placing them in position,
after which pressure is applied to make them secure.
5· Gluing or Cernenting.- The dried veneers are placed on a long belt
conveyor and inspected for quality. Those suitable for face veneers and cores
are sorted and the sheets are also arranged into sizes. Any defective sheets are
sent to be repaired as described above. The sound veneers are conveyed to
the gluing machine or glue-spreader. This consists of a pair of steel grooved
rollers which dip as they rotate into troughs containing the adhesive ; these
rollers are specially designed to evenly spread the glue or cement over one or
both faces of the veneers as they are passed between them . The sheets are
placed by hand between the rollers, and, on ·emerging, are assembled according
to the type of press which is to he applied in the next operation.
If cold pressing (seep. ror) is to be employed, 3-ply hoards are assembled
in the following manner: A 3-in . thick wood hoard, called a caul, of size slightly
larger than the sheets of veneer, is placed on a low truck standing at the discharge
side of the glue-spreader. A sheet of face veneer (not glued) is placed on the
caul with its face-side 1 (or outer surface when assembled) down. The core
ply is passed through the machine, which spreads a uniform layer of adhesive
on both sides. An operator then quickly places this glued core upon the face
veneer, taking care that its grain is at right angles to that of the face ply. The
second face ply is now carefully laid over the core with its face-side up and its
grain parallel to that of the first face veneer (see p. 98). This operation is
repeated until a sufficient number of boards have been assembled to form
a pile of about 3-ft. thickness . A thin (about !-in.) plywood caul is placed
between the boards at approximately 1-ft. intervals during the piling, and a thick
caul is laid on top of the batch which is at once taken to the press.
A multi-ply board is built up in a similar manner, each alternate ply being glued
on both sides and cross-grained assembled. Thus, a 7-ply board would ·be assembled
in the following sequence : Face veneer (face-side down and longitudinal-grained),
glued cross-banding (cross-grained), veneer (longitudinal-grained), glued core (cross-
grained), veneer (longitudinal-grained), glued cross-banding (cross-grained) and
face ply (face-side up and longitudinal-grained).
1 During conversion in the rotary cutter, the fibres on the concave or inner surface of
the veneer tend to separate longitudinally ; such splits do not extend to the convex or
outer surface and are called checks. These are unavoidable if the thickness of the veneer
exceeds ~.-in. Therefor..:, if the outer veneer is placed " face-side down," as stated above,
any checks will be concealed . The outer surface is marked during the cutting operation
to· ensure correct assembly.
A sheet of veneer straight from the rotary cutter will assume a curved shape. If the
sheet is pressed flat the outer surface will be subjected . to a compression strain and the
inner surface will be under tension which tends to cause the fibres to st:parate. The term
' · ti ght-cut ·· is :~pplied to the outer surface of a veneer and " loose-cut " to the inner.
 PLYWOOD
Boards which are to be hot pressed (;;ec next column) are assembled in a
similar manner, but thin aluminium or zinc cauls are generally used instead of
plywood cauls and two are placed between each board.
This gluing or cementing process is one of the most important in the manu-
facture of plywood. An inferior or unsuitable adhesive will cause plywood to
be a most unreliable building material, even if best quality timber is employed.
The plies must be strongly united together and must remain so when subjected
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to atmospheric conditions. The production within recent years of waterproof
adhesives has been largely responsible for the high I:epute now held for the
better graded plywood.
The adhesives used in plywood manufacture are: (1) Resin, (2) casein,
(3) animal and (4) soya bean glues or cements.1
r. Resin Cements.-Such are chemically produced, and carbolic acid (phenol)
and formaldehyde are in common use in the preparation of what are known as phenolic
resins. One group of these resins is obtained in liquid form ready for use and applied
as described on p. roo. They are also available in a fine powderform to which a solvent,
such as alcohol, is added as required. Another group resembles sheets of tissue paper;
these solid thin films consist of sheets of paper which have been impregnated with the
phenol-aldehyde solution. A film, cut to the required size, is placed between each
pair of plies whilst being assembled and then taken to a hot press (see next column) ;
the intermediate process of gluing already described is thereby eliminated.
These are reliable waterproof adhesives (i.e., they will not decompose under the
action of water), they are not liable to the attack of micro-orgaflisrns; are fire-resisting,
do not stain the wood and have great strength. Resin adhesives are employed in the
manufacture of all good class plywood where durability is an essential requirement.
They are more expensive than the following adhesives.
2. Casein Glues.-Casein is a milk derivative. Rennet, or acids such as hydro-
chloric, is added to skim milk to hasten the separation and precipitation of the curd.
The latter is finely ground after it has been washed, pressed and dried, and borax
or other chemicals are added. It is obtained in powder form.
The merits of casein glue are its great strength and it is applied cold in the glue
spreader or by a brush. The disadvantages are its liability to stain certain hardwoods,
such as oak and mahogany, and whilst it is highly water resisting, it is not entirely
waterproof.
3· Animal Glue, commonly known as Scotch glue, is prepared from the skins and
bones of cattle, horses, etc. The skins are steeped in liquid lime for two or three
weeks, washed, dried and the glue (glutin) is extracted b y boiling ; this glue is very
strong. The bones are cracked in a mill, placed in benzol or other solvent to remove
the fat, taken to a steam boiler where the glue is extracted, and finally purified by
heating with alum, etc.
Animal glue is prepared for· use by softening it by several hours immersion in
from two to three parts cold water ; it is then melted by heating in water-jacketed
~lue pots. It is applied hot at an approximate temperature of 140° F.
The better grade glue has great strength, but it is neither water nor heat resisting,
and it is liable to the attack of micro-organisms. It does not stain the wood, although
care has to be taken when applying it to sycamore, maple, and similar light-coloured
timbers to prevent discoloration.. · pressed to ensure a strong bond between the plies ; some manufacturers also
4· Soya Bean or Oil Seed Residue Glue.-This is derived from Manchurian soya
beans, cotton seeds and peanuts. The oil is extracted and refined. It is obtained in
1 A liquid glue sets when the excess moisture is removed by pre~sure, but will re-absorb
moisture and is therefore not waterproof. A cementing material, such as one of the resin
adhesives, does not absorb moisture and is accordingly waterproof. In the plywood
industry the words " glue " and " cement " are now considered to be synonymous.
388
white powder form to which water is added. Carbon disulphide is added to increase
its water-resisting quality ; the glue is not entirely waterproof. Owing to its alkaline
nature, it is apt to stain woods containing acid (i.e. , oak). It is applied cold and is
extensively used for Douglas fir veneers.
Vegetable Glue and Blood Albumen Glue are also used. The former is derived
from tapioca starch and is applied cold ; it is not waterproof. The latter glue, pro-
duced from blood obtained from slaughterhouses, is used in conjunction with casein ;
it is applied hot, and whilst it is not absolutely waterproof it is highly water resisting.
Both glues are liable to stain certain hardwoods .
6. Pressing.-The glued plywood boards must now be subjected to the
necessary pressure to effect a sound bond between the glued sheets. This
operation takes place in either a cold press or a hot pressure machine. These
machines are operated by hydraulic power.
Cold Pressing.- The cold press has a movable lower cast iron plate (called a
platen) which operates between four corner vertical pillars secured at the base
and supporting a heavy iron headpiece. Both the top of the platen and the
underside of the headpiece have machined fiat surfaces. The pile of glued boards,
assembled between the thick cauls, as described in the previous operation, is
placed in the centre of the press upon transverse steel beams laid at intervals
on the platen ; a similar number of steei beams is placed on the top caul and
immediately over the lower beams. The press is now operated, the platen being
raised by hydraulic rams to bring the upper steel beams in. contact with the
headpiece. As the pressure is gradually increased, operators fix vertical clamps
or turn-buckles to the projecting ends of the steel beams ; each pair of beams
(the lower and upper) is thus connected by two clamps. When the desired
pressure has been reached-indicated by a pressure gauge-the clamps are
uniformly and finally tightened. The platen is then lowered and the batch,
still clamped, is removed to the drying room ; the . clamps are not removed
until the glue has set.
The maximum pressure and the time during which the boards are clamped
depend upon a number of factors, such as the type of glue used, the area and
thickness of the boards, the nature of the wood and the moisture content. Thus,
valuable decorative veneers, casein glued, may only be subjected to a maximum
pressure of 8o-lb. per sq. in. for two hours in order to avoid staining; ordinary
commercial plywood batches, soya bean glued, may be subjected to a maximum
pressure of 150-lb. per sq. in. and the clamps should not be removed within
eight hours. The normal practice is to leave the clamped batches overnight
and to remove the clamps during the following morning.
Hot Pressing.-Resin cemented and hot glued plywood boards must be hot
use hot presses for casein glued boards.
A hot press consists of a bottom metal table, pressure head and a dozen or
more intermediate hollow steel platens spaced at regular intervals. Not more
than two assembled boards, with their zinc or aluminium cauls (see preceding
column), are placed between each pair of platens, and the latter are heated by
steam admitted to them through flexible-jointed pipes. The press is then closed,
 JOINERY
i.e., the bottom table is raised, and this in turn lifts the platens and reduces the
spaces between them ; the pressure is increased until the boards are subjected
to that required. Meanwhile the heat from the platens is transmitted to the
plywood to effect a strong bond between the glued surfaces of the plies. The
pressure is maintained for several minutes, this " bonding time " being variable
according to the type of glue employed, nature of the wood, etc.
The temperature varies from 140° F . (for animal glued boards) to at least
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360° F. (for certain resin cemented boards). The pressure also varies between
150 to 300-lb. per sq. in. There is also a big variation in the size of presses;
thus, one standard size of birch plywood from Russia is 56-in. by 56-in., and the
largest press in this country produces zoo-in. by 72-in. boards.
On removal from the press the plywood boards are sticked (see p. 8),
i.e., pieces of 1-in. square laggings (or sticks or skids) are placed at intervals
between the boards and directly over each other ; the latter is necessary to
ensure flat boards. A heavy steel beam is placed on top of the pile.
7· Re-drying.-The boards absorb moisture during the gluing and hot-
pressing processes and the moisture content must therefore be reduced. Hence
the sticked piles from the hot press are taken to a re-drying chamber and the
m.c. is reduced to the desired percentage-usually 8 per cent. Cold pressed
boards, after the clamps have been removed (see p. 101), are sticked and the
piles re-dried. This operation must not be hastened, otherwise the boards will
be permanently warped or twisted.
8. Finishing.-After re-drying the edges are trimmed as the boards are
accurately sawn to the desired length and width. There is a considerable
variation in the sizes. Examples of stock sizes of two softwood and two hard-
wood plywoods arc listed at L, Fig. 40. Special sizes can be obtained.
Finally the plywood boards are planed and sanded to remove surface imper-
fections and give a smooth finish to both sides. The planing machine or scraper
has a fixed knife at the bed of the machine (see p. z8) and the boards are fed
between rollers against it, one side being scraped at a time. Boards which have
been patched (p. 100) are not scraped. The sanders are of the drum and belt
types (see p. 30).
MERITS OF PLYWOOD.-!. The shrinkage and expansion of best grade
plywood is almost negligible. This is due to its cross-grained construction.
It is stated on .P· 7 that the maximum shrinkage of timbers occurs in the
tan~ential l_lire~tion U;e., i';l the directi<;m ?f the annul!! rings) and th~t longitUdinal
shnnkage (z.e., m the directiOn of the gram) IS very small mdeed. Thus, an unres.tricted
s~eet of ·rotary-cl:'t ven~er will work (i.e., shrink or expand) in its width and there
will be comparatiVely httle movement in its length. When, however the sheet is
?ne of. several forming a plywood board it is restricted, and accordingly movement
IS considerab.ly re~uced. Thus, t~e _tendency for the core of a 3-ply board to increase
or decrease m WI~th :;ts _the humidity changes, is .practically neutralized by the two
face veneers to which It IS sc:curely glued_; the f~ce v~neers, having the grain at right
a~gles to that of the core, will not move m the d1rect10n of the width of the core and
will therefore restrain the latter. Similarly, any tangential movement of the outer
plies will be restrained by the longitudinal grain of the core,
2. A plywood board is stronger than a piece of unlaminated timber of the
same area and thickness. This is also due to its cross-grained construction.
The tensile strength of wood is much greater with the grain than across it, and its
shear strength across the grain greatly exceeds that with the grain. Hence, as a well-
constructed board of plywood has the grain of one ply at right angles to the grain
of adjacent layers, maximum strength in both the width and length of the board
results. Further, certain cements, such as resins, increase the strength of plywood.
3. A plywood board, because of its cross-grained construction, does not
readily split when nailed near to its edges.
This is a decided merit, especially if used for wall panelling when the boards are
secured to grounds by panel pins along the edges. Unlike plywood, an unlaminated
piece of wood tends to split along the grain.
4· As rotary cut plywood can be obtained in large sizes, it may be applied
as wall panelling without recourse to framing composed of rails and stiles.
Hence the modern tendency to use this product for this purpose in order to
obtain large flush surfaces.
Prior to the introduction of rotary cutting the width of solid wood panels was
restricted because of the limitations of timber, and therefore framing formed an
essential featUre of traditional panelling.
5. The modern tr~nd of using thin veneers, instead of relatively thick panels
and framing, for panelling, furniture, etc., has resulted in the economical employ-
ment of rare and valuable timbers.
Perhaps the only demerit of plywood is the unattractive figure of most
timbers when rotary-cut, although this does not apply to certain timbers, such
as birch and Queensland walnut. As already stated (p. 98), veneers of many
timbers are sliced in order to show the grain to the best advantage.
UsES OF PLYWOOD.-It is used extensively for (a) covering or panelling
walls (see Fig. 35), partitions and ceilings, (b) doors (see Fig. 25), (c) stair balus-
trades (see Fig. 35) and (d) furniture. Its use as a floor covering has already
been referred to (p. 40). It is being used to an increasing extent for temporary
work, such as shuttering for concrete. It is also in big demand for railway
coach, bus, motor car, etc., construction. The cheaper varieties are used on a
large scale for boxes, chests; barrels, etc.
MouLDED PLYWOOD.-A development of ordinary plywood is that which
is moulded on one· surface. Such is used for decorative wall panelling. There
is a wide range of patterns, one of which is shown at F, Fig. 40.
The moulded surface is formed in the press. The plain board, having been glued
and assembled as described on p. roo, is put into the press. A metal or solid wood
mould (called a form), having a surface shaped to the reverse of that required on the
board, is placed on top of it, and the moulded contour is imparted to the upper surface
when pressure is applied. ·
Plywood boards can be bent to concave and convex curves by machinery and
other means (including the vacuum process). These methods are discussed in Vol. IV.
METAL-FACED PLYWOOD.-Another development is the plywood board
faced on one or both sides with metal. The metals employed are aluminium,
 PLYWOOD
bronze alloys (such as gilding metal), nickel alloys (i.e., monel metal), galvanized
and stainless steel, etc., and the sheets are rolled to a very thin gauge. The
metal is bonded to the plywood by special waterproof cements. When metal-
faced on both sides, the edges of the boards are sealed (one finish is shown at
G, Fig. 40) in order to exclude moisture and prevent corrosion of the inner
surface of the metal.
Metal-faced plywood is used for wall panelling (single metal faced), counter
tops (bars), partitions between public bath and water closet cubicles, etc. The
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metal increases the rigidity of the boards, preventing buckling, and it can be
easily cleaned. Metal angles are used as a protection at the edges and external
angles of counters, panelling and laminboard (see below); these, in addition to
narrow vertical, etc. metal bands when inlaid flush with (or screwed to) the plywood
surface, provide an effective treatment to wall panelling, counter fronts, etc.
LAMINBOARDS or LAMINATED BOARDS (seeM, Fig. 40) are a development of
plywood and are used extensively for panelling, furniture, partitions, doors
(see H, Fig. 25), etc. A laminboard consists of a core built up of thin strips
or slats (or laminre) not exceeding 7 nun. (-fo-in.) wide and glued between two
or more outer plies. The slats are glued together and, as in plywood, the grain
of these core slats must be at right angles to the adjacent plies. The strips forming
the core are cut from built-up sheets which have been rotary cut (see p. 98).
The following is a brief description of the manufacture of laminboards : The
peeled veneers, having been cut to width and dried to 7 to 10 per cent. m.c., are glued
and assembled to form a pile of approximately 2-ft. thick (So veneers of '!'~r-in.) between
two thick cauls (p. roo). Only every alternate sheet is passed through the glue-spreader.
The pile is taken to the press and claml'ed as described on p. 101. The adhesive
is usually casein, and the pile (or "block" or "balk") is generally cold pressed.
The balk is then converted into slabs of various thicknesses (see next column)
by passing it through a frame saw or a horizontal or vertical band saw, the cuts being
at right angles to the layers--similar to o, Fig. 40. Two or more slabs are edge
glued to form the necessary width of core, which is then re-dried to the required m.c.,
planed to the necessary thickness, and finally glued (resin adhesive may be used),
assembled between the two or more face plies (which have been previously jointed
to the required width), pressed, re-dried, trimmed and sanded as previously described.
390
The standard dimensions of laminboards vary with different manufacturers,
a common size being 6-ft. long, 16-ft. wide and l to 2-in. thick.
BLOCKBOARDS.-These resemble laminboards, the only difference being in
the construction of the core which is built up with blocks of wood not exceeding
1-in. wide (see N, Fig. 40). They are cheaper than laminboards and are used
for similar purposes, although laminboards are preferred for first class richly
veneered work.
With exception of the preparation of the core, the various operations of manu-
facture are similar to those of laminboard. Logs from which the timber is obtained for
making the cores are converted into boards by a large vertical band re-saw (see p. 6).
These boards are at least xo-in. wide and approximately r-in . thick. The boards
must be carefully seasoned and dried to the required m.c. (4 to 7 per cent.) ; the
ends are then cut by a cross-cut saw and any large knots or defective portions are
removed. The boards are assembled into piles, the lengths being built up as required
and the joints staggered. Gluing, re-assembling, pressing, sawing (see o, Fig. 40 ),
re-drying and planing operations are carried out, care being taken in re-assembling
to ensure that the boards are arranged heart side to heart side in pairs to neutralize
warping (see p. 8). The cores are then glued, assembled between the outer plies,
pressed, etc.
The standard sizes of blockboards are similar to those of laminboards.
BATTENBOARDS (seeP, Fig. 40).-With exception of the core these are similar
to blockboards. The core is comprised of close-grained battens, not exceeding
3-in. width, which are edge glued. They are not used extensively in this country,
laminboards and blockboards being preferred.
CoMPOSITE BoARDs.-A composite board consists of several wood plies with one
or two layers of asbestos fibre (p. 121) or other insulating material (see H, Fig. 40).
Asbestos is a good non-combustible and sound insulating material, and it is light
in weight. The sheet of asbestos is soaked in weak glue size, dried, and casein
glued between sheets of wood ply. When used for covering ceilings, walls
and partitions, this material renders rooms cooler in sununer and warmer in
winter, reduces sound transmission (p. 49), and is relatively non-inflammable.
 CHAPTER FOURTEEN
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ROOF COVERINGS
s,·/lahus.--Manufacture nnd characteristics <)f clay and shale plain tiles, pantiles, Italian •. Spanish and ~nterlocking tile~; _ eaves, ridge, hip, vailey. nn·d· :err~ details ;
v~·rtical tiling. Concrete tiles, asbestos-cement tiles and corrugated sheets, corrugated tron sheets. Stone slatmg. ::ihmgles. Copper ,md zmc det,uls.

PLAIN TILING than the rest of the sides, and when the strike used to level the surface is worked
towards it, an increased thickness of clay occurs at the high end and this is
TilE subject of plain tiling is introduced on p. 141, Vol. I.
consolidated to form the nib .
MANUFACTUHE OF CLAY AND SHALE PLAIN TILES.-The several processes of
The two holes are formed by the use of a punch consisting simply of a piece
tile manufacture are similar to those employed in the production of bricks
of wood in which there are two' projecting pins, placed at the required distance
(see pp. r- r r, Vol . I I). These processes are ( 1) preparation of the earth, (2) mould-
apart, which are pressed into the clay. Another device consists of a hinged a;m
ing, (3) drying and (4) burning.
having a specially shaped free end with two projecting pins. Both. the mbs
1. Preparation.- The machinery required to reduce the c!ay or shale to a
and holes are formed when the arm is rotated and the free end IS pressed
fine plastic condition depends upon the nature of the matenal. T~us, a soft
into the raised edge of the clay slab in the mould.
plastic clay may be brought to a satisfactory condition by passing It .through
The slab is turned out of the mould on to a sanded board. The set or
crushing rolls and a pug mill, whereas hard clays and shales m~y req~1re to be
camber is then imparted by piling six of the moulded slabs with heads and
crushed, ground to a powder in an edge-runner, screen~d, mixed wtth water
tails alternating on to a three-legged stool or horse which is convex-~urv~d to the
and passed through a pug mill. This machinery is descnbed on p. 2, Vol. II.
required radius of the camber. A two-handled \vood block, havmg 1ts l~wer
The material is then soured for the reasons stated on p. 4, Vol. II ; that used
surface curved to the reverse of the horse, is then brought down several times
for hand-made tiles being sometimes left to mature for at least a year before
on to the batch. The cambered tiles are then stacked and dried. Alternatively,
being used. .
the slabs from the mould are stacked to a height of about 2-ft. on a pallet consisting
2. Moulding.-Like bricks, tiles are (a) hand-moulded and (b) machme-
of 3-ft. long laths spaced at intervals and nailed to the concave-curve~ top. edges
moulded.
of two end cross-bearers which are about 13-in. long. The stack IS wetghted
(a) Hand-moulding.-A wood mould, ~imilar to that describ.ed .for b1ri~ks
with a couple of bricks, and the tiles gradually assume the desired shape. .
(p. 4, Vol. II), is used. The standard stze of a hand-made tile .Is IOz-111.,
Special tiles, such as purpose-made hip and valley tiles and bonnet h1p
by 61-in. by at least -~-in. thick (see E, Fig. 41 ), and t?e mould ts of th~se
tiles, are usually hand-moulded.
dimensions, plus shrinkage allowance. Both sand-mouldmg.and slo~-mould~ng
(b) Machine-moulding.-Tiles made by machinery are either wire-cut or
are carried out. Blocks of the prepared clay, approximately 12-m. by 9-m. by 9-1?·•
pressed.
are taken as required to the moulder's bench and sliced by means of a taut Wire
Wire-cut tiles like bricks of this class (p. 3, Vol. II), are produced by a pug
by the boy assistant into bats or clots. which are at least -~-in. thick. The moulder
mill or auger ha~ing a die or mouthpie?e similar to t~at shown at. A, Fig . .I,
takes a bat, sands or waters it, dashes it into the sanded or wet mould and forms
Vol. II, but with a cross-section conformmg to that of ttles. A contmuous t~m
the tile in the manner described for brick manufacture (p. 4, Vol. II).
band of clay is extruded through the die and passed over rollers to the cuttmg
The nibs may be formed in the mould when suitably shaped at one end for
table where it is cut transversely by wires spaced at tile-length apart in a frame.
the purpose or by bending over projecting pieces formed at the end. I~ the
Nibs are produced by a special attachment on the auger :"'hich may. take ~he
nibs are of the continuous type (see K, Fig. 41) the mould has one end higher
form of an indented roller fixed in front of the mouthpiece, the mbs bemg
1 Asphalt coverecl flat roofs are detailed in Vol. IV. formed at intervals on the extruded column of clay. Nail holes may be formed
391
 PLAIN TILING
by il lever-operated punch containing two pins and fixed as an extension to the
cutting table. The nibbed and holed slabs are then stacked on curved pallets,
cambered and dried.
Plain tiles are moulded by the pressure process as explained for bricks (p.
3, Vol. II), the die-boxes being, of course, of the appropriate shape and size.
The nibs are formed by the plunger as it descends and presses each slab. Holes
are formed automatically when the plunger is released.
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3· Drying.-The drying of bricks is described on pp. s-6, Vol. II, and
much of this may be applied to tiles. Artificial drying is chiefly employed,
although hand-made tiles are often allowed to dry gradually on racks by the
natural process. There are several methods of stacking the tiles when artificially
dried. In one, the tiles are placed upon pallets (seep. 104), each of which holds
four tiles. The pallets are stacked in rows one above the other in the drying
shed or chamber to a height of at least 5-ft. Moisture is gradually eliminated
from the tiles as the heated air circulates round them. Natural drying (p. 5,
Vol. II) is still adopted, but on a comparatively small scale.
4· Burning .-After being properly conditioned the tiles are stacked and
burnt in kilns of the intermittent, continuous and tunnel types (see pp. 6-u,
Vol. II). The form of setting varies, depending upon the type of kiln. If it
is continuous, it is usual to set the tiles in cupboards one above the other. A
cupboard consists of four fireclav slabs, one at the bottom and two vertical side
slabs which support that at the. top. Each holds about twelve tiles placed on
edge at nib distance apart to permit of the circulation of the hot gases.
General.-Tiles should be well burnt throughout, free from firecracks, dense
and tough, and should show a clean fracture when broken. A well-burnt tile
is generally indicated by a clear ring when it is struck with a metal bar ; a dull
note suggests an underburnt or cracked tile.
Although machine-made tiles from reputable firms are of excellent quality,
it is generally considered that hand-made plain tiles are tougher and more
durable. Machine-made tiles are more liable to lamination, a defect described
on p. 14, Vol. II.
The appearance of sand-moulded hand-made tiles, due to the slight irregu-
larities in shape and a rough textured surface, is superior to that of the regular
shaped and smoother surfaced tiles made by machinery. In this respect they
also resemble bricks (see pp. 3 and 13, Vol. II). This texture is imparted to the
tiles by the coarse sand used to cover the mould and bats ; the sand is impressed
when moulded, and during the burning process particles drop out, leaving the
characteristic and much-desired roughness of surface. Some machine-made
tiles are sand-faced by the several methods described on p. 13, Vol. II. Like
bricks, tiles are now produced in a wide range of colours (see pp. 12 and 13,
Vol. II).
TEsTs.-In accordance with the British Standard Specification for " Clay
or Marl Plain Roofing Tiles," No. 402-1930, tiles must comply with three tests,
i.e., transverse, freezing and permeability, · eaves course, The ridge under tiles (see H) are 9-in. long and 6!-in. wide and are
392
The transverse test consists of applying the load from the machine along the
centre line at right angles to the length of the tile which has been immersed in water
for twenty-four hours and which is supported on the rounded edges of wood bearers
placed at 7t-in . centres. Six tiles are tested, and the average breaking load shall not
be less than I7S-lb. for hand-made tiles and Izs-lb. for machine-made tiles.
The freezing test is applied in the following manner in an apparatus similar to
that described on p. IS, Vol. II: Four tiles are immersed in water for twenty-four
hours, wrapped in a wet cloth and suspended in the freezing solution, consisting of
4 parts ice to I part salt (by volume) for twenty-four hours. The tiles are removed,
thawed in water for twenty-four hours and again immersed in the freezing mixture
for twenty-four hours. This process is repeated ten times, after which the tiles
shall not show signs of cracking, laminations and pitting.
The permeability test is determined in an apparatus similar to that described
on pp. I4 and IS, Vol. II. Three tiles are tested in the manner there stated, and the
average rate of flow through the specimens at the end of twenty-four hours shall not
exceed that indicated by a rate of flow of 4-in. per min. along the glass capillary tube
of I-mm. bore under a head of 8-in.
PLAIN TILING DETAILS
The terms used in slating are also applicable to tiling. Students are there-
fore referred to Chapter V (pp. I32-I4I), Vol. I, for definitions of these terms,
for a description of the groundwork and for the introduction to the subject of
plain tiling.
The various tiles used in plain tiling are illustrated in Fig. 41. According to
the B.S.S., No. 402-1930, the standard size of plain tiles is rot-in. by 6!-in.
(see E and K) by a minimum thickness of !-in. when hand-made and J-in.
when machine-made. Some tile manufacturers make u-in. by 7-in. and ro-in.
by 6-in. tiles, and the thickness of hand-made tiles may be as much as ~-in.
Normally, each tile has two or three short nibs or stubs (see E and L) or a con-
tinuous nib as shown at K ; tiles without nibs can be obtained. Each tile is
pierced with two holes. The object of the camber to which plain roofing tiles
are shaped (see F) is to cause the tails of the tiles to closely contact those under
them and thus assist in preventing the entrance of driven rain and snow. In
addition to this longitudinal camber, some hand-made tiles are hatched, namely,
are given a slight. curve in their width. Whilst such hatched tiles enhance the
appearance of a roof on account of the small undulations produced, rain and
snow can be more readily driven up between them.
In the above-mentioned B.S.S. it is specified that the small nibs shall be at least
!-in. wide and i-in. minimum to t-in. maximum deep. Continuous nibs must be
at least t-in. and not more than t-in. deep. The holes must not exceed t-in. diameter
at I-in. minimum to r!-in. maximum from the sides and not more than i-in. from the
underside of the nibs. The camber or set of hand-made tiles shall be it--in. minimum
and ,'";r-in. maximum, and that of machine-made tiles shall be l-in. minimum and
l-in. maximum.
Special short tiles are manufactured for eaves and ridge courses and wide
tiles for verges and certain hips and valleys. Thus the eaves under tiles (see G)
are 6! to 7-in. long by 6!-in. wide and form the bottom course of a double
 393 ROOF COVERINGS
used to maintain the normal gauge at the ridge instead of the longer ( 10! -in.)
tiles which had to be cut for this purpose. The tile-and-a-half tiles, as implied,
are one and a half times wider than the normal tile and are therefore w t -in.
long and 9! -in. wide (see L). As explained later, they are employed at gable
verges, bonnet hips, and swept and laced valleys.
Like slates, plain tiles are laid in regular bond (see J).
LAP, GAUGE AND PITCH.-In Vol. I it was stated that the lap for a slated roof
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should be 3-in. when the pitch was 30°. For smaller units, such as plain tiles,
the lap usually employed is reduced to 2!-in., and the gauge is therefore
length of tile -lap wt- 2! -in. . the spars at a pitch of soooverhanging an u-in. cavity wall. The groundwork
.. ----------------·-· ------. = =4-ln.1
2 2
This reduced lap necessitates a corresponding increase in the mzmmum pitch
of plain tiled roofs to 45°. This slope should, however, be avoided, as a 4S 0
pitched roof presents a very unsatisfactory appearance, which is especially
noticeable at gables. The draughtsman should therefore refrain from using
the 45° set square when designing a roof, even if this causes inconvenience,
especially when an adjustable set square is not available ! Hence, for :esthetic
reasons, the desired minimum pitch is considered to be 47! 0 • A more pleasing
effect is produced when the pitch is between 50° and SS 0 , and for narrow gables
the roofs can, with advantage, be increased in pitch to 6o0 • The area of a roof,
and therefore its cost, is increased as the pitch increases. If, for reasons of
economy, a 45° pitch cannot be exceeded, it is recommended that, rather than
adopt this angle, the pitch be reduced to 42r or even 40°, and the lap increased
to at least 2!-in. The pitch of plain tiled roofs, including sprocketed portions
(see next column), should not be less than 40°, as the water does not get away
quickly on flat pitched surfaces, and on north-east slopes especially the tiles are
liable to lamination on account of slowness in drying. If roofs are likely to be
exposed to exceptionally severe weather conditions, it may be necessary to
increase the lap of the tiles to 3 and sometimes 3!-in.
NAILING.-Copper or composition nails (see p. I34, Vol. I) should be used.
Normally, It-in. long nails are used, but for thick hand-made tiles the length
should be increased to x!-in.
As plain tiles have nibs which enable them to be hung on battens, it is not
necessary (except as stated below) to nail every tile. For normal exposures, it
is usual to specify that every tile in each fourth or even fifth course shall be twice
nailed.. In fairly exposed situations every third course of tiles may be nailed.
In very exposed positions, especially if the roofs are steeply pitched and hand-
made tiles (the nibs of which are often misshapen and afford an insecure grip)
are to be employed, it may be necessary to have every tile nailed. Further, all
tiles must be twice (and sometimes thrice) nailed which comprise double eaves
courses (both the under tiles and those immediately above them), verges, hips
(including those adjacent to the hip tiles), valleys (including the tiles each side
1 It will be noted that, unlike that for head-nailed slates, the gauge includes the portion
of tile between the holes and the head,
of purpose-made valley tiles, those adjacent to the tile-and-a-half tiles employed
in laced valleys, and those required to form swept valleys-see Fig. 42) and
ridge under tile courses.
BATTENS.-It is common to specify either 2 or I!-in. by 1 or !-in. sawn
redwood battens at gauge centres secured with galvanized wire nails. Counter-
battens are usually of 2-in. by 1 or !-in. redwood spaced at IS to 16-in. centres
and nailed. The length of nails should be twice the thickness of the battens
thus 2-in. nails are used for 1-in. thick battens and I!-in. nails for f-in. battens:
EAVES DETAILS.-A simple open eaves is detailed at c, Fig. 41. This shows
consists of battens only, and the underside of the tiles is torched. Alternatively,
untearable felt (see p. 136, Vol. I) may be nailed direct to the spars, as shown
at A. Counter-battens, as shown at D, may also be employed. In addition to
the double eaves course the tiles are shown nailed at every fourth course which
as explained in the preceding column, is the usual practice. The eav:s uncle;
tiles are shown to be nibless and fixed with their backs lowermost to ensure a
close contact between the tiles in this double course ; the common practice is
to fix the under tiles as shown at D.
The detail at D shows a sprocketed closed eaves having a minimum depth
at the gutter which, in most cases, is a desirable feature. The spars are pitched
at SS 0 and, for the reasons -already stated, the sprockets are given a 40° pitch.
The sprocket reduces the rate of flow of water which in a storm, and when the
roof is steeply pitched, would tend to overshoot the gutter. The bell-shaped
finish also enhances the appearance. Whilst a slightly flatter pitch of 3so
(90°- SS may be preferred (see L, Fig. 37, Vol. I), it is emphasized that the
0
)
normal minimum pitch of any part of a plain tiled roof is 40°, and if this is to
be reduced (especially at the eaves where the water passing over it may be
considerable) the materials and workmanship must be of the best quality and the
lap should be increased beyond 2!-in. The tiles are shown nailed at every fifth
course, which agrees with the minimum requirements (see preceding column).
The groun~wo~k co~plies with that advocated for best work, namely, boarding
(covered wtth bttummous felt), counter-battens and battens. The soffit is closed
with 9-in. by !-in. boards nailed to 2-in. by Ii-in. brackets fixed to the spars, and
a narrow fascia (backed by a tilting fillet) finished flush at the soffit. A simple
quadrant bead is scribed to the wall and nailed to the soffit boards. As an
alternative to previous details, the wall plate is shown bedded on the outer leaf
of the wall, and in order to immediately distribute part of the weight transmitted
from the roof to t~e inner leaf, a header co~rse is shown below the wall plate
(seep. 42 and B, Ftg. 13, Vol. II). The cast Iron gutter would be supported in
the usual manner either by straps screwed to the backs of the spars or brackets
secured to the fascia (see M and N, Fig. 7S, Vol. I).
The many alternative eaves details given in Vol. I, in addition to those in
Fig. 13, Vol. II, and Figs. IS, I7 and J8 in this Vol. (modified to suit the pitch)
may be adopted.
 p L A N T L N G
K
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7§.:,...,.1:7
G E

BOA-RDING OR 411z' •1'•114'

REBATED FEATHER EDGEDI
.60A~DING. AS NEITHER
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CAN BE EMPLOYED,
THIS METHOD IS
ADYOCAT

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l'•I>Yz'•I/Z'

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UNDER TILE
/

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2 411

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SCALE FOR J. M
14 I illfiTffillillij
~ H INCHES FIGURE 41
 p L A N T L N G

C F
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N0 T E
.ArT THE
INTE~SECTION THE
PLI'riN TILES l'rf'.E GIVEN
l'r GRADUAL SWEEP UP TO
THE LOWE!'. EDGES OF THE TILE - b -
A-HALF TILES LAID DIAGONALLY AND
P L A N ALTERNATELY AS SHOWN . CUTTING IS HOT
f'.EGUIREO.
P L l'r N P L l'r N

II'< I' VALLEY

/ ."
I' l!OARDING

SECTIO N ON •s•
s w E p T, L A c E D ~ p u ~ p 0 s E M A D E VALLEYS
N 0 T T 0 s c A L FIGURE 42
 PLAIN TILING
RIDGE DETAILS.-That shown at A includes a half-round ridge tile. The ridge
under tiles are nailed to r!-in. thick battens which give the required tilt to the
tiles to ensure the tails biting the tiles below (although, unlike slating, this is
often unnecessary for cambered tiles). The margin between these tiles and the
ridge mortar pointing is equal to the gauge of 4-in. This mortar should tone
with the colour of the tiles.
A hog-back ridge, closely bedded down, is shown in the detail at B. Here the
ridge under tiles are nailed direct to the wood ridge as an alternative to the above.
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Note that the tiles are shown nailed at every fourth course.
A V-shaped ridge, as shown at F, Fig. 42, may be used. Lead covered ridges
(see B, J and H, Fig. 73, Vol. I) should never be employed for plain tiled roofs.
Exposed leadwork clashes with the colour of most tiles. Also, the uniformly
straight hard " roof-line " presented by such a ridge is the very opposite to
what is required for association with richly textured plain tiles. Little, if any,
lead is visible on plain tiled roofs of good-class buildings.
The details at M and N, Fig. 41, show alternative groundwork for tiles. That at
M shows boarding, felt and battens. It is not satisfactory, as decay of the battens
may result by the lodgment on their upper edges of driven rain and snow.
The detail at N shows the employment of two forms of feather-edged boarding.
One type is rebated (see P) to receive the thin edge of the adjacent board (see N)
and the other is of section shown at o. The latter boards are laid to overlap
(as indicated at N) by a varying amount according to the gauge. These boards
are nailed along both edges to prevent them warping and tilting the tiles. Neither
form of this boarding is recommended, for, whilst it has a certain insulating value,
felt cannot be conveniently employed, and thus snow and rain may gain access,
causing dampness and possible decay of the timber. It is used for cheap
speculative or competitive work.
HIP DETAILS (see Fig. 42).-The granny bonnet hip tile, shown at B and
applied at A, c and D, is generally preferred to the angular type (see E, F, G and
H) because of its rounded form and the bold effect which it produces. Its name
is expressive of its appearance. As shown, these hip tiles are bonded with the
general plain tiling. Each hip tile is well bedded down with haired mortar
(I : 3) on to the back of the tile below and is secured with a sufficiently long nail
to the hip rafter. This mortar adds to the attractive appearance of the hip,
especially if its colour conforms with the brickwork jointing below, and is given
a rough textured surface which is cut back at least t-in. to produce a shadow.
The adjacent side plain tiles are cut and mitred to the sides of the hip tiles,
tile-and-a-half tiles being often used for this purpose to ensure that each is
secured with two nails. Such cutting is sometimes unnecessary with suitably
pitched hip tiles. A side view should show these hip tiles well tilted, namely,
the tailed edges should be given an adequate inclination to ensure the top of
each curve well above the back of the tile below. Flat bedded tiles (those which
fit closely to each other and show only the minimum of bedding material) greatly
detract from the appearance.
A suitable finish of a hipped end at the ridge is shown at c . The top pair
of bonnet hip tiles is mitred under the ridge, which may be of the hog-back
(as shown) or half-round type. The end length at least of the ridge is given
a slight tilt upwards and the open end is either filled with mortar cut back at least
~-in. or preferably partly filled in with pieces of plain tile (as shown) or a small
section of the upper curved portion of a ridge tile. Care should be taken during
fixing to prevent the edges of these insets being stained with the mortar, and the
latter should be cut back slightly ; this gives a more interesting finish than
that provided by a solid-ended ridge tile (compare with F). The slight tilting
of the end ridge pieces is also desirable at chimney stack intersections and at
verges (see p. II I).
A satisfactory treatment of the lower end of a bonnet hip is shown at A and
D. The eaves under tiles are mitred at the intersection (see the plan D) and
partly covered with a 2 to 3-in. wide piece of plain tile, called a tongue, which
is tailed into the mortar. Alternatively, the eaves under tiles may be rounded
off at the external angle to the curve of the hip tile. In addition, a relief to the
mortar infilling at this lower hip tile is obtained by two plain tile insets, described
above, or by the insertion of a piece from the upper portion of the tail of a bonnet.
The cone hip tile is another type which produces a rounded hip. This tile
is 10!-in. long and has a segmentally curved tail, 9-in. wide, which tapers
towards its head like the bonnet tile. The plain tiles of each slope at the hip
are cut to an open mitre and the cone hip tiles are bedded upon them ; they
are nailed at their heads to the hip rafter. In appearance this hip is much
inferior to the bonnet hip.
Half-round hip tiles, similar to those for ridges, are also used (see o and P, Fig.
69,' Vol. 1). When used for this purpose the effect is distinctly unsatisfactory.
Purpose-made hip tiles, known also as angular hip tiles, are often adopted.
Such a tile is shown at G. An enlarged elevation of the lower portion of a
purpose-made hip, slightly sprocketed, is shown at H ; a plan and a ~ketch of a
portion of an angular hipped end are shown at E and F. As these hip tiles are
bonded in with the general tiling, it is necessary that they conform within certain
limits to the dihedral angle of the roof. The method of determining this angle
is similar to that for valleys and is briefly explained atM. To ensure the proper
bedding of these tiles, and to allow for twisting which may occur during the drying
and burning processes of manufacture, the angle of the hip tiles used is generally
5° less than the geometrically determined dihedral angle. Each tile is nailed
at its head. The appearance of this form of hip, with its hard angle and neat
mechanical line, is unattractive.
Cut and Mitred Hip Tiles with Lead Soakers.-Whilst this type is excellent
for slates (see G, Q and R, Fig. 69, Vol. I), it is one which is not advocated for
tiling, partly because of the difficulty in making such work watertight (especially
in exposed positions) and partly on account of the neat and mechanical appearance
which it presents.
VALLEY DETAILs. -The swept or circle valley, illustrated at J and o , Fig. 42,
 397 ROOF COVERINGS
is undoubtedly the most attractive of the several types adopted, its effective
appearance being due to the irregularly shaped units so arranged as to link up
the courses of the intersecting slopes by a series of easy curves. When formed
by a skilled craftsman, a swept valley is watertight and lead is not required. It
is expensive because of the large amount of tile-cutting involved. As much as
possible of the dihedral angle is blocked out by the use of a 9 or u-in. by r-in.
valley board fixed up the valley to the boarding, and the battens are brought
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over it, as shown. The tiles are cut to the required shape, tile-and-a-half tiles
being employed whenever necessary ; in this process the head corners with the
nail holes should not be removed in order that the tiles may be adequately nailed.
The radii of the curved courses gradually increase from the eaves until a
satisfactory curve is obtained at about the fourth or fifth course, after which the
radius is more or less constant. Valleys in roofs covered with ordinary slates or
stone slates (see Fig. 48) are also swept in good work.
The laced valley is another very satisfactory form in the construction of which
a valley board is used to pack out the angle (see K and P). No lead is required.
Apart from its appearance, a laced valley differs from a swept valley inasmuch
as none of the tiles is cut, and the only tile-and-a-half tiles used are those
immediately over the valley board ; hence less skill is required in its construction
and its cost is much reduced. The battens.and tiles are given a gradual sweep
upwards so that each pair of courses intersects at a tile-and-a-half tile laid
diagonally and alternately right and left handed as shown. As indicated at K, the
lower corners of these tile-and-a-half tiles are exposed to form a continuous
row of diapers up the valley.
Purpose-made or angular valley tiles (see N), like those for hips, are specially
shaped to suit the required dihedral angle, the geometrical development of
which is explained at M. Allowance is made for any warping that may occur
by moulding the tiles at an angle which is approximately 5° greater than that
developed. The plan and section at L and Q show a portion of this valley, which
is comparatively inexpensive but much less pleasing in appearance, because of
its mechanical neatness, than either the swept or laced valleys. Lead is not
used. These tiles are often underburnt to prevent twisting, and they thus tend
to darken more quickly than the adjacent tiling. The strength of such under-
burnt tiles is reduced, and they are therefore liable to become damaged by anyone
walking on them when carrying out repairs, etc. Leaks may thereby develop
and cause dampness.
Lead valley gutters, despite their incongruity, are often adopted for plain
tiled roofs, chiefly because of their relative cheapness. These include the open
and secret valley gutters and those formed with cut and mitred tiles with soakers.
They are formed as described for slated roofs (see p. 148, Vol. 1). All three arc
unsuitable because of the uniformity of the hard angles presenting at the inter-
secting surfaces. Finally, the inappropriate colour and texture of this covering
material render the relatively wide open valley gutter type particularly objection-
able when associated with plain tile roofs.
VERTICAL PLAIN TILING
Vertical tiling, also known as weather tiling and tile hanging, is applied to
walls as a protection against rain penetration and for resthetic reasons. It is
especially suited to walls subjected to severe exposure, as it affords a very effective
protection, and plain tiles, particularly jf they are hand-made and skilfully
handled, can produce a pleasing contrast to brickwork when used to cover
vertical surfaces.
Details of vertical tiling are illustrated in Fig. 43· The key elevation of a
gable wall of a house, finished with facing bricks up to the head of the ground-
floor window and plain tiles above, is shown at A. The nails are nailed to either
(a) battens as for roof tiling, (b) coke breeze concrete bricks or slabs built in
courses at gauge intervals, (c) direct to the mortar joints of the brickwork or
(d) battens fixed to studs.
(a) The detail at Q shows the tiles fixed to r!-in. by i-in. battens which
are plugged to the brickwork. It will be observed that, like roof tiling, there are
three thicknesses of tiles at the lap. The latter is much reduced, a r ~-in. lap
being common and all that is necessary. The gauge therefore equals
length of tile -lap rot - r t -in. 1·
-=----'"---=-- = 4rtn.
2 2
Every tile in each course is fixed with r!-in. copper or composition nails. The
sawn laths should be of sound well-seasoned redwood and well creosoted, other-
wise when fixed in this position they are liable to decay. Sometimes 2-in. by
r-in. counter-battens are provided; these are, of course, fixed vertically, being
plugged to the wall at rs-in. centres, and the tiling battens are nailed to them.
As in roofing, a double eaves course is provided, the first course consisting
of eaves under tiles. That shown at Q is tilted out by the top course of tile
creasing. This creasing consists of six courses of !-in. thick tiles with i-in.
bed joints, or three courses of tiles per course of brickwork. The three top
courses project with an equal oversail. After bedding, the edges of these tiles
should be well cleaned to remove any mortar stains. A part elevation of this
finish is shown at P . A more pronounced bell-cast, and one which is usually
preferred, is obtained by fixing the tiles in both of the courses comprising the
double eaves course with the camber uppermost, as shown at R. The latter
detail shows a tilting fillet or sprocket and is an alternative to that at Q for
providing the required tilt. Another alternative, which serves the same purpose,
is a projecting brick course.
(b) The section at R shows the tiles nailed to coke breeze concrete bricks or
slabs bonded in between alternate heading and stretching brick courses. These
so-called fixing bricks are made of concrete composed of cement and an aggregate
of coke breeze (a product of coke ovens and gas retorts, see p. 29, Vol. II)
in the proportion of r part cement to 6-ro parts breeze. The size is 9-in. by
4f to s-in. by r! to r!-in. These bricks may project to afford a ledge for the
 VERTICAL PLAIN TILING
nibs, or they may be built flush. Both arc shown. Nibless tiles, which can be
obtained from some manufacturers (otherwise the nibs are removed), are used
if the concrete bricks do not project.
Although coke breeze concrete bricks are often preferred to wood battens
on account of the tendency for the latter to decay, the bricks do not afford such
a secure nail hold and a preference is therefore given for wood battens for tiling
walls in exposed situations. Further, the sulphur present in breeze corrodes the
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nails, and whilst the rust is claimed to increase their holding power, it is also
responsible for their comparatively rapid destruction, especially when ·in damp
localities the corrosion is accelerated.
(c) Nailing tiles direct to the mortar joints was formerly a common practice,
but it is one which has fallen into disfavour because of the uncertain nail hold
provided. As the bed joints of the brickwork must be at the required gauge
apart, it is usual for it to consist of bricks-on-edge, the rat-trap bond illustrated
at F, Fig. r8, Vol. II, being useful for this purpose, as an approximate gauge of
4!-in. is thereby obtained. The thickness of the bed joints is commonly ! -in.
Stout galvanized wrought iron or composition nails, 2-in. long, are used for such
direct fixing, copper nails being too soft for this purpose. Tiles without nibs
are used, otherwise the length of nail must be increased. The rigidity of the
tiles is increased if they are bedded in mortar. The nails are apt to work loose
in the mortar, and direct nailing is therefore particularly unsuited for work
which is likely to be subjected to the effect of high winds.
(d) The fixing of vertical tiling to studs is the traditional method, as such
covering was originally associated with timber-framed buildings. A typical wall
of such a building consists of a frame having a head, sill and two outer posts
with intermediate posts or studs. The spaces between the vertical members
may be filled with brickwork, but this is dispensed with when vertical tiling is
resorted to. The plain tiles are hung and nailed to rt-in . by f-in. battens fixed
horizontally at the gauge apart to the studs. The battens may be of redwood,
although oak battens, being less liable to split by the nails, are sometimes used.
In order to exclude draughts and to provide adequate insulation, it is necessary
for bituminous felt to be nailed to the studs before the battens are fixed. Such
construction is very commonly applied between the head of a bay window and
the sill of that above it.
In the example shown in Fig. 43 , the whole of the tiled area may be studded
and constructed in this manner. Alternatively, the brickwork of the gable,
cover~d as shown, may extend to the level of the bedroom ceiling joists, and
the upper triangular space completed by 4-in. by 2 or 3-in. studs at rs-in. centres,
fixed to a sill bedded on the wall and to the outer pair of spars, battened and
tiled.
Because of the protection afforded by the tiles, the normal thickness of
external brick walls can be reduced when covered with vertical tiling. Thus,
at R the 13!-in. brick wall is reduced to 9-in. at the bedroom floor level. In
the alternative detail at Q, the lower portion, not being tile-hung, consists of an
11-in. cavity wall. As there is no need for the cavity to extend beyond the
tiling, it is dispensed with as soon as practicable, namely, at the bedroom floor
level, and the wall is continued as a 9-in. thick solid structure. Incidentally,
this increases slightly the internal dimensions of the upper storey of the
house.
ANGLEs.~The treatment of external angles is shown at P, where special
angle tiles are employed which course in with the adjacent tiling. These are
purpose-made right and left-handed for alternate courses, as shown at N. The
size varies according to the tile ; thus, if a greater bell-cast is required at the
eaves, the tilt of the angle tiles would have to be correspondingly increased. In
lieu of these special angle tiles, the plain t iles at the angles are cut and mitred ;
in addition, lead soakers are provided underneath at the intersections for adequate
protection. Such construction is similar to that adopted for hips and described
on p. 137, Vol. I. Internal angles of wall tiling may also be finished with either
purpose-made angle tiles or cut and mitred tiles with lead soakers.
VERGES. -The roofing tiles at a verge should project 2 to 3-in. beyond the face
of the wall, the overhang increasing with the height of the building. The thickness
of the.verge should also vary according to this height. The tiles should be given
an upward tilt to prevent the roof water from running down the gable. This also
improves the appearance. An undercloak, consisting of one or more courses
of projecting plain tiles, butt-jointed, is necessary to provide a satisfactory
finish. These tiles are placed transversely and bedded on the wall in cement
mortar, the straight ends (and not the cambered edges) being therefore exposed
to view. Two verge details are shown at H and J. That at H shows the end pair
of spars at a slightly higher level than the rest of the rafters in order to impart
the required tilt. The battens are brought over the single tile undercloak to
within r-in. from the face of the wall. The space between the undercloak and
the tiles above is filled in and pointed with cement mortar either flush or cut
back !-in. ; the tiles are also pointed (see H, K and o). The tile edges should be
free from mortar stains. The end roofing tiles in alternate courses must be tile-
and-a-half tiles and not half tiles, as the latter cannot be securely fixed. To prevent
the warping of the comparatively large tile-and-a-half tiles, some manufacturers
purposely underburn them. Such should not. be used, because of their colour
differing from the rest of the tiles (which difference is increased on exposure)
and because of their liability to disintegration. The end rafters are shown in
the detail at H to be approximately 4!-in. from the outer face of the wall in
order to reduce the projection of the battens, although the usual practice is to
fix the rafters close to the inside face as shown at J.
An alternative method of obtaining the necessary tilt is to arrange the end
pair of rafters level with the top of the wall ; the undercloak. tiles are then
bedded and the battens are bent over them.
The detail at J, showing a cavity wall untiled, is suitable when only a slight
tilt, provided by the mortar bedding, is required. The thickness of the verge
is increased if a cement fillet between the wall and undercloak (shown by a short
 399 ROOF COVERINGS
broken line) is formed. A double tile undercloak, which gives a bold effect, is
shown at s.
Two methods of treating the vertical tiles at the verge intersection are shown
at o, K and s. That at o and K, known as the Winchester cut method, gives
much the better appearance, the fan-shaped effect being produced by cutting
at each end of each course the end tile and adjacent tile to the required splay
and tilting the end tile. This tilt should not be excessive in order to ensure
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that one nail hole and nib of the adjacent splayed tile are preserved. The
intersection between the vertical tiling and the undercloak is pointed in cement,
as shown. The alternative finish at s shows that only each end tile in each course
is splay cut, and this method is therefore cheaper than that of the Winchester
cut, which necessitates the cutting of two tiles at each end. This second method
is only possible if, as shown, a tile-and-a-half tile is used at the end and a nib
and hole made available. The intersection between the undercloak and the
vertical tiling is neatly pointed with cement mortar.
EAVES.-The finish of the vertical tiling at the eaves of the roof depends
upon the projection. The detail at o shows one method in which a hard stone
corbel is used to support the brickwork. It will be observed that the inter-
section between the bottom tilted tile and the angle tile coincides with the
bottom of the corbel.
If the gable is not hung with tiles, an interesting feature is provided by tile
corbels, such as is shown at T.
RIDGE.- The detail at K shows the appearance of the apex of the gable when
the·two top tilted tiles are mitred under a half-round ridge tile with tile insets.
WINDOW 0PENINGS.-Details at the head and sill of the upper window are
provided at L and M. The former shows a single projecting tile soffit at the
head of the window and a proper double course of vertical tiling. The soffit
may consist of two courses of tiles, projecting as shown at Q. Alternatively, like
that at R, a tilting fillet or sprocket may be used and a pronounced bell-cast
imparted. The edges of the tiles at the reveals must be well bedded and pointed
with cement mortar. Tile-and-a-half tiles, and not half tiles, should be used
at alternate courses at the reveals, especially in exposed positions.
The detail at M shows a sound and effective method which ensures water-
tight construction at the sill of the window. The desirability for not exposing
lead to view when associated with plain tiling is referred to on p. 108. Hence,
in this detail, a secret apron has been employed. The apron, hooked over the
edge of the water bar before the window is fixed, is dressed over the tile course
nailed to the battens immediately below the sill, as shown. If a water bar is
not provided the upper edge of the apron should be tucked in the groove of the
sill. A course of short tiles is then"well bedded in cement mortar or haired lime
mortar spread on the lead apron. The heads of the tiles are inserted in the
groove provided in the sill, and their tails should line with the general tiling.
The lead apron should be well scored (scratched) to afford a better key for the
mortar.
A cheaper method is to dress the lead over the top course of the tiles, and
it is therefore exposed to view, as in slating (see A, Band E, Fig. 73, Vol. 1).
VERTICAL SLATING.---:-Slates are also used to cover walls, especially of build-
ings where severe weather conditions are likely to be met. Whilst vertical
slating affords an excellent protection, its appearance is less pleasing than that
of vertical tiling, especially if large, thin, smooth textured slates are employed.
Like plain tiles, slates may be fixed to battens, concrete bricks, direct to mortar
joints or to studs. The slates at external and internal vertical angles are mitred,
and soakers are provided as explained on p. I 1 I.
PANTlLING
MANUFACTURE OF CLAY AND SHALE PANTILES.-The preparation of the clay
or shale, and the drying and burning processes are as described for plain tiling
(pp. 104 and 105). Pantiles are from 13 to q-in. long, 9 to ro-in. wide and !, i
and £-in. thick (see A, Fig. 44). They are not cambered but are flat from head
to tail, and they are curved transversely to a flat-wave or S-section. One nib
is provided at the head on the underside of the trough of the wave, a nail hole is
formed below the nib, and two of the opposite diagonal corners are splayed or
rounded, as shown at A and B, Fig. 44· Pantiles are hand and machine moulded.
The wood mould used in hand-moulding is similar to that described for
bricks (p. 4, Vol. II), being rectangular in shape and with the two opposite
diagonal corners blocked out with triangular pieces ; the shaping of the slab is
performed as explained on p. 104; the stockboard (see p. 4, Vol. II) has a
small nib-shaped depression at one end, and the nib is accordingly made at this
operation. The slab is removed and placed on a washing-off frame, which is
simply a mould having its upper surface curved to an S-shape. The moulder
with wet hands then presses the slab to the curved form. Mter being partially
dried, the curved slab may be taken to the thwacking frame (a wood mould with
an S-curved top) and beaten with a thwacker (a wood blade resembling a small
cricket bat) to consolidate the clay and correct any twisting which may have
developed. The edges are finally trinuned with a knife and the slab is removed
to dry after it has been holed as described on p. 104. Because of the additional
cost which it entails, this thwacking operation is now usually omitted, and the
toughness and durability of the tiles are thereby affected adversely.
Pantiles are machine-made by the wire-cut process, the band of clay extruded
through a mouthpiece shaped to the required cross-section being cut to length,
nibbed and holed as described on pp. 104 and 105.
DETAILS.-There are several differences between plain tiling and pantiling.
Whereas plain tiles are laid with butt side joints with three thicknesses at the lap
and two thicknesses between laps, pantiles are laid with overlapping side joints
with two thicknesses only at the head joints and a single thickness at the unlapped
portions. Further, whilst plain tiles have a bonded appearance, pantiles are
unbonded, having continuous side joints from eaves to ridge. Pantiles are thus
 v E T c A L p L A N T L N G
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FIGURE 43
SUr!lE fOR H,J,K,J.l,O,P.S t. T INCHES Su.t.E FOR l.M,Q t tt. INCHES
 401 ROOF COVERINGS
described as being single-lapped, as distinct from plain tiles which arc double-
lapped.
Pantiling is detailed in Figs. 44 and 45. A cross-section through two adjacent
pantiles at c, Fig. 44, shows the side lap which varies from r! to 2-in. A plan,
to a reduced scale, of these tiles is shown at D.
The head or longitudinal lap varies from 3 to 4-in., according to the pitch of
the roof and the degree of exposure. The gauge equals the length of tile -lap ;
thus, that of 14-in. long pantiles, having a 3-in. lap, equals 14-in.- 3-in. = r r-in.
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The pitch varies from J0° to 47! 0
if the latter is exceeded there is a tendency
; being similar to that at J, and the timbering and felting on the right are as shown
in a storm for the water streaming down the shallow channels to overshoot the
eaves gutter.
The comparative gauges being 4 -in. for plain tiles (see p. ro6) and I r-in.
for pantiles, the covering capacity of the latter is greatly in excess of that of plain
tiles. Thus, the approximate number of pantiles required per square (roo-
sq. ft.) is 170, whereas approximately 550 plain tiles are required to cover the
same area. The average weight of pantiles, when fixed, is about 7!-lb. per sq.
ft., and is therefore much lighter than a plain tile covering which may reach
14!-lb. per sq. ft. Hence smaller roof timbers may be used for pantiles (or the
distance between purlins may be increased) than those required for plain tiling,
and therefore the employment of pantiling results in an economy in roof
timber.
The two diagonally opposite corners or shoulders are splayed off to the depth of
the lap, as shown at D, Fig. 44, to permit of a reasonably close fit being maintained
between the tiles ; otherwise four thicknesses of tile would occur at the corners,
resulting in open joints due to the tilting or overriding of the tiles. The joining
of the bottom left-hand bottom corner of a tile with the top right-hand corner
of the tile below and to the left is called shouldering and is illustrated at H.
Pantiles are nailed as required and as specified for plain tiling (see p. ro6 ).
The greater the exposure, the more frequent the nailing. The groundwork
for both types of tile is also similar; r!-in. by !-in. tiling battens are commonly
employed, although 2-in. by r-in. battens are also used.
EAVES DETAILS.-Two details are shown at J and L, Fig. 44· That at J shows
a simple closed eaves. Untearable felt is nailed to the backs of the spars-and
rl-in. by !-in. tiling battens are fixed at the gauge apart- II-in. Although
an under-eaves course is not absolutely necessary, a more satisfactory finish is
obtained if one is provided. That shown consists of a course of eaves under
tiles ; a course of ordinary plain tiles is sometimes adopted. The bottom course
of pantiles is bedded on mortar on the plain tiles.
The alternative eaves detail at L shows the external leaf of the cavity wall
finished with six projecting courses of uncambered plain tiles. The ground-
work conforms to the best practice, namely, tongued and grooved boarding
covered with felt, counter-battens at r 5 to r6-in. centres and tiling battens at
gauge centres. The spars are slightly sprocketed and the bottom course of
pantiles is bedded on a course of nibless eaves under tiles. A part elevation
of this eaves is shown at K. The eaves gutter has been omitted. Small plain
tile insets (see p. ro8) provide a relief to the mortar bedding.
Occasionally three or four courses of plain tiling are provided at the gauge
(4-in.) apart in the usual manner at the eaves of a pantiled roof. This treatment
is traditional, and its object is to distribute the flow of water from the channels
of the pantiles above and so prevent it from overshooting the gutter.
An alternative eaves detail is shown in Fig. r8 .
RIDGE DETAILS.-Two are shown at F, Fig. 44, the groundwork on the left
at L. Galleting is shown in both, namely, two small pieces of plain tile are
bedded in each channel and finished level with the top of the corrugations (see
also G, Fig. 44, and E, Fig. 45). Besides providing an interesting feature and
reducing the amount of bedding mortar, this packing up to the ridge ensures a
level bed throughout for the latter.
Three traditional methods for ensuring a " drop-dry " roof were : ( 1) Pointing
the tail and side joints, (2) lathing and bedding under the side joints and (3) reeding
and bedding. None of the three methods is now recommended. Regarding:
1. Whilst the pointing cf the joints can be done effectively, as the mortar is
applied from the outside, there is evidence to show that tiles on old roofs which have
been treated in this m anner were defective where they contacted the mortar, although
the remainder of each tile may have been perfectly sound. This decay was probably
due to the slow drying out of absorbed water or that driven through cracks, etc.,
in the pointing. Frost action would accelerate the decay. In course of time the
pointing becomes defective and re-pointing is necessary. Pointing detracts from the
appearance of a roof.
2. Lathing and bedding the side joints, known as strip lathing, is effected by
nailing two or three plasterers ' laths (k-in. by t-in. by z t to 4!-ft. long) at "finger
s pacin g " (i-in. apart) to the tiling battens at 8-in. centres (or side joints apart) and
runnin g from eaves to ridge. Lime mortar is then spread on the laths as the tiles are fixed
and bedded on the fillets at the side joints. A fillet and laths are indicated by broken
lines at L , Fig. 45 · Whilst this gives a firm bedding to the tiles, the application of this
method is deprecated because of the tendency for the tiles to decay where they contact
the mortar and for this decay to spread to the roof timbers.
3· This somewhat primitive method consisted of packing reeds (marsh grasses)
over the spars between th.; tiling battens and parallel to the latter. The reeds were
kept in place by short laths placed over them at 2-ft. intervals with their ends tucked
under the tiling battens. The tiles were then bedded on mortar fillets at their side
joints. Any water driven in was soaked up by the reeds, and the latter was effective
in preventing the pantiles covering roofs of barns , sheds, etc., from being lifted up
and dislodged b y gusts of wind.
N ow that roofing felt is available, it is difficult t o justify the continuance of any
of the above three methods, even if their initial cost is less.
VERGE DETAILS (see G and H, Fig. 45).- That at H shows the usual treat-
ment of a right-hand verge when the groundwork consists of boarding, felt,
counter-battens and tiling battens, an undercloak consisting of three courses
of plain or flat tiles providing a suitable finish to the verge pantiles which are
bedded on and pointed with cement mortar or compo consisting of r part cement,
I part lime and 4 parts sand. The undercloak projects 2 to 3-in., depending
upon the height of the building. The width of the upper course of plain tiles is
reduced, as shown, to permit of the hanging and nailing of the verge tiles to the
tiling battens, ·
 NAIL t+OLE NIB
p A N T L N G
t+AlF- ~OUND PJDGE TILE
IO' DIA.. 5/a" THICK,I2' GALLETING - ,.
BEDDED (., POINTED IN
CEMENT MO~TA~
---·- -·--·-

p A N T L E

G
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c
s E c 0 N .. e• E L E V A T 0 N

-t--r--+-E
I
I GAUGE : LENGTt+ OF TILE - LAP • 14' -31 • II'

D
\
'----'---'1...-----' D G E D E T A L
P L A N
St+OWING
PANTILES
SIDE LAP

14' • 10' • 518'

PANTILES
LAID WITH A ~· t+EAD LAP

IVz' • .l/4' SATT~

UNTEAM8LE FELT

EAVES UNDER """-,

PLAIN TILES " "

1--1'
I
111' THICK
4' • I' FASCIA
1' • 3/4' SOFFIT tJO,.M1

E A V E S 0 E T A L E L E V A T 0 N E A V E S 0 E T A L

S(J.ilE FO~ C,F,J l. L

I •I I iii I il I ,o 1:-sEI i I i> O!i3
IN<:HES FIGURE 44
 403 ROOF COVERINGS
The detail at G shows a left-handed verge. The narrow curved purpose-
made verge tile shown is necessary at each course to balance the roof and present
the same appearance at both verges. Alternatively, purpose-made double" roll"
verge tiles are used ; as these can be hung on and nailed to the tiling battens,
in addition to being bedded, they are preferred to that shown at c where the
narrow verge tiles are bedded only. One of the two verges at a gable will be
as shown at H, and the other on the opposite slope will be finished with purpose-
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made tiles ; the thickness of the pointing should, of course, be the same at both
verges.
ABUTMENT DETAILS.- Fotmerly, when purpose-made verge pantiles were
not available (and therefore symmetrical treatment at the verges was not possible
unless the verge tiles on one slope at each gable were cut and the rolls removed),
it was a common practice to finish gable walls with low thin parapets as shown
at D, Fig. 45· A brick-on-edge coping, surmounting a double plain tile creasing
which oversailed a cement fillet splayed down to the pantiles, was provided.
Sometimes the parapet was only 42--in. thick. Whilst this provided a pleasing
appearance the construction was not sound, as water was liable to penetrate the
wall, as indicated by the thick broken arrows.
Sounder construction, presenting the same external appearance, is shown at
:s, where the cavity of the gable waif extends to the tile creasing. An isometric
sketch of this detail is shown at E. This also illustrates a satisfactory treatment
of the roof at a chimney stack. Galleting is shown at the ridge and at the three
channels of the pantiles intercepted by the stack. Cut plain tiles are bedded
on the latter galleting and continued up the slope where the upper end is covered
by the ridge tile. A neat mortar fillet is formed over these cut tiles and at the
ridge intersection. This sketch also shows the groundwork described on p. 114
in connection with the detail at H.
An alternative detail, showing a cavity wall finished with a stone coping, is
given at A. This also shows a cement fillet, neatly splayed or rounded off,
covering the intersection between the tiles (and the ridge) and the wall.
In the above abutment details, cement fillets have been shown at the inter-
sections. It is advisable to add a 5 per cent. waterproofer (seep. 27, Vol. II ) to
the mortar. Whilst these fillets present a satisfactory appearance when associated
with pantiles, mortar is a very unreliable material for this purpose, as the fillets
have a tendency to crack and fall away. They therefore require occasional
attention, and the making good of any defects, if water is to be excluded.
Undoubtedly the provision of lead flashings at abutments, in lieu of mortar
fillets, is the soundest practice. But, as already pointed out, leadwork does not
harmonize with tiles in general because of its colour and texture. The section
at c shows, as an alternative to the cement fillet at A, a lead apron flashing which
is dressed over the tiles.
HIP DETAILS.-The cutting of pantiles is both difficult and expensive, and
therefore intersections resulting from hips, valleys, dormers, etc., should be
avoided or reduced to a minimum.
The detail at K, Fig. 45 , shows an elevation of a portion of the roof illustrated
at K and L, Fig. 44· The hip is of half-round tiles bedded on the pantiles on
adjacent slopes which have been cut to form an open mitre up the line of the
hip. Conical hip tiles are also employed .
VALLEY DETAILS.-A typical valley is shown at J, Fig. 45· The lead forming
the gutter is dressed over the valley board and up each slope, where it is either
turned over at the edge, as shown on the left, or dressed over a tilting fillet as
indicated on the right (see p. 148, Vol. I). A layer of flat plain tiles is laid up
the slope at each side, butt-jointed in mortar at their ends, and the cut pantiles
are bedded on them. Pieces of tile may be embedded in this bedding to form
tile insets. The roofing felt is brought over the plain tiles as shown. The some-
what unusual appearance of the pantiles is due to the vertical section being taken
normal to the line of the valley .
Purpose-made valley tiles, slightly curved or v.. shaped in cross-section,
are now available . Lead is not required when these are employed, the roofing
felt being continued over the valley board, and the valley tiles, laid with a 3-in.
lap, are nailed to the board. The cut pantiles are bedded on the sides of the
valley tiles. A very satisfactory appearance results.
Pantiles, being comparatively big t1nits, are best suited for covering large
roofs requiring a bold and simple treatment. T hose of best quality, especially
if hand-made, are used in first-class work, whilst pantiles of inferior quality
are suitable for roofs of farm and similar buildings where an inexpensive covering
is desired.
ITALIAN OR RO M AN TILING
This is illustrated in Fig. 46.
The various forms of this class of tiling include (a) Old Roman, (b) Single
Roman and (c) Double Roman.
(a) OLD ROMAN TILING .-T his is also known as Basilican tiling, and, more
commonly, as Italian tiling. It is another example of single-lap tiling. T he
tiles, which are hand-made, consist of flat under tiles (abbreviated to unders),
which alternate with convex curved over or top tiles (or overs).
An under is shown at B. It is flat , tapered, with upturned edges or flanges
at the sides, and is provided with two nail holes. Its length is 15!-in., its width
varies from 9! to 9!-in. at the tail and IOi to II -in . at the head, and it is z to
~-in. thick . Some are provided with two t ransverse grooves near the head;
these capillary grooves are effective in minimizing u pdrift. T he end views of
the head and tail show that the flanges are tapered, with a slight increase in depth
towards the head.
An over (see A) is also I 5!-in . long, tapered on plan, half-round at the tail,
slightly less in height at the head, and is provided with one nail hole . As shown,
the tile may be slightly shouldered to allow it to clear the unders in the course
above at the head lap.
 p A N T L N G
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S E C T

l
SCALE FOP. 8, C L C FEET
.14' • Z'h' STONE t. 8RICI<. - ON-EDGE COPINGS
WATER IS LIABLE TO PENETAATE HERE
TILE CREASING
CEMENT FILLET
PANTILES

4' • Z' SPARS

SECTIONS Tltfi.OUGH ALTE~NATIVE PARAPETS
0 E
A u T M E N T s

• 314' COUNTE!t.-II...TTENS

/ 4'•2"

E T G ~ T G E s
1 •' 1 i 1 .1 1 a FEET
SCALE FOP. G, H & J SCALE FOt'.. A , E (. 1<.

IV%' • "/4' BATTENS CUT PA-NTILES llEDDED IN MOP..TA-1\

MOP-TAP.. BEDDING

-SEE FIG.# .

v A l L E y 1-t p
NOTE: THIS VERTICAL SECTION IS
NORMAL TO THE LINE OF VALLEY. J FIGURE
 405 ROOF COVERINGS
The head lap varies from 2~ to 3-in ., depending upon the pitch (sec 1.).
The minimum pitch is 35°. The side lap is 2-in. (see G).
The groundwork may consist of 2-in. by r-in . battens, fi xed at the gauge
apart to the spars which have been previously covered with untearable felt .
Alternatively, 1-in. boarding, covere'd with felt , may be used. The gauge equals
length of tile-lap = rs~-in.-3 (or 2l)-in. = r2l or 13-in. In addition , a 3-in .
by i-in . vertical batten is fixed between each pair of unders at I 1~-in. centres
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(see G), otherwise very long nails would be required to secure the overs. A vertical
batten is fixed immediately a row of unders is completed. The unders are
fixed to the battens or boarding with rl-in. copper nails, and 3-in. nails are used
to fix the overs to the vertical battens. A true plan of a portion of two courses,
showing the setting out, is given at H, a part elevation is shown at K and a
section at an eaves is shown at L. The detail at T (see next column) may be
adopted also.
As shown at K and L, it is usual to provide a course of plain eaves under
tiles at the eaves. Besides presenting a satisfactory finish, this affords a suitable
bed for the unders and the mortar which is used to fill in the hollows of the
eaves over tiles. The mortar should be cut back for about r-in. to give a shadow.
The finish at the ridge is similar to that shown for pantiling, half-round tiles
and galleting being usually employed. The hip, valley and verge details are
also similar. A balanced effect at the verges is obtained by using overs upon
plain tile undercloaks.
These tiles, which are highly textured and obtainable in several colours,
present a bold and distinctive appearance, which is especially suited for large
roofs.
(b) SINGLE RoMAN TILING.-A single Roman tile is shown at o, Fig. 46. It
is rectangular on plan and is 13!-in. long by Io-in. wide by l-in. thick . A flat
portion, 6!-in. wide at the head, tapering to 6-in. at the tail, has one edge slightly
upturned and its opposite side is in the form of a fairly bold slightly tapered roll.
It is thus a combined under and over Italian tile described on p . 116. Like a
pantile the hand-made tile has its two opposite diagonal corners splayed. Some
are provided with two holes on the flat near the head, whilst others are without
holes. Each has a continuous nib .
The head lap is 2! to 3-in. and, as shown at c, the side lap is 2-in. Being
another example of single-lapped tiling, the gauge is ro!-in. when the head
lap is 3-in (seeM). The minimum pitch is 35°.
A detail showing a suitable finish at the eaves is given atM. Here the ground-
work is simply battens nailed to the spars which are covered with untearable
felt. Other groundwork may consist of tiling battens fixed to felt-covered
boarding, or tiling battens nailed to counter-battens nailed to felt-covered board-
ing. Vertical battens are not required, as the tiles, when nailed, are not secured
at the 2-in. high rolls.
The finish at the ridge, hips, valleys, abutments and verges are as described
above, In order to present a balanced appearance at verges, purpose-made
single Roman tiles are available, each having a double roll, for the left-hand
ve~ges.
In appearance, a roof covered with these tiles is similar to, but less vigorous
than, an Italian tiled roof.
(c) DouBLE ROMAN TILING .-These tiles, shown atE, are IS to r6!-in. long
by I I to I3!-in. wide. Each has two rolls, hence the name. The left-hand tail
corner is splayed and a portion of the middle roll is shouldered at the head, as
shown. As indicated at E, these tiles are laid with " break joints," and there-
fore special half tiles are required at alternate courses at verges to complete
the bond. Purpose-made left-hand verge tiles, provided with three rolls, are
available to give a symmetrical roof.
The head lap is usually 3-in. and, as shown at F, the side lap is at !east r!-in.
The minimum pitch is 35°. Nailing is not required, as the tiling is tightly fitting
and cannot be lifted by the wind.
The groundwork and the finishes at the ridge, eaves, hips, etc., are as described
in the preceding column.
SPANISH TILING
Spanish ur Sicilian tiling is very similar to Italian tiling, the only difference
being that the under tiles are not flat like the Italian type but are concave-shaped.
An over is shown at N, Fig. 46, and an under at o. The length of each is
14-in. The overs taper down from the tail to the head and the unders from the
head to the tail (see the dimensioned end views). The width of each is not
standard, there being a slight variation in some of the tiles produced. They are
hand-made. Like Italian tiles, each Spanish under is secured by two copper
nails and each over by one nail. Vertical battens must be provided to take the
3-in. nails securing the overs ; the unders are also skew nailed ( r£-in. nails)
to these 3-in. by 2-in. battens (see s and the heads at N and o). The spacing
of the vertical battens for tiles of the dimensions indicated is 10!-in. centres
(see P and s). As shown, the top edges of these battens are slightly chamfered
to provide the necessary clearance for the unders ; sometimes these battens are
tapered to 1-in. at the top.
The minimum pitch is 35°, and the head lap varies from 2! to 3-in. The
gauge is therefore either II!-in. ( 14- 2!-in.) or u-in. ( 14- 3-in.). The forms
of groundwork are as for Italian tiling.
The bold character of the appearance may be gauged by the part elevation
at Q . This appearance is sometimes modified by the use of shorter overs at the
eaves (and correspondingly longer ones at the ridge) and thus their tails are
lower than those of the unders except at the eaves line.
The treatment at the eaves may be as shown for Italian tiling at L and M.
Alternatively, a very attractive appearance is obtained when, as shown at T, the
tiles are brought over the outer edge of the eaves gutter. In this detail the
bottom course of plain eaves under tiles and the bottom course of unders are
purpose-made and provided with holes (see also Q) to allow the water passing
down the channels to enter the gutter. The cast iron gutter, which is given
 T L N G
T A L A N s p A N s H
~p
c CROSS SECTION
T H P-.OUG H
S. ROM ... N T I L E S

S I NG L e~
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f..,
DOUBLE
~OMt\N
T I L E S

TAIL-
IL= 9114'rr:t-llf2'
OVEP-. t. I.INDEI'. TILES
--+t-f--115,9'
ROOFING FElT
{IF BO}oROfO] 01'.
UNTE...MBLf FELT
/[IF MTTfNfD ONLY)

CiAUGE • LENGTH -LAP

151/I' • 14• -3' • rr•
{, IJIJz• -

~llt\Lit\N T
SECTI0!-15 SHOWIN(j t, ~OMA-N TILIN(j SECTION AT EAVES St+OWING SPI\-NJSH TILJN(j
SCALE FOJ'. h.B.C.D.E.F.G.L.M.N.O t S FEET SU.LE FOI'. H.K.P !, Q FEET
~·~~~·11::'~~~•EEEffE,oa~,~~cHI§l.si
SCALE FOP- T
f''
~
FIGUoE
" 46
 407 ROOF COVERINGS
a minimum fall, must be well scre·wed to the fascia. The double top tile course
forming part of the soffit is provided to ensure that the wood fascia will not be
exposed to view at the highest part of the gutter. A lead flashing, as shown, ensures
watertight construction, and the roofing felt is brought over its upper edge.
The hollows of the over tiles at the eaves are filled with mortar, and tile insets,
shown at Q, add to the appearance. The lower ends of the vertical battens are
cut short (see T and Q) to permit of this.
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NoTE.-The space between the head of the bottom over tile and the tail of that above
it is exaggerated and is due to the deoronce at the lops of the unde1·s which has been shown
purposely to make the detail clear.
The ridge is usually finished with half-round or segmental ridge tiles.
Conical or tapered hip tiles which course in with the Spanish tiles provide a
suitable finish at the hips. Verges are treated as before described, as are also
valleys and abutments.
There are several forms of tiles manufactured to resemble Spanish tiles.
Thus, the overs are sometimes hog-back in shape, and in another type both
unders and overs are much flatter than the traditional form.
INTERLOCKING TILEs.-A number of tiles are now made which have patent
locking devices, the object of which is to prevent their dislodgment even in
the most exposed positions. Some of these do not require nailing, whilst others
are secured to battens by means of wire. Thus, for example, one device consists
of two lugs formed on the underside at the tail of an Italian over, which closely
engage the shoulders at the head of the over which it overlaps. In the " wired "
variety, which has usually a head and side locking device, a piece of wire is
passed through a hole formed in a nib and twisted round the batten.
Most tiles of the interlocked type are machine-made. Some of these, of
continental origin, have stamped on them a central ornament in relief, such as
a rib or diaper. Because of their initial cheapness, and also owing to the avail-
able local materials failing to meet the large demand which followed the Great
War, large numbers of these foreign tiles were used in this country. Many
were underburnt and so lacking in durability that they had to be replaced within
a very short period.
CoNCRETE TILES.- Within recent years there has been an increasing demand
for roofing tiles made of concrete or cement mortar. Plain tiles, pantiles, inter-
locking tiles. and ridge, hip and valley tiles are made of this material. Cement,
sand or crushed stone, pigments and an accelerator are materials employed in
their manufacture.
The cement used is usually ordinary Portland cement. The aggregate must
a
be clean, well graded and must pass -§-in. sieve. The pigments vary according
to the colour desired. Thus, a black is produced by carbon black pigment, blue
by ultramarine pigment, brown by burnt umber pigment, yellow by yellow
ochre, green by chromium oxide and a red colour is effected by the use of red
oxide pigment. An accelerator is introduced to expedite the rate of hardening,
and that used is calcium chloride.
Concrete tiles are produced in machines which are either of the hand-
operated or the automatic type. Thus, concrete plain tiles, which are cambered,
each having two nibs or a continuous nib and ofthe same size as clay plain tiles,
are made in a hand-operated machine in the following manner : The cement,
aggregate, accelerator and water are thoroughly incorporated in a batch mixer
(see p. 34, Vol. II). An oiled pallet is placed in the cast iron moulding box
of the machine which is then filled with concrete. After being consolidated the
surface of the concrete is levelled or struck off and the pigment, mixed with
cement and sand, is sprinkled over it from a sieve and trowelled in. In some
machines the area of the pallet and box is twice that of the tile, and after the
last operation, a hinged metal frame is swung down to divide the concrete slab
into two and form the nail holes. The pallet with the two nibbed and cambered
tiles is raised by depressing a treadle.
In an automatic machine the above operations are effected as the pallets
on a track are automatically moved and brought in turn under separate parts
of the machine. Thus, in sequence, the pallets are sprayed with oil, fed with
the mortar mix, consolidated, surface smoothed off, cut into units by a rotating
knife, surface colour applied and rolled in, nail holes formed and the edges
finally trimmed.
After moulding, the tiles (with their pallets) are carefully stacked horizontally
on racks and taken to the curing chamber, in which the air is conditioned to
the required temperature and humidity, and left for twenty-four to forty-eight
hours, according to the amount of accelerator added to the mix. The tiles are
de-palleted, dipped in a tank containing sulphate of iron solution (which improves
the colour and removes any white film formed whilst in the chamber), and
finally removed to an open shed or yard where they are stacked to complete the
hardening process.
The quality of concrete tiles is covered by the British Standard Specifications
for "Concrete Plain Roofing Tiles, No. 473-1932" (which specifies the sizes
to be IOi-in. by 6!-in., 10!-in. by 6!-in. or 11-in. by 7-in. by at least ,'o-in.
at the centre cross-section and f-in. at the head and tail) and " Concrete Inter-
locking Roofing Tiles, No. 550-1934·" These specifications give particulars
of transverse and permeability tests with which the tiles must comply. Whilst
these concrete products, produced by these relatively modern methods, have
not been subjected to the real test of time, there is no reason to doubt their
durable quality, provided the best materials and workmanship have been
employed in their manufacture. The appearance of such mechanical units is, of
course, much less attractive than that of the richly textured hand-made clay tiles.
AS B E ST 0 S- C E M E N T S LA T I N G, T I L I N G A N D S H E E T I N G
Asbestos-cement is now widely used in the manufacture of many building
materials, including roofing slates, tiles and corrugated sheets, wall · boards,
rainwater goods, felt, etc,
 ASBESTOS -C EMENT SLATING, TILING AND SHEETING
As implied, this material is composed of asbestos and cement. The latter
is ordinary Portland cement. Asbestos is a silky fibrous mineral extstmg in
veins in metamorphized volcanic rocks. It is found chiefly in South Africa,
Rhodesia, Canada, United States of America, Russia and Cyprus. There are
several varieties, but white asbestos, which is a compound of magnesia and
silica, is that principally used.
The first stage in the manufacture of asbestos-cement is the separating of
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the fibres of asbestos. This is accomplished after the quarried rock has been
broken into smaller pieces, dried, crushed and passed through a vibrating screen.
The fibres are mixed with water and cement, in the approximate proportions of
I part asbestos to 7 parts cement. This takes place in a machine having a
revolving drum with blades attached, and the operation is continued until the
asbestos is closely blended with the cement and the fibres are arranged in a
uniform direction.
The mixture is now transferred to another machine which has a revolving
cylinder of fine sieve wire. The excess water drains through the sieve, leaving
on the cylinder a thin film of the mixture, which is then transferred to an endless
moving blanket. The film is conveyed by the blanket to a large forming cylinder,
where a sheet of asbestos is gradually built up, layer by layer, until the required
thickness is obtained. As the mixture passes over the blanket and forming
cylinder, the asbestos fibres are uniformly distributed and drawn lengthwise
in the direction of the movement to form a tough-woven fabric.
An operative slits the sheet, which is then removed to a platen where it is
allowed to mature in the form of a flat sheet, or the sheets are stacked ready for
further processing. Partly matured sheets required for slates, tiles and corru-
gated sheets are submitted to a high degree of pressure in a powerful hydraulic
press.
Roof coverings made of this material are tough, durable, fire-resisting and
light in weight. The average weight of asbestos-cement covering is only 3!-lb.
per sq. ft. (compared with 10 and 14!-lb. for slates and clay tiles respectively)
.and therefore an economy in timber results when it is applied to wood roofs,
as the spars to which the battens are fixed may be spaced up to 2-ft. 6-in. centres.
The larger units, such as corrugated sheets and tiles, are especially suited for large
spanned buildings of the factory type, where steel trusses are employed, as the
covering is fixed direct to the purlins. Here, again, because of their lightness in
weight, the employment of asbestos-tement sheets, etc., results in an economy
in the sizes of the members of the trusses. Compared with hand-made clay
tiles, the chief demerits of asbestos-cement slates and plain tiles are the lack of
texture and their true mechanical appearance.
The sizes and methods of fixing some of these asbestos-cement coverings are
included in the following description.
AsBESTOS-CEMENT SLATES.-These are made in the following shapes : (a)
rectangular, (b) diamond and (c) honeycomb.
(a) Rectangular Slates.-There are four standard sizes, namely, 24-in. by
408
12-in., 20-in. by Io-in., xs£-in. by 7!-in. and n!-in. by s!-in.1 The thickness
varies slightly with the size and is expressed in millimetres ; the approximate
maximum thickness is i\r-in. They are obtainable in several colours, including
natural grey, green, green-brown and russet-brown. They are laid to give a
bonded appearance, and the principle is similar to that described for ordinary
slating in Chapter Five, Vol. I. The same terms also apply. Thus, as shown
here at A, Fig. 47; each slate is centre-nailed with two nails. The lap is usually
3-in. and occasionally 4-in. The gauge is found in the usual manner, and,
. d'teat ed at A, equals length
as m . of slate -lap 20- 3-in. = 81rm.
. The n~;ls
...
2 2
should be of copper or composition and be x!-in. long. In addition to being
twice nailed, each slate (excepting those of the smallest size) is secured at its tail
by means of a copper disc rivet (see enlarged sketch B). As shown at A, the discs
are placed on the course of slates next but one below that of the slates to be
riveted with the upturned rivets between the side joints of the slates immediately
below. The rivet is passed through the hole formed near the tail of the slate to
be fixed and bent over it, after which the slate is nailed.
A further difference between asbestos-cement and ordinary slating occurs
at the eaves. Whereas the latter is provided with a double eaves course, an
asbestos-cement slated roof has three thicknesses at the eaves. As shown at A,
there are two short courses below the top course of full size slates. Two of these
under-eaves slates are obtained from one of full size by means of a saw, the cut
being made at the gauge distance from one end. Thus, in the example, the
length of the two pieces will be 8! and nt-in. (20- 8!-in.). The shorter
slates are centre-nailed and form the first under-eaves course, and the longer
pieces are used for the second under-eaves course ; the latter are nailed in the
centre near the tail, in addition to being twice head-nailed (see A).
The preferred minimum pitch is 30°, although this is sometimes reduced to
25° and the lap increased from 3 to 4-in.
The groundwork for these slates is that described for ordinary slating, but,
as already stated, on account of their extreme lightness the spars may be spaced
at a greater distance apart up to a maximum of 2-ft. 6-in. centres.
A half-round ridge capping of asbestos-cement is used for this slating.
These caps are in 2-ft. lengths, tapering from 8! to 7i-in., !-in. thick, laid with
2-in. laps and secured by 3-in. screws at each lap and in the centre of each length .
Washers are used in conjunction with these screws (seep. 124). Hips are also
formed with these caps.
Some of the merits of asbestos-cement have been stated in the preceding
column. In addition, such slates are much cheaper than good quality natural
slates. The appearance of these artificial slates, chiefly because of their mechanical
neatness, is generally considered to be their least satisfactory feature.
(b) Diamond or Diagonal Slates.-These are square shaped, of xs! and II£-in.
1 These are specified in the B.S.S. for "Asbestos-Cement Slates and Unreinforced
Flat Sheets and Corrugated Sheets, No. 69o--19;36,"
 409 ROOF COVERINGS
length of side, with two of their opposite diagonal corners cut off or shouldered.
They are laid to a diagonal pattern, with the uncut corners or points at the head
and tail. The slates in each course butt against each other at the shoulders only.
Each is secured with two nails fixed just above the shoulders and by a copper
disc rivet at the tail corner. The reconunended· minimum laps are 2!, 3, 3! and
4-in. for 40°, 35°, 30° and 25° pitches respectively. The fussy appearance of
roofs covered with these units has, apparently, a limited appeal.
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(c) Honeycomb Slates.-With exception that their tail corners are removed,
they are similar to (b).
AsBESTOS-CEMENT PANTILES.-Whilst these resemble clay pantiles in appear-
ance; there are several differences between the two. Thus: (1) asbestos-cement
pantiles are thinner-:-'only -f\r-in. thick, (2) their opposite diagonal corners are
not splayed, but instead each tile has its two opposite edges removed for a length
of 4-in. (equal to the lap) and for a depth equal to the thickness, (3) they are
nibless, (4) they are twice holed, and (5) they 'are made in one colour only, that
of russet-Lrown. They are in two sizes, namely, rs£-in. by I3i-in. and rs£-in.
by 9frin. As the recommended head lap is 4-in., the gauge equals
rs£-in.- 4-in. = u£-in. The side lap is I{-in. A sketch of a tile is shown
at E, Fig. 47, a plan showing the head lap is given at D, and the cross-section
at c shows the side lap.
The method reconunended for fixing these tiles is to partly fix a 2-in. nail
through the right-hand hole (which is about· r!-in. from the head), followed by
a r!-in. nail driven home in the second hole (r-in. from the head) and, finally,
the first nail is carefully driven further until the roll just binds on the tile below.
The groundwork is as described for clay pantiling.
Purpose-made eaves pantiles are available in the large size, the tail being
stop-ended by a vertical portion shaped at its upper edge to the roll. The
necessity for pointing and infilling with pieces of tile, as in clay pantiling, is
thereby avoided. These stop-ended eaves tiles are laid upon a s!-in. wide strip
of asbestos-cement, nailed to the batten, and overhanging the eaves gutter.
As stop-ended pantiles are not made in the small size, the eaves of a roof
covered with these smaller units are formed in the following manner: Narrow
under-eaves strips (see above) are nailed to the fascia or batten, and the eaves
pantiles are bedded on them and the ends pointed in cement mortar. To provide
a key for the latter, it is recommended that a strip of expanded metal be secured
and used to cover theunder-eaves strips. . These sheets are fixed direct, with the smooth surface uppermost, to either
Two forms of rounded hip tiles are used. Both are rs£-in. long, but one is
10!-in. wide and s-in. high, whilst the other is 12!-in. wide and 4-in. high.
These are roughly lined with fine concrete to afford a key for the necessary
cement mortar bedding. The flatter type is used for hips o(low pitches.
Special double roll pantiles are used for left-hand verges to give a synunetrical
appearance. Undercloaks are provided by using plain narrow strips (similar
to those for eaves) covered with expanded metal to receive the cement mortar
upon which the verge pantiles lU"e bedded.
Purpose-made twin pantiles are used at hips and valleys, as ordinary pantiles
used in these positions are sometimes difficult to secure after they have been
cut to shape and only small triangular pieces remain. These purpose-mades
are made in both large and small sizes. Thus, the larger size is rsf-in. long by
24£-in. wide; it has the appearance of two tiles when fixed, the left and right
curved portions being 13! and n!-in. wide respectively. These can be securely
fixed after they·have been cut to the required splay.
This is a cheap, durable, fire-resisting and effective covering.
"TURNALL" TRAFFORD TILES 1 (see s, Fig. 47).-These large tiles are of
3-ft. 8-in. standard width, 4 to ro-ft. long with 6-in. increments, and !-in. thick.
Each sheet has four 2-in. deep corrugations alternating with flat portions. They
are fixed to steel purlins by r"6 -in. diameter hook bolts (see F, Fig. 47) and to wood
purlins by 4!-in. long driving screws (see J). The maximum distance apart of
i
the purlins is 4-ft. 6-in. the head lap is 6-in., and the side lap is approximately
one corrugation of 3! to 4-in. (sees). The tiles are laid right to left, conunencing
at the eaves and working upwards . . With exception of the first tile, those in the
bottom course have their top right-hand corners mitred. In general, the remain-
ing tiles have their top right-hand and bottom left-hand corners splayed. Eaves,
filler pieces, ridges, etc., and the method of fixing are similar to those described
below in connection with corrugated sheets. They are obtainable in standard
colours of natural grey, red and russet-brown.
These tiles provide an excellent covering, especially for large spanned roofs
of the industrial type.
These sheets are also reinforced with meshed wire, and because of their
additional strength the purlin spacing can be increased to a maximum of s-ft. 6-in.
CORRUGATED SHEETS.-Two examples of corrugated sheeting are illustrated
in Fig. 47, namely, "Everite Bigsix" Corrugated Sheets 1 and Standard
Corrugated Sheets.
"Everite Bigsix" Corrugated Sheets.- These are 41!-in. wide, 3 to ro-ft.
long in 6-in. rises, and t to ,f,-in. thick. There are 7! corrugations per sheet
at a pitch of s£-in. and their overall depth is 2!-in. A part cross-section is shown
at Q, and the boldness of the design may be gauged by comparing it with the
standard corrugated sheets shown at R and having an average depth of corruga-
tion of 1-in. only. The head lap is 6-in. (see L) and the side lap is r! to 2-in.
(see Q).
wood or steel purlins. The detail at L shows the method of fixing to timber
purlins. The latter are secured to the principal rafters of the mild steel trusses
by angle cleats, as described in Chapter Eleven ,Vol. II. The maximum spacing of
the purlins is 4-ft. 6-in., and, because of the light weight of this covering material,
the 8-in. by 3-in. wood purlin shown will be adequate for trusses spaced up to
14-ft. centres. The sheets are always fixed through the crowns of the corruga-
1 These and the aforementioned slates and tiles are manufactured by Messrs Turner's
Asbestos Company.
 A s B E s T 0 s c E M E N T H E E T s E T c
~I!XiE CAPPING
CONSISTING OF
,...__LI'tRGE ROLL WING .}1-8" LONG
5/ib'' DIA-. ltOOJ<. BOLT t, SMALL ROLL WING .:l'-6'¥4' LONG
lYL' LON<i
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

N T I l f

L S

'BIGSIX'
COII.P.UGATED
SHEETS

FOR. DETAILS OF
' BIGS IX' "E V E R I T E" S T A N D A R D
MILO STEfl ROOF CROSS SECTIONS T~ROUG~ CORRUGATED SHEETS
TRUSS, SEE FIG. 50,
VOLUME TWO. - - -- -- - -- - - - -- - -.:l'-8" - - --- - - - -- - - -- - -- - --..j
Tit OF COII.P.UGI'tTIONS
'14' TltiCI<.
LENGTH : 4'-011 WITH b' INCREMENTS TO 10'-0 11
11 -1'/3" PITCH
b 11 HEAO LA-P
~'h.'/4' SIDE LAP ~
s
K
L CROSS S EC T I 0 N T~ROUGH ~UR.NAL~ TRAFFORD T I L E
SCALE FOI'. C, I'..L.M.N.GI.I'. ~ S ' INCHES SCALE FOP. h,D,E,O t, P FEET FIGURE 41
 411 ROOF COVERINGS
tions, ~~-in. diameter holes being drilled by an ordinary brace and bit to receive
the 1"6 -in. diameter galvanized screws which are 4!-in. long (see enlarged
sketch J). These are driven in, and a watertight joint is assured if, as shown,
an asbestos washer H and a lead-cupped washer G above it are employed. A sheet
is secured at six positions, namely, two at the head, two at the tail and two at
the intermediate purlin, the screws being adjacent to the side laps and in similar
positions to those shown at Q.
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The alternative connection to a steel purlin is shown atM. A 1vrin. diameter
galvanized hook bolt F is used for this purpose. The length of this bolt depends
upon the size of the purlin and is either 3-in. (for intermediate fixings) and 3!-in.
(for lapped connections) longer than the flange of the purlin. Thus, for the 4-in.
by 3!-in. by i-in. purlin shown (which is adequate for trusses spaced up to I 4-ft.
centres), the hook bolts are either 7 or 7!-in. lorig. The hook is engaged in the
edge of the purlin and is made secure by a nut ; lead-cupped and asbestos washers
are again used to ensure watertight joints. Each sheet is fastened at six points
as stated above. The cross-section at Q shows two hook bolts at the side joint.
The eaves detail at K includes an eaves filler piece which is used to fill in the
underside of the corrugations. A sketch of this unit is shown at o . The depth
and pitch of the corrugations are simtlar to those of the general sheeting, and
when hook bolted (or screwed, if the purlin is of timber) a tight fit results and
weather is effectively excluded. Alternatively, patent close-ended corrugated
eaves sheets are available. The unsupported overhang of the sheets should not
exceed 1-ft. and therefore, as shown, the bottom purlin should be placed well
down the slope.
The asbestos-cement ridge shown at N is in two pieces; the left-hand piece
(see sketch at P) has an external collar or flange and is slightly longer than the
small roll wing which has an internal collar. The corrugations of the wings fit
closely those of the sheets. These wings and the upper ends of the sheets are
secured by either hook bolts (see on the left of the detail N) or driving screws
shown on the right. The top purlins must be correctly positioned, and, as shown,
the fixings should be 6!-in. from the centre.
These sheets may be fixed from left to right or vice versa, commencing at
the eaves. If laid from left to right, the first sheet is fixed uncut, but the remain-
ing sheets in the eaves course must have the top left comer splayed. An ordinary
hand saw is used for this purpose. The remaining sheets (with certain exceptions,
such as at verges and ridge) have both top left and bottom right corners also
cut. Each splay cut removes a corner which measures 6-in. (head lap) along
the "vertical" edge and 2-in. (side lap) along the "horizontal" edge. The
sheets can be thereby correctly shouldered or mitred.
These corrugated sheets, because of their strength, durability, fire-resisting
and heat insulating qualities, are particularly suited for large roofs of buildings such
as factories, workshops, offices, garages, gas works, generating stations, farms, etc.
Low initial and maintenance costs and speed of construction are additional merits.
"Bigsix "sheets are also made reinforced with t-in. meshed wire, Because of
their additional strength the maximum purlin spacing may be increased from
4-ft. 6-in. to s-ft. 6-in.
Standard Corrugated Sheets .- The dimensions of four standard " small
section corrugated sheets" are specified in the aforementioned B.S.S. No. 69o-
I936. The overall depth of corrugation is either I or Ii-in. The cross-
section at R is through the side lap of sheets manufactured by Messrs
Turner's Asbestos Company. The width is 2-ft. 6-in., the lengths vary from
3-ft.-6-in.-Io-ft., and the thickness is t-in. There are 10! corrugations per
sheet of I-in. depth and zi-in. pitch. The head lap is 6-in. and the side lap is
equal to approximately It corrugations or 4!-in. The spacing of the purlins is
up to a maximum of 3-ft. centres.
These sheets are fixed as described for the" Bigsix "sheets, two !-in. diameter
hook bolts (2 to zt-in. longer than the steel purlin) or driving screws (3-in. long)
being provided near the side lap at each purlin. Lead-cupped and asbestos
washers (slightly smaller than those shown at G and H) are used to render the
joints watertight. The ridge capping, in two pieces, is slightly smaller in the
wing than that shown at N, and the top putlins are arranged to allow the fixings
to be st-in. from the apex. .
Dimensions of what are called ·" large section corrugated sheets " are also
listed in the above specification. The overall depth and pitch of the corruga-
tions are 2 to 2!-in. and s!-in. respectively, the width is 4If to 43-in., and the
length and thickness are as stated above.
Curved sheets to a radius from 3-ft. 6-in. upwards are available.
GALVANIZED CoRRUGATED IRON SHEETS.-These have been used extensively
for covering roofs of sheds, workshops, huts, etc. The standard sizes are 2-ft
wide, 4-ft.-6-in.-Io-ft. long and of I8, 20, 22, 24 and 26 gauge ; some zt-ft.
wide sheets are also made. They are fixed through the crowns of the corruga-
tions by hook bolts, screws and nails, with curved washers.
Such covering rusts comparatively quickly, especially at the connections,
unless it is protected by painting at suitable time intervals. It has been largely
superseded, particularly for better class work, by the aforementioned asbestos-
cement products. The latter are more durable and do not requite to be painted.
PROTECTED METAL CoRRUGATED SHEETS.-These consist of a light gauge steel
core which is adequately protected against corrosion by being entirely encased
by asphalt saturated asbestos felt, the latter being securely bonded to the steel
under high pressure. The natural colour is black, but aluminium and other
colours can be imparted by an additional outer coating. This roofing material
is strong, durable, light in weight and heat insulating. Cellactite and Robertson
Protected Metal are examples of this covering.
STONE SLATING
The material used for stone slated roofs is either sap.dstone or limestone and
not slate. As explained on p. 97, Vol. II, a true slate is a metamorphic sedi-
 STONE SLATING
mentary rock, and slates are produced by splitting the block of slate along the
cle~vage planes (see also Chapter Five, Vol. I). Sandstones and limestones are
sedunentary rocks (see pp. 88-94, Vol. II), and those converted for roofing
purposes are highly stratified and capable of being split (known as fissile) along
the natural bed or bedding planes (see also" Tilestones," p. 8g, Vol. II).
Some of the quarries from which these stone slates are obtained exist in
Yorkshire, the Cotswold district, Northamptonshire, Rutland, Somerset, Dorset
and Sussex. Certain of the original quarries are worked out. The Yorkshire
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stone is sandstone, andJhat from the Cotswolds is an oolitic limestone.
Whilst true slates of good quality are practically impermeable, those used in
stone slating are not. It is for this reason, and also because the blocks of stone
cannot be readily cleft into very thin slabs, -that stone slates are much thicker
than true slates. Yorkshire stone slates, grey to brown in colour, which often
darkens on exposure, are obtained by splitting the blocks along their bedding
planes with hamrr1er and chisel or wedges. Cotswold stone, greyish-brown in
colour and coarse grained, is readily split by a hammer after the blocks have been
allowed to stand during the winter and exposed to frost action.
Stone slates vary considerably in size, shape and weight. Yorkshire sandstone
slabs are the largest, thickest and heaviest. The limestone slates from Sussex
are also thick and heavy. Those from the Cotswold district and Northampton-
shire are generally lighter, as they are smaller and thinner. They are all used
in random sizes. They are rough in texture, uneven in thickness, and some of
the Cotswold slates especially are very irregular in shape. The exceptional
beauty of well designed roofs stone slated by skilled labour is due to these qualities
and to their agreeable colour.
HANGING AND PITCH.- The old method of hanging these stone slates is by
wood pegs. Sound oak pegs are tightly driven into holes drilled near the heads
of the slates to receive them . The number of pegs per slate varies from one to
three, according to the size and weight of the slates. Whilst this method is still
adopted, there are certain objections to it. Thus, the pegs may decay, or they
may work loose on account of shrinkage, or they may be broken by shear stress,
especially if the slabs are exceptionally heavy and steeply pitched. It is
therefore considered preferable to use for this purpose either brass screws or
stout copper or composition nails.
Another traditional method consisted of bedding the stone slates on mortar
place.d over roof. boarding between thin horizontal battens . This is objected to as
the timbers are !table to decay owing to the lack of ventilation and dampness, which
latter condition may exist for some considerable time before drying out. Gradual
disintegration of the slates may also result.
The pitch given to stone slated roofs depends upon the weight of the
covering. Thus, those covered with heavy Yorkshire stone slates, especially
if pegged, are given a pitch varying from 25° to 35 °. Steeper pitches are given
to roofs when lighter stone slates are used. Thus, in the Cotswolds, the pitch
varies from 47° to 6o 0 , 55° being common,
412
The slates are of random sizes in w.idth as well as length ; the latter may vary
from as much as 36-in . to less than 6-in. They are sorted on the job, the slater
using a special rule for the purpose.
Peculiar names are sometimes given to the.slates according to their size. In the
Cotswold district, for instance, a 23-in. long slate is known as a " long sixteen " .
The following are additional local names with their lengths in brackets : " long
fifteens" (:ir!-in.), "long fourteens" (zo-in.), " long thirteens " (r8!"in.), " long
twelves" (17-in .), "long elevens" (rs!-in .), "long wippets "(14-in.), "long n ines"
(rz!-in.), etc. The above are in "shorts" as well as" longs," the former being i-in.
less than the latter. Hence a " short sixteen " is 22!-in. long and a " short nine "
is r 1i-in. in length. A " short beck " is 8!-in. long. A " muffity " is 8-in . long,
and the length of a " tant "is st-in (see A and B, Fig. 48) .
The longest and thickest slates are laid at the eaves and the lightest and
thinnest at the ridge. The gauge varies accordingly. The diminution is not
regular. Thus, there may be three courses laid to an 8-in. gauge, followed by
two at 7-in. gauge. Occasionally the gauge of a course may be slightly in excess
of that preceding it.
LAP.-This depends upon the pitch, degree of exposure and size of slates.
A common lap is 4-in., although for a steeply pitched roof, such as is seen in the
Cotswold district, it may be much less. A uniform lap is not always maintained ;
thus, whilst a 3-in. lap may be given to the slates near the eaves, this may be
gradually reduced to 2-in. at the ridge.
EAVES DETAIL.-A typical example is shown at B, Fig. 48. This shows a
stone wall and a cast iron gutter supported by adjustable brackets on bars driven
in at the bed joints (see Q, Fig. 75, Vol. I). Heavy slates, sometimes called
cussomes, are used to form the under-eaves course. These are bedded on mortar,
slightly inclined (about 15°) and projecting 5 to 8-in. They are tailed down by
the first batten, as shown, and the heads are notched at the spars as required.
Tilting is thereby prevented. The next course, providing the double eaves course,
is followed by a course of followers. The traditional method of hanging by oak
pegs is shown. The dimensions of the gauges and lengths of margins give some
idea of a typical arrangement of courses.
RIDGE DETAIL (see A, Fig. 48).-Comparing this with B, it will be seen that
the slates at the ridge are much smaller than those at the eaves, the lap is 2!-in.
and the slates are shown fixed with either screws or nails.
The thickness of the slates at the eaves is about r!-in. (these often taper as
shown) and that at the ridge is only about !-in. Long sixteens, long fifteens,
short fifteens, long twelves, short nines and short becks (see above) are shown
dimensioned in these details. It will be observed that the gauge varies from
10 to 4!-in.
The finish at the ridge is traditional, and as such is considered most suitable
for this type of covering. These stone ridges are produced from g-in. wide
blocks of stone which are from 2 to 3-ft. long; a series of parallel cuts, r! to
rf-in. apart, are made by the saw and each V-shaped unit is then cut square
at the apex and lower edges. These are bedded, jointed and pointed in mortar,
 413 ROOF COVERINGS
Half-round clay ridge tiles, buff coloured, are sometimes used with good
effect.
Comparatively large timbers are necessary to support the heavy weight of
this covering. In the example, s-in. by 2-in. spars are used at 15-in. centres.
They must be strongly purlined.
In both details the traditional method, still employed, of torching is shown.
Untearable felt, nailed to the backs of the spars, may be used in lieu ·of torching,
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provided pegs (which would penetrate the felt) are not used. For first class work,
and in order to maintain an equable temperature within the buildings, the
roofs may be boarded, felted, counter-battened and biittened, as previously
described.
VERGES AND ABUTMENTS.-Verges may be open, with the undercloak pro-
jecting some 2 to 3-in., as described for tiling. Alternatively, a very satisfactory
finish is provided by a low parapet wall, having a simple coping under which the
slates are flaunched with mortar fillets (see Fig. 45). This is known locally as
tabling, and is often finished with apex stones and kneelers similar to those shown
in Fig. 21, Vol. I.
VALLEYS.-Unquestionably, the most suitable form is the swept valley.
This is formed in a somewhat similar manner to that shown in Fig. 42, a valley
board being used to block out the angle, and two or three stone slates in each
course are cut to a wedge shape as required. Usually, courses having three cut
slates at the valley alternate with courses each having two specially shaped slates.
In the " three cut " courses, the middle slate or bottomer has both sides cut to
form a wedge shape and the tail may be slightly curved to the sweep ; the slate
on each side, called a skew or lye-bye, has its edge next to it cut to fit. The next
course has two wide skews, cut and mitred centrally over the bottomer below,
with their tails sometimes slightly curved.
Laced valleys (see Fig. 42) are occasionally preferred.
HIPS.-These are preferably avoided, but if adopted, the adjacent slates
should be neatly cut to a mitre and lead soakers inserted (see Q and R, Fig. 69,
Vol. I).
Whilst this ·form of covering has a most attractive appearance and has, in
the past, been employed most effectively in many parts of the country, it has
been largely superseded by materials which are cheaper than, and often greatly
inferior to, those obtained locally. As a result the necessary skilled labour for
this class of work is relatively scarce.
SHINGLES
Shingles are thin slabs of wood used to cover roofs and walls. Although
they are used extensively in Canada and the U.S.A., where a suitable timber is
readily available, they have not been employed to any extent in this country.
There are several reasons why, in the past, they have not found favour here,
including a scarcity of satisfactory local material, the plentiful supply of many
other forms of roofing coverings and the added danger from fire. Regarding
the latter objection, experience has shown that in those parts of America where
shingles are in general use an exceedingly small percentage of fires have been
directly attributed to the covering.. Further, shingles can now be rendered fire-
resisting by the application of a fireproof paint on both sides.
Formerly, the shingles used in this country were usually of oak and occasion-
ally of elm and teak. They were split or rent, and such hardwood slabs required
to be bored to receive the nails.
Within recent years such shingles have been practically superseded by those
of western red cedar, imported from Canada. This timber (see Table I) is very
durable, light in weight, straight grained and of a reddish-brown colour which
assumes an agreeable silver-grey tone when exposed to the weather. It is reputed
to shrink less than any other softwood and is resistant to insect attack.
Cedar shingles are either sawn or split.
Sawn shingles are used chiefly. A sketch of one is shown at B, Fig. 49· The
length varies from 15! to 16!-in., 16~in. being the standard. They are obtained
in random widths, varying from 2! to 14-in. They are approximately j-in. thick
at the tail or butt edge and taper to !-in. or less at the head. They are cut from
quartered logs and should be rift sawn (see p. 4). Such shingles, commonly
known as edge grained, should always be used for good work for the reasons
stated at A. This also shows a sketch of a quarter log, 16-in. long, and a few
slabs to indicate that they are sawn with their butts and heads alternating and
at right angles to the annual rings. Flat or plain sawn (see p. 4) shingles,
known as slash grained and produced by a cheaper method of conversion, should
never be used except for inferior work, as the shingles, being sawn tangential
to the annual rings (see c), will quickly warp, shrink and split when exposed,
and they are liable to decay. ,
Split, cleft or rent cedar shingles are generally considered to be of better
quality than the above, but relatively few are used in England. They are certainly
stronger than sawn shingles and are regarded as being more durable. They are
also thicker and longer, the length being up to zs-in.
Oak shingles are generally hand-split. The size of these varies from 12 to
27-in. by 4 to 6-in. by ..(-6 to t-in. They are, of course, very strong and durable.
Cypress shingles have also a good reputation, but, like those of the oak variety,
they are not generally used.
DETAILS (see Fig. 49).-Whilst these refer to cedar shingles, the principles
of construction also apply to those of other timbers. As already stated, cedar
is very light in weight (shingles weigh approximately rt-lb. per sq. ft. or about
one-tenth that of plain tiles) and consequently a big economy results in the size
and/or number of spars. Thus, if 4-in. by 2-in. spars are used, they are usually
spaced at 2 to 2!-ft. centres. Neither close boarding nor roofing felt should be
used for cedar shingles 1 to ensure a free circulation of air round them. The
groundwork is therefore battens fixed direct to the spars. The size of the former
l Oak shingles are usually fixed to close boarding,
 s T 0 N E s L A T N G
SAWN STONE RIDGE NOTE TltE A-LTE~NATIVE
1'1:211 ntiCI<. e Z'-0 11 LONG
METitODS OF SECURING
THE SLATES. THOSE AT
MORTAR BEDDING
W' A~E SHOWN FIXED BY
NAILS OR SC~EWS b TltE
T~ADITIONAL METHOD OF
HANGING THEM WITH OAK
PEGS IS INDICATED AT wan
A
4" LAP
!1!-+-- /
0"
"'JHVrSS SCREWS 0~ HEAVY
COPPE~
NAILS
COMPOSITION
F.. I D G E
0 E T A I L
Fl I I I I I I ==-J>______ ··- T t!
SCALE nn
9" l( 4" PUfUIN
THE SLATES A~E A~~ANGED IN
DIMIN!SitiNG COU~SES WITH THE 5"" Z" SPAR.S
LA~GEST c THICKEST AT THE
BOTTOM. TitUS, IN THIS Z" x I" BATTENS
EXAMPLE, THE E.AVES 6
~lOGE SLATES Af\E TORCH-ING
APP~OX. 23" t- 8Yz 11
LONG, fllz" t Vz• THICK,
WITH GAUGE VA/WING
FROM 10 11 TO 4Vz''
RESPECTIVELY.
THESE DETAILS SHOW THE
CONSTRUCTION WHICH IS
B
FOLLOWE~ LUUK:>t:.
TYPICAL OF THAT SEEN IN
THE COTSWOLD DIST~ICT.
ROOFS TO BE COVE~EO
WITH HEAYIE~ SLATES, SUCH
AS A~E OBTAINED F~OM
QUARRIES IN YORKSHIRE
6 U.SED LOCALLY, A!ZE
USUALLY FLATTE~ PITCHED.
,.,"""7".:.:~:.;:.-':·.
,,_, ·•.• •.....• ,.·j~J»r
..,,_ ,. /, _ . ('
. ; '"Jj:; ;-2 .. .
.. .. =-===a---5""2"
.. .. CEILING JOISTS
E A V E S
0 E T A I L
FIGURE 48
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
 s H N G L E s
,...---f'..IFT-SAWN Of'.. EDGE-GAAINED SHINGLES APPP.OXJMATELY ~· THICK FLAT -"SAWN OR sLMH - GRAINED SHINGLES,
Af'..E SAWN ALTERNhTELY FROM GUAJ!,TERED SHOULD NOT .6E USED EXCEPT FOR INFERIOR '
LOGS AS SHOWN t. SHOULD A LWAYS .6E USED.
THEY SHRII-JK LESS IN WIDTH THAN SLASH-
GIVriNEO SHINGLES t. HAVE LESS TENDENCY
B ,.~ WORK AS ON EXPOSURE THEY M E VERY
LIABLE TO DECAY. SHRINK. WARP 6 SPLIT.

TO WARP 6 SPLIT. WESTERN RED CEDAR ~--~

IS NOW GEI-lEAALLV USED FOP. THIS PUf'..POSE. 4"/IZ" WIDE

A c
CHIEFLY &ECAUSE OF ITS OURA.61LITY.

EDGE - GRAINED SHINGLES EDGE GRAINED

FROM QUARTERED lOG SHINGLE
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

0 I
/-~wooD ROLL
I
E OF SHINGLES BUTTED ALTERNATELY

~l'•I'OI'IK
ALTERNATE
f\1 DCiE

mm1m!Or. '1Tm tomr

I I I I
~:
I
I <
I I
~
IJill:llll 1111111111
4' • 2' SPARS AT 21-0 " CENTRES
D G E D E T A L IIIIII liiiJdli
E - I
I
I
I
~
I t ~
I
I I

2'•1" 5" Gh UCiE--+-

I
8A~S AT
~

.
1

NOTE.- THE SPACE 6ETWEEN SHINGLES C- THE LENGTH 11111111

~·~
OF NAILS HAVE 6EEN EXAGGERATED. lr =======..
I
I
I
I
I
I ~

~"<l
~""
lb' SAWN SHINGLES, USUALLY OF f\.ED CEDAP.,
EACH SECUfi.ED WITH TWO IVZ' COPPER NAILS
TO 2' • I ' .BATTENS AT 5" GAUGE
......- ____YHINtE\ ~II/I I I
I ""
I
I ~I '
-, ~
~
• ::Q I ,_ --- - - - --jt-
4" • 3" DEfP HALF-ROUND I
I
I
II
II
I
I ~
ChST IF-ON EAVES CiUTTER I II I " BOTTOM
I

<"'
l. I' • 1/4' W. lfi.ON STRAPS I
11/z" MINIMUM
I I ~LAP li :0 I
EAVES

..
\tf
. I
I !- I II - I
SIDE LAP~ I II I
I I II I
I I I I! I
II I
II I TOP
5" EXPOSURE I EAVES = /

i'/RSE
I'

. .
~

.
Of!.. LENGTH---._ II
OF MAP-GIN II §'
2' • 3/4" GROUNDS II
d I .
v ~If
II
1/1." THICK WALL BOARD TILTING ~
I
FILLET - L
~ E

I
1/s'/ 14" CLEAAANCE
1 NAILS I" / FASCIA ---.

}
GAUGE ~ LENGTH OF SHINGLE -LAP BETWEEN SHIN~ ABOVE TAI L

lb 11
2
i
"'
v s
- b~
=
H p
5"

~ 49
z A T A E

JI.
L N E

I i I II I I I 2!2 I
E A v E s D E T A L SCAlf
jJ I ~ I tl I ij ~1 I •tli 1 4• I ~, I~
INCHES FIGURE
~--------------------------------------~------------------------------------------=.0-==~~---~---------+
 COPPER ROOFING
varies according to the spacing of the rafters, and 2-in. by I-in. battens are
commonly specified when, as shown, the spars are at 2-ft. centres.
The shingles are laid in random widths. Those wider than Io-in. should not
be used, as these tend to curl, and such are therefore split in half. A gap of from
l to !-in. should be left between the sides of adjacent shingles to allow for any
swelling which may occur (see H). Each shingle is secured with two nails.
Pre-boring (forming holes to receive the nails) of cedar shingles is unnecessary.
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
As shown, the nails pass through the shingle immediately below and barely
clear the head of the third. Copper (for best work) and galvanized iron nails are
used; the length varies from I! to It-in. These are driven at from t to I-in.
from the sides and at least I-in. above the exposure line. The" exposure" is the
exposed portion or margin of a shingle, and, as in slating or plain tiling, the
length of margin equals the gauge. The latter length is often referred to as
the exposure.
The gauge varies with the pitch. A 30° pitch is common, for which a
minimum gauge of s-in. is recommended. This may be reduced to 3!-in. for
pitches Jess than 30°.
On reference to E, it will be seeri that the construction differs from slating or
plain tiling in that there are at least three thicknesses of shingles (with a possible
exception at the eaves, see below) and four thicknesses where the top shingles
cover the nails immediately below. The lap is considered to be equal to the
distance from the butt (tail) end to the nail holes ; in the example the lap is
shown to be 6-in.
EAVES (see a).-This is closed and has an overhang of g-in. As in slating,
a double course is provided, having a I!-in. projection. Sometimes a triple eaves
course is formed. Unlike slating, all the double eaves course shingles are of the
full length of I6-in. The upper eaves course must break joint with the lower,
and the minimum side lap is It-in. (see H). The battens are spaced at the gauge
apart. It will be observed that the heads of the shingles in each course are at
the centre of the batten and that the nails also pass through the middle.
Note.-ln order to make the construction clear, in 1::-oth details E and G a relatively
wide space has been shown between each course. This has resulted in an exaggerated
length of nail. Actually the shingles fit closely, and rarely is a longer nail than r!-in.
required, rl-in. being common.
As the minimum spacing of ceiling joists for !-in. thick plasterers' laths is
16-in., it is assumed that the ceiling is to be covered with wall boards
(seep. 49.)
The plan at H shows a typical arrangement of the shingles and will help to
make clear the above description. Note the random widths, minimum side lap,
position of nail holes and the head lap.
RIDGE (see E and F).-The usual finish is shown composed of narrow widths
of Iz-in. shingles, each pair being butt jointed alternately.
An alternative treatment consists of saddle hoards, which are long lengths of
tongued and grooved oak or elm narrow boards (see o). The end joints should
416
be dovetail rebated or half-lapped. In addition, the joints of the saddle boards
may be covered with a wood roll, as shown by broken lines.
Lead-covered ridges are also adopted. These are of the type shown at H,
Fig. 73, Vol. I, a wood roll being covered with 5 to 6-lb. lead secured by lead
tacks at about 3-ft. intervals.
HIPS.-One form is similar to the ridge shown at E and F, the shingles in
adjacent courses being cut-mitred and covered with shingles, lapped alternately
at their edges.
A cut and mitred hip with lead soakers is another type, wide shingles being
used at the intersection and lead soakers introduced as explained for slating on
p. 137, Vol. I. A wood roll may be added.
Lead-covered hips, similar to ridges, is an additional finish.
VALLEYS.-These may be of wide shingles, cut and mitred, with lead
soakers. An open lead gutter. (see p. I48, Vol. I) is another form, boards
being provided at each side to receive the lead. Swept valleys, as described
for tiling (p. I IO ), are also occasionally used.
ABUTMENTS.-Intersections at gable parapet walls, chimneys, etc., are treated
with lead flashings, as described for Plumbing, Chapter Six, Vol. I.
VERTICAL SHINGLES.-External wall surfaces can be treated quite attractively
and rendered damp-resisting by nailing shingles to battens plugged to the wall
at 6-in. to 7-in. gauge (see vertical tiling, p. uo).
COPPER ROOFING
MANUFACTUI}E.-Copper is obtained from ores found, on a small scale, in
this country (Cornwall) and extensively in the U.S.A. and elsewhere. There
are several methods of extracting copper from its ores, depending upon their
character. In one, a preliminary operation consists of roasting or calcining the
ore which has been previously ground. This eliminates the excess of sulphur.
The roasted ore is then smelted (reduced to a fluid condition by intense heat)
in a furnace. The crude molten metal is run off into a special bogie or settler
where the slag or scum is eliminated. The material which remains (a mixture
of copper, iron and sulphur) is granulated in water, cooled, broken up and
ground. It is again roasted, smelted and re-granulated. This refining process
is repeated until the iron and sulphur are removed, when the final product is
cast into bars, called pigs. The last operation depends upon the form required.
For roofing purposes the copper is either hot or cold rolled into thin sheets.
In hot rolling, which is usually required for roofing, the heated pigs or ingots
are passed backwards and forwards between rollers until sheets of the required
thickness are obtained.
CHARACTERISTics.-Copper is exceedingly durable, tough, non-corrodible,
very light in weight (seep. IJO), resistant to fire, malleable, ductile, soft, and an
excellent conductor of heat. It has a reddish-brown colour, which, when exposed
to the atmosphere for several years, often assumes an attractive pale green colour
 417 ROOF COVERINGS
called the patina. This greenish film of carbonate of copper acts as a protecting
coat to the metal below its surface. Copper has a relatively small coefficient of
linear expansion, being o·oooox68 per ° C., compared with o·oooo292 per ° C. of
lead. As a roofing material copper is superior, but more costly than lead. Unlike
lead it does not creep when laid on steeply pitched or vertical surfaces.
Hot-rolled sheets for general roofing are usually specified of " dead soft
temper" (condition and degree of hardness) to allow for the hardening (called
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
" work hardening ") which occurs when the sheets are being laid and worked
into position.
SIZES.-Sheets are obtainable in any length up to 12-ft., and 6-in. up to 4-ft.
in width. When less than xs-in. wide the pieces are known as strips, and are
usually cold-rolled ; such are used for valley, etc., gutters. The thickness of
copper sheets is specified either of Standard Wire Gauge (S.W.G.) or the weight
in ounces per square foot. For most roofs 24 S.W.G. 1 (16-oz. per sq. ft.) is
used. This gauge is increased to 23 S.W.G. (19-oz. per sq. ft.) for superior work.
Sheets of copper are purchased by the lb. weight, and the so-called basis
price is that per lb. for sheets not exceeding 14-sq. ft . in area and not less than
24 S.W.G. The dimensions of sheets of basis price area vary, thus: 7-ft. by
2-ft., 6-ft. by 2-ft. 4-in., s-ft. 3-in. by 2-ft. 8-in., etc. This cost per lb. is
increased if the sheets are over 14-sq. ft. in area or are thinner than 24 S.W.G.
GROUNDWORK.-Copper sheets are laid upon t. and g. or butt-jointed
boarding 2 of! to 1-in. in thickness. Because of its light weight the size of the
timber bearers or spars may be less than those required for lead covering, or,
altel'natively, the .>pacing of these timbers may be increased. If used on flat
roofs the minimum fall is 1 in 8o (xi-in. in Io-ft.) and the boarding is preferably
laid in the direction of the fall, or diagonally, in order that any warping will not
obstruct the flow of water. As already mentioned, copper does not creep, and
it is therefore especially suited for steeply pitched roofs, domes, etc. The heads
of the nails securing the boarding should be punched below the surface and the
boarding planed to a smooth finish. The boarding is then covered with felt
(preferably) or one or two layers of building paper (see p. s6, Vol. II) to serve
as a cushion and an insulating layer to deaden the sound of falling rain. Copper
nails should be used for fixing the felt, as iron nails may set up electrolytic action,
resulting in the decomposition of the sheeting.
}OINTS.-Although the expansion and contraction of copper, due to changes
of temperature, is relatively small, such must not be entirely ignored. Provision
must therefore be made for this movement, especially at the side joints. Drips
(see p. I44, Vol. I) are not necessary, except in parapet gutters (see p. 132),
and instead the transverse, end to end or cross joints consist of (a) welts. The
side or vertical joints are in the form of (b) wood rolls or (c) standing seams.
(a) Welts.-That most favoured for jointing sheets end to end is known as
the double lock cross welt. Four stages in the development of this joint are shown
1 The thickness of 24 S.W.G. is o·o22-in. and that of 23 S.W.G. is o·o2s-in.
a Concrete roofs are also sometimes covered with copper.
at A, Fig. so. In the first stage the edge is turned up about I-in. as shown.
In the second operation a portion of this edge is turned down. An edge of the
adjacent sheet is turned up and engaged in the fold of the first sheet (see third
stage). In the final stage these edges are folded down to form the welt, which
is about i-in. wide. The sheets are welted together in this manner until the
required total length is obtained. Such a linked up sheet is called a string.
The welting operation is generally completed in the shop. The strings are then
in turn placed in position on the roof. It is usual for the welts to be staggered.
This avoids awkward thicknesses appearing at the vertical (side) joints. Single
lock cross welts (similar to that shown at E) are sometimes used for stringing-
sheets required for steep pitches or vertical surfaces.
(b) Wood Rolls.-These are employed at side joints on flat roofs, or those
slightly pitched, which may be subjected to traffic. Five examples are illustrated
in Fig. so, all of them providing efficient watertight side joints and permitting
lateral movement of the sheets.
The conical roll shown at B is much favoured. Copper clips or straps (similar
to the lead tacks described on p. I44, Vol. 1), Ii to 2-in. wide, are placed under
the rolls at about 3-ft. centres. The rolls, secured by copper or brass screws,
are spaced at a distance apart equal to 3-in. less than the width of the copper
sheets, i.e., 2-ft. s-in. for 2-ft. 8-in. wide sheets-the latter being a common width;
this permits of an approximate allowance of 3-in. for each overcloak and 2-in.
for every undercloak. The three stages of development are shown at B, a welt
being formed on one side, as shown, in the final stage. Alternatively, the clips
may be as shown at D, each secured at the undercloak side by two If-in. copper
flat-headed nails.1
The four rolls at c differ from the above in so far as each is covered with a
strip of copper called a capping. In each case the upturned edges of the sheets
are welted to the capping. Copper clips (not shown) are provided at 3-ft.
intervals, as described above. The undercut roll is a good expansion joint. The
square roll is commonly applied in Scotland. The round top roll and the orna-
mental roll are suited, because of their appearance, for pitched roofs ; the shape
of the latter roll is only one of several mouldings.
(c) Standing Seams or Stand-up Welts.-These are suitable for side joints
on steeply pitched roofs or flats which are not likely to be subjected to traffic.
It is a good expansion and watertight joint. The sheets are first welted end to
end, as described above, the strings are then placed in turn on the roof, and the
standing seams formed by means of wide lipped pliers (called seamers) or dressers
(similar to that shown at A, Fig. 76, Vol. I). The stages of development of this
joint are shown at D. Copper clips, I! to z-in. wide, are shaped as indicated
in the first stage and fixed in alignment at 1-ft. centres, each clip being secured
with two If-in. copper flat-headed nails. The edge of the first sheet is turned
up I!-in., that of the second strip is turned up If-in., all of the clips and fitst
1 These nails should be without shoulders (enlarged connections between the head
and stems), which latter tear the copper when the nails are driven home.
 0 0 F N G
c 0 p p E ~ z N c
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

0 0 U 8 l E L 0 C K C R 0 S S W E L T

"' 0 l w T H 0 U T C A P P N G
IVz' TURN BACK
b'
/
FOlDING LINES
M
CLVI PLAN
SltOWING
SETTING-
OUT OF
ttOlOINCi
DOWN
C 0 N C A L P.. 0 L L CLIP

L w T H c A p p N G
UNOEF.CUT ~OLL SQUAR-E ~OLL ~OUND TOP P-OLL ORNAMENTAL ROLL

T
1
----- F
I R S T, S E f. F I N A l S T A G E s
~
NA~
Flf'.ST SHEET
l' WIDE COPPER <UPS "#;114" COPPER 0
~"" 'M' ""
AT 11-0' CENTRES ~

s T A ~ D N G s E
~~
A M

I' 80AF.OING l' • J>/4' CONICAL R.OU5

l'h" • 2'12 ' ANGlE FillET
Z' • l'lz' PACI'.ING PIECE

T E D {. D E 0 D R p s
I p
SCAlE FOI'. E, F.G,J, J',.l f. N INCHES
0 G I hT I 'I
•
ll II •I ~
i
'I
II
0 E T /"( SCALE FOI'. A.8,C,D.H,M.0 t f IHCitfS FIGURE 50
 419 ROOF COVER I N GS
sheet are turned over the standing edge of the second sheet (see second stage),
and all three are bent over to fonn a double lock welt, as shown in the final stage.
The height of the finished joint is approximately !-in.
The setting out of a copper covered roof, therefore, somewhat resembles
that of the lead flat shown at A, Fig. 72, Vol. I, the side joints consisting of rolls
or standing seams, and the cross joints being welts, staggered, instead of drips.
DRIPS.-As mentioned on p. 130, drips are only provided in parapet gutters
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
in order to increase the flow of water towards the outlet. As shown at E, the
timber construction is similar to that of a lead drip (see Fig. 72, Vol. I), except
that an additional 45° angle fillet is fixed . The adjacent copper strips covering
the gutter are jointed by a single lock cross welt at the centre of the fillet. Some-
times the welt is formed at the top of the fillet.
R.mGEs.-A satisfactory treatment at a ridge is shown at F. Here the ridge
roll or king roll is higher than the adjacent wood rolls. The copper covering the
king roll is as described on p. 130 in connection with the rolls at c, a capping
being provided and welted to the upturned sheets. The overcloaks of the conical
rolls (or the cappings if the rolls are of type C) are widened and welted into the
king roll capping.
If the side joints of the copper roof covering are of the standing seam type (D),
it is usual·for the sheets covering the two ·slopes to be welted at the ridge inter-
section and dressed down on one side over the felt covered boarding (butt jointed
as shown at F and without the roll). The standing seams forming the side joints
are gradually flattened for a distance of about 6 in. down from the apex and
folded into the ridge welt.
HIPS are formed as described for ridges.
VALLEYS.- The woodwork is of the usual construction (see J, Fig. 45).
Welted joints are formed between the copper strip covering the valley and the
sheets covering the slopes. If wood rolls are adopted for the side joints the
ends of the rolls are cut short of the intersection and bevelled back, the copper is
dressed round the ends and the welted undercloaks and overcloaks are continued
and tucked into the valley welt. If the standing seam method has been employed
the seams are gradually flattened at the ends and linked into the valley welt.
STEPPED, ETC., FLASHINGS.-These are very similar to those executed in
lead and described in Chapter Six, Vol. I.
Copper roof covering in the form of corrugated sheets, tiles, etc., is also
obtainable, but there has been only a very limited demand for such in this
country.
NoTE.-ln the details shown in Fig. 50 the space between the copper at the welts has
been exaggerated.
ZINC ROOFING
MANUFACTURE.-Zinc is extracted from certain ores, the chief of which are
the dark coloured blende and the light coloured calamine, found in England
(on a small scale in Cornwall, Cumberland, Derbyshire and Somerset), Wales,
Canada, Poland, Spain, Sweden 2.nd the U.S.A. Several methods are adopted
for extracting the metal. In one the powdered ore is roasted in a furnace and
then heated in horizontal retorts. Here the zinc is volatilized and the vapour
is condensed in receivers. The condensed zinc is removed and poured into
metal moulds, when it is commercially known as spelter. The metal at this stage
is brittle. The spelter is re-heated and made malleable, after which it is re-cast
into rectangular cakes, allowed to partially cool and finally rolled. It is passed
between two sets of rollers until the required thickness is obtained, the direction
of rolling in the finishing mill being at right angles to that in the first or.roughing
mill. The sheets are finally trimmed (sheared) to size.
SIZES.- The standard size of sheets is 7 to 8 ft . long and 3 ft. wide, the
latter length being usually adopted. Zinc is specified according to gauge. For
best work, x6 Zinc Gauge 1 is used, and 14 Z.G. is the recommended minimum
thickness.
CHARACTERISTICS.-Zinc is a wh1te metal with a bluish-grey tint. When
exposed to the atmosphere a carbonate is formed which forms a protective
coating to the underlying metal. It is brittle at ordinary temperatures. Zinc
is a very light roofing material, although the sheets are heavier than copper.
It is fairly durable, provided. it is used for roofing purposes in atmospheres free
from smoke, but it has a relatively short life if subjected to acids. Its initial
cost is low.
The coefficient of expanswn of zinc is higher than that of copper and is
o·oooo2g1 per o C., or practically the same as that of lead. Therefore, when
applied on flat roofs both roUs and drips must be used to permit of expansion.
The minimum fall for flat roofs is x in 64 (x!-in. in 8-ft.). Zinc does not creep
and it is therefore suitable for steeply pitched roofs.
jOINTS.-The setting out of a zinc ·~overed. flat roof is similar to that for
lead flats (see A, Fig. 72, Vol. I), (a) rolls and (b) drips being formed as described
below.
The boarding should not be less than !~in. thick and, like that for copper
and lead covering, it should be laid diagonally or in the direction of the fall"
It is generally butt jointed, but t . and g. boarding is occasionally employed.
Building paper or felt is used to cover the boarding. This provides thermal and
sound insulation, and acts as a cushion.
(a) Wood Rolls.-As shown at G, H, J, M and N, Fig. 50, the wood rolls are
slightly tapered, and as the zinc sheets placed between them have each side
turned up It in., it follows that the rolls are spaced at a distance of 2-ft. g-in.
apart (2-ft. 10!-in. centres) or 3-in. shmter than the width of the sheets. Zinc
clips, 1!-in. wide, are spaced at about 3-ft. 6-in. centres under each roll and the
latter is then nailed at 1-ft. g-in. intervals, every alternate nail passing through a
1 Zinc Gauge should not be confused with the Standard Wire Gauge (see footnote to
p . 130.) The Zinc Gauge, unlike the S .W.G., increases in number with the thickness.
Thus, the thickness of 14 Z .G . is o ·o31-in. (approximately 21 S.W.G.) and the thickness
of 16 Z.G. is o ·o41-in. {approximately 19 S.W.G.). The weight per square foot of 14 Z.G,
is 18·s8-oz. and that of 16 Z .G. is 24"57-oz.
 THATCH
clip. Zinc or heavily galvanized wrought iron nails must he used for fixing the
rolls. Copper or plain wrought iron nails must not be used for this purpose,
as electrolytic action may be set up and result in decay of the metal. A clip
before and after being turned up is shown at G.
The sheets, with their long edges turned up r!-in, are then placed in position
and the clips are hooked over the edges as shown at J and the enlarged section H.
It will be observed that adequate space is provided to permit of expansion.
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
The rolls and the turned up edges of the sheets are now covered with zinc
cappings. A capping is shown in the section atM. This shows the edges of the
capping turned in slightly. The cappings, not exceeding 6-ft. in length, are secured
by holding-down clips. Such a clip is illustrated at L and is formed from a piece
of zinc set out as indicated at K; the lower edge is turned back r!-in. and
the sides are bent down. A clip is secured by two or three nails to the roll
over the top end of the lower length of capping, and the bottom end of the
upper length of capping is slipped into the fold or turn-back of the clip. A
watertight joint, which permits of expansion, is thus assured. A portion of
completed roll, including a clip, is shown at N.
In a flat roof, divided by drips as explained below, each roll will be covered
with two lengths of cappings secured by a holding-down clip at the centre.
(b) Drips.-The spacing of these transverse joints is 6-in. less than the
length of sheet employed ; thus, for 8-ft. long sheets the drips will be at 7-ft. 6-in.
intervals. There are two forms of drips, (i) welted and (ii) beaded.
(i) Welted Drips (see o).-The depth must be at least sufficient to allow
the welt to clear the cappings of the rolls below, 2-in. being a minimum but
2!-in. is common. The top edge of the lower sheet is turned up and then turned
out r-in. in line with the top of the drip. A welt is formed along the bottom
edge of the upper sheet by first of all bending the edge back !-in. (which stiffens
the welt) and then folding this bent edge back r-in. The joint is then completed
by engaging the turned out edge on the lower sheet within the fold of the upper
sheet.
(ii) Beaded Drips (see P).-The depth must be at least 2!-in. to allow of
adequate clearance between the bead and the cappings below. The edge of the
lower sheet is turned up and out, as described above. A !-in. bead is formed on
the bottom edge of the upper sheet by first bending the edge back slightly for
!-in., followed by turning the edge down r!-in. at right angles and then dressing
it over a i-in. diameter rod (called a beading rod). This beaded edge is finally
fitted over the turned out edge of the lower sheet.
Beads, welts, etc., are formed by the use of a dresser similar to that used for
lead and shown at A, Fig, 76, Vol. I.
STEEPLY PITCHED RooFs.-Drips are dispensed with if the pitch of a roof
exceeds r in 8. The transverse joints are then of the single lock cross welt type
as used in copper roofing (see p. 132). The welts occur at 7-ft. 9-in. centres
when the sheets are 8-ft. long (or 3-in. less than the length of sheets employed)
and they are not staggered. They are formed in the following manner : The top
420
edge of the lower sheet is folded over r!-in. This sheet is secured hy two 4-in.
by 3-in. zinc clips spaced along its upper edge, each being twice nailed to the
boarding after its lower edge has been bent and engaged in the fold of the sheet.
The bottom edge of the upper sheet is then folded under r-in. ; this turn-back
is engaged in the fold of the lower sheet and the welt is then completed by
applying the dresser. The rolls are, of course, continuous from eaves to ridge,
the cappings being in approximately 6-ft. lengths and secured by holding-down
clips, as described in the preceding column.
FLASHINGS are somewhat similar to those described for leadwork in Vol. I.
The lower edge of a cover flashing is stiffened by forming a !-in. bead or fold
along its lower edge. Similar beads are sometimes formed on the edges of the
up-turns of the gutter or roofing sheets.
THATCH
This roof covering consists of bundles of reeds or straw secured to battens
and spars. The thickness of the thatch varies from 9 to r6-in., according to its
quality and the pitch of roof. The latter should not be less than 45°. Thatch
affords a watertight cover when skilfully applied and undoubtedly the appear-
ance of thatched buildings can be delightfully picturesque. It has, however,
several serious demerits, chief of which are its liability to destruction by fire
and its tendency to become infested with vermin. It is claimed that reed thatch
will last at least sixty years if properly attended to, and many old roofs produce
evidence of this. The life of straw thatch is not more than about twenty years.
On the other hand, comparatively new thatched buildings have been totally
destroyed by fire. The plumber's blowlamp, used to free frozen water pipes
and cisterns situated in thatched roofs, has been responsible for many fires.
It is significant that many local authorities will not permit the use of thatch
(not even when treated with so-called fireproof solution), that there are few
skilled thatchers available, and that when thatched roofs on existing buildings
become defective the covering is often replaced by materials other than thatch.
THATCHING.-Reeds, such as are obtained from the Norfolk Broads, are best
used for thatching. They are much longer ·(up to 9-ft.) than wheat or rye straw,
which latter is also used. The material is formed into bundles and tied with tarred
twine. The spars are spaced at from 2 to z!-ft. centres, and 2-in. by 1-in. battens
are nailed to them at 8 to 12-in. gauge.
There are several different methods of fixing the thatch, varying with local practice.
The reeds or straw must be well soaked with water or fire-resisting solution to facilitate
packing, and the bundles are laid with their butt ends pointing towards the eaves. A
slope of a roof is thatched in a series of beds or strips, the wid.t h of a ladder, and ex-
tending from eaves to ridge. The thatcher, working on a ladder from right to left.
commences at the eaves and packs the bundles tightly sideways and downwards from
the right across to the side of the ladder to complete the width of bed. The next course
of bundles is packed in a similar manner at 8 to 12-in. above the first (depending upon
the length of reed or straw), and this is continued until the ridge is reached. Withies
(twisted rods of pliable willow twigs, sometimes called osiers) are interlaced through
and over the bundles at about 2-ft. apart as the thatching proceeds, and these are
secured to the spars with tarred twine. In some districts tarred twine is used instead
 421 ROOF COVERINGS
of withics ; a needle is " threaded " with the twine, the latter is pulled tightly over
the straw, passed round a batten and withdrawn to complete the stitch; an assistant
or under-thatcher often assists in this operation. Each bed is raked or combed down
to remove loose reeds or straw. Beds are formed in this manner until the slope has
been covered. Additional security is provided at verges by placing short horizontal
withies (called scallops) on top of the thatch at about z-ft. intervals and securing them
with wood staples (pieces of withies bent to a U-shape) which are driven into the
thatch at about r-ft. apart. The eaves project from r8 to 24-in. and a horizontal
soffit is formed by cutting to a line with a sharp knife.
Ridges are formed of straw. One of several methods of thatching a ridge is as
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follows : The bundles, about r! to 2-ft. long, are stretched over the apex and caused
to overlap the thatch on both sides until a 4-ft. long section has been covered to the
required thickness. This is secured with either one or two scallops and staples (or
twine) at each wing. The ridge is completed in sections in this manner, and the
edges are then cut and trimmed with shears or a long-handled knife. Sometimes
additional withies are arranged diagonally to pattern from wing to wing and attached
to the horizontal scallops. If a chimney stack intercepts a ridge, it is usual to begin
at each side of it and work towards the hips or gables . As a precaution against fire,
chimney stacks should be constructed of walls which are at least 9-in. thick.
Scallops, as described in the preceding column, are provided at hips at about 2-ft.
apart and bent to form a sweep. The thickness of thatch is increased at valleys in
order to give a swept appearance.
 HOMEWORI< PROGRAMME (Vol. 1)
THE nature and amount of homework in Building Construction set each week are influenced by a number of considerations, such as the character of
the course, length of each class period, number of periods per session, type and special requirements of students, treatment of subject in class, etc.
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The following homework schedule is based upon the author's experience in teaching the subject to architectural students preparing for the R.I.B.A.
examinations and general building students attending National Certificate courses, and whilst it is clear that the programme cannot have general application,
it is hoped that . it will serve as a useful guide. It is assumed that each sheet will be commenced in class and completed as homework.
Whilst it may be considered that the programme unduly emphasizes the section devoted to Brickwork, it should be pointed out that there is now a
general tendency to concentrate upon bonding, etc., in the first year in order that subsequent years of a course may be free for the greater development of
other sections; including those concerned with new materials and forms of construction. The · programme p1ay with advantage be modified, especially for
architectural students, to include less brick bonding and more carpentry and joinery details.
It is assumed that the drawing sheets will be of half-imperial size. Care should be taken to ensure a well-balanced set of drawings, and a suggested
lay-out of a sheet is given in Fig. 6o. As. indicated, each sheet should be given a suitable title, the printing of which by the student affords practice in
plain lettering. The details should be drawn to as large a scale as the sheet will permit, and wherever possible these should be to full size ; this applies particularly
to joinery details.
As the length of session varies in different colleges, the homework programme provides for the maximum number of sheets, numbering from twenty-four
to twenty-eight, which may be produced per session.

Sheet Number. Sheet Number.

Number of Lectures Subject of Drawing. Number of Lectures Subject of Drawing.

per Session. per Session.

24 25 26 27 24
-- -----------·1- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
I I I I Sketch, approximately to one-eighth full size, bricks 6 6 Draw, to a scale of r-in. to r-ft.--(a) plarrs and
B to s (inclusive) shown in Fig. 2. elevations of piers F, L, o and Q, Fig. 7, and (b)
2 2 2 2 Draw, to a scale of r!-in. to I-ft., alternate plans of alternate plans of rebated jambs E, H, L and o,
stopped ends H, J, K and L, and part elevations at Fig. 8.
G, Fig. 3· 6 Draw, to r-in. scale, complete details of piers in
3 3 3 3 Draw, to a scale of r!-in. to 1-ft., alternate plans of Fig. 7·
stopped ends E, F, G and J, and part elevation D, 7 Draw, to r-in. scale, complete details of rebated
Fig. 4· jambs in Fig. 8.
4 4 4 4 Draw, to a scale of r-in. to r-ft., alternate plans of 6 7 7 8 (a) Draw, to 1-in. scale, sections through founda-
right-angled junctions A, B, 'c, D and F, Fig. 5'· tions A and c, Fig. ro, and sections through
I
5 5 5 5 Draw, to a scale of r-in. to r-ft., alternate plans of foundations similar to A suitable for 9-in. and
right-angled quoins A, B, D and E, and sketch G, r8-in. walls; (b) sketch, approximately to J~in.
_Fig. 6. scale, timbering to trenches in Fig. 42.

422
 HOMEWORK PROGRAMME (Vol. 1 ) 423

Sheet Number. Sheet Number.

Number of Lectures Subject of Drawing. Number of Lectures Subject of Drawing.

per Session. per Session.

~~
818
24 27 24 25 26 27
r---t---1·--- - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
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Sketch : (a) offset A, corbels L, M and cap Q, R, 14
7 9 Fig. 11 ; (b) lintels A, B and c, Fig. 12 ; (c)
threshold D, Fig. x6; (d) copings B, I and plinths
N, R, Fig. 17.
8 9 9 10 Draw, to 1-in. scale, arches A, B, c, E, F, L and M, IS
Fig. I 5; thickness of joints between voussoirs need
not be shown. (Leave space for sections G and x6
K, Fig. 43); see Sheet No. x6 (or 17 or 18 or 19).
9 10 10 II Draw, to £-in. scale, portions of rubble work A and B,
Fig. 20, and F, G and H, Fig. 22. Include quoins, 17
jambs, part plan AB and section co, Fig. 22 ; the
mullions and transome need not be shown.
10 II Draw; (a) l-in. elevation of arch N with portion of
walling and section at F including cornice, parapet x8
and coping, Fig. 24; (b) quarter full-size sections of
cornice A, Fig. 26, string course D, Fig. 26, window
sill L, Fig. 25, and copings A and c, Fig. 27.
II 12 Draw, to l-in. scale, plan, sections and part elevation
of fa.-;ade shown in Fig. 24.
12 13 Draw quarter full-size sections through cornice A
a:nd string course D, Fig. 26, window sill L and
plinths Q and u, Fig. 25, copings A and c, Fig. 27 20
and cornice D, Fig. 74·
II 12 13 Draw: (a) !-in. scale half of plan A and sections Band
c of floor, Fig. 32; (b) x!-in. scale sections I and u, 21
Fig. 32, with alternative sleeper wall detail at E,
Fig. xo ; (c) sketches of joints G, M and P, Fig. 32;
(d) full-size section through joint R, Fig. 34·
12 13 Draw: (a) !-in. scale part plans of floors P, Fig. 33,
and A, Fig. 34, showing trimming of hearths ;
(b) x-in. scale section F, Fig. 34, including adjacent 22
bridging joist with elevation of strutting and section
similar to KK ; (c) quarter full-size details of tusk 23
tenon L and housed joints M and N, Fig. 34·
13 IS 16 Draw: (a) !-in. scale elevations of flat roof A, lean-to
roof H and close couple roofL, Fig. 36; (b) xt-in.
scale details Q, R, s, G, P, x and z. Omit slating details.
•o··- ------------- -- - - - - - - - - - - -- ·- ----'--.:___ __:_____-'-____
17 Draw : (a) !-in. scale elevation of collar roof E,
Fig. 37, omitting hips, angle ties and jack rafters ;
(b) xt-in. eaves details Y, Fig. 36, and L, Fig. 37,
showing boarding in lieu of battens.
17 x8 Draw £-in. part elevation A and section B of king post
roof truss, Fig. 40, and 1!-in. isometric detail G.
17 18 To 1-in. scale, add centering for arches A, B, F, G, I
and K, Fig. 43, to Sheet No. 8 (or 9 or 10-see
opposite), and sketch M and N, Fig. 43·
18 20 Draw : (a) x-in. scale A, B, c and D of framed, ledged,
braced and battened door, Fig. 46; (b) quarter
full-size details L, M (elevation and section), N
(elevation) and o (elevation and plan).
20 21 Draw: (a) x-in. scale A, B and c of two-panelled
door, Fig. 52; (b) full-size details H, J and K,
Fig. 52-architrave and panel mouldings to be
selected from Figs. 48, so, 52, 54 and 64.
20 21 22 Draw: (a) 1-in. scale A, c and o (or B, c and E) of
casement window, Fig. 56; (b) full-size details
F, G (or H, J) and K, L, M (or N, o and alternative
to L).
21 22 23 Draw: (a) x-in. scale A, B and c of cased frame
window, Fig. 6o; (b) half full-size details K, L, M·,
and N.
22 23 24 Draw 1 !-in. scale wood and slating eaves and ridge
details o and eaves details J and H, Fig. 69. Cast-
iron gutter to be shown in each case ; incorporate
a swan-neck bend F, Fig. 75· Alternatively, draw
quarter full-size plain tiling details, Fig. 70, and
eaves details K, Fig. 37·
23 25 Draw : (a) full-size details J, R, M and N, Fig. 72 ;
(b) quarter full-size details A and o, Fig. 71.
25 26 Draw; (a) 1!-in. scale sections E, F and G, Fig. 73 ;
(b) sketch, approximately to 1-in. scale, K, L, M
and N; (c) draw x!-in, details H, P and Q, Fig. 73·
25 26 Draw full-size steel sections o, E, F, G and H, bolt I,
and rivets Land M, Fig. 77·
.;_,~---------------------1

If twenty-eight lectures per session, include either (a) sheet upon external door, ~g. so, or (b) sheet upon pivoted sash window, Fig. 62.
 HOMEWORI< PROGRAMME (Vol. 2)
THE following schedule follows closely that provided on pp. 16o and 161, appreciated that much of the description, especially that related to materials,
Vol. I; a suggested guide to reading has been added. For the reasons there is for reference purposes, and .s tudents will therefore concentrate upon those
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stated, it is not possible to compile a programme of homework which will suit sections which have special reference to their own particular syllabuses.
every class of student, especially for such a comprehensive subject as Building As stated on p. 16o, Vol. I, it is assumed that the drawing sheets will be of
Construction. A lecturer will, of course, select subject-matter for homework half-imperial size and that the maximum numher of sheets which may be pro-
which will be of most value to his students, having regard to their capacity and duced varies from twenty-four to twenty-eight~ according to the length of
specific needs. The following subjects have therefore been selected to meet sessiOn.
what are considered to be average requirements. The homework programme for the second year of the course is continued
Although the proposed guide for reading covers the whole book, it will be on p. 135, Vol. III, and deals with carpentry, joinery and roof coverings .
.
------~--------------~-------------------------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------~-------------------,

Sheet Number.

Number of Lectures Subject of Drawing. Reading (Pages).

per Session.

I
24
I
~~~
I I
27
I CAVITY WALLS.--Draw quarter full-size details B, D (including proper damp proof course), A (lower portion) and J, Fig. IJ. 1-12, 36-44.
2 2 2 2 REINFORCED BRICKWORK.--Sketch details showing the application to walls B, pillars and lintels, Fig. I6. 12-19, 44-51.
3 3 3 3 ARcHES.--Draw, to i-in. scale, A, B, c and J (half), Fig. I9, and P. I4 (half), Fig. 24. 19-27, sz-sz.
4 4 4 '1- DAMP PROOFING.--(a) Draw, to I-in. scale, details C and E, Fig. 20. 28-36, sz-s8.
STEPPED FoUNDATIONs.--(b) Draw, to a scale of 4-ft. to I-in., elevation of a I4-in. wall, 40-ft. long, with stepped foundations, 59-60.
assuming the groWld to have an irregular fall of 6-ft. (see Fig. 22). .
s s s s FIREPLACES, ETC.--(a) Draw, to i-in. scale, A, B, {;, N, 0 and P, Fig. 25; (b) draw 1-in. details V, W and X, Fig. 25. 6o-64, 64-70.
6 6 6 6 DRAINAGE.--Sketch: (a) A, J, Q, u and v, Fig. 28; (b) c, D, F, G and M, Fig. 29. 7I-78.
7 7 7 7 DRAINAGE.--(a) Draw, to a scale of 8-ft.· to . I-in., block plan of a detached house and show the drainage scheme 78-84.
to meet the requirements of your local authority. There are three rain water pipes, and the sanitary fittings
include a sink, two lavatory basins, bath and two water closets. The sewer, boundaries, etc., must be shown.
Refer to Fig. 30. (b) Draw z-m. plan and cross-section of an inspection chamber. Refer to Figs. 30 and 31.
8 8 8 8 MASONRY.--Draw : (a) f-in . plan, vertical section and elevation of entrance A, Fig. 38, assuming a 12-in. cavity wall 85-97, 105-113.
with s!-in. stone outer leaf; (b) half full-size detail at A or B, Fig. 39·
9 MASONRY.--Draw : (a) !-in. elevation c, section B and plan of entrance, Fig. 38 ; (b) full-size detail of head of architrave 107.
at s or T, Fig. 39·
9 9 9 IO MASONRY.--Draw: (a) i-in. elevation J, section L and elevation M of windows, Fig. 40; (b) full-size details at D 97-105, I I 3-120.
and E, Fig. 41.
IO IO IO II STEEL TRuss.-Draw: (a) i-in. elevation A, Fig. 47; (b) quarter full-size details at c, G, K and L, Fig. 47· l?..l.,I24.
II II II I2 STEEL TRuss.-Draw : (a) to a scale of 4-ft. to I-in., elevation A, Fig. 48 ; (b) quarter full-size details at c, F, H and !24;·!28.
K, Fig. 48.
I2 12 i2 I3 STEEL TRuss.-Draw: (a) to a scale of 8-ft. to I-in., elevation A, Fig. so; (b) quarter full-size details at N, R, s, T, 128.
u, v, w, x, Y and z, Fig. so.
·~------------------~-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------'··------------------

424
 HOMEWORI< PROGRAMME (Vol. 3)
THis programme continues and completes that begun on p. 129, Vol. II.
Joinery details should be drawn preferably to full size. This is possible in most cases if the details are broken. Finished sizes and not nominal stzes
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should he indicated, the usual allowance for each dressed surface being 11c.-in. and ::1-,[-in. for planing and sandpapering respectively (seep. 97, Vol. 1).

Sheet Number.

Number of Lectures Subject of Drawing. Reading (Pages).

per Session.

24 zs 26 27
---- --- - - -
13 13 13 14 FLOORS.-(a) Draw quarter full-size details A, JJ and c, Fig. 8, and ponions of sections at B and c , Fig. 9 suffici ent
to show the application of floor clips. (b) Sketch details at H, J, K and L, Fig. 10.
14 14 IS PARTITION.--Draw ;\--in. elevation A and quarter full-size details at B, c, D, E, F, J and K, Fig. 11. 7-14, 42-48.
14' IS IS r6 SouNo-PROOFING.-Draw 1~-in . details at K, P, Q, s, u, wand x, Fig. 14. 14-17, 48-51.
IS !6 16 17 DoUBLE RooF.-Draw l-in. elevation A and .~-in. details at o, E and F, Fig. 15. s r- s6.
r6 17 17 Iil TEMPORARY TIMBERING.-(a) Draw, to l-in. scale, cross and part longitudinal sections through a 4-ft. wide and 1o-ft. 17-I<J, 56-62.
deep trench ; assume J-ft. depth of hard ground overlying a 3-ft. thick stratum of loamy soil, below which the
soil ts loose; show the application of m iddling and tucking boards (see Fig. 19). (b ) Draw to 1-in. scale, centre
J and K, Fig. 20.
17 !8 ,s I<) Doon.-Draw: (a) .~-in. elevation A and plan c, Fig. 21; (b) full-size details at K, 1., M and P, Fig. 21 and H, Fig. 22.
OR
(a) Draw i-in. elevation A, section u and plan c, Fig. 23, together with full -size details at G and H. (b) Sketch
the hammer-headed key joint at F, Fig. 23.
ril 19 19 20 DooRs.-Draw: (a) ;\--in . elevation c and full-size details at N and P (showing a 4-in. by 1 ~-in . stile), Fig. 24; 24-27, 66-70
(b) !-in. elevation A and full-size details at F and H, Fig. 2S·
19 20 20 21 METAL WINDOw.-Draw 1-in. elevation E, section D and plan F, Fig. 28, together with full-size details at N (ex- 27-3 I, 70-78.
cluding handle), o, P and Q .
20 21 21 22 STRAIGHT FLIGHT STAIH.-Draw 1-in. plan D and section c, Fig. 30, together with full-size details at F, G and H. 78-87.
21 22 22 23 DoG-LEG STAIR.-Draw : (a). !-in. plan D and section c, Fig. 32, amended to include the solid balustrade shown in Fig. 35 ; 87-97 (or 93).
(b) full-size details at H, J, o and F, Fig. 35, and either detail atE, Fig. 35, or at F (including margin fillets), Fig. 32 .
24 OPEN WELL STAIR.-Draw: (a) ·~-in . plan E and section c, Fig. 36 ; (b) half full-sizc details at J and ~~. Fig. 30, 93-97·
and at E and G, Fig. 34·
22 23 23 zs PLAIN TILING.- (a) Draw quarter full-size details at A and c, Fig. 41. (b) Sketch details at A, J and o, Fig. 42. 97-I 10.
23 24 24 26 PANTILING, SPANISH TILING AND ASBESTOS-CEMENT SHEETING.-Draw quarter full-size details at F (right side) and L, Fig. 44, I 10-124.
H, Fig. 4S, T, Fig. 46, and M and N, Fig. 47·
24 25 25 27 COPPER AND ZINC ROOFING. 2-Draw full-size details A, B, C, D, M, 0 and P, Fig. so. 124-134·
26 28 3 VERTICAL TILING.-Draw: (a) To a scale of 8-ft. to r-in., elevation A, Fig. 43 ; (b) quarter full-size details at r., !vi and Q I 10-I 12 .
(showing reversed under eaves course), Fig. 43; (c) 1~-in. details at H, K, o, P and s, Fig. 43·
, _ _....:__ _..!..._ _l--_ _;___ __ ___ _ __ _ ·- -·----- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - --'-- ---------1
1 Additional reading, pp. 7-14 and 42-48.
2 In lieu of this, preference may be given to a sheet on windows concerned with either Fig. 26 or Fig. 27.
3 If length of session permits.

425
 GENERAL SYLLABUS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
STAGE TV\/0 1
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BRICKWORK.--Extcnded description of the manufacture and characteristics of bricks, cements and limes ; lime and
cement mortars ; concrete. Squint quoins and junctions, and rebated and splayed jambs in English and Flemish
bonds ; piers ; cavity walls ; circular work ; reinforced brickwork ; raking bonds ; garden, cross, Dutch,
brick-on-edge and facing bonds ; recessed, elliptical, pointed and rere arches. Damp proofing of basements ;
dry areas. Stepped foundations . Concrete floor construction. Decorated brickwork. Fireplaces, flues, chimney
breasts and stacks ; bye-laws. Setting out. See Chapter Eight , Vol. II.
DRAINAGE.-Characteristics and brief description of the manufacture of drain pipes, including bends, junctions,
channels and taper pipes, gullies and interceptors. Setting out and construction of drains. Drainage systems for
small buildings ; inspection, interception and ventilation. See Chapter Nine, Vol. II.
MASONRY.-Formation and classification of stones ; characteristics, tests. Quarrying, mining and machine dressing.
Stone dressings to door and window openings. Cornices. Stone steps and stairs. See Chapter Ten , Vol. II.
MILD STEEL RooF TRUSSES.-Mild steel roof trusses up to 40-ft. span, with alternative details. See Chapter Eleven ,Vol. II.
CARPENTRY.-Extended description of the classification, structure, conversion, seasoning, preservation, defects,
characteristics and uses of timbers ; preparation of timber and machines employed. Double and framed floors ;
determination of sizes of joists ; floor finishes, including boards, blocks, plywood, parquet, cork and rubber.
Stoothed, trussed, terra-cotta, concrete, plaster, asbestos-cement and glass partitions. Sound-proofing. Double
and queen post roofs ; laminated trusses. Timbering of deep trenches and centres up to xo-ft. span. See
Chapter Twelve , Vol. III.
]OINERY.-Doors, including fanlights, semicircular headed, glazed and flush. Windows, including semicircular
headed boxed frame with sliding sashes, boxed frame with three lights, and metal. . Stairs ; terms ; types ; essential
requirements; step proportions; construction and detailing of straight flight, dog-leg and open well stair~?;
open and solid balustrades ; winders ; special steps. Manufacture, characteristics and uses of plywood, lamin-
boards, blockboards, battenboards and composite boards. See Chapter Thirteen,Vol. Ill.
RooF CovERINGS.-Manufacture and characteristics of clay and shale plain tiles, pantiles, Italian, Spanish and inter-
locking tiles ; eaves, ridge, hip, valley and verge details ; vertical tiling. Concrete tiles, asbestos-cement tiles
and corrugated sheets, corrugated iron sheets. Stone slating. Shingles. Copper and zinc details . See Chapter
Fourteen , Vol. III.
1 This syllabus appears in parts as chapter headings in Vols. II and III.

A bl ackwalnut, iii, 311, 312
Abrasive paper, iii, 317
Absorption, ii, 173
Abu trnents, i, 22; iii,403, 407,413,416
Accelerator, iii, 407
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Accra mahogany, iii, 292, 308, 312,
357, 387
Accrington bricks, ii, 176
Acoustic floor clips, iii, 325
Activated sludge system, ii, 230
Adhesives, i,86, 87;iii,388-390
animal glue,i,86, 87; iii,388, 389
blood albumen glue, iii, 388
caseinglue, ii~ 388,390
oil seed residue glue, iii, 388
resin cements, i, 87;iii,3 88-390
Scotch glue, i, 86, 8 7; iii, 388, 389
soya bean glue, iii, 388
vegetable glue, i,86, 87; iii, 388
Aerated cern en t, i i~ 334
African ebony, ii~ 307, 312
mahogany, i, 6o; iii, 292, 308, 312,
357,387
olive, iii, 310, 312
tea k , i,6o; iii, 308,312,325
walnut, iii, 311,312
Aggregates, i , 2, 3; ii, 176, 184,185,
187-1 95, 217, 219, 246
ash es, ii, 185
blast-furnace slag, ii, 184, 188
breeze, ii, 170, 171, 176, 188
br oken brick, i, 2; ii, 187
stone, i, 2;ii, 187
burnt ballast, ii, 188
clinker, ii, 181, 185, 188
crushed ston e, ii, 185
expanded slate, ii, 188
foamed slag, ii, 188
grading, ii, 184, 188
gravel, ii, 188,246
pumice, ii, 188
sand, i, 2,32, 45;ii, 184-195,217,
246
whinstone chippings, ii, 219
Air bricks, i, 61; ii,176;iii, 302
Al abaster, ii, 256
Alburnum, i ,5 5
AI der, iii, 357
Aluminous cement, ii, 184, 187
American ash , iii, 306, 312,357
beech , iii,3o6, 312,325, 343, 357,
385
GENERAL INDEX
birch, iii, 307,312, 323
chestnut, iii, 307,312
lime, iii, 306,312
red oak, i, 6o; iii, 309,312, 325
whiteoa k , i , 6o; iii, 309, 312, 325
whitewood, iii, 311, 312
Ammonium phosphate, iii, 301
An caster stone, ii, 246, 251-253,255
Andamanpadauk, iii, 292,310, 312
Angle beads, i, 111, 125
cleats, ii, 281-284,286, 28 7; iii,
323,324
drafts, i, 38
ties, i, 74
ti I es, iii, 3 98
Angles, steel, i, 21, 111, 158; ii, 280-287;
iii, 4 09-411
Angular hips, iii, 396
valleys, iii, 3 97
Animal glue, i, 86, 8 7; ii~ 388, 389
Annual or growth rings, i ,55, 57-6o; iii,
288, 291, 292, 304-311, 413
Anobium puncta tum, iii, 303
An ston stone , ii, 246, 251-253, 255
Antique glass, iii, 353
Apex stones, i, 51; iii, 413
Api tong, iii, 308,312, 325
Appayia, iii, 3o6, 312, 385
Appleton stone, ii, 246,249,252,255
AppleyBridgeBiue stone, ii, 246,249,
252, 255
Aprons, lead, i,143;iii,399
sta ir, iii, 365, 367, 375
Arches, i, 21- 26,39,47, 68,83 -85,99,
109, 120; ii , 210-212, 221 -223, 264,
266,269, 272
ax ed brick , i, 26
bonded, ii, 210
circular, ii, 210
classification, i, 23
construction,i, 24, 83-85 ; ii, 210
drop , ii , 211
elliptical, ii, 211
equilateral, ii, 211
flat, i , 24, 47, 99 , 109, 120; ii, 223,
266,2 72
Floren tine, ii, 2 11, 212
ga u ged, i, 24-26
jack, i , 26
l a n cet, ii, 211
pointed, ii, 211
purpose-made brick, i, 24-26
rere, ii, 210, 212
rough relieving, i, 25,26
s egm ental, i, 26, 4 7; ii, 211,266,
269 , 272
sem icircular, i , 26, 47; ii, 210, 222,
223 , 264
stilted,ii, 210
with orders, ii, 210
sem i-elliptical, ii, 21 0, 211
semi -hexagon al, i i, 223
"soldier", i, 21,93, 109
stone, i , 39, 46-4 8; ii, 264-2 72
ter m s, i, 2 2
ti I ed, ii, 223
tr imm er, i, 26, 68
Tudor, ii, 211, 212
Venetian, ii, 211, 2 12
Architraves, i, 122; ii, 266 -272; iii, 350,
353,35 5,357, 380
Argillaceous san dstones, ii, 248
Ar r is, i, 2, 3
Keene's cern ent, i , 111, 125
Arrows, ii, 227
Artificial seasoning, i, 56; iii, 296-299,
3 25,387
Asbestos, iii, 408
cement, iii, 334,335,338, 340, 341,
390, 407-411
char acteris tics, iii, 4 08,411
details, roofing, iii, 408-411
ma nufacture, iii, 408
partitions, iii, 334, 335
r ain-water goods, i, 15 6
sheet s , i i~ 335,338,340, 341,
390, 409-411
slat es, iii,408 -410
til ing, iii, 409,410
"Turnall" TratFord tiles, iii, 409,
410
Ash, iii, 289,304,306,310,312, 325,
327,35 7
Am erican, iii, 306,312,357
Eng lish, iii, 306, 312,357
Japanese, iii, 306,312
mountain, iii, 310, 312, 325
Ashburton marble,ii, 246,251,252,
2 55
Ash closet s, ii, 230
Ashes, ii, 185
Ashlar, i, 39, 45-53; ii, 264-275
Ashlaring, iii,339
Asphalt, i, 17, 68, 69, 152; ii, 213-215
Asphalt, asbestos f elt, i, 68 -71; iii, 411
Assembling plywood boa rds, iii, 38 7
Atl as cement, ii, 184
Atta ched piers, i, 12, 13, 19,78
Auger, i , 129; i i,162, 172; iii, 316,391
Augite, i i, 244
Au stralian blackwood, iii, 292,307 , 312
walnut, iii, 311,312,389
Au strian oak, i, 6o; i ii, 309, 3 12
Aut oclave, ii, 176
Aut omatic cutter grinder, iii, 318
feeding table, iii, 315, 316
saw-sharpening mach ine, iii, 3 17,
318
Avodire, iii, 306, 312, 385
Axe, i, 130,134
Axed bricks, i, 23-26
Axed-brick arches, i , 26
B
Back linings, i, 113,114
Badger, ii, 235
Bag-wall,ii, 165
Balancing steps, iii, 365, 367, 369
Ball test, ii, 237
Balsa, iii, 306, 312
B aIs am fir, iii, 288
Baltic r edwood, i, 60-62,70,78,108,
116;iii,288, 289,292, 305,312,
323, 325,393,39h398
whitewood, i, 6o, 62; iii, 288, 306,
312, 325
Balusters, ii, 276-279; iii, 317, 365, 375-
378, 380-382, 384
Balustrades, ii, 274-279; iii, 365, 367,
368, 375 -384,389
bron ze, ii, 278, 210
open , iii, 365, 367,368, 3 75- 378,
380-384
solid, iii, 365,367,368, 377, 379,
380,382,389
wrought iron, ii, 274-277
Band r e-sawingmachine, iii, 293
saw, i ii, 293,313,315, 318
sawing machine, iii, 314, 315,384,
387
Bands and gudgeon hooks,i,92
Ba n nisters. See "Balusters"
Banker mason,i, 34,35
Ba n ksianpine, iii,305, 312
Barefaced tenons, i, 92; iii, 3 75, 37 7
Ba r k, i, 55; iii, 289,327,328,385
Bar king lathe, iii, 385

Barrow-lift, ii, 194
Bars, steel, i, 21, 62, 68, 158; ii, 280,
287; iii, 323, 330, 332,334, 335,
339, 371
Basebed, i, 33
Basements, ii, 214-217
Basilican tiling,iii,403-405
Basis price, copper, iii, 417
Basketweave bond, ii,221, 223
pattern, iii, 32 5
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Basswood, iii, 306, 312
Bast, iii, 289
Bastardtuck pointing, i, 32
Batch box, ii, 193, 220
mixers, ii, 193,194
Bath stone, i, 33, 38; ii, 203, 246,251-
255,260
Baths, ii, 243
Bats, i, 4, 10, 12, 13, 29; iii, 391
Battenboards, iii, 390
Battens, i, 57, 70, 87-93, 136, 138-141;
iii, 292, 293,341, 393-410, 412-416
Baulks, i, 56;iii, 292,293,295,311
Bauxite, ii, 175,184
bricks, ii, 175
Baywood, iii, 292, 308, 312,357, 385
Bead andrea) ornament, ii, 266
Beaded drips, iii, 420
Beaded joint, i , 32
Beading head, iii, 315
rod, iii, 420
Beads , glazing, i, 110
inner, i, 113-116, 119-122
outer, i, 119- 121
parting, i, 113-117;iii, 357, 359-36 2
Beam filling, i, 76
Beam sawmachine, ii,261
Beams, steel, i, 59, 158; iii, 318- 324,
339, 340
filler, iii, 323, 324
fl itched, iii, 3 18
sizes , iii, 318, 319, 321 - 323
straining, iii, 330,341-343
Bearers, floor, iii,325, 326
gutter, i, 72, 81, 146
roof, iii, 339, 340, 417
stair, iii,365, 367,372-376,380,
381,383
Bearing p lates, ii, 281, 283,287
Bed, brick, i, 3
joints, i, 4, 23 , 24, 29, 31, 39, 40,45
moulds, i, 76,111
natural, i, 38, 39; ii, 247, 256
thatch, iii, 420,421
Bedding, i, 18, 21, 49, 6 1, 87, 108, 111,
137
GENERAL INDEX
Beech, ii~ 288-292,306,312,325, 343,
357.385
Beer stone,ii, 246,251-253,255,260
Belgian Fossil marble, ii, 256
marbles,ii,256
roof truss , ii, 28 6, 287
Belt sander, iii, 317
Benching , ii, 218,239
Bending lead pipes, i, 146,148
moment, iii, 319,321
Bending stick, i, 148, 157
wood, iii, 350,359,384
Bends, drain, ii, 231,233
Benin mahogany,ii~ 292,308,312,
357, 387
w a lnut, iii, 311, 312
Berristall stone, ii, 246,248,249,252,
255
Bethel preserving process, iii, 299,300
Bevel, i, 29, 126
cutting, iii, 315
housed joint, iii, 343
Bevelled bats, i, 4, 13
closers, i, 4
haunchedjoint,i,66, 74
housed joint, i, 66
rebatedjoint,i, 116
saws, iii, 313,314
Bevelling, iii, 315, 317, 336, 345, 357
Bevels, saw, iii, 313,317
Bifurcated stairs , iii, 366,368
Binders, iii, 318-323,332
sizes, iii,319, 321, 322
Biotite, ii,245
Birch, i, 6o; iii, 288, 291, 292, 306,
307, 312, 323,325, 327,357,385 ,
389
American, iii, 307, 312, 323
black, iii, 307, 312,323
Gmadianyellow,iii,307, 312, 323
cu rly iii, 307,312, 323
European, i, 6o; iii, 3o6, 312,385
Quebec, iii, 307,312, 323
yellow, iii, 307, 312, 323
Bird's-eye figure, iii, 292, 309
maple, iii, 292, 309,312, 325, 327,
388
Birdsmouthbricks, ii, 177
joint , i, 72-74; iii, 339, 370,375
Biscuit burning, ii, 175
Bitumen, i, 17, 18; ii, 211, 235
Black bean, iii, 292,306, 312,357, 387
birch, iii, 307,312,323
core, ii , 172
gu area, iii, 307,312
marble, ii, 255
mortar, i, 47; ii, 186, 220,221, 257
Sea walnut, iii, 311, 312
wal nut, American, iii, 311, 312
Blade, ii, 165
Bladon stone, ii, 246, 251, 252
Bl ast-furnacecement, ii, 184, 187
slag, ii, 184, 188
Bl en de, iii, 419
Blending, clay, ii, 161
Blister figure, iii, 292, 305, 308 -310
maple, iii, 292, 309, 312, 325,327,
388
Bl isters, saw, iii, 314
Bloating, ii, 172
Blockb oards, iii, 357,390
Block -in- course masonry, i, 43
Blocking course, i, 51
Block s, built-up, iii, 383, 384
stair, iii, 365, 3 70, 3 74
Blood a I bumen glue, iii, 38 8
Blow lamp , i, 143,153, 157; iii, 302
Blue Staffordshire bricks, i, 18; ii, 176
dam p proof course, i, 18
vitriol, iii, 299,300, 303
Blythe's preserving p rocess, iii, 300
Boarding, roof, i, 136, 138; iii, 393-397,
401,402,404-406, 413, 417-419
Boards, floor, i, 5 7,59,62-65; iii, 292,
293,297, 316, 319-328
valley, iii, 397, 403
Boaster, i, 36
Bobbins, i, 148, 157
Bodying, ii, 175
Bolection mouldings, i, 95, 98, 99, 102;
iii ,351, 356
Boles, iii, 292,293,385
Bolster,i,29
Bolton Woods stone, ii, 246, 249, 252
Bolts, barrel, i, 88, 90, 91,122
b ri ck, ii, 166
fl ush, i, 91,100
ha ndrail screw, iii, 353, 359
Lewis, ii, 281-28 7
wrought iron or steel, i, 20, 73, 78,
81, 158, 159; iii, 323,339,343
Bomba y blackwood, iii, 310,312
Bond, definition, i, 3
bas ketweave, i i, 2 21, 22 3
b ri ck-on -edge, ii, 208,209
rat -trap , ii, 209; ii~ 398
Sil verlock's , ii, 209
cavity wal~ ii, 176, 197, 199-205,
274, 275; iii,3 20, 3 21, 33 2, 336,
381, 382,393,394,398,400,
402 -404, 406 , 415
chimney, ii, 223 -226
cir cular work, ii, 203,229
di aper work, ii, 223
dog's tooth, i, 39
Dutch, ii, 208
English, i , 1, 5-7,9-14
cross , i i,2o8
facing, ii, 209,210
g a rden wall, ii, 199, 208
Flemish, dou ble, i, 7-9, 11-14
g a rden wall, ii, 199, 208, 2 74
single, i, 8, 10
heading, i, 7; ii, 203
h oop ir on , ii, 205
j un ctions, right-angled, i, 9,10
squint, ii, 195,196
I on gitudinal, ii, 207
monk, ii, 208
p iers , i, 12, 13, 19, 43, 78; ii, 198,
199, 223; iii, 321, 341
quoins, right-angled, i, 10-12
squint, ii, 195,197,198
decorated, ii, 221
raking, ii, 207,208 , 221
diagonal, ii, 207, 221
herring-bone, ii, 207, 221
rebatedjambs, i, 13, 14
splayed, ii, 198
stepped, ii, 198
slating, i,135, 136
special, ii, 208 -210
square j ambs, i, 7,13
stopped ends, i, 4, 6 -8,10
stretching, i, 6, 7; ii, 199
Suss ex, ii, 208 , 209
Bonded arch, ii, 210
Bonders, i, 39
Bonding, brick See "Bond"
ston e, i, 3 9-53; ii, 264-274
ash lar, i, 39,45-53;ii,2 64 -2 74
flint, i, 43,44
Lak e District mason ry, i, 18, 44.45
polyg onal, i, 43, 44
random rubble, uncoursed, i, 3 9, 40
bu ilt -to-courses, i, 40, 41
squaredrubble, uncoursed, i, 4 1,
42; ii , 265, 266
bu ilt -t o-courses, i, 42,43
regu lar coursed, i, 42,43
Bonding strips, iii, 330
Bonin g rods,ii,22 6, 22 7, 234 , 235, 237
Bonnet h ip tiles, iii, 395, 396
Booms, iii, 339
Bordered pit s, iii, 289
Bori n g machine, iii, 316
Bossing, i, 143
m a llet a nd bossing stick, i, 146,156
Botanical cl assification, timber, iii, 288
Bottom er , iii, 414
Bouch erie preserving process , i ii, 300

Bowing, i, 58; iii, 295
Bow saw, i, 127,131
Box, iii, 289
mould,ii,163
Brace and bits, i, 129,131
Braces, i, 85,90, 92;iii, 330,339,340,
347
Brack enhill stone, ii, 246, 249, 252
Bradawl, i, 129, 131
Bramley Fall stone, ii, 246,248,249,
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252, 255
Brashness, iii, 295
Breasting, i, 127
Breasts, chimney, ii, 223, 224
Breccia marble, ii, 256
Breche Rose marble, ii, 256
Breeze, ii, 170, 171,176,188
slabs, ii, 176
Brick arches, i, 22-26, 83, 85; ii, 210,
211,221,223
ca ppi ngs, ii, 2 26
chimney breasts, ii, 223,224
stacks, i, 77, 148,150, 151; ii,
223-226
copings, i, 28;ii, 177, 221, 222;iii,
403 , 404,413
Bricklayer's craft, i, 3
tools, i, 29
B ri cknog ged partition, iii, 33 o
Brick-on-edge bonds, ii, 208, 209
copings, i, 28, 29; ii, 177, 221, 222;
iii,403, 404,413
parapets, ii, 221 , 222
sills, i, 26-28 , 112, 113
string courses, ii, 221, 222
thresholds,i ,27, 28, 98, 99; ii, 210,
212; iii, 353, 354
Brick- on-end lintels, i, 20,21
par apets, ii, 221,222
plinths, i, 29, 30
string courses, ii, 221, 222
Bricks, i , 1-4,10-13,21-26, 29-31; ii,
160-1 78, 195-211, 220- 226
Ac crington, i i, 176
air, i, 61; ii,176; iii, 302
axed, i, 23-26
bats, i, 4, 10, 12, 13,29
bauxite, i i, 175
birds mouth, ii, 177
blu e Staffordshire, i, 18; ii, 176
bullnose,i, 4, 13, 29; ii, 177, 198
cem ent and concrete, ii, 176
characteristics, i, 2; ii, 173, 174
chromite, ii, 175
circular, ii, 177, 203
clamp-burnt, ii, 170
cl assification, ii, 174-176
GENERAL INDEX
closers, i, 4-14 pressed, i, 1, 31; ii, 161, 162,1 72, raking bonds, ii,207, 208 , 221
colour, ii, 161, 171, 172, 220, 221, 174,1 77 rei nforced, i, 2 1; ii, 204-207; iii,
223 pur pose-made, i, 4, 21, 23, 24; ii, 330,332
common, ii, 174 176-178 setting out, ii, 226-229
coping,i, 28, 29;ii, 177 rubber, i, 23, 24; ii, 175 special bonds, ii, 208-2 10
cownose, ii, 177 salt-glazed, ii, 175 stren gth, ii, 174
defects, i, 2; ii, 172-174 sand-faced, i, 32; ii, 163, 171, 172 Bricktor, ii, 205
dog! eg, i, 4 ; ii, 177 sand-lime, i, 1; ii, 174, 176 Bridging joi sts, i, 59, 65-67; ii, 190-194
enamelled,ii,1 75 sand- moulded, ii, 163, 171 Bridle joint, i, 74, 78, 8o;iii, 330,339
engineering, ii, 174-176 silica, ii, 175 British Columbian p ine , i, 6o, 65; iii,
facing, i, 1, 2; ii, 162, 166,170-175, sizes , i, 3; ii, 171 289 , 292 , 304, 312, 323, 327,
195,199, 203, 208-210, 220- slop-moulded, ii, 164 292.293 , 3 5~385,388
223, 226, 229 Sou th water , ii, 176 Hondur as cedar, iii, 307,312
fireclay, ii, 161, 175 special, i, 4, 21, 23, 24; ii, 176-178 pitch p ine , iii, 3 05, 312, 32 5
Fl etton , ii, 160, 161, 169 spla y, i,4 Brittleness, ii~ 291, 295 ,
ganister,ii, 175 squint, ii, 177, 195 Br oad t ool, i, 36
gault, ii, 16o stai ning, ii, 171 BrocatelleJaune marble, ii, 256
glass,ii,178 stock, ii, 161, 163, 170 Viol ette marble, ii, 256
glazed, ii, 165, 175 str ength, ii, 174 Br oken b rick, i, 2; ii, 187
grooved, ii, 205 terms, i, 3, 4 stone, i, 2; ii, 187
hand-made, i, 1, 2, 4, 31; ii, 162-164, tests, ii, 173, 174,191,192 Bronze b alustrade, ii, 2 79
172,174, 220 compression, ii, 174, 191,1 92 door , ii, 272
hollow, ii, 176-178 efflorescence, ii, 174 faced plywood, iii, 3 90
Hunziker, ii, 176 f rost resistance, ii, 174 par titions, iii, 335
keyed, ii, 177 permeability, ii, 173 Brown oak, ii~ 309, 312
kilns, i, 1; ii, 165 -170 texture, ii, 172, 220 Brush application, pres ervatives, iii,
London stock, ii, 161, 170 weight,i, 2 301
magnesite, ii, 175 wire-cut, i, 1; i i, 162, 172, 174, 176, Building paper, ii, 215; iii, 327, 417
manufacture,i, 1, 2; ii, 161-172,175, 177 Built-up stone steps, ii, 274
176 Brickwork, i , 1-32; ii, 160-229 Bul k density, ii, 258
burning process, i, 1; ii, 165-171 ar ches,i ,21 -26, 83-85, 99,109, excavation, iii, 345
clamps, ii, 170, 171 120; i i, 210-212,221-223 Bulking, ii, 189
kilns, ii, 165-170 basements, ii, 214-217 "Bull Dog" fl oor clips, iii, 325
drying process, i, 1; ii, 164-166 cav itywalls,i,4;ii, 176 ,197,199 - Bullnose bricks , i ,4 , 13, 29; ii, 177, 198
moulding processes, i, 1, 2; ii, 205,274 , 275; iii,3 20, 321 ,332, steps, iii, 367, 380, 383
162-164 336, 381, 382,393,394,398, Bull's eye arch , ii, 210
h and, i, 1, 2, 4, 31; ii,162- 4 00 , 4 02 -404 , 4 06 , 415 centering, iii, 347, 348
164 cir cular work , ii, 203, 229 Burls, ii~ 29 2, 385
sand-moulding, ii, 163, d ecor a ted work, ii, 220-223 Burmapadauk, iii, 310,312
171 a rch es,ii,221, 223 Bur nettizing pres erving p rocess, iii,
slop-moulding , ii, 164 diaper work, ii, 223 300
machine, i, 1; ii, 161, 162,172 jointing and p ointing, ii, 220, Burning t iles, iii, 392
pressed, i, 1; ii, 162 221,223 Burnt ballast, ii, 188
wire-cut, i , 1; ii, 162, 172 p iers, ii, 223 Burr figure, iii, 292,306, 311, 385
plastic process, ii, 161 quoins, ii, 221 Bur ring, ii, 172
preparation process, ii, 161 dry areas,ii, 217 Butler Delph stone, ii, 249, 2 52
semi -plastic process, ii, 161 fir eplaces, etc., i, 64, 67, 68; ii, 223- Butt hinges, i, 94, 98, 103, 111
stiff-plastic process, ii, 161 226 join t s, i, 10, 52, 62, 64;iii,323, 345,
multi-coloured, i, 2; ii, 161,171, 172, foundation s, i, 15-17,41, 46; ii, 218, 380,417
220, 221 , 223 225 preserving treatme nt, iii, 300
nicked, ii, 177 jambs,i, 7, 13, 14; ii, 198 Buttresses, i, 13
ornamental, ii, 163 jun ctions, 1, 9, 10 ; ii, 195, 196 cappi ngs, i, 20
paving, ii, 176 lintels, i, 20, 21, 109, 111
p erforated, ii, 175, 177,205 piers, i, 12, 13, 19, 4 3, 78; ii,1 98,
pistol, ii, 177 199, 223 ; iii,321, 341
c
plinth, i, 29; ii, 177 quoin s, i, 4, 10-12; ii, 195,19 7,198, Cabot's qu ilt, iii, 336
221 Cal ca reous sandstones, ii, 247
tufa, ii, 256

Cal amine, iii,419
Callipers, i, 127
Camber arches, i, 24
tiles, iii, 391, 392,396-398,407
Cambium, i, 55; ii~ 289,291,
Canada b alsam, iii, 291
Canadian rffi pine, iii, 305,312, 358
spruce, i, 6o, 62,82;iii,288, 305,
312
white pine, iii, 288,289, 292, 305,
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312
yellow birch, iii, 307, 312, 323
pine, iii, 288, 289, 292, 305, 312
Canarywhitewood, iii, 311,312
Can til ever steps, ii, 276
Canting arm planer, ii, 261
Cape Lopez mahogany, iii, 292,308,
312,357,387
Capillary grooves, i, 111, 145; iii, 353
Cappings, chimney, ii, 226
copper, iii, 417
moulded, iii, 365,375,380
zinc, iii, 420
Caps, newel, iii, 317,365, 366,375,
380,382
Carbolizing preserving process, iii, 300
Car bon a tion, ii, 179
Carborundum, ii, 248, 260, 261, 263
saws , i, 35; ii, 261, 262
Carpentry, i, 55-85; ii, 190-221
definition, i, 59, 86
Carpets, iii, 328
Carriage bolts , ii, 283
pieces, iii, 365,367,370,374, 375,
380,383
Cascade, ii, 240
Case-hardening, iii, 295, 29 7
Casein g lue, iii, 388,390
Casements, wood, i, 108-113, 119
meta I, iii, 361, 363-365, 380
fasteners, i, 111, 113; iii, 363
stays, i, iii, 113; iii, 353, 363
Casings, beam, iii, 323
door , framed,i ,1oo, 101
plain, i ,100-102, 105; iii, 330,
332,355,356, 358
skeleton, i, 100, 101
Cast iron covers, ii, 239
lead, i,142
Cau lking, i, 98,143,154
tool, i, 157
Cau ls, iii, 350, 38 7, 388
Cavettomould,i,48, 50,124
Cavity waDs, i,4; ii, 176, 197, 199-205,
274, 275;iii,320, 321,332, 336,
381,382,393,394,398, 400, 402 -
404, 406, 415
GENERAL INDEX
ties, ii, 199, 200
Cedar, iii, 304,307, 312,413
Central American, iii, 307,312
Pacific red, iii, 304,312,413
western red, i, 6o; iii, 304,312,413
Ceilingjoists, i , 72, 81; ii, 280, 287; iii,
318-322, 329,330,336,337, 339-
343, 398, 406
Ceilings, i, 68
Cell a ctite, iii, 411
Cellarfungus, iii, 303
Cells, i, 55, s6;iii, 288- 291,294
Cellulose flooring, iii, 32 8
Cel otex, iii, 336
Cement, i, 2;ii, 180-184,186, 187,189-
195
a! uminous, ii, 184, 187
Atlas, ii, 184
coloured, ii, 184
fibrous wood, i i, 187; iii, 334
fillets,i , 150
floating coat, i, 65
grout,i, 2,21,31, 43,47,49, 52, 87
Medina,ii,181
mortar, i, 2-4, 12, 17, 18, 28, 32,45,
47, 52, 53,110,137,141,143,
146, 15 o; ii, 186, 204
waterproofffi, i, 32, 137; ii, 186,
216, 217,224;iii, 403
neat, cement, i, 53; ii, 234
normal Portland, i, 2;ii, 181-183,
186,187, 18~195;i ii,408
manufacture, i, 2; ii, 181-183
tests, ii, 181-183
chemical com position , ii,
181, 182
cold-pat, ii, 183
fineness, ii, 181
h ot-pat, ii, 183
setting time, ii, 182, 183
final , ii, 183
initial, ii, 183
soundness, ii, 183
stren gth, ii, 182, 183
compressive, ii, 182, 183
tensile, ii, 182
plug, i, 52
Portl a nd blast-furnace, ii, 184,
187
r apid -hardening Portland, i i,
183, 187
Roman, ii, 180
whi tePortland, ii, 183, 186
Cement andconcreteblocks and bricks,
ii, 176
Cern en ting plywood, iii, 3 87, 3 88
Cementone, ii, 186
Centering, i , 26, 83-85; ii, 219,221
circular arches, iii, 34 7, 348
easing, i, 83,85
f lat arches , i, 83, 84
pointed arches, iii, 347,348
segmental arches, i, 84,85
semicircular arches, i, 84 ,85;
iii,347-348
semi -elliptical arches, iii, 348,
349
striking, i, 83
t urning pieces, i, 24, 83-85
Centr al American cedar, iii, 307, 312
mahogany, i, 6o; iii, 292, 308,
312, 357,385
Centre-nailed slating, i , 135, 138
Centr al batchingplant, ii, 194
Cesspool, i, 72, 145,146
Chain cutter, iii, 316
dogs , i, 53
lewis, i, 53
Chains, sash, i, 113,118, 119
Chalk,ii, 160,179,181
Chamber dryers, ii, 164
Chambers, inspection, ii, 237,239,
240,243
in tercepting,ii,237, 238,240,241,
243
Chamfer, i, 28, 38, 47, 88, 108
joint, iii, 379, 380
Chamfering, iii, 315, 3 17,330
Channelledjoints , ii, 264,2 72
Chan nels, drain, ii, 231, 233, 239
steel, i, 158
Chasewedge, i, 146,156
Chaser mil~ ii, 161
Checking, iii, 295, 29 7, 387
cas e-hardening, iii, 295, 297
end, iii, 295
honeycom b, iii, 295
internal, iii, 295
surface, iii, 295
through, iii, 295
veneers , iii, 387
Chemical composition, cement, ii, 181 ,
182, 184
clays,ii, 16o, 161, 171
granites, ii, 247
limes, ii, 179
lim estones, ii, 255
marbles, ii,255
sandstones, ii, 255
Cherry mahogany, iii, 309, 312
Ch imney bar, ii, 224
breasts, i i,223, 224
fire int erior , ii, 225,226
fl ues, ii, 224,
hearths, i, 64, 67,68;ii,225, 226
pots, i i, 224
stacks, i, 77,148, 150, 151;ii,223-
226
Chipbreaker, iii, 3 16, 317
Chipped grain, i,59
Chisel drafted margins, i, 38
Chisels ,i ,29, 36, 38,128
Chromite bricks, ii, 175
Chuffs, ii, 172
Chute, drain, ii, 240
Cigar-box cedar, iii, 307,312
Cimen tFondu,ii, 184
Cippoline marble, ii, 256
Circassian walnut, iii, 311, 312
Circl e valleys, iii, 396,397,413
Circular arch, ii, 210
bricks, ii, 177, 203
centering, iii, 347,348
saw bench, i, 34, 35, 107, 130,132;
ii, 261, 262;i ii, 311,313, 314,
384,387
mill, iii, 293
saws , bevelled, iii, 313, 314
carborundum, i , 35; ii, 261 , 262
cross -cut, iii, 311, 313
diamond, i, 35, 132; ii, 261, 262
drunken, iii, 317
ground-off, iii, 313-314
gu lleting, iii, 317
holl ow--ground, iii, 3 13
pi ate, iii, 293,311-314, 317, 318
rip, iii, 311,313, 314, 317
setting, iii, 313
sharpening, iii, 317,318
swage, iii, 313,314
t ensioning, iii, 3 14
Cir cular stairs, iii, 366
work, ii, 203,229
setting-out, ii, 229
Circumferential shrinkage, i, 58
Clam ping plywood boards, iii, 388
Clam ps, i, 130, 131; ii, 170, 171
Classification, timber, i, 59, 6o; iii, 288,
304 -311
bota n ical, i ii, 288
com mercial, iii, 288, 304 -311
h a rdwoods , i, 59, 6o; iii, 288,
304, 306-311
softwoods, i ,59,6o; iii, 288,
304-3o6
Clay, i, 1; ii, 16o-163, 171, 175; iii, 343,
391
blending, ii, 161
block and clay partitions, iii, 332
chemical constitution, ii, 160,161,
171
 GENERAL INDEX
cleaning, ii, 161 Comb grain, iii, 291-294, 309, 325, 387, laitance, ii,219 rotar y cutting, ii~ 385, 3 87
de-airing, ii, 162 413 I evelling, ii, 227 h a If-round cutting, iii, 385
fireclay, ii, 161, 175 Combined air andkiln seasoning, iii, lightweight, ii, 188; iii, 332 -334 stay -log cutting, iii, 3 85
gault, ii, 160 298,299 lintels, i, 21,22,115 ,119 slab -sawn, i, 57; iii, 291-294,413
Knotts, ii, 160, 161 log and deal frame, iii, 293 mass, ii, 184, 194 s !icing, iii, 385, 387
loamy, ii, 160 Com bl a nchien marble, ii, 25 6 mat rix, i, 2; ii, 187 t a n g enti al~awn, i, 57; iii, 291-294 ,
malm,ii,16o Commercia! classification, timber, iii, mixing, i, 3; ii, 193, 194, 220 4 13
m arly, ii,16o 288, 304-311 pla cing, ii, 194 Copin gs , i, 28, 29 , 50, 5 1; ii, 177, 221,
pi a stic, ii, 161 Commode steps, iii, 365, 367 reinforced,i, 7, 12, 21, 22, 72,115, 222;i ii, 403,404,413
red, ii,16o Common furniture beetle, iii, 303 119;ii,187-189,215, 276, 278, a pex stone, i, 51
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reduction, ii, 161 partitions, iii, 329,330 279;iii, 323,324,326,336 b r ick-on -€dge, i, 28, 29; ii, 177,221,
screening, ii, 162 Compacting factor test, ii, 191 sawdust, ii, 187; iii, 334 222; iii, 403, 404, 413
souring, ii, 163 Compasses, i, 26 s creeding, iii, 325 b rick -on -€nd , i, 28; ii, 221 , 222
weathering, ii, 161 Compass saw, i, 127 site, i, 18, 19, 62, 63, 65; ii, 218; i i~ bullnose, i , 29
Clayholes, i, 39 Compomortar, i, 2;ii, 186, 204; iii, 4rn 302 double cant, ii, 177
Cleansing screws, ii, 243 Composite-boards, iii, 390 str engfu, ii, 190,191,193 feather- edge, i , 51
Cleats, i, 81;ii, 281-284, 286, 287;iii, Composition, cement, ii, 181,182,184 su b-floors, i, 63, 65; ii, 214-216; iii, k n eel er, i , 51
323, 324, 332, 339-344 clay, ii, 160, 161, 171 325 , 326, 328 parallel, i, 51; iii, 403, 404,413
Cleft shingles, iii, 413 concrete, ii, 187, 189, 190, 193,194, tests, ii, 190-193;iii, 325 raking, i, 51
Clinched, i, 88 216,219 compacting fa ctor, ii, 191 saddle-b ack, i, 29, 51
Clinker, ii, 181, 185,188 granites,ii,247 compression, ii, 191,193 segmental, i, 51
Clinkering, ii, 172 limes,ii,179 dry ness, iii, 325 sem i circular, i, 29; ii, 177
Clipper,plywood, iii, 387 limestones, ii, 255 slump, ii, 190-193 springer ston e, i, 51
Clips, copper,iii,417 mar hies, i i, 255 ti I es, iii, 407 Copper hi t, i , 153, 15 7
floor , iii, 325 sandstones, ii, 255 moul ding machine, iii, 407 damp proof course, i, 18
zinc, iii, 418-420 Compound walls, i, 44-48; ii, 269, 271, tower , ii, 194 j oint , i,153
Clipsham stone, ii, 246, 251-255 273, 275 water -cement ratio, ii, 190 Copper roofing, i, 68-70; iii, 416-4 19
Cloakroom, iii,380 Compression strength, bricks, ii, 174 water proofed, ii, 195 , 2 16 cappi ngs, iii, 417
Close cou pi eroof, i, 71, 72 cement, ii, 182, 183 Cone crusher, ii, 181 characteristics, iii, 416,417
picked walling, i,43 concretes, ii, 190, 191,1 93 h ip tiles, iii, 396,403,407 clips, iii, 417
strings, iii, 367, 370-378, 380, 383 granites, ii,245 Coni cal roll,i ii, 41 7 drips, iii, 419
Closed drum mixer, ii, 194 limestones , ii, 2 51 Conife rce ,ii~ 288 f lashings, i i~ 419
mortice and tenon joint, i, 86 sandstones, ii, 249, 250 Coniophora cerebella, iii, 303 hips, iii,419
Closers, i, 4-14 stres s, i, 20, 66 , 76; iii, 319,343, Conn em ara Ir ish Green marble, ii, 256 join ts, iii, 417-419
Clots, clay, iii, 391 349 Cons erv ancy system, ii, 230 standing seams, iii, 417,419
Coach -screws, i, 126 testing machines , ii, 174, 191, 260 Con soles, ii, 267, 271, 272 welts , iii, 41 7, 419
Coal sl ack, ii, 165,170 Concrete, i,2, 3, 15-22, 62, 63, 65, 67, Con struction, a rches, i, 24, 83- 85; ii, w ood rolls, iii,41 7, 419
Coa l-tar, iii, 299 68,115, 119; ii, 187- 195,214-216, 2 10 manufacture, sheets, iii, 416
Coarsegrain,i,58;iii, 292,306 218, 219, 227; iii, 323, 325, 328, dra ins, ii, 235 -237 sizes, iii,41 7
texture, iii, 292, 308, 310 332- 334, 377,380, 407 steps, iii, 370, 371,374, 384 r idg es, iii, 4 19
Cog gedjoints, i, 61, 73;iii, 3 18, 322, ag gregates, i, 2 , 3; ii, 176, 184,185, truss, i, 81 strings, iii, 417
330 187-195, 217, 219,246 wal ls, i , 31, 53 valleys, iii, 419
Coke-b r eeze bricks, iii, 397, 398 blocks and bricks, ii, 176 Contact bed, ii, 2 30 Copper su lphate, iii, 299, 3 00
con crete block partitions, iii, 332- p artitions, iii, 332 -334,377, 38o Con tinuous k ilns, ii, 165- 169,1 78 Corbel s , i ,19,62, 68;ii, 271,272
334, 377, 380 com pacting, ii, 194, 2 19 gu ides, iii, 345 bra ckets, i, 62
Cold chisel, i, 130 compos ition , ii,1 87, 189, 190, 193, mix ers, ii, 194 Cord, s as h, i, 113, 118,119
pattest,ii, 183 194, 2 16,219 stai r, iii, 366, 368 Cor e-driver, i, 106
steeping preserving process, iii, cu ring, ii, 194, 219 Conversion, timber, i, 57; iii, 291-294, Cores, ply wood, iii, 385,387, 390
300,301 defects, ii, 188, 194 309, 385, 38 7 Cor n gr it stone, ii, 251, 252,2 60
Coll apse, iii, 295 floors, i, 65; ii, 214-216, 218-165i; fl at~awn, iii, 291-294, 413 Cork fl oor c overing, iii, 32 7, 328
Coll ar roofs, i , 72-75; iii, 339,340 iii , 323-328 pl ain- sawn, iii, 29 1-294, 413 ca r pet, iii, 328
Col oured asphalt, ii, 215 foundations, i, 15-17,19,41, 46;ii, quarter-sawn, i, 5 7; iii, 291-294, m a nufacture, iii, 327
cement, ii, 184 200,202,216,218, 225,227 309 ,325,387,413 ski rtings, iii, 3 2 7
Col umbianpine, i, 6o, 65; iii, 289, 292, gr a ding, ii, 184, 188 radial ~ awn , i, 57; iii, 291-294,3 09, tile s, iii, 32 7
304, 312,323 , 327, 343,357,385, hearfus, i, 62-64, 67,68; ii, 225, 325,387,413 Cornic es, i, 3 5, 49 -51, 150, 152; ii, 266-
388 226 rift~awn, i, 57; iii, 291-294, 309, 275
Comb edjoint, iii, 357 hoist, ii, 194 325, 387 ,413 protection , i, 150, 152; ii, 272
 GENERAL INDEX
Cornish slates, i, 134; ii, 246, 256 Cups, i, 110,114,125,126 crozzl ing, ii, 172 I yctus powder-post beetle, iii, 303,
Corona, i, 49; ii, 266 Curing chamber, iii, 407 efflorescence, ii, 160,172-174 304
Cor ren n ieg ranite, ii, 245, 252 concrete, ii, 194, 219 grizzling, ii, 173 shrinkage, i, 55-58,86-88,94, 122;
Cor rosi vesublimate, iii, 299, 301, 303 Cn rly birch, iii, 307, 312, 323 iron spots, ii, 173 iii, 294, 295,327,389 , 4 13
Corrugated metal saw-edge fasteners, i, grain, iii, 291,292,307 I am inations, i i, 173 splitting, iii, 295, 297, 389, 413
126;iii, 357 maple, iii, 292,309,312,325,327, limenodules,i ,2;ii, 173 swelling, i, 56, 58,100, 111; iii, 294,
sheets, i i~ 409, 411 388 s cumming, ii, 166, 167, 173 327
"Everite Bigsix", iii, 409,411 Curtail step, iii, 367,384 Defects in concrete, ii, 188, 194 t wist ed grain, i , 58
standard, iii, 411 Curved soffit linings, iii, 357,359 expansion, ii, 188 upsets, i, 58
Corsehill red stone, ii, 246,248,249, Cnssomes, iii, 412 frost a ction, ii, 194 veneers, iii,387
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252, 255 Cn t and mitred hips, iii, 396, 413, 416 Defects in stone, i, 39; ii, 256-2 60 wane, i, 59
Cor sham Down stone, ii, 251-253, 255, valleys, iii, 3 97 clay-holes, i, 39 warping, i, 57-59; iii, 295, 297,327,
260 Cn t strings, iii, 367, 384 due to association of dissimilar 389,390,417
Cotswol d District stone, ii, 248; iii, 412, Cn tterblocks, iii, 315-318,387 stones, ii, 257 bow, i , 58; iii, 295
414 Cn tters, iii, 315-318, 3 74 a tm aspheric impurities, ii, 256 cup, i , 59; ii~ 295, 327
stone slating, iii, 411-414 Cutting iron, i, 134 car eless selection, ii, 257 spring, iii, 295
Counter-battens, i, 138;i ii,393, 401 , I i sts, i, 107 corrodible metal fastenings, ii, twis t , ii~ 295,389
413 table, i, 1; ii, 162, 163; iii, 391 258 wind, iii, 295
laths , iii, 318, 321,323,3 30 Cylinder, veneering, iii, 359 due to efflorescence, ii, 257 wet rot, i, 58
Coup! e roofs, i, 71, 72 sander, iii, 317 frost action, ii, 257, 259, 26o De Lane granite, ii, 245, 247, 252
Courses, i, 4, 5 Cyma recta mould, i,48, 50 i n correct bedding, ii, 256 Density bulk, ii, 2 58
Cover beads,iii,361 rever sa mould, i, 48-50, 96,112 m ott! e , i, 39 solid, ii, 258
fillets , iii, 365,375 Cymatium, i, 49; ii, 272 s and-holes, i, 39 Derbyshire stone, i, 33, 34
flashings ,i ,143, 145-147 Cypress shingles, iii, 413 sha kes , i , 39 Detached piers, i, 12, 13
Cownose bricks, ii, 177 sh elly bars, i, 3 9 Diagonal bond, ii, 207, 221
Cradle, iii, 374 D snailcreep, i, 39 grain, iii, 291
Cradling, iii, 321,323, 339 Defects in timber, i, 55-6o;iii,291, 294, Diallage, ii, 244
piece, i, 68 Dado panelling, iii, 380 Diamond saws, i, 35,132; ii, 261,2 62
295,297, 301-304, 325,327,328,
Crampedjoint, i, 52 Damp proof courses, i, 17, 18, 29; ii, 338, 387, 390, 417 slates, iii,4o8, 409
Cramps, i, 49, 52, 64, 1o6,130 201, 203, 205, 211-217, 219; ii~ 302, bowing, i, 58 Diaper work, ii, 222,223
Cramping doors, i, 104,106 303 brashness, iii, 295 Diatomaceous earth, iii, 332
floor boards, i, 64 asphalt, i, 17; ii, 211,213, 214 brittleness, iii, 291, 295 Dicotyledonea,iii, 288
Crazing, ii, 172 blue Staffordshire brick, i, 18 cellar fungus, i ii, 303 Diffuse-porous woods, iii, 289, 291,
Creasing, tile, i, 29; iii, 397,403,407 copper , i, 18 checking, iii, 295, 297, 387 306,307, 308
Creetown granite, ii, 245 fibrous asphalt felt, i, 18; ii, 201, case-hardening, iii, 295, 297 Dihedral angle, iii, 396, 397
Creosote, i, 57, 61, 87; ii, 213; iii, 299- 211 , 213,215 end, i ii, 295 Diminished fliers, iii, 367
301,303,325 lead, i , 18; ii, 201 honeycomb, iii, 295 stil edoor, iii, 355
Cross bandings,ii~ 357,385,387 stoneware, i, 18 i nternal , iii, 295 Dim inish ing coursed work, i, 133, 135,
cut saw, i, 127, 131; ii, 261; iii, 292, Dancing steps, iii, 365, 367,369 surface, iii, 295 136, 139, 140
311,313,314 Deadwood, i, 58 t hrough, iii, 295 Dippin g p reserving process, iii, 301
cutting timber, iii, 311, 313, 317 De-airing clay, ii, 162 veneers, iii,387 Diorites, ii, 244, 247
grain, iii, 384, 385, 387, 389 Deals, ii~ 292,311 chippedg rain, i, 59 Disc polisher,ii,264
tongued joint, iii, 357,359,383 Death -watch beetle, iii, 303 coli apse, ii~ 295 rivets, iii,4o8, 409
Crosland Hill ston e, ii, 249, 252, 255 Deciduous, iii, 288 cir cumferential shrinkage, i, 58 a n d b obbin sander , iii, 3 17
Crotch, iii,292,311, 385 Decorated brickwork, ii, 220-223 coarse g rain, i , 58; ii~ 292, 306 sander, iii, 317
Crown, i, 22 arches, ii, 221-223 cup shakes, i, 58, 6o Disposition, timber, iii, 288, 304 -311
Cr ozzli ng, i i, 172 diaper work, ii, 222, 223 cupping, i,5 9; iii, 295 , 327 Distributing bars, iii, 323
Crushed stone, ii, 185 jointing and pointing, ii, 220, 221, deadwood, i , 58 Doa tin ess,i,58
Crushing rolls, ii, 162; iii, 391 223 death -watch beetle, iii, 303 Dog leg bricks, i, 4 ; ii, 177
Crypto-florescence, ii, 173 piers, ii, 222,223 doatiness, i, 58 stairs, 365,366,374-380
Cuban mahogany, i, 6o; ii~ 292,308, quoins, ii, 221, 222 dru xines s, i, 58 Dog s, i, 65
312, 357, 385 Deep-cutting, iii, 351 dry rot, i, 58, 61,6 2, 76;iii, 294, Dolomit e lime, ii, 180
pine, iii, 305, 312,325 Defects in bricks, i, 2; ii, 172- 174 301 -303, 325, 328, 338 limeston es,ii,251, 253, 255 , 257
Cubical rot,iii, 302 bl a ckcore, ii, 172 foxiness, i, 58 mortars, ii, 185
Cupboard, iii, 371 bloating, ii, 172 heart shakes, i, 58, 6o; iii, 305, 307 sandstones, ii, 247,251, 253
Cupping,i, 5 9; iii, 295,327 burring, ii, 172 knots, i, 58, 6o; iii, 305, 306 Door-casings, i, 100-102,105; iii, 330,
Cup shakes, i, 58 chuffs, ii, 172 332,355 , 356, 358
crazing, ii, 172
 GENERAL INDEX
chain, i, 94,1 oo Dowels, i, 49, 52,86, 87, 92,104, 108, cemented process, iii, 387 Macassar, i ii, 307,312
gaps, ii, 166,167 150 dipped process, ii, 175 Edgefoldstone, ii, 249, 252
locks and latches, i, 88-92,98,103, Down-draught kiln, ii, 165,233 hydrated lim e, ii, 179,180,186 Edge g rain, iii, 291-294, 309, 325, 387,
104 pi pes, i, 154, 15 6 pans, ii, 161 4 13
posts, i, 86, 87, 89, 91-93; iii, 329, joints, i, 154 and wet bulb thermometer, iii, 2 97, r un ners, ii, 161;iii, 391
332, 350-354 Dragon beam,i,69 , 74 298 dr y pans, ii, 161
stop, i, 103 Drags, i, 38 Dr yi ng bricks, artificial process, ii, 164, pan mills, ii, 161
Doors, i, 86-107;iii, 329,330,332, Drainage, ii, 230-243 166 wet pa ns, ii, 161
334, 338, 350-358, 371, 380 subsoil, ii, 214,215 chamber, ii, 164 Edg ing slips, door, iii, 355
classification, i, 87 Drain pipes, ii, 230-234, 237 h ot fl oor, ii, 164 t imb er, iii, 311
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fanlight, iii, 350-353 bends, ii, 231, 233 sh ed, ii, 164 E el grass, ii~ 336
fire-resisting, iii, 357 channels, ii, 231, 233, 239 tunnel,ii,164 Efflores cence, ii, 16o, 172-174, 185, 186,
flush, i, 94; iii, 355, 357, 358, 326 characteristics, ii, 233 n atural process, ii, 164, 165 257
framed, I edged and battened, i, 92, chute, ii, 240 Drying tiles, iii, 392 Effl uent, ii, 230
93 joints, ii, 234 Dr y rot, i, 58, 61, 62, 76; iii, 294, 301 - Egg and dart ornament, ii, 26 6
!edged, braced and battened, i, junctions, ii, 231,233 303, 325, 328, 338 Electric pyometers, i i, 170
92-94 manufacture,ii, 233 Du ala mahogany, iii, 292, 308, 312, El ectrical mois ture meters, iii, 2 98
glazed, iii, 353-357 rods , ii,239, 240 357,387 Electrode, ii, 280
hanging, i, 88, 92, 94,98,103 straight, ii, 231-233 Dumm y, hand, i, 148, 157 Elliptical arch , ii, 211
!edged and battened, i,87~0 traps, ii, 230-233, 240-243 heel, i, 148, 157 stairs, iii, 366
braced and battened, i, 90, 91 gullies, ii, 231-233,241-243 long, i, 146, 157 Elm, i, 6o; i i~ 289 , 292,304, 307, 312,
manufacture, i , 94, 98,104- 107 interceptors , 361, 368,369, 371 Dumpy level, ii, 226, 234 413
panelled, i, 94-107;iii, 350-356 Drains, construction, ii, 235-237 Dungeons stone, ii, 246, 248, 249,252, Dutch , iii, 307, 312
preparation, i, 88, 92,104-107 disconnection, ii, 241,243 25 5 English, iii, 307, 312,413
proportion, i, 87 foundations, ii, 235-237 Dunn House stone, ii, 246, 248,249, white, iii, 307, 312
semicircular headed, iii, 353,354, inspection, ii, 237,239, 243 252,255 wych, iii,307, 312
357,358 interception, ii, 237, 240, 241, 243 Dupl ex saw machine, ii, 261 Emery discs, iii, 3 18
sizes, i, 87 principles, ii, 237-243 Du r a men, i, 55 Empty-cell preserving process, iii, 300
Dormer window, iii, 33 8, 339 setting-out, ii, 234 Durmastoak, iii, 309,312 Enamelledb ricks, ii, 175
Dot mould, i, 157 systems, ii, 237-243 Dutch bond, ii, 208 En casing drains,ii, 237, 243
Double abutmentjoint, i, 81 tests, ii, 237 elm, iii, 307, 312 End checking, iii, 295
boarded floors, i, 65; iii, 323 ball, ii, 237 grain, iii, 291
Double dimensions aw bench, iii, 317 hydraulic, ii, 233 E Endcliffe stone, ii, 246, 249, 252
eaves course, i, 136, 141; iii, 392, smoke, ii,237 Endog ens,i,55
393, 397,408,416 timbering, iii, 343-346 Earn ock stone, ii, 249, 252 Eng, ii~ 307, 312
Flemish bond,i, 7 -9,11-14 ventilation, i i, 2 3 7, 241-243 Ears, i, 154 Eng ineering bricks, ii, 174- 176
floors , i, 59; iii, 318-321 Draught bead, i, 114; iii, 359 Earth closets, ii, 230 Eng !ish ash, iii, 30 6, 312, 357
glazing, iii, 338 excluder, iii, 33 8 Easing, centres, i, 83, 85 bond, i, 5 -7, 9 -14
half-turn stairs, iii, 366 Draught slip, iii, 355 stairs, iii, 365, 374, 383 cr oss, i i,2o8
lock cross welt, iii, 417 strips, iii, 338 East African olive, iii, 310, 312 facing, ii, 209,210
quarter-turn stairs, iii, 366 Draw-pinnedjoints, i, 87; iii, 375 Indian satinwood, iii, 292,310, 312, ga rden wall, ii, 199,208
Roman tiling,iii,403, 405,406 Dresser, i, 146,156 385 elm , iii, 307, 3 12,413
roofs, i, 72-76; iii, 338- 341 Dressing stone, i, 35-38; ii, 26o-264 walnut, iii, 308, 312 marbles, ii, 24 6,251, 253, 255
spindle moulder, iii, 316 Drills,portable electric, i, 130 Eaves, i, 69, 71, 72, 74 -77, 136, 138-14 1; oak, i, 6o; i ii, 309, 3 12, 325,327,
tenoned joints, i, 87, 92; iii, 350, Drip pi ate, i, 146, 156 iii, 340-342,392 -394 397,399- 35 7,413
355,357 Drips , lead, i, 144-146 402, 405, 408-412,414-416,421 wa lnut, iii, 311,312
Dou g! as fir, i, 6o, 65 ; iii, 289, 292, 304, copper, iii, 419 closed, i, 71, 74-77, 139; i ii,402, Eng obe, ii, 175
312,323, 327, 343, 357, 385,388 zinc, iii,420 406 ,413, 415 Entablature, ii, 266,272
Dove marble, ii, 256 Driving screws, iii, 409,411 definition, i, 69 Equilateral ar ch, ii, 211
Dovet ail saw, i, 127 wedges , iii, 344 filler piece, iii, 411 Eros ion , ii, 25 7
Dovetailed halved joint, i, 72, 73; iii, Drop arch , ii, 211 flush, i, 71, 74; iii, 341, 410 Escutcheon, i, 90
339 Drops , n ewel, iii, 31 7, 365,366,375, gutters, i, 15 3 Essential requirements, stairs, iii, 367,
housed joint, i, 66, 74; ii~ 339, 375 380- 382 joints, i, 153 369-371
tenon joint, i , 116 Drum sa nder, ii~ 317 open , i, 71, 74, 139, 14o;iii, 342 Eu r opean birch, i, 6o; iii, 306, 312 , 385
Dovetailing, iii, 316, 317, 357, 384 Drunken saw,iii, 3 17 sprock eted, i, 69, 75-77, 138, 139; Eur op ean larch, iii, 288 ,304,312,343
Dowell edjoints, i ,52,86, 87, 92, 98, Druxiness, i,5 8 iii, 393,394, 401,402 spru ce, i, 6o, 62; iii, 288, 306, 312,
104, 108; iii, 353,359,375 Dry areas, ii, 217 Ebony, iii, 307, 312 325
Afr ican, iii, 3 07, 3 12

walnut, iii, 311,312
Even grain, iii,291
texture, iii, 292, 305, 307-310
Evergreen timbers, iii, 288, 327
" Everite Bigsix" corrugated sheets, iii,
409,411
Exfoliation, ii, 257
Exmet,ii,204, 205
Exogens, i, 55
Expanded metal, ii, 178, 215 , 264;iii,
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
323, 334, 409
slate,ii, 188
Exposure line, shingles, iii, 416
Extension hinges , i , 111; iii, 361,363,
364
External fan compartment kiln, iii, 297
Extrados , i, 22, 4 7
F welds, ii, 280
Face, i, 3, 36
bedded stone, i, 38; ii, 256
plies, iii, 385, 387
Facing bond, ii, 209, 210
bricks, i, 1, 2; ii, 162, 166,170 -175,
195, 199, 203, 208-210,2 20-
223 , 226,229
Fanlights, iii, 350-353
Fascias, i, 69, 70, 74, 7 6; iii, 340,365,
375, 393,407
Fasteners, corrugated metal saw-edge,
i, 126; iii, 357
Faucet,ii,231
Feather-curl figure, iii, 292
edged boarding, iii, 396
tongues ,iii,3 59
Feeding table, ii~ 315, 316
Felling timb er, iii, 292
Fe! spa r, ii, 244
Fe! spathic sandstones, ii, 24 7, 248
Felt, iii, 327,336,338
paper, iii, 327
Fen ces, iii, 3 11, 3 15-317
Fen der walls, i, 19, 62
"Ferrocrete" cement, ii, 183
Fer ruginous sand ston es, ii, 247
Fibres,iii,291
Fibre satur ation point, iii, 294
Fibrousasphaltfelt,i,18, 69, 70, 13 6,
13 8, 146 ;i i, 213, 215; iii, 393-396,
398,402 -406, 411,413, 41 7
wood-cemen t, ii, 187; iii,334
Fiddl e-backfigure, iii, 292, 307-310
m aple, iii, 292,309,312, 325,327,
388
Figur e, i ,57; iii,291, 292,304-311
bird's -eye, iii, 292, 3 09
blister, iii, 292, 305, 308 -310
GENERAL INDEX
burr,ii~ 292,306,311
fea ther curl, iii, 292
fiddle-back, iii, 292, 307-310
mottled,ii~ 292, 304, 306, 307,
309,310
pith flecks,iii, 292,306,311
ram's horn, iii, 292
ribbon,ii~ 292, 308-311
ripple marks, iii, 292, 308, 310
roe, iii, 292, 308, 310
silver grain, i, 5 7; iii, 291, 292, 309
stripe, iii, 292, 308, 310, 311
Filler beams, iii, 323, 324
Filler s, ii, 283
Fillets, i, 29,49, 50
mortar, iii,398, 401,403,404,413
wood, iii, 318,323, 329, 330,
343,344
Fine grain, iii, 292
texture, iii, 292,306,307
Fineness test, ii, 181
Finger cone pine, iii, 305,312
pi a te, i, 104
Finishes, floor, iii, 323-328
Finishing plywood boards, iii, 389
Fink roof truss, ii, 286, 287
Fireclay blocks , iii, 313
bricks, ii, 161, 175
pi pes , ii, 230-234
Fire columns, ii, 166
Fireplaces, i, 64, 67, 68; ii, 223-226
hearths, i, 68; ii, 225, 226
interiors, ii, 225 , 226
Fire-retarding tinmer, iii, 301,413
Firmer chisel , i , 128
Fir rings, i, 70, 72; iii, 321, 323
Firs , iii, 288, 2 89,2 92,3 04-306,312,
323, 325, 327, 343, 357, 38 5, 388,
392, 397,398
Fishing, i, 73
Fish p late, iii, 343
Five-cutter, iii, 315
Fixed cutters, iii, 315
sa shes,i, 109, 113
Fixing bricks, iii, 397
points , i,1 57
Flagstones, ii, 248
Flashings, copper, iii, 419
l ead, i, 143, 145-151; iii, 40 3, 404,
407,416
zinc, iii,420
Flash-wall, ii, 165
Flat arches, i, 24 , 47, 99, 109, 120; ii,
223,266, 272
cu t, iii, 38 5
g r a in, iii, 291,292,294,311,413
roofs, i, 70-72,146, 149; iii, 417-420
s awn timber, i ii, 291-294, 413
Flaunching, ii, 224
Flecks , iii, 292,306, 3 11
Flem ish bond,i, 7-14
garden wall b ond, ii, 199,208,274
Flett on bricks, ii, 16o, 161, 169
Fleur dePechemarble,ii,256
Fl ier s, iii, 365,367, 370, 371,374 , 377,
380
Fl ight, stair, iii, 365
Flintwalling,i, 39, 43,44
Fl i tched b earns, iii, 318
Flitches, iii, 292 , 293 , 385
Floating floor, iii, 336
Fl oor b earers, iii, 325, 326
binders, iii, 318- 323,3 32
d eter mination of sizes, iii, 319,
321,322
boards, i, 57,59, 62-65; iii, 292,
293 , 297,316,319-328
clips, iii, 325
filler beams, iii, 3 23,324
finishes, iii, 323-328
carpet, iii, 328
cellulose, iii, 328
cork, iii, 32 7, 328
carpet, iii, 328
ti les, iii, 327
linoleum, iii, 328
parqu et, iii, 327
in laid, iii, 327
ordinary, iii, 327
pi a ted, iii, 327
p lywood, iii, 327,328, 389
r ubb er, iii, 328
sh eet , iii, 3 28
ti I es, iii, 3 28
strip, iii, 323
wood blocks, iii, 325, 327
boards, iii, 323, 325
girders, mild steel, i, 59, 158, 159;
i ii, 318-324
determ i nation of sizes, iii, 321,
322
joists, i, 59, 61,62 , 65-68;iii,318-
322, 327 ' 329, 330, 339, 370,
375,377
determ ination of sizes, iii, 319,
321
Floors, cleaning off, i,65
concrete, i,65; ii, 214-216, 218-220;
i ii, 323-328
double, i, 59; iii, 3 18-3 21
boarded, i, 65 ; iii, 323
fir e-resisting, i ii, 323,324
fl oa ting, iii, 33 6
framed, i , 59; iii, 321-323
si ngle, i, 59-68
sou nd-p roofed, iii, 335-338
t rimming, i, 62, 66 , 68
t riple, i, 59; iii, 321-324
wood-covered conc rete, i, 63, 65; ii,
214-216; iii, 325,326,328
Fl oren tine a rch, ii, 211, 212
Fl owered satinwood, iii, 292, 310, 312,
385
Flu es, ii, 224
Flu sh doors, i, 94; iii, 355,357,358,
380
fire -resisting, iii, 357
Flus hjoints, i, 31; ii, 221
Flu shing cisterns, i i~ 33 6, 38 o
Foa med cement, iii, 334
slag, ii, 188
Fol dingwedges,i,65,66, 83--85; iii,
3 43-348
Foll owers, iii, 412
Foot irons, ii, 239
Forced draugh t kilns, iii, 297-299
Fork ed t enon joint, i, 116
Form, plywood, iii, 389
Form work, ii, 279
Foundations, i, 15-17, 39-41 ,46; ii, 200,
202, 216,218,225
b r i ck footings, i, 15-17
chimney, ii,223, 225
concrete,i,15-17; ii, 200,202,216,
218,225
an d footing s, i, 15-1 7, 19, 41 , 46;
ii , 218
d r ain, ii, 235, 237
setting out, ii, 226-229
stepped, ii, 218
stone, i, 39, 40
Four-cutter planing and t hicknessing
m ach ine, iii, 3 15
Fr a me saw, i, 34, 127; ii, 260
Framed floor s, i, 59; iii,321-323
!edged a nd battened door, i ,92 , 93
brac ed and batt ened door, i, 92-
94
partit ions, iii, 330-332
Fr ames, door , i, 86, 87, 89, 9 1 ~3; i ii,
329, 332, 350-354
beddi ng, i, 13, 87,111
t rench, iii, 344, 345
window, i, 108-115, 119-122; iii, 357,
359- 365
F ra n ke djoi nt, i, 108
F r eestones, ii, 248
F r eezing test, t iles, iii, 3 92
F r en ch marbles, ii, 256
roof t russ, ii, 286, 287
 GENERAL INDEX
walnut, iii, 311,312 panes, proportion, i, no; iii, 355 b iotite, i i, 245 n ewe!, iii, 3 75
Frenchman, i, 29 paper , i, 106,129, 13o; iii, 317 poli shing, ii, 264 r ou nd hip t iles, i, 137, 139; i ii, 396,
Frieze, i, 49,5o;ii,266-271, 273 Glazed bricks, ii, 165,175 Gran ny bonnet hip tiles, i, 141; iii, 395, 403-405
Frog, i, 4, 31 doors, iii, 353-357 396 ri dge tiles, i , 137, 139, 141; ii,
Frost action, ii, 174, 194,257,259, 260 pi pes, ii, 233 Granolithicfinish, ii,219 282, 284; iii, 394 ,396,399,
Fruit bodies, iii, 3 01-3 03 ti I es, ii, 22 5, 226 Gran ulated cork, iii,335, 338,357 400,405,407, 408, 413
Full-cell preserving process, iii, 299, Glazing, i, no; iii, 350, 353, 355, 363 Gravel, ii, 188, 246 space landings, i i, 277; iii, 366,367,
300 bars, i, 108-113, 115, 116; iii, 350, Gravity saw, ii,261 375, 377, 380
Fungi, iii, 299,301 351,353,354, 361 Great maple, iii, 292, 310, 3 12, 357, tur n stairs , iii, 366,367,369 -382
beads, i,11o, 112; iii, 350,351,353- 385,38 8 Hal vedjoints, i, 108
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017

G 355 Grecian marbles, i i, 256 Ham mer-headed keytenonedjoint, i i~

Glue blocks, iii, 365,370 , 374 Gr een heart, iii, 307, 312 353,357
Gabbro, ii, 244, 247 spreader, iii, 387 Greens tone, ii, 247 Ham mers, i, 29, 36, 38, 129, 134
Gable wall, i, 41 Glues, i, 86, 8 7; iii, 388,389 Gr ey fir, iii, 304, 312,325 Hand board, i, 29
Gaboon, iii,307, 312,357, 385 Gluing, i, 104,106, 116; iii, 353, 357, Greywood, Indian silver, iii, 307,312, dressed stone, i, 35-38,41,45
mahogany, iii, 307,312, 357,385 359, 374,384,385, 387-390 357, 385 f loat , ii, 195,219
Galletedjoints, i, 40 Going , stairs, iii, 365, 366-373, 380- Grinding m achine, iii, 317, 318 made bricks, i , 1, 2, 4, 31; ii, 162-
Galleting, iii, 401-405 383 m ills, ii, 181 164,1 72,1 74,2 20
Ga I vanized corrugated iron sheets, i, Gouges, i,36, 38,128 Grin dstone, i, 130; ii, 190 moulded tiles, iii, 391-393,397,
68-7o; iii, 411 Graded timber, iii,318,319, 322 Gr ips, iii, 345 399,403
Ga I vanizing, ii, 2 04 Grading aggregates, ii, 184, 188 Gritstones, ii, 247-250 t r en ching, i ii, 371
Ganister bricks, ii, 175 Grain, i, 57; iii, 291 , 292,304 -311,325, Gr izzling, ii, 173 Handr ail punch, iii, 359
Garden wall bonds, ii, 199,208,274 384-387, 389, 413 Grog, ii , 162, 175, 233 screw bolts, iii, 353, 359
Gauge board, ii, 235 coarse, i, 58; iii, 292, 306 Grooved bri cks, ii, 205 H andrails, iii, 365,371, 372,375 -383
cutting, i, 127 comb, iii, 291-294, 309, 325,387, Grooving, iii, 315-31 7 H ands crew, i, 130
lines, ii, 281, 287 413 head, iii, 316 H angers, i, 7 2, 74; ii, 287; ii~ 339
marking, i, 127 cross, iii, 384, 385,387, 389 Grou nd floor, i, 59-65 Han ging doors,i, 88, 92,94 98, 103
mortise, i, 106, 127 curly, iii, 291,292,307 off saw, iii, 3 13, 314 Hard core, ii, 219
panel, i, 106,127 diag onal, iii, 291 Grou nds, i , 100, 124 maple, iii, 292, 309,312, 325,327,
pan tiling, iii, 401
edge, iii, 291-294,309, 325,387, Grout , i, 2, 21, 3 1,43, 47,4 9, 52, 87 388
asbestos-cement, iii, 409 Growth r ings, i, 55, 57-6o; iii, 2 88,291, Hardware, door, i, 88-105
413
pi a in tiling, i, 140, 141; ii, 265, 266, end, iii, 291 292, 304-31 1, 413 w in dow, i , 111 , 116 -122
268, 273 even, ii~ 291 Guarea, iii, 307,312 Hardwood margin, i, 65
rod, i , 29, 31 fine, iii, 292 black, iii, 307, 312 Hardwoods , i, 59, 6o; iii, 288-292,
Rom a n tiling, iii,405 flat, iii, 291, 292, 294, 311, 4 13 s een ted, i ii, 307,312 306-312
shingles, iii, 416 interlocking, iii, 291, 292, 304, 3o6- white, iii, 307, 312 char acteristics and uses, i, 6o; iii,
sla ting, i , 135, 136, 139, 140 311 Gudgeon hooks, i, 92 306-311
asbestos-cement, iii, 4 08 irregular, iii,29 1, 292,306 -309 Guillotine, iii, 3 87 classification, i, 59, 6o; iii, 288,
stone, iii, 412 quarter, iii, 291-294, 309, 325, 387, Guiseleystone, ii, 246, 249, 252 304, 306-311
Spanish, iii, 4 05 4 13 Gu II et, saw, iii, 3 11 Accra mahog any, iii, 292,308,
sti ck,i, 132, 134 short, iii, 291 Gulleting, sawblades, iii,317 3 12,357, 387
vertical tiling, iii, 3 97 sil ver, i, 57; iii, 291,292, 309 Gullies, ii, 231, 233,241,243 African eb on y, ii~ 307,312
Gau ged arches, i, 24- 26 sl ash , iii, 291, 292, 304, 311,4 13 Gu m, iii, 289, 308 mahogany, i, 6o; iii, 292,
Gau lt bricks, ii, 160 spiral, iii, 291, 304,305 Gun -stock stile, i i~ 355 308, 312 , 357, 387
clay, ii, 160 straight, iii, 291, 292,304 -311,413 Gurju n,iii,3o8 , 312,325 olive, iii, 310, 312
Genera, timbers, iii, 288 u n even, iii, 291 Gusset s, ii, 280-287 teak, i , 6o; iii, 308,312, 325
Geology, ii, 24 4,24 6 vertical, iii, 291-294, 309, 325, 387, Gutter bearers, i, 72, 81, 146 wal nut, iii, 3 11, 312
General join er, i, 107; iii, 317 413 Gutter s, i, 72, 81,145, 146,150, 154; iii, a! der , i i~ 357
Geometrical stairs, iii, 366,368 w avy, iii, 291, 292, 304, 307-311 393, 397, 403, 405 ,4 19 A merican ash, iii, 306, 312, 357
Gibs and cotters, i , 8o, 81 Granites, i, 33;ii, 244-248,252, 26o, Gy psum,ii, 181 beech, iii, 30 6, 312, 325,
Gil ding metal, iii, 390 264 343, 357' 385
Gi m let, i, 129 biotite, ii, 245 bir ch, iii, 307, 312, 323
Girders, mild steel, i, 59,158, 159; iii, H
composition, ii, 24 7 bla ck walnut, iii, 311, 3 12
318-324 distribution, ii, 24 5,252 Habla Kiln,i i, 167 ch estnut, iii, 307,312
determination of sizes, iii, 321, 322 hornblende, ii, 244,245 Hacks, ii, 164,1 65 li me, iii, 306,312
Gl ass, i, 110 bi otite, i i, 245 Ha ir felt, iii, 327, 336, 338 red oak , i , 6o; iii, 309,312,
bri cks, ii, 178 muscovite, ii, 245 Ha If bats, i, 4 , 10 325
partitions, iii, 335 la ppedjoints, i, 61, 74

whiteoak,i, 6o; iii, 309,
312,325
American whitewood, iii,311,
312
Andamanpadauk, iii, 292,310,
312
apitong,ii~ 308,312,325
appayia, iii, 306,312,385
ash, iii, 289, 304, 306, 310, 312,
325,327,357
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
American, iii, 306, 312,357
English, iii, 306, 312,357
Japanese, iii,3o6, 312
mountain, iii, 310,312,325
Australian black'Wood, iii, 292,
307,312
walnut, iii, 311,312, 389
Austrian oak, iii, 309,312,
avodire, iii, 306, 312,385
balsa, iii, 306,312
basswood, iii, 306,312
baywood, iii, 292, 308, 312,357,
385
beech, iii, 288-292,306, 312,
325,343,357, 385
American, iii, 306,312,325,
343,357,385
Southland, iii,3o6, 312
Benin mahogany, ii~ 292, 308,
312, 357, 387
walnut, iii, 311,312
birch, i, 6o; iii, 288, 291,292,
306,307,312,323, 325,327,
357,385,389
American, iii, 307,312, 323
black, iii, 307,312,323
Canadian yellow, iii, 307,
312,323
cur ly, iii, 307, 312, 323
European, i, 6o; iii, 306,
312,385
Quebec, iii, 307,312,323
yellow, iii, 307, 312, 323
bird's-eye m apie, iii, 292, 309,
312,325,327, 388
bl ack bean, iii, 292,3 06,312,
357,387
birch, iii, 30 7,312, 323
guarea, iii,307,312
Sea walnut, iii, 311, 312
walnut, American, iii, 311,
312
blackwood, Australian, ii~ 292,
307,312
Bombay, iii, 310, 312
blister maple, iii, 292,309, 312,
325,327,388
GENERAL INDEX
Bombay blackwood, iii, 310, 312
British Honduras cedar, iii, 307,
312
brown oak, ii~ 309, 312
Burmapadauk, iii, 310,312
Canadian yellow birch, iii, 307,
312,323
canarywhitewood, iii, 311,312
Cape Lopez mahogany, iii, 292,
308, 312, 357, 387
cedar, British Honduras, iii,
307,312
Central American, iii, 307,
312
cigar-box, iii, 307, 312
Mexican , ii~ 307,312
Nicaraguan, iii, 307, 312
Trinidad, ii~ 307,312
West Indian, iii, 307, 312
Centra I American cedar, i ii,307,
312
mahogany, i, 6o; iii, 292,
308,312, 357,3 85
cherry mahogany, iii, 309,312
chestnut, American, iii, 307, 312
chestnut, Spanish, ii~ 307,312
sweet, iii,292,307, 312
chuglum, white, iii, 307,312,
357, 385
cigar-box cedar, iii, 307,312
Circassian walnut, iii, 311,312
Cuban mahogany, i, 6o;ii~ 292,
308, 312, 357, 385
curly birch, ii~ 307, 312, 323
maple, iii, 292, 309,312,
325, 327,388
Dual a mahogany, iii,292,308,
312,357,387
durmastoak, iii, 309,312
Dutch elm, iii, 307, 312
East African olive, iii, 310, 312
Indian satinwood, iii, 292,
310, 312, 385
walnut, iii, 308,312
ebony, iii, 307, 312
African, iii, 307, 312
Macassar, iii, 307, 312
elm, i ,6o; iii,289, 292,304,
307, 312, 413
Dutch, iii, 30 7,312
English, iii, 307, 312,413
white, iii, 307, 312
wych,iii, 307,312
eng, iii, 307,312
Eng lish, ash,iii,3o6, 3 12,35 7
elm, iii, 307,312, 41 3
oak, i , 6o; iii, 309,312, 325,
327,357,413
walnut, iii, 311, 312,
European b irch, i, 6o; iii, 306,
312,385
walnut, iii, 311, 312
fiddle-back maple, iii, 292, 309,
312, 325, 327,388
flowered satinwood, iii, 292,
310,312,385
French walnut, iii, 311, 312
gaboon, iii, 307,312,357,385
mahogany, iii, 307,312, 357,
385
great maple, iii, 292,310, 312,
357, 385,388
green heart, iii, 307,312
grey f ir, iii, 304, 312, 325
g reywood, Indian silver, iii, 307,
312, 357, 385
g u area, iii,30 7,312
black, iii, 307, 312
scented,iii,307, 312
white, iii, 307, 312
g u rjun,ii~ 308,312,325
hard maple, iii, 292,309,312,
325,327,388
Honduras mahogany, i, 6o; iii,
292,308,312,357,385
rosewood, iii, 310, 312
hornbeam, iii, 308,312
In, iii, 307,312
Indian I aurel, iii, 292, 308, 312,
357
rosewood, iii, 310, 312
si I ver g reywood, iii, 3 07,
3 12, 35 7, 38 5
i roko, iii, 308,312
Ita I ian walnut, iii, 311, 312
Jamaican mahogany, iii, 292,
308, 312, 357,385
satinwood, ii~ 310,312,385
Japa nese ash, iii, 306, 312
oak, i , 6o; iii, 309,312, 325
jarrah , iii, 308,312,325
kan yin, iii, 308,312, 325
kar ri, ii~ 308, 312
kerning, iii, 308,312, 325
kokko, iii, 308,312
Lagos mahogany, iii, 292, 308,
312, 357, 387
lauan,r ed, iii, 308, 312
whit e, iii, 308, 3 12
I au rei, Indian, iii, 2 92, 308, 312,
357
lignum viTI£, iii, 308, 312
lim e, iii, 306, 308,312
American, iii,3o6, 312
Macassar ebony,i ii,307, 3 12
mahogany, i, 6o, 98; iii, 288,
289,292,307, 308, 312,
357,385,387
Accra, iii, 292,308, 312,
357, 387
African, i,6 o; iii, 292,308,
312, 357, 387
Ben in, iii, 292, 308,312,
357, 387
Cape Lopez, ii i,2 92,308,
312, 357,387
Centra I American, i, 6o; iii,
292,308,312,357,385
ch erry, iii, 309,312
Cuban ,i , 6o; i ii, 292,308,
31 2, 357, 385
Dual a, iii, 292, 308,312,
357, 387
gaboon , iii, 307,312, 35 7,
385
Honduras, i, 6o; iii, 292,
308, 312, 357, 385
Jamaican, iii, 292,308 ,312,
35 7, 385
Lagos , iii,292, 308, 312,
35 7, 387
P orto Rico, iii, 292,308,
312,357,385
sapele, iii, 292, 3 10, 312, 385
Spanish, i, 6o; iii, 292,308,
312, 357, 385
West Indian, iii, 292,308,
312, 357, 385
makor e, ii~ 309,312
maple, i, 6o, 62, 65; iii, 292,
309,310, 312, 325, 327,357,
385,388
bird's -eye, iii, 292,309,312,
325,327,388
blister, iii, 292, 309, 3 12,
325,327,388
curly, iii, 292, 309, 312, 325,
327,388
fiddle-back, iii, 292,309,
312, 325, 327, 388
great, iii, 292, 310,312, 357,
385,388
ha rd, iii, 292,309, 312,325,
327,388
Queensland, iii, 292,309,
312,388
rock, i, 6o; iii, 292,309, 312,
325, 327,388
sugar, iii, 292, 309,312,
325,327,388

white, iii, 292, 309,312,
325,327,388
mer anti, red, iii, 309, 312
white, iii, 309,312
yellow, iii, 309,312
Mexican cedar, iii, 307, 312
mountain ash, iii, 310,312, 325
mvule, iii, 308, 312
Nicaraguan cedar, iii, 307,312
Nigerian walnut, iii, 311,312
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
oak, i, 6o, 62, 65, 86, 98,108,
116; iii, 288 -292,303, 304,
309,310,312, 325, 327, 38s,
388,413
Am eric an red, i, 6o; iii, 3 09,
312,325
white, i, 6o;iii,309, 312,
325
Austrian, i, 6o; iii, 309,312
brown, iii, 309,312
durmast, iii, 309,312
English, i, 6o; iii, 309, 312,
325,327,357,413
Japanese, i, 6o; iii, 309, 312,
325
pedunculate, iii, 309,312
Polish, iii, 309,312
Russian, i, 6o;iii,309, 312
sessile, iii, 309,312
silky, iii, 309,312
Tasmanian, iii, 310, 312, 325
Victorian, iii, 310, 312, 325
wainscot, i, 6o; iii, 309,312
obeche, iii, 310, 312
odum, iii,3o8, 312
okoume, ii~ 307,312,357,385,
olive, EastAfrican, iii, 310,312
olon, iii, 306,312, 385
padauk, Andaman, iii, 292, 310,
3 12
Burma, iii, 310,312
pedunculateoak, iii, 309, 312
plane, iii, 292, 310,312,357,
385,388
Polish oak, iii, 309,312
PortoRicomahogany, iii, 292,
308, 312, 357, 385
Pyinkado, iii, 310, 312, 325
Quebec birch, iii, 307, 312,323
Queensland maple, iii, 292,
309, 312, 3 88
walnut, iii, 311,312, 389
red lauan, iii, 3 08, 3 12
m era nti, iii, 309, 312
oak, American, i , 6o; iii,
309,312,325
seraya, iii, 3 10,312,325
GENERAL INDEX
Rhodesian teak, iii, 292, 311,
312,325
rock maple, i, 6o;iii, 292, 309,
312, 325, 327,388
rosewood, Honduras, iii, 310,
312
Indian, iii, 310, 312
Russian oak ,i,6o;iii,309, 312
sapele, iii, 292, 310, 312, 385
mahogany, iii, 292, 310, 312,
385
satinwood, East Indian, iii,292,
310,312,385
flowered, iii, 292,310,312,
385
Jamaica, ii~ 310,312, 385
West Indian, iii, 310, 312,
385
scented guarea, iii, 307, 312
seraya, red, iii, 310, 312,325
white, iii, 310, 312, 325
sessileoak, iii, 309, 312
silkwood, iii, 292,309,312, 388
silky oak, iii, 309, 312
silver greywood, Indian, iii, 307,
312, 357,385
Southland beech, iii, 306, 312
Spanish chestnut , iii,307,312
Spanish mahogany, i, 6o; iii,
292,308,312 , 35h385
sugar maple, iii, 292,309,312,
325,327,388
sweet chestnut, iii, 292,307,
312
sycamore, iii, 292, 3H~ 312, 357,
385,388
Tasmanian myrtle, iii, 309,312
oak, iii, 310,312,325
t eak, i, 6o, 65, 108, 116; iii, 292,
308,310,312,321,325,413
African, i, 6o; iii, 308, 312,
325
Rhodesian, iii, 292, 311, 312,
325
Trinidad cedar, iii, 307,312
Victorian oak, iii, 310, 312,325
wainscot oak, i, 6o; ii~ 309, 312
walnut, iii, 304, 308, 311,312,
327,357, 385,389
African, iii, 311,312
American black, iii, 311, 312
Australian, iii, 311, 312, 389
Benin, iii, 311, 312
Bl a ck Sea, iii, 311, 3 12
ar ca ssian, ii~ 311, 312
East Indian, iii, 308, 312
English, iii, 311,312
European, iii, 3 11, 312
French, iii, 311, 312
Ita! ian, iii, 311, 312
Nigerian, iii, 311, 312
Queensland, iii, 311,312,
389
West Indian cedar, iii, 307,312
mahogany, iii, 292,308,
312, 357, 385
satinwood, ii~ 310,312, 385
whitechuglam, iii,307, 3 12,
357,385
elm, iii, 307, 312
guarea, iii, 307,312
I a uan, iii, 308, 312
maple, iii, 292, 309,312,
325,327,388
mer anti, iii, 309, 312
oak, American, i, 6o; iii,
309, 312, 325
seraya, iii, 310, 312, 325
whitewood, American, iii, 311,
312
can ary,ii~ 311,312
wych elm, ii~ 307,312
yang, iii, 308,312,325
yellow birch, iii, 307, 312, 323
mer anti, iii, 309, 312
iden tification, iii, 291
sources, i, 6o; iii, 288,306,311
structure, i, 55; iii, 289-291
Hassell's joint, ii, 235
Hatched tiles, iii, 3 92
Hatchet bit, i, 157
Haunch, i, 22,66, 86
Haunched, mortice and tenon joint, i,
86,92,100,108,116
Haunching, i, 87
Hawk, i, 29
Header, i, 3, 7, 10, 17, 19,39
Headingbond,i, 7; ii, 203
Headin gjoint, i, 64
Head-nailed slating, i, 77,135,138, 139
Headroom, stairs,iii, 365, 367,371,
380,382
Headstock, iii, 3 17
Heart shakes, i, 58; ii~ 305, 307
Hearths, i,62-64, 67, 68; ii, 225,226
Hearting, ii, 172
Heartwood, i,55;iii,289
Helicoidal wire-sawing plant, ii, 264
Hem l ock, western, iii, 304, 312,325
Herringbone bond, ii, 207, 221
pattern, iii, 325
strutting, i, 66, 68,70
Heworth Burn stone, ii, 246,249,252,
255
Hinges, butt, i , 94, 98, 103, 111
exten sion , i, 111; iii, 361,363, 364
skewbutt,i,103
strap,i,92
tee, i, 88-92
Hips, i, 69,73, 74 , 137, 141; iii,393 ,
395, 396,403,405,413,416,419,
421
angular, i, 137, 141; ii~ 395, 396
bonnet, i, 141; iii, 395, 396
cone, iii,396,403, 407
copper, iii, 419
cut and mitred, i, 137, 139; iii, 396,
413,416
granny, i, 141; iii,395, 396
half-round, i, 137, 139; iii, 396,4cu-
405
lead, i,137, 139, 148;ii~ 416
purpose -made, i, 141; iii, 395, 396
Hoffman kiln, ii, 168,169, 178
Hog-b a ck ridge, i, 137, 139-141; iii, 395,
396
Hoist, con crete, ii, 194
Hoi der bats, i , 154
Holdfast, i, 130
Hoi ding down clips, iii, 420
H olingslates, i ,133, 134
tiles, iii, 391,407
H ollington stone, ii, 246,249,252,255
Hollow bed joint, i,47
bri cks, ii, 176 -178
chisel, iii, 316-318
ground saw, iii, 313,317
Homework programmes, i, 422, 423; ii,
425 ; i ii, 427
sheet, i, 113,115
Honduras mahogany, i, 6o; iii, 292,
308, 312, 357, 385
rosewood, iii, 310, 312
Honeycom b slates, iii,409
Honeycombing, iii, 295
Hood mould,ii,210
Hook hoi ts, iii, 409, 411
saw, i ii, 311, 3 18
Hoop iron bond, ii, 205
Hopton-wood marble, ii, 24 6, 251 -255
Hor izon tal draught k iln, i i, 165
I og b and mill, iii, 293
fr arne sawing machine, iii, 293
sliding s ashes, i, 122
Hornbeam, iii, 308, 312
Hornbl ende, ii, 244, 245
Horns, i, 66, 86, 8 7, 106, 108, 116
Horn ton stone, ii, 251, 252
Horse, iii, 391
Hot-and-cold steeping preserving
process, iii, 300

dip process, ii, 204
fl oor drying, ii, 164
pattest,ii,1S3
steeping preserving process, iii, 301
Housedjoints,i,61,66, 114124;ii~
316,329,361,370,374, 375, 3S2,
3S3
strings, iii, 367, 370-37S, 3S0-3S3
Hunziker bricks, ii, 176
Hydra ted lime, ii, 179, 1So, 1S6
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
mortar, ii, 1S6
Hydration, ii, 1S3
Hydra tor, ii, 1So
Hydraulic lime, ii, 179, 1So
mortar, ii, 1S5
test, ii, 237
Hypabyssal rocks, ii, 247
Hyph ce, iii, 301-303
Identification, trmber, iii, 291
Igneous rocks, i, 33; ii, 244, 245,247
Impost, i ,2 3
In , iii, 307,312
In bands, i, 47,119
Indents, i, 4
Independent ceiling, iii, 336
Indian laurel, iii, 292, 30S, 312,357
rosewood, iii, 310, 312
silver greywood, iii, 307, 312, 357,
3S5
Inner beads,i,113-116, 119-122
linings, i, 113-115, 117
Inspection chambers, ii, 237,239, 240,
24 3
Insulating materials, iii, 327, 335 -33S,
39 0
Insulation, ii, 202
Insulite, iii, 336
Intercepting chambers, ii, 237, 23S,
240, 241,243
Interceptors ,ii,232, 233, 23S, 240,
241,243
Interlocking g rain, iii, 291, 292, 304,
306-311
sh eet piling, iii, 347
tiles, iii, 407
Intermittent kilns, ii, 165, 17S
In tern a! checking, iii, 2 95
Intersections, brick,i, 9,10
In ter ties, iii, 330-332
Intr ados, i, 22,27
Irish marbles, ii, 255,2 56
slates, ii, 256
Iroko, iii, 30S, 312
Ironmongery. See "Hardware"
Iron spots, ii, 173
GENERAL INDEX
Irregular grain, iii, 291, 292,306-309
Ita !ian marbles, ii, 2 56
tiling, iii, 403,405,406
walnut, iii, 311,312
J hous ed, i, 66; iii, 343
Jack arches, i, 26
pine, iii, 305,312
rafters, i, 69, 70 , 73 -75
Jamaican mahogany, iii, 292, 30S, 312,
357,3S5
satinwood, ii~ 310,312, 3S5
Jambs, moulded, ii, 266
rebated,i,13,14
an d splayed, ii, 19S
and stepped,ii,19S
square,i, 7, 13
Japanese ash, iii, 306, 312
oak, i, 6o;iii, 309,312,325
Ja rrah, iii, 30S, 312,325
JauneLamartinemarble, ii, 256
Jaw crusher, ii, 1S1, 1S7
Jenny Lind polisher, ii, 263,264
Joggle joints, i, 21, 49, 52;ii,276
Joggled arches, i, 47, 4S
Joiner's tools,i, 12~131
Joinery, i, S6-131; iii, 350-390
definition, i, S6
Jointer, i, 29, 31, 32
Jointing, i, 30-32, 35, 9S;ii,220, 221 ,
223; iii, 315-317
veneers, iii, 3S7
Joints: brickwork and masomy-
bed, i, 4, 23, 24 , 29, 31, 39, 40, 45
butt, i, 10, 52
chamfered, i, 3S; ii, 266
channelled, ii, 264,2 72
continuous vertical, i , 3, 4, 7, 10, 12,
13
cramped, i , 52; ii, 274
dowelled, i,52
flush , i, 31; ii, 221
hollow bed, i, 4 7
joggle, i, 2 1, 49, 52; ii, 276, 277
keyed, i,32
masonry,i,52
mason's mitre, i,47
pi u gged, i, 52
pr qjecting, i, 31, 32
rebated, i,51, 52; ii, 274
recessed, i, 31
rusticated, i, 52
saddle, i, 49
splayed r ebated, ii, 2 74
struck, i, 31; ii, 220
overhand, i, 31
tongued, iii, 361,362
vee, i, 32, 52
Joint s: carpentry andjoinery-
barefaced tenon, i, 92; iii, 375,377
bevel rebated, i, 116
bevelled haunched, i, 66, 74
birdsmouth, i, 72 -74; ii~ 339, 370,
375
bridle, i, 74, 7S-So; iii, 330, 339
butt, i, 62,64; iii, 323, 345,3So,
417
chamfered, iii, 379, 3S0
closed mortice and tenon, i, S6
cogged, i,61 , 72; iii, 31S,322,330
combed, iii, 357
cross-tongued,iii,357, 359, 3S3
double abutment, i, S1
tenon, i, S7,92; iii, 350,355,
357
tongued, iii, 361,362
dovetailed, iii, 357, 3S4
halved, i, 72, 73; iii, 339
housed, i, 66, 74; ii~ 339,375
ten on , i, 116
dowelled, i, S6, S7, 92, 9S, 104,
10S; i ii, 353,359,375
draw-pinned, iii, 375, 377
s I ot mortice and tenon, i, S7
fishing, i, 73
for ked t enon, i, 116
gibs and cotters, i, So, S1
half-lapped, i , 61 ,74
halved, i, 10S
hammer-headed k ey tenoned, iii,
353,357
ha ndrail-screw b olted,iii, 353, 359
haunchedmortice and t enon , i, S6,
92, 100, 10S, 116
heading, i, 64
h oused, i, 6 1, 114, 124: iii, 29 ,42,
52,74,S3,S7,SS,95, 96
lipped mitred, iii, 323
m itred, i, 47, 65, 76, 95, 124; iii,
323, 357,3S3
and rebated, i , 124
morticed an d tenoned, i, S6, 92,98,
103, 106; ii i,353, 355
notched, i, 61, 66, 72, 74; iii, 339,
375
obli qu e tenon housed, i, 74, 79, So
haunchedtenon, iii, 375
morticed and t enon , iii, 339
pin ned, i, 74, S6; iii, 353, 359
pl oughed and tongued, i, 64, 114
reba ted, i, 6 2, 64; iii, 34 5, 3S4
tongued andgrooved, i, 64
s ca rfing, i, 73, S1
scribed, i, 76, 95,107, 1oS, no, 124
single abutment, i, S1
s I ot and t enon, iii, 3 30
splayed, i, 64; iii, 371, 376
reba ted, tongued and grOOITed, i,
64
scar f, iii, 342, 343
square, butt, plain or shot, i, 62, 64
housed, i, 66
stub ten oned, i ,S1, 94, 106; iii, 329,
330, 353, 3SO, 3S2
t on gued andgrooved, i, 52, 62, 67,
70, ss, 124;iii, 323,327,332,
334, 345, 350, 357, 359, 367,
370, 371,374,375, 3S3, 401,417
grooved a nd beaded, i, SS, S9
and dov etailed, iii, 325, 326
and lip mitred, iii, 322,323
and V -jointed,i, 76,SS, S9
t ongued, grooved and mitred, iii,
322, 323, 3S3,3S4
t u sk tenoned, i, 66, 67; iii, 3 75
t wi n tenoned, i, 103
J oints: copp er-
drips, iii,41S,419
rolls, ii~ 417-419
standing seams, iii, 417-419
wei ts, iii,417-419
J oints: drain-
cement, ii, 234 236
bituminous, ii, 235, 236
Hass ell's double-lined, ii, 235,
236
Joints: plumbing-
copper bit, i,153
down -pipe, i, 154
drips, i, 144-146
eaves gutter, i, 153
I aps, i, 144, 145
rolls,i,144-146
wei ts, i, 145, 148
wiped, i , 152, 153,155
J oints:zinc -
dri ps, iii, 4 1S, 420
beaded, iii,41S,420
welted, iii, 41S, 420
f lashings, i i~ 420
rolls, ii~ 418-420
J oists, ceiling, i, 72
floor, i, 59, 61, 62, 6 5-6S; iii, 31S-
322, 327, 329, 330, 339, 370,
375,377
si zes, i, 59 , 61; iii, 321,322
trimming, i, 66
Jum pers, i,41
Junctions, d rainpipe, ii, 231-233
ri ght-angled, b rick, i, 9, 10

squint, brick,ii,195, 196
K Kyanizingpreservingprocess, iii, 301
Kanyin, iii, 308,312,325
Karri, iii, 308,312
Kauri pine, ii~ 292, 304,312,325
Keene's cement a rris,i,111,125
Kemnaygranite, ii, 245,252
Ken tish rag, i, 43; ii, 246, 253
Kerridge stone, ii, 249, 252
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
Kerning, ii~ 308, 312,325
Key brick or stone, i, 22
Keyed, bricks, ii, 177
joint, i, 32
Kibblers, ii, 162
Kicking plate, iii, 357
Kieselguhr, ii, 165
Kiln drying schedules, iii, 297,298
seasoning, i, 56; iii, 296-299
Kilns, i, 1; ii, 165-170, 178,179, 181; iii,
297-299, 387
continuous, ii, 165-169, 178
down-draught, ii, 165, 233
externalfancompartment, iii, 297
forced draught, iii, 297-299
Habla,ii,167
Hoffman, ii,168, 169,178
horizontal draught , ii, 165
intermittent, ii, 165, 178
Manchester, ii, 166-168
muffle, ii,165
natural draught compartment, iii,
298
Newcastle, ii, 165
ov erhead internal fan
compartment, iii, 298
progr es sive, iii, 2 98, 387
rotary, ii, 181
score, ii, 165
Scotch, ii, 165
semi -continuous, ii, 165
sunk-drawn, ii, 178
tunnel, ii, 169, 178; iii, 298
up -draught, ii, 165
zig zag, ii, 167
Kiln -white, ii, 166, 167, 173
Kin g post r oof truss, i, 76-81; iii, 341,
343, 349
roll , copper, iii,419
Kite winders , iii, 367,383
Knapped fa cing, i, 4 3,44
Kneelers,i,51
Knives,i,157
Knots, i , 58, 6o; iii, 305,306
Knotts clay, ii, 16o, 161,
Kokko, iii, 3 08,312
Korean pine, iii, 3 05, 312
GENERAL INDEX
Kraft paper, iii, 336
tape, iii, 387
L
Laced valleys, i, 141;ii, 265, 285
Lacing courses, i, 43
Ladle, i, 157
Laggings, i, 85 ; iii, 347,349
Lagos mahogany, iii, 292, 308, 312,
357,387
Laitance, ii, 219
Lake District masonry, i, 18, 39,44, 45
slates, ii, 246, 256
Laminated wood trusses ,iii,340, 341
Laminations, ii, 173; iii, 392
Laminboards, iii, 332,357,380, 382,
390
Lancashire slates, i, 132-134
Lancet arch, ii, 211
Landings, iii, 365-367, 369-371, 375,
377, 380-382
half-space, iii, 366,367,375, 377,
380
quarter-space, iii, 365-369, 380
Lap, i, 4, 135, 138-141,144, 145; iii, 393,
399,401, 405, 409, 411,412, 416
as bestos-cementpantiling, iii, 409
"Everite Bigsix" corrugated
sheets, i i~ 409, 411
asbestos-cement slating, iii, 408,
409
standard corrugated sheets, iii,
411
"Turnall"Traffordtiles, iii, 409
lead, i , 144,145
pan tiling, iii, 399,401-403
pi a in tiling, i, 141; iii, 393
vertical, iii, 397
Roman tiling,iii,405
Shingles, iii, 416
Slates, i, 135,138-141
Spa n ish tiling, iii, 405
stones I ating, iii, 412
Larches, iii, 288, 304,31 2, 343
La r rying i, 43
Latches, i, 88, 90, 98
Latex, iii, 328
Lathe, iii, 317,385
Laths, i, 68, 136; iii, 318, 321,322,330,
339, 370, 371,374,375, 401 ,416
Lauan,red,ii~ 308,312
white, iii, 308, 3 12
Laurel, Indian, iii, 292,308,312,357
Lavatory b asins, ii, 243
Lazonbystone,ii,246,248, 250, 252
Lead aprons, i, 143, 148; iii, 39 9
burning, i, 143,152, 157
characteristics, i, 142
covered cor nices, i, 49, 150, 152;iii,
400
cupped washers, ii~ 411
damp pr oof course, i, 18
dowels, i,1o8, 150
drips, i, 144-146
flashings, i, 143, 145,146, 150; iii,
403 , 407 , 4 16
flats, i, 70, 146
gutters, i, 81, 145,146,150
hips, i, 137, 139, 148; iii,416
m an ufucture, i, 14 2
pipes, i, 145, 146, 154
pitch, i ,69
plug, i, 52
r idges, i, 137, 148; iii, 396,416
rolls, i ,144-146
saddle-piece, i, 150
soaker s, i, 137, 143, 148, 150; iii,
396, 397 -399,413,416
tacks, i , 144, 145,148
valleys, i, 137, 141, 148; iii, 397, 4CU,
416
wedges , i, 143-146, 150
weights, i, 70, 142
wei ts, i, 145, 148
wool, i, 15 4
Lean lime, ii, 179
Lean -to roof, i, 72
Le Chatelier appa ratus, ii, 183
Ledged and battened door, i, 87 -90
braced and battened door, i, 90, 91
Ledges, i, 87-92
Letter p i ate, i, 100, 105
Leva nto R ossomarble, ii, 256
Levelling con crete, ii, 22 7
Levellers, i, 41
Lewi s bolts,i i,281-2 87
Lewi ses,i, 53,54
Li er boa rd, i, 148
Li fting appliances, i, 53, 54
Li fts , iii, 345
Li ghtning cement, ii, 184
Ligh twaght concrete, ii, 188; iii, 332-
334
Lign um vit£, iii,3o8, 312
Li me, i, 2; ii, 178 -18o; i ii, 306, 308, 312
American, iii, 306, 312
cla ssification, ii, 179,180
composition, i i, 179
hydrated, ii, 179, 180, 186
hydraulic, ii, 179, 180
kilns, ii, 178
m agnesian, ii, 179 , 180
mortar, i, 2, 3, 24,29, 31, 32, 4 0,
43, 4 5, 47, 49, 6 1, 137; ii, 184-
186,204,220
black, i, 47; i i, 186,220, 257
comp o, i, z;ii, 186, 204;iii, 401
colou r, ii, 186, 220
hydrated, ii, 186
h ydraulic , ii, 185
magnesian, ii, 185
n on -h ydraulic, ii, 185
pure, ii, 179
st r ength, ii, 184 , 186
waterproofed, i, 32; ii, 186
nodules, ii, 173
putty, i, 24,53
Li mestones, i, 33-35,43, 45; ii, 244,
246 , 248 , 251 -253 , 255, 260- 264,
z 66; i ii, 4 12,414
chemical com position, i i, 255
cl assification, ii, 24 6, 251
defects, i, 39; ii, 256-260
d istribution , i i, 251-253
A n caster Brown Weafuer Bed,
ii , 246 , 251-253, 255
Freestone, ii, 246, 251-253,
255
Ashburton, ii, 246, 251, 252, 255
Bath, i, 33, 38; ii, 203,246,251-
25 5, 2 60
Corngrit, ii, 251, 252, 2 60
Cor sham Down,ii, 251-253,
255,260
Monk's Park, i i,24 6, 251-
255,26o
St. Aldhelm Box Ground, ii,
25 1-253, 255, 260
Beer, ii, 24 6, 251-253,255, 26o
Bladon, ii, 251, 25 2
a ipsham Big Pits Quarry, ii,
24 6, 251-255
Old Qu ar ry, ii,246, 251-25 5
Cots wol d District, ii, 248; iii,
41 2, 414
Hopt on -Wood, ii , 246, 251-255
Horn t on , ii, 251 ,252
Kendal, i, 45
Portland, i, 33-35, 39,4 7, 49,
53; ii, 246,251 -2 55,257,
2 59, 261
Radf ord, ii, 246, 251, 25 2, 255
Weldon , ii, 246, 251-253, 255
magnesian limestones, ii, 246,
2 51 -253, 255,257
Auston , ii, 246,2 51-253, 255
Lin by, ii, 24 6, 251, 252
P a r k Nook, ii, 246 , 251-253,
255

dressing, i, 35, 38; ii, 260-264
formation, ii, 244
oolitic, ii, 246, 251-255, 25 7, 284
shelly, ii, 246,251-255
structure, ii, 253,254
tests, ii, 258- 260
Limmer asphalt, ii, 213
Lin by stone, ii, 246,251, 252
Line and pins, i, 29, 31
of nosings, iii, 366, 367, 372,373
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
Liners, tirmer, iii, 332,334
Linings, door, i, 100-102, 105;iii,355,
356, 358
window, i, 111-114; iii, 357-361
Linoleum,ii~ 328
Lintels, brick, i, 20, 21, 109, 111
concrete,i ,21,22, 115,119
stone, i, 20,21,47; iii, 318
wood, i, 20, 21, 89, 91,93, 99, 102,
105, 109, 111, 120
Lipped mitredjoint, iii, 323
Lips, iii, 344, 345
Liver stones,ii, 248
Lloyd board, iii, 336
Loading floor, ii, 214
Loamy clay, ii, 160
Locharbriggs stone, ii, 248, 250,252,
255
Lock blocks, iii,355, 357,358
Locks , mortice, i, 90- 92,98-104;iii,
355
rim , i, 88, 90-92, 104,105
dead, i , 88, 90
night latch, i, 98, 105
Logs, i, 56; iii, 292, 293, 385
London clay, ii, 161
stocks, ii, 161,170
Lon g fifteens, iii, 412
fourteens, iii, 412
nines, iii, 412
sixteens, iii, 4 12
thirteens, iii, 412
twelves, iii,412
wippets, iii, 412
Lon gitudinal bond, ii, 207
shrinkage, iii, 294,389
Lon gridgestone, ii, 24 6,250,252
Loa-boar ds, ii,165
Loose-en t surface, p lywood, iii, 387
Lower Persley granite, ii, 245,252
Lugs, i, 154; iii, 363
Lu mps, saw, iii, 314
Lunel marble, ii, 256
Lyctuspowder-postbeetle, iii, 303, 304
Lye-byes, iii, 414
M
GENERAL INDEX
Macassar ebony, iii, 307, 312
Machinedressing, stone, i, 34, 35, 38;
ii, 260-264
moulded tiles, iii, 391,392
Machines, app1ratusandplant, i , 1, 3,
34, 35, 62,104,107,130,132, 134;
ii, 160-164, 172-174, 176, 180-183,
190- 194,213, 233,259-264; iii, 292,
293,314-318,327,333,374,384-
388, 391, 407, 408
as bestos-cernent blending, iii, 4 o8
forming, iii, 408
asphaltfelt, ii, 213
auger, ii,162, 172; iii, 316, 391
band-resawing, iii, 293
sawing,iii,314, 315,384,387
bar king lathe, iii, 385
batch box , ii, 193, 220
mixers, ii, 193,194
closed drum, ii, 194
continuous; i i, 194
tilting drum, ii, 193
beam saw, ii, 261
boring, iii, 316
brick, cutting table, i, 1; ii, 162,163
moulds, i, 1;ii,162-164
presses, i, 1; ii, 162,163,176
canting arm pi aner, ii, 261
central hatching, i i, 194
chaser mill, i i, 161
circular saw bench, i, 34, 35, 107,
130, 132; ii, 261, 262; iii, 311,
313,314,31h318,384,387
carborundum, i, 35; ii, 261,262
diamond, i, 35,132; ii, 261, 262
saw mill, iii, 293
clipper, iii,387
combined log and deal frame, iii,
293
compacting factor, ii, 191
com p ression testing, ii, 174, 191
concrete, central hatching, ii, 194
hoi st, ii, 194
mixers, i, 3; ii, 193, 194
slab moulding,iii,333
tile moulding, iii, 407
cr oss-cut saw, ii, 261; iii, 292
cr u sher, cone, ii, 181
jaw, ii, 181, 187
roll s, i i, 162; iii, 3 91
kibblers ,ii,162
st one, ii, 161,187
di a mond saw, i,35, 132; ii,261, 262
disc polisher, ii, 264
double-dimension saw bench, iii,
317
dovetailing, iii, 317
dra inpipe, ii, 233
duplex saw, ii, 261
edge runners, ii, 161; iii,391
dry pan, ii, 161
pan mill,ii,161
wetpan,ii, 161
four-head planer , ii, 263
frame saw, i, 34; ii, 26o
frost resistance, ii, 174, 259
generaljoiner, i, 107; iii, 317
gl ue~preader, iii, 387
gravity, saw, ii, 2 61
grinding mills, ii, 181
grindstone, iii, 318
guillotine, iii, 387
helicoidal wire sawing, i i, 264
h orizontal! og band mill, iii, 293
I og fr arne sawing, iii, 2 93
veneer slicer, iii, 385
hydrator, ii, 180
J enny Lind polisher, ii, 263, 264
I a the, ii, 263; iii, 317
bar king, iii, 385
Le Chat elier, ii, 183
mitreing, iii, 317
mortise chain cutter, iii, 318
h oil ow chisel grinder, i i~ 318
mortising, i, 107; iii, 316-318
mou lding, iii, 315 -317,407
open -sideplaner , ii, 263
panel p Ianing and thicknessing, i,
107; i ii, 315
peeler, iii, 385
pendulum, ii, 264
permeability, ii, 173, 258
planing and matching, i , 62, 104; iii,
316,317
and m oulding, i , 35; ii, 261, 263;
ii i,315-31 7
and surfacing, iii, 3 15-317
p neumatic dressing and carving, i,
35; ii, 264
polishing, ii, 263, 264
p ortable electric sander, i, 130
ma chine planer, iii, 327
p r ess, cold, iii, 388, 408
h ot, i ii,388
pug mil~ i, 1;ii, 161,162; i ii,391
rack feed saw bench; iii, 293
reci procating c ross~ut saw, iii, 292
rotary table press, i, 1; ii, 162, 163,
176
veneer cutter, iii, 385
router, iii, 3 16
rubbing bed,i, 35; ii, 263
sand-p1pering, i, 107; iii, 317
belt, i ii, 317
cylinder, iii,317
disc, ii~ 317
a nd bobbin, iii, 3 17
dr um, iii, 317
sharpening, iii, 317, 318
automatic cutter grinder, iii, 318
saw, iii, 317,318
single-dimension saw bench, iii,317
s I ate holing, i, 133, 134
s lump, ii, 190, 193
spi n dle moulder, i, 107; iii, 316,374
steam navvy, ii,161, 181
surface-planing and t hicknessing, i,
107; iii, 315
t aping, iii, 387
tem p ering mill, ii, 161
t enoning, i, 107; iii, 316
tensile testing, ii, 18 2
t ower , con creting, ii, 194
u n iversal woodworker, i, 107; iii,
317
vertical log band mill, iii, 293
spin diem oulding, i, 1 07; iii,
3 16,374
vene er slicer, iii, 385
vibrators, ii, 194
Vicat , ii, 183
wa sh mil~ ii, 16o, 181
w ire-cutting tab le, tiles, iii, 391
Machi ne trenching, iii, 371
Magnesian lime, ii, 180
limestones , ii, 246, 251-253, 255,
257
mort ar, ii, 185
sandstones, ii, 24 7,251-253, 255
Mag nesit e b ricks, ii, 175
Magnesium silicofluoride, iii, 299, 303
Mag n etite, ii, 244
Mahogany, i ,6o, 98; iii,i,289, 292,
307, 308,312, 357, 385,387
Accra, iii, 292,308, 312, 357, 387
African, i , 6o; iii, 292,308, 312 ,
357,387
Benin, iii, 292 , 308,312, 357,387
Cape Lopez, iii, 292 , 308, 312, 357,
387
Cen tr a! American, i, 6o; iii, 292,
308, 312, 357,385
ch erry, iii, 309, 312
Cuba n,i,6o; iii, 292, 308,312, 357,
385
Dual a, iii, 292,308,312, 357, 3 87
g a boon, iii, 307,312,357,385
Hon duras, i, 6o; iii, 292,308, 312,
357,385
J ama ican, iii, 292,308, 312,3 57,
385

Lagos, iii,292,30S, 312,357, 3S7
Porto Rim, iii, 292, 30S, 312, 357,
3S5
sapele,iii,292, 310,312, 3S5
Spanish, i, 6o;iii,292,30S, 312,
357,3S5
West Indian, iii, 292, 30S, 312, 357,
3S5
Makoreiii, 309,312
Mallet, i, 129
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Maim, ii, 160
Manchester kiln, ii, 166-16S
Manchurian pine, iii, 305,312
Mandril, i, 157
Mansfield stone, ii, 246,247,251-253,
255
Manu facture, aerated cement, iii, 334
asbestos-cement, iii, 40S
blackboards, iii, 390
bricks, i, 1, 2; ii, 161 -172, 175, 176
cement, i, 2; ii,1S1, 1S4
con crete blocks, iii, 335
slabs, iii, 333
ti I es, iii, 4 07
copper sheets, iii, 416
cork tiles, iii, 327
drain pipes and traps , ii, 233
fibrous asphaltfelt, ii, 213
lam inboards, iii,390
lime, ii, 17S, 1So
I in oleum, iii, 328
pan tiles, iii, 3 99
plain tiles, iii, 391,392
plywood, iii, 3S5-390
rubber, sheet and tiles, iii, 328
zinc sheets, iii,419
Maple, i, 6o, 62, 65; ii~ 292, 309, 310,
312 ,325,327,35~3S5,3SS
bird's-eye, iii, 292, 309,312,325,
327,3SS
blister, iii, 292,309, 312, 325, 327,
3SS
curly, iii, 292, 309, 312,325,327,
3SS
fiddle-back, iii, 292,309,312,325,
327,3SS
great, iii, 292,310,312,357, 3S5,
3SS
hard, iii, 292,309, 312,325, 327,
3SS
Queen sland, iii, 292,309,312, 3SS
rock, i, 6o; iii, 292, 309, 312,325,
327,3SS
sugar, iii, 292, 309,312, 325, 327,
3SS
white, iii, 292,309,312,325, 327,
3SS
GENERAL INDEX
Marbles, ii, 244, 246, 253,256, 260, Match boarding, i, S7;iii, 316, 332, roof trusses, ii, 2So-2S7; iii, 341,
263,279 339,341 343,409,410
Belgian, ii, 256 Matrix, i, 2;ii, 1S4, 1S7 round bars, i, 21, 6S, 15S
composition, ii, 255 Medina cement,ii,1S1 shoes , ii, 2S1-2S7
English, ii, 246, 251,253,255 Medium texture, iii, 2 92, 3 o6 shot, ii, 26o, 264
French, ii, 256 Medulla, i, 55 square bars, i, 15S
Grecian,ii,256 Medullary rays, i, 55-57, 59, 6o; iii, straps, i, 73,So, S1
Irish, ii, 255, 256 2S9-292, 306-311 tee bars, i , 15S; i i,2So
Ita! ian, ii, 256 Medusa, ii, 1S6 washers, i, 7S, S1, 159; ii, 2S3
Norwegian, ii, 256 Meeting rails, i, 115-117 windows, iii, 361, 363-365, 3S0-3S2
pol is hing, ii, 263 Melting pot, i, 157 Min ing stone, ii, 260
stair, ii, 279 Memel fir, i, 60-62, 70, 7S , 10S, 116; iii, Mitre block, i , 107, 130
Swedish,ii,256 2SS, 2S9, 292, 305, 312, 323, 325, b ox , i, 130
Margin chisel, drafted, i, 3S 393, 397, 39S joint, i,4 7, 65, 76, 95, 124; iii, 323,
fi !let, iii, 3 So Mer anti, red, iii, 309, 312 357,3S3
slate,i,136 white, iii, 309,312 square, i, 126
stair, iii, 366 yellow, iii, 309,312 templ et, i, 130
templet, iii, 396 Mercuric chloride, iii, 299, 301,303 Mitred closer, i, 4 ,
ti I e, iii, 396 Merulius lacryJmans, iii,301-303 and rebated joint,i , 124
Marking awl, i, 126 Metal b alustrades, ii, 274-279 Mitreing, ii~ 317
Marly clay, ii, 160 faced plywood, iii, 3S9, 390 ma ch ine, iii,31 7
Masonry, i, 33-54; ii, 244-277 fastenings, ii, 25S Mixes, concrete, ii, 187, 1S9, 190,193,
classification, i, 39 partitions, iii, 335 194, 216, 219
ashlar, i, 39,45-53; ii, 264-275 windows, iii, 361,363-365, 3S0-382 Model by e-laws, i, 15, 17, 62,66, 10S
flint, i, 39,43, 44 Metamorphic rocks, i, 33; ii,244 ,253, Modulus of section, iii, 319, 321, 322
Lake District, i, 1S, 39, 44, 45 255,256 Moisture content, i, 56; iii, 294-299,
polygonal walling, i ,39 , 43,44 Mexican cedar, iii, 307, 312 302,304,323,3S~3S9
rubble work, i, 34, 36, 39-45; ii, Mica, i, 3S;ii, 244 deter m in arion, iii, 2 97, 2 9S
265,275 Micaceous sandstones, ii, 246, 24S, meters, iii, 29S
random, i, 36,39-41,45 249,255 Mom en t of resistance, iii, 319,321,322
built to courses, i , 39-41 Mi cr otom e, iii, 2 91 Monel meta!, i ii, 3 90
uncoursed, i, 36, 39,40 Middl e boards, iii, 340, 341 Monk bond, ii, 20S
squared, i, 36, 39, 41-43; ii, lamella, iii, 2S9 Monk's Park stone, ii, 246,251-255,
265,266 Middl ewood stone,ii, 250, 252 260
built to courses, i, 39, 42, Middling boards, iii, 344- 346 Mop-sti ck handrail, iii, 365, 3S2
43 Mi ld steel, angles, i, 2 1,111 , 15S; ii, Mortar. See "Cement mortar" and
regular coursed , i, 36, 2S0-2S 7; iii, 320,321, 409 -411 "Lime m ortarjj
39,41-43 b eams,i ,59 , 15S, 159; iii, 31S-324, f illets , i, 150; iii, 39S, 401, 403 ,4 13
uncoursed, i, 39,41-43; 339, 340 f ir e -resistant, ii, 1S6
ii , 265,275 b earing,baseor sole plates, ii,2S1 - jointing and pointing, i, 3 1,32,52 -
squaresnecked, i, 39, 41-43; 2S7 54; ii , 220,221, 223; ii~ 396,
ii, 265,275 bolts, i,2o, 73, 7S, S1,15S;iii,323, 39S, 399,401,403,405,407,
con soles, ii, 267, 271,272 339, 343 409,412
cornices, i ,35,49-51, 150, 152; ii, cha nnels, i, 15S Mortic ed andtenonedjoints, i, S6, 92,
266-275 cleats, ii, 2S1-287; i ii, 323,324 9S, 103, 106;iii, 350,353
dressings to doors, i, 46-49; ii, 264- expa nded m etal, iii, 323 Mor tise c hain cutter, ii~ 31S
272 flat bars, i, 2 1, 62, 15S; ii, 2So, 2 S7; chisel, i, 106,12S
windows, i, 41, 42,46 -49; ii, iii, 323, 330,332,3 34, 335, 339, h oil ow chisel g cinder , ii~ 31S
269-272 371 l ock, i, 9 0-92, 9S- 104;iii, 355
spire, ii, 25S gussets, ii, 2So-2S7 Mor tising, iii, 316
stairs, ii, 2 76-2 79 manufacture, i,15S ma ch ine, i, 107; iii, 316, 31S
steps, i,46, 49; ii, 274-277 n uts, i, So, S1, 15S,1 59 Motorized m achines, iii, 292
Mason's mitre, i, 47 pi ates, iii, 340, 343 Mottled f igure, iii, 292, 304, 306, 307,
tools, i, 29, 35, 36-3S pur !ins, ii, 2So-2S7; iii, 409-411 309, 310
Mass concrete, ii, 1S4, 194 rivets, i, 159; ii, 2So-2S7; iii, 321, Mou I ded pi ywood, iii, 3 S9
Mastic, i, 65, 7 0, S7, 1oS, 13S, 146,153 323 Mou ldi ng b ricks, i, 1,2; ii, 162-164
drain pipes and t raps, ii, 233

machines, woodworking, iii, 315-
317
tiles, iii, 391, 399
Mountain ash, iii, 310, 312, 325
pine, iii, 305, 312
Mu ffity, iii, 412
Muffle kiln, ii, 165
Mu II et, i, 106
Mullions, i, 41, 42,49, 108; iii, 361,
362,365
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Multi-colouredbricks, i, 2;ii, 161, 171,
172,220, 221,223
ply boards, iii, 332,385, 387
Muntins,i, 95,103, 105-107; iii, 353,
354
Muscovite, ii, 245
Mu tules, ii, 272
Mvule, iii,3o8, 312
Mycelium, iii, 301-303
N
Nail punch, i, 65,130
Nailing boards, floor , i, 64,65
copper clips, iii, 417
I ea dwork, i, 143
close and open, i, 143
shingles, iii, 416
slating, i, 134, 135, 138; iii, 408,412
tiling, i, 141; iii, 393,397, 398, 401,
405,409
zinc rolls, iii, 420
Nails, i, 125,134,135,138,141, 143;iii,
393, 397, 398, 401, 405,408, 409,
412,416,41~419,420
composition, i, 134;iii,393,408,
412
copper, i, 134, 143;iii, 393,408,
412,416,417
cu tclasp,i ,125
floor brads, i, 65, 125
galvanized wroughtiron, i, 134;iii,
416,420
joiners' brads, i, 125
n eed! e points, i, 125
panel pins, i, 95, 125
spikes, i , 125
wire, i, 125
wrought, i, 123
zinc, i, 134; iii,420
Napoleon marble, ii, 256
Natural bed,i ,38 , 39; ii, 247,256
draught compartment kiln, iii, 298
seasoning, i, 56; iii, 295, 296,
N eu chatel asphalt, ii, 213
New Brunswick spruce, i, 6o, 62, 82;
iii, 288, 305, 312
GENERAL INDEX
Zeal and kauri, iii, 292, 304, 312,
325
Newcastle kiln, ii, 165
Newels, iii, 317,365,366,374 -378,
380-384
caps, iii,317, 365, 366, 375, 378,
380-382
drops, iii, 317,365,366,375,378,
380-382
N ewe! stairs, iii, 366, 3 74-378, 380-384
Nibs, tile,i, 140, 141;iii,391, 392,394,
397, 399, 400, 407
Nicaraguan cedar, iii, 307,312
pine, iii, 305,312, 325
N i eked bricks, ii, 177
Nigerian walnut, iii, 311, 312
Night latch, i, 98
N ogging pieces, iii, 329,330, 335
Non-hydrauliclime mortars, ii, 185
graded timber, iii, 319,321
pres sure preserving process, iii,
300,301
slip steps, ii, 279
Norfolk latch, i, 88, 89,91
Norge Clair marble, ii, 256
Northern pine. See "Redwood"
whitewood. See "Whitewood"
Norway fir. See "Redwood"
Norwegian marbles, ii, 2 56
Nose bar, iii, 385
Nosing, iii, 366, 369,370, 372-377,379
lines, iii,366,371, 373
Notch boards, iii, 3 67, 384
Notchedjoints , i, 61, 66, 72, 74;iii, 339,
375
0
Oak, i, 6o, 62, 65, 86, 98,108, 116; iii,
288-292, 303, 304, 309, 310, 312,
325,327,385, 388,413
American, red, i, 6o; iii, 309, 312,
325
white, i, 6o; iii, 309, 312, 325
Austrian, i, 6o; iii, 309, 312
brown, iii, 309,312
du rmast, iii, 309, 312
English, i, 6o; iii,309, 312,325,
327,357, 413
J apanese, i, 6o;iii, 309,312, 325
pendunculate, iii, 309,312
Polish, iii, 309,312
Russian, i, 6o; iii, 309, 312
sessile, iii, 309, 312
silky, iii, 309,312
Tasmanian, iii, 310,312, 325
Victorian, iii, 310, 312, 325
w a inscot, i, 6o; iii, 309,312
Obeche, iii, 310, 312
Oblique tenon housed joint, i, 74, 79,
So
haunched tenoned joint, iii, 375,
377
morticed and t enonedj oints , iii,
339
Odum, iii, 308, 312
Offsets, i, 17, 19, 62
Ogee mould, i, 48-50,96,112
Oi l can, i, 130
s eed r esidue glue, iii, 388
stone, i, 130
Okou me iii, 307, 312, 357, 385
Old Roma n tiling, iii, 403,405,4o6
Olon, iii, 3o6, 312,385
Onyx marbles, ii, 256
OOlitic limestones, ii, 246,251-255,
257,284
Open areas,i i,21 7
balustrades, iii, 365,367, 368, 375-
378,380-384
lead valley gutter s, i, 148, 149;iii,
397,416
mou ld,ii,163
side pi aner, ii, 263
sl ating, i, 137
stri ngs, iii, 367, 384
tank preserving processes, iii, 300,
301
well stairs, iii, 366, 367,380-382
Oregon pine, i, 6o; iii, 289, 292, 304,
312, 323, 327, 343, 357, 385, 388
Ornamentalb ricks, ii, 163
copper roll, iii, 417
Ottawa red pine, iii, 3 05, 3 12, 358
whitepine, iii, 288,289,292,305,
312
Outbands, i, 47, 119
Outer beads , i, 119-121
li nings, i, 113-115; iii, 357, 36o-362
Overburden, ii, 161,260
Overflow tank, ii, 258
Over h and struck joint , i, 31
Over h ead internal fan compartment
kiln, iii, 298
spindle moulder, iii, 316
Over sailing cou rses, i, 20
Over tiles, iii, 403, 405-407
Oval omould, i, 48, 95,96
Oziers, iliatch, iii, 420
p
Pacificredcedar, iii, 304, 3 12,413
Packing, saw, iii, 314
Padauk, Andaman, iii, 292,310, 312
Burma, iii, 310,312
Pad, in sulating, iii, 338
stone, i, 12, 73, 78; ii, 281-287;i ii,
318, 321,339
saw, i,127
Padlock, i, 88, 90, 91
Pages, iii, 344
Pail closets, ii, 230
Pallets, i , 87, 100; ii, 163, 164; iii, 391,
392,407,408
Panel mouldings, i, 95-97; iii, 350-356
bolection, i, 95, 98,99, 102,
105; iii, 351, 356
pi a n ted, i, 95-97; iii, 350, 352
solid or struck, i, 95-97, 102; iii,
350,352
square, i, 96; ii~ 354
sunk, i, 96, 97
planing and iliicknessing machine,
i , 107 ;i ii, 315
saw, i,104, 127
Panels, b rick ,ii, 221
Panelled doors, i, 94-107; iii, 350-356
fou r , i,9 6, 103-107
manufacture, i , 104-107
single, i, 96-99
t wo, i, 96, 102, 103; iii, 350, 351
Panelling, ii~ 294, 330,365, 377,380,
382, 389, 390
Panels, flat, i, 95, 96, 105; ii~ 354
raised and chamfered, i, 97
and flat, i, 95, 96; iii, 356
su nk a nd fielded, i, 95,98
a nd moulded, i, 95
sunk, i, 97
Pan mill, ii, 161
Pan tiles, i, 68-70; i i~ 343, 399, 401-
404,409, 410
asbestos-cement, iii, 409 , 410
manufacture, iii, 399, 408
s izes , iii, 399,409
Pa n tiling, i, 68-70; ii, 242; iii, 342, 399,
401 -404,409,410
a butments, iii, 403,404
eaves, ii, 242; iii, 401, 402, 410
h ips,iii,403, 404
r idges, iii, 401,402,404
valleys, iii, 403, 404
verges, 401,404
Parapets,i,46, 50, 51, 79, 145-147,149,
150, 15l ;ii, 221, 222,272 -274;iii,
403, 404, 413
g u tt ers, i, 46, 81 , 145-147
Parenchyma, iii, 289- 291
Parging, ii, 224
Paring chisel, i, 106, 128
Park Nook stone, ii, 246, 251-253, 255
Parquetry, iii, 327

in I aid, iii, 327
ordin ary, iii, 327
pi a ted, iii, 32 7
Parting beads, i, 113-117; iii, 357, 359-
362
slips, i, 113-115, 11 7;iii, 359-361
Partitions, iii, 329-338,339,371,377,
380,388
asbestos-cement, iii, 334, 335
brick-nagged, iii, 330
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
GENERAL INDEX
Pines, i, 6o; iii, 288, 289, 292, 305, eaves, i, 140, 141- ; ii, 242; iii, bricks, i, 29; i i, 177
312,325,343.358,371. 393.397, 393. 394. 399 stone, i, 35, 48 ,49
398 hips, i, 141; iii, 395, 396 Ploughed and t onguedjaints, i , 64 , 114
Pinnedjaints ,i , 74,86; iii,353, 359 ridges, i, 140, 141; iii, 394-396, Pluggedjaint , i, 52
Pins, ii, 227 399 Plugging, i, 72, 87,100, 124
Pipes, bend, ii, 231-233 valleys, i, 141; iii, 395-397 chisel, i, 87, 128
channel, ii, 231-233,239 verges, i, 141; iii, 398-400 pl ywood, iii, 387
junction, ii, 231-233 vertical, iii, 397-400 Plumb-bob, i , 130
straight, ii, 231-233 angles, iii, 398, 400 rule,i,29, 31,53
taper , ii, 231,232 window openings, iii, 399, Plumbers'tools, i ,156, 157

clay block and brick, iii, 332 Pistol bricks, ii, 177 400 Plumbing, i, 142-157
concrete block and slab, iii, 332- Pistolite, ii, 253 wire-cut, iii, 391 terms,i, 143
334, 377, 380 Pitch, ii, 213 PI anceer, iii, 366, 380 up, i, 31
framed, iii, 330-332 board, iii, 366,371 Plane,iii,292,310,312, 357,385, 388 PI u tonic rocks, ii, 244
glass brick, ii~ 335 corrugated sheets, iii, 409-411 Planes, i, 128-131 Plywood, i, 94. 95; iii, 323, 327, 328,
meta I, iii, 335 edge, iii, 371 bead, i , 128, 131 332, 336, 339, 355, 357, 380, 384-
plasterslab,ii~ 334,380 pine, i, 6o, 62,65, 108, 116;iii, 289, block, i,128 , 131 390
sound-proofed, iii, 335-338 292,305,312, 325, 343,371 bullnose, i,129 batt enboards, iii, 390
stoothed, iii, 329, 330, 335-339, pockets, iii, 387 compass, i, 128 b lackboards, iii, 357, 390
371, 375-377,380 roofs, i, 69,135, 141; iii, 393,401, h oil ow and round, i, 128, 131 composit e boards, iii, 390
terra-wtta blockandbrick, iii, 332 405 , 408, 409,412 ja ck, i, 128, 131 I am inboards, iii, 332, 357, 380,
trussed, ii~ 330-332 rivets, ii, 280 meta! smooth, i, 129, 131 382,390
Patching plywood, iii, 387 stairs, iii, 366, 374 moving and sash fillister, i, 128 manufacture, i ,95; iii, 385-390
Patina, iii, 416,417 threads, i, 158 pl ough,i,106, 128, 131 as sembling sheets, iii, 387
Pattern, iii, 366,371,374 Pitching piece, iii, 3 75 portable electric, i,130 cementing, iii, 387, 390
Pavings, ii, 176 tool, i, 36, 38 reb ate, i, 128, 131 conversion, iii, 385
Pavonazzettomarble, ii, 256 Pith, i, 35; iii, 290 router, i, 128, 131 horizontal cut ting, iii, 385
Pavonazwmarble, ii, 256 flecks, iii, 292, 306, 311 shoulder, i, 129 rotary cu tting , ii~ 385
Pediments, ii, 266-268 Pit sand, i, z; ii, 185 sm oothing, i, 106, 128, 131 ver tical slicing, iii, 385, 387,
Pedunculate oak, iii, 309, 312 Pits , iii, 289-291 spokeshave , i , 128,131 389
Peeler,ii~ 385 bordered, iii, 289,290 toothing, i, 129 dr ying, iii, 387
Peggies, i, 133,135, 136 simple, iii, 289,290, tong u ing and grooving, i, 129 fi nishing, iii, 389
Pegs, ii, 227,234 ; iii, 412 single, iii, 289, 290 trying, i, 104,106, 128, 131 pla ning, iii, 389
Pencil -rounded, i, 95; iii, 353 Pivotedsashes ,i,119-122; ii~ 347 PI aning, iii, 315-317, 32 7, 389 sanding, iii, 389
Pendulum machine, ii, 264 PI ace bricks, i i, 173 and matching machines, i, 62, 104; trimming, iii, 389
Penning, ii, 219 Pl acing concrete,ii, 194 i ii,316, 317 gl uing, iii, 387, 390
Percentage porosity test, stone, ii, 258 Plain-sawn timber, iii, 291-294,413 and moulding machines, i, 3 5; i i, jointing,i i~ 387
Per col ating filter, ii, 230 Plain tiles , i, 140, 141; iii,339, 391-401, 261, 263; iii,315-317 preparation of] ogs, iii, 385
Perforated bricks, ii, 175, 177, 205 407 and surfacing machines, iii, 3 15-317 pressing, iii, 388-390
Per me ability, i, 17 characteristics, iii, 392 p ortable machine planer, iii, 327 cold, iii, 388-390
test, bricks, ii, 173, 258 hand-made, iii, 391- 393 Planks, i,56; iii, 292, 293,311,344 hot, iii,388 -390
tiles, iii, 392, 407 manufacture, iii, 391, 392 Plans, h ouses , iii, 369,372, 374.376, re-drying, iii, 389
Perpends,i,4, 29,31,135 burning, iii, 391 380,381 repairing, iii, 38 7
Pericotstone, ii, 253 drying, iii, 392 PI anted moulds, i, 95-97; iii, 350, 352 tr imming, iii, 387,389
Peter head granite, ii, 245, 252 moulding, iii, 391,392 Pl aster,i,32, 68; iii, 3 18,321-323,330, metal-faced, iii, 38 9,390
Phenolic r esins, iii, 388 hand, iii, 391 333,334, 341,343,350,365, 370, moulded, iii, 389
Picking bed, ii, 260 m achine, iii, 391, 392 371,374. 375,377.380 sizes, boards, iii, 38 9, 390
Picture rails, i, 123, 125 preparation of clay, iii, 391 slab partitions, iii, 334. 380 uses , iii, 389, 390
Piers, i, 12, 13, 19, 43, 78; ii, 198,199, pressed, iii, 3 91, 3 92 PI astic clay, ii, 161 Pneumat ic dressing plant, i, 35; ii, 264
222, 223;iii, 321,341 sizes, i, 141;iii, 392 wood, i, 124 Pocket chisel, i, 128
foundations, i, 17 tests, iii, 3 92, 4 07 Pl ate l ock, i, 90 Pockets, i, 114
Pilasters, i, 13 freezing, iii, 392 saw, iii,293, 311-314, 317,318,384. Pai n ted arches, ii, 211
Piling sticks, iii, 295,297,389 permeability, iii, 392,407 387 cen tres, iii, 347,348
timber, iii, 295, 29 7,298 transverse, iii,392, 407 Pl ate ns, ii~ 328, 388,408 Painting, i, 13, 18, 31, 32, 87, 143, 146;
Pillars, iii, 323 texture, iii, 3 92 PI ates, iii, 340, 343 ii, 220, 221, 223
Pincers , i,130 tiling, i, 68-70,140, 141; ii, 242;iii, PI atforms, iii, 344 b ast ard tuck, i, 32
391-400 Plinth b locks, i, 122- 124; iii, 353 r u le,i ,29

tuck, i, 32
Poleplate,i,81
Poling boards, i, 82,83;iii,343-345
Polish fir, iii, 288,289,292, 305, 312,
323,325,393,397,398
oak, iii, 309, 312
Polishing machines, ii, 263, 264
P oil ed fa cing, i, 4 3
Polygonal walling, i, 39,43,44
Pores, iii,289-292,306-311
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Porosity, i, 17; ii, 173,258
test, i i, 258
Portable electric sander, i, 130
rna chine planer, iii, 32 7
power tools, i, 130
Portlandcements,i,2;ii, 181-184,187,
189-195 ;iii, 408
stone, i, 33-35,39, 4 7,49, 53; ii,
246,251-255,257,2 59, 261
Porto Rico mahogany, iii, 292, 308,
312,357,385
P owellizing preserving process, iii, 301
Precastst!J)S, ii, 279
Preparation, clay tiles, iii, 391
doors, i, 88, 92, 104-107
logs , iii, 385
timber, iii, 311-317
stone, i, 34-38; ii, 260- 264
Preservation, timber, i, 57; iii, 299-302
non -pressure processes, iii, 300,
301
steeping, iii, 300, 301
cold, iii, 301
hot, iii,301
hot-and-cold, iii, 300
Kyanizing, iii, 301
P owellizing, iii, 3 01
pressure p rocesses, i , 57; iii, 299,
300, Beth el, iii, 299, 300
Blythe's, iii, 300
Bouch erie, iii, 300
Burnettizing, iii, 300
cr eosoting, i, 57; iii,2 99, 300
empty-{;ell,ii~ 300
full-{; ell, ii~ 299,300
superficial, iii, 301
brush applic ati on , ii~ 301
dipping, iii, 301
spraying, iii, 301
Pressedbricks,i, 1, 31; ii, 161 ,1 62,1 72,
174, 177
tiles, iii, 391, 402
Pressurebar,ii~ 385
preserving processes, i,57; iii, 299,
300
Priming, i, 87
GENERAL INDEX
Principal rafters, i, 76, 78-8o; iii, 340, Qu arterings, i, 57 outlets, i, 153, 155
342,343 Quarters, See "Studs" st op ends , i, 153, 155
Privy middens, ii, 230 Quartz, ii, 244 tr ough,i, 154
Profi leh ead, iii, 315 Quartzite, ii, 256, 279 un ion clips, i, 153
Profiles, ii, 227, 228 Quebec birch, iii, 307, 312,323 wrough t iron b rackets, i, 153,
Progressive kiln, iii, 298,387 red pine, iii, 305, 312,358 155
Projecting joints, i, 31,32 spruce, i, 6o, 62, 82; iii, 288, 305, enamelled iron, i,1 56
Proportioning concrete, ii, 187, 189, 312 R ake, saw, iii, 311, 318
190, 216 whitepine, iii, 288,289,292,305, Raking bon ds, ii, 207,208, 221
Props, iii, 343, 344 312 cover flashings, i, 143, 150
Protected metal corrugatedsheets, iii, yellow pine, iii, 288,289, 292, 305, Rammers, ii, 194,219
411 312 Random rubble, i, 36,39-41,45
Pudlo, i i, 186 Queen closers,i ,4-14 slates, i, 133, 136, 139,140
Pugging, iii, 335 p ost roof truss, iii, 341-343 Range-work, ii, 203
Pug mills, i, 1;ii, 161, 162;iii, 391 slates, i, 133 Rapid-hardening cement, ii, 183,187
Pulleys tile, i, 113-119; iii, 357,359-362 Queensland kauri, iii, 304,312 Rat-trap bond, ii, 209; ii~ 398
Pulleys, i, 113, 116-119; iii, 360-362 maple, iii, 292, 309,312, 388 Rasps, i, 129, 131, 157
Pu I vinated frieze, ii, 266 walnut, iii, 311,312, 389 Rays, i, 55- 57, 59 , 6o; iii, 289-292,
Pumice, ii, 188 Quicklime, ii, 160,179 306 -311
Pummel, ii, 194, 219 Quirked bead, i, 125, 128 R ebatedjambs,i, 13,14
Punch, iii, 391 Quoins,i,4, 10 -12,4 0, 41,45,4 7;ii, and splayed jambs, ii, 198
Puncheons,iii, 329, 344,345 195,197, 198, 221, 222 and stepped jambs, ii, 198
Pure lime, ii, 179 join t , i, 51, 52, 62, 64; ii~ 345, 384
Pu rlins, i, 70, 73-79, 81; ii, 28 o-28 7; iii, R tongued andgroovedjoint, i, 64
339-343, 409-411 Rebating, iii, 315, 317
Purpose-madebricks,i,4, 21, 23,24;ii, Rack feed saw bench, iii, 293 Recess, i, 13
176-178 Racking back, i, 4 Recessedjoi nt, i, 31
arches,i, 24-26 Racks, ii, 164 Recessing, iii, 316
eaves tiles, iii, 4 09 Radfordstone,ii, 246,251, 252,255 ma chine, iii, 3 16
hip tiles, i, 141; iii, 395,396 Ra di a! hammering, iii, 314 Reciprocating cross-{;utsaw, iii, 292
va !ley tiles, iii, 403,409 shrinkag e, iii, 294 Red clay, ii, 16o
vergetiles ,iii,403, 405,407,409 Radius rods, ii, 210; iii, 347 R ed deaL See "Redwood"
Putty, i, 110, 153; iii, 350, 353, 355, 363 Rafters, common, i, 69-79, 81; ii, 281- la uan,i ii, 308,312
lime, i, 24 ,53 284, iii, 393, 394,401,402,404, m er anti, iii, 309, 312,
powder, ii, 263, 264 406,408,413-416 oak, American, i, 6o; iii, 309,
Pyinkado, iii, 310, 3 12, 325 hip, i, 69,73-75,1 37, 139 3 12,325
Pyrites, iii, 372 ja ck, i, 69, 70, 73-75 Peter h ead granit e, 373, 38 o
Pyrometer s, ii, 170 principal, i, 76, 78-8o; iii, 340, 342, pine, iii, 305, 312, 358
343 seraya, iii, 310, 312, 325
valley, i, 69, 70, 151; iii, 395,404 Re-dryingplywood boards, iii, 389
Q Rag bolts, ii, 281-287 R educing atmosph ere, ii, 172
Quarries,i,33,34; ii, 252,253,255, Rails, i, 92 -100, 102-107; iii, 351-358 R edwood, i, 60-62, 70, 78,108, 116; iii,
260 Rain-water g oods, i, 153- 156; ii, 237, 288 , 289, 292,305 , 312, 323,325,
Quarrying, i, 33, 34;ii, 260 241 -243
393, 397, 398
Qua r ry- dressed stone, i, 36, 39, 4 1, 43- asbestos-cement, i, 156 R eeds, iii,401, 420
45 cast iron down-pipes, i, 153-156; ii, Reinforced brickwork, i ,21; ii, 204-
sand, i, 2; ii, 185 237 , 241 -243 207; i ii, 330, 332
sap, i, 35; ii, 260 bends, i, 154, 155 I in tels, i, 21; ii, 207
tiles, i, 28 bra nches, i, 154, 155 pillars, ii, 207
Quarter grain, iii, 291-294, 309,325, head, i, 154, 155; ii, 242 wa !Is, ii, 204 -206; iii, 33 2
387,41 3 hol der bats, i, 154,155 Rein forced concrete, i, 7, 12, 21, 22, 72,
partitions, iii, 329,330, 335,336, joints, i, 154,155 115, 119; ii, 187-189,215, 276, 278,
338,339,371,375,377,380 I ug s, i, 154, 155 279; i ii, 323, 324, 326, 336
sawn timber, i, 57; iii,291-294, 309, shoes , i, 154, 155; ii, 242 floor s, ii, 215; iii, 323,324 ,326, 336
325,387,413 cast iron eaves gutters, i, 139, 140, lin tels, i, 21,2 2,115,119
space I andings, ii, 277; iii, 365-369, 153 -5 stair, ii, 276,2 78,2 79
380-382 gutter bolts, i , 153-155 R ein forced "Glascrete,"iii, 335
turn stairs, iii,366,368 joints, i, 153-155

plasterpartitions, iii, 334
Rendering, ii, 224,239
Rent shingles, iii,413
Repairing plywood veneers, iii,387
R e-pointing, i, 32
Rere a rch,ii,210, 212
Re-sawing, iii, 293
Resin, iii, 289, 304,305,327, 328,
388-390
bonded plywood, iii, 327, 388-390
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cements, i, 87; iii, 388-390
ducts, iii, 289, 291,308
Retaining wall, ii, 217
Reveals, i, 13
Rhodesian teak, iii, 292, 311, 312, 325
Ribbon figure, iii, 292, 308 -311
Ribs, i, 84, 85; iii, 347-349,353
Ridge course, slating, i, 136
tiling, i, 141;iii, 392-394
Ridges, i, 69, 71-73,79, 81, 137,139-
141,148, 151; ii, 281-286; iii, 392,
394-396, 399-402, 404, 405, 407,
408, 410-412, 414-416, 418, 419,
421
copper covered, iii, 418, 419
hog -back, i, 137, 139-141; iii, 394-
396
half-round, i, 137, 139, 141; ii, 282,
284;iii, 394, 396, 399,400,
405 , 407,408,413
lead covered, i, 148, 151;ii,268
shingle covered,iii,415, 416
slate, i, 137,139
stone, i, 137, 139; iii, 412, 414
thatched, iii,421
under tiles, iii, 392,394, 396
vee-shaped, iii, 395, 396,412
Rift -{Sawn timber, i, 57; iii, 291-294,
30 9, 325, 387,413
Rim locks,i , 88,90-92,104,105
dead lock, i, 88, 90
lat ch , i, 90,91
night latch, i, 98, 105
speed, saw, iii, 314
Ring, arch, i , 22
fences, iii, 316
Ripper, i, 134
Ripping, iii, 311, 313, 317
Ripple marks, iii, 292, 3 08,310,315,
317
Rip saw, i, 104, 106, 127; iii, 311, 313,
317
machine, ii, 261
Rise, i, 23; iii, 366,371
Risers,i,41;iii, 3 16,365,366,369 -371,
374, 377, 383, 384
Riser templet, ii~ 366, 371
GENERAL INDEX
River sand, i, 2; ii, 185
Rivets,i , 159; ii, 280-287; iii, 321,313
Rivingknife,ii~ 311
Roach bed, i, 33
Roberts on protected metal sheets, iii,
411
Rock maple, i, 6o; iii, 292, 309,312,
325, 327, iob Rocks, ii!!, 372-384
Rods, drain, ii, 239, 240
gauge, i, 31; ii, 229
setting-out, i, 104
steel , i, 21, 68, 158; iii, 323,330,
332,334,335, 339,371
Roe figure, iii, 292, 308, 310
Rolls, copper, iii, 41 7, 418
lea d , i, 144-149
zinc, iii, 418-420
Roman cement, ii, 180
tiles, iii, 403-405
tiling, iii, 403-405
double Roman,iii,403, 405,
406
old Roman, ii~ 403,405, 406
single Roman, ii~ 403, 405, 4o6
Roof battens. Sec" Battens"
boarding. See "Boarding, roof"
coverings, i, 68-71, 132-151; iii, 391-
421
asbestos-cement corrugated
sheeting, iii, 409-411
pan tiling, iii, 409, 410
slating, iii,408-410
asphaltfelt, i, 68-71
Basilican tiling, iii,403 , 405,
406
copper , i, 68 -7o; iii, 416-419
galvanized corrugated iron
sheeting, i, 68 -7o;iii, 411
interlocking tiling, iii, 4 07
Italian tiling, iii,403, 405,406
lead, i ,68- 7o, 142-151
pan tiling, i, 68-70; ii, 242; iii,
342,399,401 -404,409,410
plain tiling, i, 68-70,140, 141; ii,
242; iii, 391-399
vertical, iii, 39 7-399
p rotected metal corrugated irm
sheeting, iii, 411
Roman tiling, iii,403, 405,406
shingles, i, 69, 7o;iii, 413,415,
416
slating,i,68 -7o, 132-140
Spanish or Sicilian tiling, iii,
405-407
stone slating, i, 69, 70; iii, 411-
414
thatching, i, 69,70; iii, 420,421
zinc, i, 68-7o;iii, 419, 420
Roofs, i, 68-81; ii, 280-287; iii, 338-
343
cIa s sification, t imber, i, 70
close couple, i, 71,72
coli ar, i , 72 -75; iii, 339,340
couple, i, 71,72
double, i, 73-76; iii, 338,341
lean-to, i, 72
flat , i, 70-72, 146, 149; iii, 417-420
lean-to, i, 72
single, i, 70-73
terms, i, 68-70
triple, i, 76 -81; iii, 341-343
truss, i, 70, 76, 78 -81; iii, 341-343
king post, i, 76, 78-81
laminated wood, iii, 340, 341
queen post, iii, 341 -343
steel, ii, 280- 287; iii, 341, 343,
409,410
Belgian, French or Fink, ii,
286,287
Rose marble, ii, 256
Rosewood, Honduras, iii, 310,312
Rotary cutters, iii, 315, 317
table p ress,i,I;ii, 162,163,1 76
kiln, ii, 181
ven eer cutter, iii, 385
Rouge marble, i i, 256
Rough brackets, iii, 365, 370, 372-374
carriages, iii, 365, 367, 370,372,
373
cutting conversion, iii, 385,389,
390
pi cked walling, i, 43
r elieving arch es, i, 25,26
Roughcast, iii, 340
Round top roll, iii, 417
Rout er ,plane, i, 128, 131
machine, iii,316
Rubber bricks, i, 23, 24; ii, 175
floor covering, iii, 328
manufacture, iii, 328
sheet, iii, 328
tiles, iii, 328
Rubbing bed,i, 35; ii, 263
Rubble work. See "Masonry"
Rubislaw, granite, ii, 245, 2 52
Ruepingp reserving p rocess, iii, 300
Ru les,i , 29,126, 157
Run,iii,365, 366
Runcornstone, ii, 246,247,250,252
Runners, i, 72, 74; iii, 339,345,347
Russian oak, i, 6o; iii, 309, 312
Rusticated joints, i, 51, 52
s
Saddle b oards, iii, 416
joint, i,49
piece, lead, i, 150
Salt-glazed bricks, ii, 175
drainpipes, ii, 230-234, 237
traps ,i i,230-233, 240-24 3
Salting, ii, 233
Sample boards, iii, 297
Sa nd, i, 2, 3 2, 45, 47; ii, 184 -195,217,
246
blasting, ii, 172
bulking, ii, 189
col our, ii, 186
fac ed bricks, i , 32; ii, 163, 171, 172
grading, ii, 184, 187, 188
hoi es, i, 39
limebricks, i, 1; i i, 174,176
m ixing, ii, 193, 194
moul ding, ii, 163, 17 1
pap er, i, 129, 130; iii, 317
papering, i, 106,107, 129, 130; iii,
317,327
machines, i, 107;iii, 3 17
belt sander, iii, 317
cylinder sander, iii, 317
dis c sander , iii, 317
and bobbin sander, iii, 317
drum, iii, 317
portable electric sander, i,
130; iii, 327
pit or quarry, i, 2; ii, 185
proportioning, ii, 189, 190, 193
r iver, i, 2;ii, 185
sea, i , 2; ii, 185, 187
Sandstones, i , 33, 34, 36, 45;i i, 244,
246 -250, 260-264 , 266; iii, 411 ,412
argillaceous, i i, 247, 248
calcareous, i, 32; ii, 247
chemical com position, ii, 25 5
classification and distribution, ii,
246,248, 249,250, 252
Appl eton, ii, 246,249,252, 255
Appl eyBridgeBlue, ii, 246, 249,
252, 25 5
Berristall, ii, 246, 248 , 249, 252,
255
Bolton Woods, ii, 246 , 249,252
Brackenhill, ii,24 6,249, 252
Bramley Fall, ii, 246, 248, 249,
252,255
Butler Delph, ii, 249, 25 2
Cbrs ehill, red, ii, 246, 248,249,
2 52, 2 55
Cbtswold District, ii, 248; iii,
412,414
Cr os I and Hill, ii, 249 , 252, 25 5

Dunn House, ii, 246, 248, 249,
252,255
Earnock, ii, 249, 252
Edgefold, ii, 249, 252
Endcliffe, ii, 246, 249, 252
Guiseley, ii, 246,249,252
Heworth, Burn ii, 246, 249, 252,
255
Hollington, ii, 246, 249, 252,
255
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Kerridge, ii, 249,252
Lazonby, ii, 246,248,250,25 2
Locharbriggs, ii, 248,250,252,
255
Long ridge, ii, 246, 250, 252
Mansfield, white, ii, 246,247,
251-253, 255
Middlewood, ii, 250, 252
Run corn, red, ii, 246,247,250,
252
Scout, ii, 25 o, 252
Shawk, ii, 250, 252
Springwell, ii, 246,250,252,
255
St. Bees, red, ii, 246, 250, 252,
255
Stancliffe, i, 33, 34; ii, 246,250,
252,255
Stanton Park,ii, 246,248, 250,
252
Stanton Woodhouse,ii, 250,
252
Thorn ton Blue, ii, 246,250,252
Well field, ii, 246, 250, 252, 255
West End, ii, 250, 252
Windyway, ii, 250,252
Woodkirk, blue, ii, 246, 250,
252,255
brown, ii, 246, 250, 252, 255
Wool ton, i , 33, 45; ii, 246-248,
250, 252, 254
York, i, 33, 36; ii, 248, 274; iii,
412
defects, i, 1, 39; ii, 256- 260
dressing, i, 35-38; ii, 260-264
fel spathic, ii, 24 7, 248
ferruginous, i, 33; ii, 247
flagstones, ii, 248
formation, ii, 244
freestones, ii, 248
gritstones , ii, 247- 250
I i ver, ii, 248
mag nesian, ii, 247, 251-253,255
micaceous, ii, 248
siliceous, i, 33; ii, 247,248
structure, ii, 248,254
tests, ii, 258- 260
GENERAL INDEX
tilestones, ii, 248; iii, 412,414
Sandstone discs,ii, 190
San Stefano marble, ii, 256
Sap, i, 35, 55, 56; iii, 289
Sa pel e, iii, 292,310, 312, 385
mahogany, iii, 292, 310, 312,385
Sapwood, i, 55, 57, 6o; iii, 289 , 304-
309
Sash axlepulleys,i,113, n6-n9;iii,
360- 362
balance, i, 113, 119
catches,i, 122
chains, i, 113, 118, 119
cleats, i, 122
cord, i, 113, n8,119
doors, iii, 353,355
openin g gear, iii, 353
eye! ets, i, 122
fastener, i, 116
handle, i, 118
lift, i,118
pivots, i, 121
weights, i, 113, 114, 118, 119
Satinwood, East Indian, iii, 292,310,
312,385
flowered, iii, 292, 310, 312, 385
Jamaica, ii~ 310, 312, 385
West Indian, iii, 310, 312,385
Saturation coefficient test, ii, 258,259
Saw blades, machine, iii, 292,293,311,
313-315,317,318
band, iii, 293,313,315 , 318
circular, iii, 293,311, 313, 314, 317,
318
bevelled, ii~ 313, 314
ca rborundum and diamond, i,
35;ii, 261, 262
c ros s- cut, ii, 261; iii, 3ll, 313,
314
drunken, iii, 317
g round-off, iii, 3 13, 314
hollow-g round, iii, 313, 314
plate, iii, 293,311-314,317, 318
rip, iii, 311, 313,314,317
swa ge, iii, 3 13, 314
setting, iii, 313
sharpening, iii, 317, 3 18
tensioning, iii, 31 7
Sawdust concrete, ii, 187; iii, 334
Sawn shingles, iii, 413
Saw set, iii, 313
side, iii,313
spring, iii, 313
sw age, iii, 313
Saws, hand, i, 29, 104, 106, 107, 127,
131
bow, i, 127, 131
compass a n d cross-cut, i, 127, 131 cutter blocks, iii, 316
dovetail, i, 127, 131 p late, i, 157
frame, i, 127 Scroll, ii, 272
pad, i, 127,131 Scumming, ii, 166, 167, 173
panel, i, 104,127 Scu tch, i, 29
r ip, i, 104,106,127 Sea sand, i, 2;ii, 185,187
tenon, i, 106,127,131 Seamers, ii~ 417
setting and sharpening, i, 127 Seasoning stone, ii, 260
Sa ws, machine, i, 34, 35,104, 107, 130; t imber, i, 55, 56; iii, 294-299, 325,
ii , 260-262;iii, 292,293, 311,313- 387,389
315,31h318,321,384,387 artificial, i, 56; iii, 296- 299,
bandre-sawing, iii, 293 325,387
sawing, iii, 311, 314,315,384 period, iii, 299,387
carborundum, i, 35; ii, 261, 262 combined aira nd kiln, iii,298,
circular saw b ench, iii, 311, 313,314, 299
384,387 period, iii, 299
mill, iii, 293 na tural, i, 56; iii,295, 296
por ta ble electric, i, 130 period, iii, 295, 296
combined log and deal frame, iii, Secret leadapron, iii,399
293 nailing, i, 64, 65
cross-cut or beam,i i, 261 valley cutter, iii!!!!, no
diamond,i, 35,132; ii, 261,262 Sedim entary rocks, i, 33;ii, 244,247-
double-dimension saw bench, iii, 255
311,317 Sedimentation test, ii, 185
frame, i; 34;iii, 388,390 Segar cones, ii, 170
gravity,ii, 261, 262 Segmentalarffies,i,26,47; ii, 211,265,
horizontal ! og band mill, iii, 293 266, n o, 272
I og fr arne sawing, iii, 293 headed cased windows, ii, no, 272;
reciprocating cross ~ut, iii, 292,293 ii i,359, 362
r ip, ii, 261 Self-facedstone, ii, 195, 204
sha rpening, automatic, iii, 317, 318 Sem icircular arffies, i, 26, 47; ii, 210,
vert ical log frame sawing, iii, 293 223,264
Scabbling hammer, i, 38 cent ering, i , 84, 85; iii, 347-349
Scallops, thatch,i ii,421 elliptical, ii, 210, 2ll
Sca n tlings, i,57 hea ded cased window, iii, 357, 359
Scarfed joi nt, i, 73, 81 door s, iii, 353,357
Seen ted guarea, iii, 30 7, 312 hex agonal, ii, 223
Schedules, kiln -drying, iii, 297 stil ted,ii,210
Scin tling, ii, 165 with orders, ii, 210
Sclattie granite, ii, 245, 252 Semi - continuous kiln, ii, 165
Sconti ons, i ,47 Septic t ank, ii, 230
Score, k iln, ii, 165 Seraya,red, iii, 310,312, 325
Scotch glue, i, 86, 87; iii, 388, 389 whit e, iii, 310, 312, 325
kiln, ii, 165 Sessile oak, iii, 309, 312
Scotia, iii, 366,370,374 Set g auge, iii, 313
board, iii, 366,383 Set t iles, i ii, 391,392
Scots fir or pine. See " Redwood" Setting bricks , ii, 166
Scottish slat es,ii,256 cern en t, ii, 183
Scout stone, ii, 250, 2 52 in stick, i, 146, 156
Scraper, i, 106, 129 out brickwork,i i,226- 229
Scratters, ii, 281,282,284, 286, 287 doors, i, 104
Screedi ng, concrete, iii, 325 drains, ii, 234
Screening clay, ii, 162 stairs, iii, 371, 374, 377
Screwdrivers, i, 130, 157 saw b lades,ii~ 313
Screws, i, 110,114, 126; iii, 4 12 wedges, iii, 347
Screw-wrench, i, 157 Sewers, ii, 230
Scribing, i , 76, 95, 97, 107, 108, no, 124 Seyssel asphalt, ii, 213

Shafting, iii, 292
Shakes, i, 58, 6o; iii,295, 307
Shale, i, 1;ii, 160, 161,171;iii,391
Shap granite, ii, 245
Shave hooks, i, 152, 157
Shawk stone,ii,250,252
Shear stress, i, 20, 21, 66
Shed dryers, ii, 164
Sheeting, i, 82, 83; iii, 343, 345
Sheet glass, i!, no
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GENERAL INDEX
grain, i, 57; iii, 291,292,309
greywood, Indian, iii, 307,312,357,
385
spruce, iii, 305, 312
Sil verlock's bond, ii, 209
Single abutment,jointi, 81
dimension saw bench, iii, 317
Flemishbond,i, 8,10
lock cross welts, iii, 417-420
pits, iii, 289
terms , i, 135 ; iii, 412 Om a dian red pine, iii, 305 , 312,
weight, i , 70 358
Slating, i, 132-140 spruce, i, 6o, 62, 82; iii, 288,
stone, i , 69, 70; iii, 411-414 305,312
Sleeper walls, i, 19,59, 61 whi tepine, iii, 288,289,
Slices, iii, 2<)2. 293 292, 305, 312
Slicing, iii, 385, 387 yellow pine, iii, 288, 289,
Slides, glass, ii, 248;iii, 301 292, 305, 312
Slip, i, 2; ii, 16o, 175, 181 Columbianpine,i,6o, 65; iii,
stone, i , 130 289,292,304, 312, 323,

lead, i,142 Roman tiling, iii, 403, 405,406 Slop-moulding, ii, 164 327,343,357, 385, 388
rubber, iii, 328 spin diem oulder, i, 107; iii, 316 Slope, stairs, iii, 366, 374 Cuban pine, ii~ 305,312, 325
Shelly limestones, ii, 246, 251-255 Site concrete, i, 18,19,62,63,65;ii,218; Slot andtenonedjoint, iii, 330 Douglasfir,i, 6o, 65; iii, 289,
Sherardizing i!, in iii,302 mortising, iii, 317 292,304,312,323, 327,
Shingles, i, 69, 7o;ii~ 413,415,416 Sitka spruce, iii, 305, 312 Sludge, ii, 230 343,357,385,388
detai Is, iii, 413,415, 416, Six -cutter machine, iii, 315 Sl ump test, ii, 190, 193 Europ ean larch, iii, 288,304,
abutment, iii,416 Size stick, i, 132 Slurry, i, 2;ii, 160,175,181 3 12,34 3
eaves, iii, 415, 416 Sizes of binders, girdersandjoists, iii, Smoke test, ii, 237 Europ ean spruce, i, 6o, 62; i ii,
hip, iii, 416 318, 319, 321-323 Snake stone, ii, 263 288, 3o6, 312, 325
ridge, iii, 415, 416 bricks, i, 1, 3, 5;ii,171 Snap headers, i, 10 finger cone pine , iii, 305, 3 12
valley, iii, 416 drainpipes, ii,231 Snecks, i, 41 firs , iii, 288, 289, 292, 304 -
sawn, iii, 413, 415 finished, dressed, net or wrought, Snow boards, i, 145 306, 312, 323, 325, 327, 343,
split, iii, 413 timber,i,62, 97,109,112,113 Soakers, lead, i, 137,143,148, 150; iii, 357,385,388,392, 397,398
vertical, iii,416 nominal or stuff, timber, i, 62, 86, 396-399,413,416 g rey fir, iii,304, 312, 325
Shippers, ii, 173 87, 97,112 Soaking preserving processes, iii, 300, Jack pi ne, iii, 305, 312
Shooting and jointing boards, i, 130 Skeleton stone steps, i i, 2 74 301 k aurie pine, iii, 292,304,312,
Shores, iii, 345 Skewback, i, 22 Sodium flu oride, i i~ 2 99, 3 03 325
Short beck, iii, 412 Skew butt hinges, i, 103 Soffits, arch, i, 22 Korean pine, iii, 305, 312
grain, iii, 291 Skews, iii, 414 eaves, i, 69, 71, 75- 77, 139, 140; iii, la rches, ii~ 288 ,304, 312, 343
nines-sixteens, iii, 411 Skids, iii, 295,297, 389 393, 394, 402 , 406 ,415 Manchurian pine, iii, 305, 312
Shot, ii, 260,264 Skirtings, cork, iii, 327 bearers, i, 69, 75 - 77, 139; iii, Memel fir . See"redwood"
Shouldering, iii, 401-403, 405, 409- wood, i, 123, 124; ii~ 336,353,355, 415 mountain pine, iii, 305, 312
411 357,374,380 boards, i, 69, 71, 74-77, 139; iii, New Brun swick spruce, i, 6o,
Shoulder tongues, iii, 353 Skyros marble, ii, 256 394, 402, 406, 415 62, 82; ii i, 288, 305,312
Shredding plate, ii, 162 Slabbing,ii,26o, 261 lining, i, 114, 115, 117; ii, 229, 231, Zea landkaurie, iii, 292, 3Gb
Shrinkage, i, 55- 58, 86- 88, 94, 122; iii, Slab sawing, i, 57; iii, 291 - 294, 413 232 312, 325
294,295,327,389,413 Slabs, reinfor ced concrete, iii, 323,3 26 stair, iii, 366,380 Nicaraguan pine, iii, 305, 312,
longitudinal, iii, 294, 389 Slag , blast-furnace, ii, 184, 188 til ed, iii, 4o6, 407 325
radial, iii,294 foam ed, ii, 188 Soft tissue, iii, 289, 291 north ern pine. See "redwood"
tangential, ii~ 294, 389 wool , iii, 335-338 Softwoods, i , 59 , 6o; iii, 288- 296, 299, whi tewood, i, 6o, 62;iii,
Shu ffs, ii, 172 Slaking lime, ii, 179 300,304- 306, 3 12, 313, 323 - 328, 288,306,311 , 312,325
Shuttering, ii, 279 Slash grain, iii, 291,292, 304, 311, 413 343, 357,385,39 3, no, III N orwa yfir. See "redwood"
Siberian larch, iii, 288 pine, iii, 305,312, 325 ch aracteristics an d uses , i, 6o; i ii, Oregon pi ne, i, 6o; iii, 289, 292,
pine, iii, 288, 305, 312 Slate da mp proof course, i, 18; ii, 217 304 - 306 304,312, 323,327, 343,357,
Sicilian marble, ii, 256 holing machine, i, 133, 134 clas sification, i , 59, 6o; iii, 288, 385,388
Side dresser, iii, 313 Sl a ters' tools, i, 133, 134 304 - 30 6 Ottawa red pine, i ii, 3 05, 312,
Sienna marble, ii, 256 Slates, i, 33, 132- 140; ii,244, 24 6, 256; hal sam fir, iii, 288 3 58
Si eves, ii, 181, 188 iii, 4o8, 409, 411,412 Ba !tic redwood. See "redwood" whi tepine, iii, 288,289,
Sight rails, ii, 234 asbestos-cement, iii, 408 - 410 whitewood, i, 6 o, 62; iii, 292, 305, 312
Sika, ii, 186 characteristics, i, 133, 134 288,306,312, 325 Pa cificredcedar, iii, 304,312,
Silica bricks, ii, 175 conversion, i, 132 Ba nksianpine, iii,305 , 312 413
Siliceous sandstones, i, 33; ii, 247, 248 formation, i, 132; ii, 244, 246, 256 Br itish Columbia pine, i, 6o, 65; pines,i ,6o; i ii, 288,289,292,
Silkwood, iii, 292 ,309, 312,388 pitch, i, 69 ; iii, 412 iii,289, 2<)2, 304, 312,323, 305, 3 12, 325, 343,358,371,
Silky oak, iii,309, 312 preparation, i, 134,138 327, 343, 357, 385,388 393,397,398
Sills,i , 26-28, 47,48, 108, 114, 122; quarrying, i, 132 Honduras pitch pine , iii, pitch pine , i, 6o, 62, 6 5,108,
ii!!!, in si zes, i, 133; ii, 28o; iii, 412 305,312, 325 116; iii, 289 , 292,305,312,
Silver, i, 53 stone, iii, 411,412 325, 343, 371

Polish fir. See "redwood"
Quebec red pine, iii, 305, 312,
358
spruce, i, 6o, 62, 82; iii, 288,
305,312
white pine, iii, 288,289,
292,305,312
yellow pine, iii, 288,289,
292,305,312
Queensland kaurie, iii, 304. 312
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red deal. See "redwood"
pine, iii, 305,312, 358
redwood, i, 60-62, 70, 78,108,
116;iii, 288 , 289 , 292,305,
312, 323, 325,393. 397,398
Scots fir or pine. See" redwood"
Siberian larch, iii, 288
pine, iii, 288, 305,312
silver spruce, iii, 305,312
sitka, spruce, iii, 305, 312
slash pine, iii, 3 05, 312,325
spruces, i, 6o, 62, 82; iii, 288,
289,3 05 ,3 06,31 2
sugar pine, iii, 305,312
Swedish pine. See "redwood"
western hemlock, iii, 304, 312,
325
red cedar, i, 6o; iii, 304, 312,
413
whitepine, iii, 305, 312
Weymouthpine,ii~ 288, 289,
292,305,312
whitedeal or fir, i, 6o, 62;iii,
288, 3 06, 312, 325
pine, iii, 288, 289, 292, 305,
312
spruce, i, 6o, 62, 82; iii, 288,
305,312
whitewood, i, 6o, 62; iii, i, 306,
3 12,3 25
yellow deal. See "redwood"
pine, iii, 288, 289, 292, 305,
312
yew, iii, 306, 312
identification, iii, 291
sources, iii, 304- 306
structure, iii, 289,291
Soi l pipes,ii,241, 243
Solder, i ,143, 152,153
pot, i, 157
Soldering iron, i, 157
"Soldier arches,"i, 21, 93,109
Sole plates, iii, 344.347
Solid balustrades, iii, 365,36 7, 377,
380,382,389
density, ii, 258
moulds, i, 95- 97, 102; iii, 350,352
GENERAL INDEX
Sound-insulated door, iii, 338, 357
Soundness test, ii, 183
Sound-proofing, iii, 325, 330,333.
335-338, 390
Sources, timber, i, 6o; iii, 288, 304-311
Souring clay, i i, 163
South land beech, iii, 306, 312
South water bricks, ii, 17 6
Soy a bean glue, iii, 388
Spade-finished concrete, ii, 219
Spalls, i, 40,45
Span, i, 23,69
Spandril, arch, i, 23
sta ir, iii, 366,377
steps, ii,2 74
Span ish chestnut, iii, 307, 312
mahogany, i, 6o;iii, 292,308,312,
357,385
tiles, iii, 405-407
overs, iii,405-407
unders, iii, 405-407
tiling, iii, 405-407
Spars , i, 69-79, 81;ii, 281-284;iii,
393, 394, 401, 4 02, 404, 406, 408,
413-416
"Spearpoint" floor clips, iii, 325
Special brick bonds, ii, 208-210
bricks, i, 4, 21, 23, 24; ii, 176-178
Species, timber, iii, 288, 304-311
Spelter, iii, 419,
Spigot, ii, 234
Spindle moulder ,i, 107; ii~ 316,374
Spiralgrain, iii,291, 304,305
Spire, ii, 258
Spirit level, i, 29, 130; ii, 234
Splay bricks, i, 4 , 86
Splayed scarfjoint, iii, 343
rebated, tongued and g roovedjoi.nt,
i , 64
Split brick courses, i, 21, 28; ii, 229
shingles, iii, 413
Splitting, iii, 2 95 , 2 97, 389, 413
Spraying p r es erving p rocess, iii, 301
Sprigs, i , 11 o; iii, 353. 355
Springers, i, 22, 51; ii, 266
Spring-trees, iii, 365, 367, 370, 374,
375. 380, 383
warping, iii, 295
Spring wood, i , 55, 56; iii, 289,290,
292,294
Springwell stone, ii, 246, 250, 252, 2 55
Sprocketed eaves, i, 69,74-77, 138,
139; iii, 393,394,396,401 ,402
Spruces, i, 6o, 62, 82; iii, 288, 289,
305, 306, 312
Square, butt, plain or shot j oint, i, 62,
64
housed joint , i, 66
roll, copper,iii,41 7
Squared rubble, i, 36, 39, 41-4 3; ii,
265,266
Squares, i, 29,36, 106,126,157
Squ int bricks, ii, 177, 195
jun ctions, ii, 195, 196
qu oins, ii, 195, 197, 198
Stacking timber, iii, 295,297, 298
Stacks, chimney, i, 77, 148, 150, 151; ii,
2 23- 226
Staff b ead, i, 114
Staging, iii, 344
Staffordshire blue bricks, i , 18; ii, 176
Staining bricks, ii, 171
Staircase, iii, 365, 366
Stairs, reinforced concrete, iii, 404,
406,4 07
stone, ii, 276-279
wood, iii, 365-384
balustrades, ii, 274- 279; ii~ 365,
367, 368, 375- 384,389
b ronze, ii, 278, 279
open , iii,365, 367,368,375-
378, 380-384
solid, iii, 365,367,368,3 77,
379.380,382,389
wroughtiron, ii, 274-277
clas sification, iii, 366
b ifurcated, iii, 366, 368
continuous, iii, 366, 368
geom etrical, iii, 366, 368
circular, iii, 366
elliptical, iii, 366
winding, iii, 366,368
new el, iii,366,368 , 374- 377,
380-384
straight flight, iii, 366, 368- 374
turning, iii, 366
h a lf-turn, ii, 276, 277; iii,
366, 367,368, 369-382
dog -leg, iii, 365, 366,
368, 374- 380
open well, ii, 2 76 , 2 77;
iii' 366, 367, 368,
380- 382
quart er-turn, iii,366,368,
382, 383
th r ee-quarter-turn, iii, 366
construction, i ii, 370, 371, 374 ,377,
384
design, iii, 369
ess ential requirements, iii, 36 7,
369 - 37 1
la n dings, ii, 277; iii, 365- 371,375,
380
half-space, ii, 277; iii, 366, 367,
375, 377, 380
quart er-sp ace, ii, 277; iii, 365 -
369, 380- 382
steps, wood, iii, 365- 374,376 - 384
b alancing, iii, 365, 367, 369
bull-nosed, iii, 367,380,383
commode, ii~ 365,367
construction, iii,370, 371,374,
384
curt ail, iii, 367, 384
da ncing, iii, 365, 367, 369
steps , diminished, iii, 367
fl iers, iii, 367, 370,371, 374,
377,380
kite, ii~ 367, 383
pr oportions, iii, 369
scroll, iii, 367
splayed, iii, 367,374, 380,383
winders, iii, 365 , 367, 369, 382,
383
strings, iii, 365,367, 370- 384
close or housed, iii, 367,370-
383
cu t, iii, 367, 384
notch b oards,iii, 367, 384
open, iii,367, 384
rough, iii, 365,367, 370, 372-
3 76,380,381,383
terms , iii, 365-367
St ai r trencher, iii, 371,372
Stairway, iii, 367
St alactites, i i, 256
Stalagmites, ii, 256
St. Al dhelm Box Ground stone, ii, 251-
253,255 , 260
Stancliffe stone, i, 33, 34; ii, 246,250,
252,255
Standard asbestos-cement corrugated
sheets, i i~ 411
Sta nding seams, iii, 417- 419
St a nd-up welts, iii, 417- 419
St. An ne marble, ii, 256
St. Bees stone, ii, 246,250,252,255
Sta n ton Park ston e, ii, 246, 248, 250,
252
Woodhous estone,ii, 250, 252
Staples, i, 9o;iii, 421
Statuary marble, ii, 256
Staves, iii, 359
St eam navvy, ii, 161, 181
pipes, iii, 297, 298
St eel. See "Mild steel"
Steeping preserving processes, iii, 300,
301
col d, iii, 301
h ot, ii i,301

hot-and-cold, iii, 300
Kyan izing, iii, 301
Powellizing, iii, 301
Stemming, iii, 345
Step irons, ii, 239
Stepped foundations, ii, 218,219
Steps-brick, i, 28
concrete,i,28
reinforced concrete, ii, 278, 279
marble, ii, 278, 279
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non-slip, ii, 278,279
precast, ii, 279
stone, i, 46, 49; ii, 274-277
built-up, ii, 274, 275
cantilever, ii, 276-279
hanging, ii,276-279
rectangular, i, 46; ii, 265, 267,
2 74-276
skeleton, ii, 274
spandril, ii, 274, 276, 277
wood. See "Stairs, steps, wood"
Sticks, piling, iii, 295, 297,389
Stiles, i, 92-99, 101-117, 120, 121;iii,
351,353-357,359,360,362
Stippling, ii, 172
Stirrups, ii, 207, 279
Stock bricks, ii, 161, 163,170
board, ii, 163;iii,399
lock, i, 90
mould,ii, 163
Stockings, i i, 180
Stones , i,33-54;ii, 244-2 77
classification, i, 33;ii, 244-251
cleaning, ii, 257
defects. See" Defects in stone"
details, i, 39-52; ii, 264-277
arch es, i, 39, 46- 48;i i, 2 64-
272
architraves, ii, 266-272
consoles,ii,267, 271,272
copings, i, 35,49-51, 150, 152;
iii ,403, 404,413
cornices, i , 39, 4 9, 50, 150, 152;
ii , 266 - 275
dressings to doors, i, 4 6- 49,
115, 119; ii, 264- 272
to windows, i, 41, 42,46-49;
ii, 269- 272
en tablatures, ii, 266- 272
footings, i , 39-41
friezes,i,49, so;ii, 266-270
I in tels, i, 20, 21, 4 7; iii, 318
mullions, i, 41, 42,49
pads, i, 12, 73, 78; ii, 281-287;
iii , 318,321,339
parapets, i, 46, 50, 51; ii, 2 72-
274
GENERAL INDEX
pediments, ii, 266-278
plinths, i, 35, 48,49
ridges, i, 137, 139;ii, 284,286
stairs, ii, 276,277,279
steps, i,46, 49; ii, 265,267,
274-277
string courses, i, 39, 46, 49,50
thresholds, i ,27, 28, 46,49, 98,
99;ii, 274, 275
transomes, i, 41,42,49
tympanum, ii, 266, 267
walling. See "Masonry"
window sills, i, 46-49,108,109,
115, 119; ii, 269, 271 , 275; iii,
360, 361
dressing, i, 34-38; ii, 26o-264
face-bedded, i, 38; ii, 256
formation, ii, 244
mining , ii, 260
natural bed, i, 38, 39; ii, 247, 256
preservation , ii, 258
quarrying, i, 33,34;ii, 260
seasoning, ii, 260
selection, ii, 257
self-faced, i, 36,45
snapping, i,35
splitting, i, 34, 35
structure, ii, 248, 253,254
surface finishes, i, 36-38
batted, i, 36, 41
boasted, i, 36
dragged, i, 38, 41
furrowed, i,36,
hammer-dressed, i, 36,41
picked, i, 36
plain work, i, 36
punched, i, 36
quarry-dressed i , 36,39- 45
r eticulated, i, 38
rock-faced, i ,38
rubbed,i, 3 5
scabbled,i, 38
straight-cut, i, 36, 41, 43
vermiculated, i, 38
tests , ii, 191, 192, 258 - 260
compr es sive stre ngth, ii, 191,
192,260
frost resistance, ii, 259, 26o
percentageporosity, ii, 258
permeability, ii, 2 58
saturation coefficient, ii, 258,
259
Stoneware damp proof course, i, 18
pi pes, ii, 230-232
Stool pallets, ii, 164
Stools, sill, i, 28, 47,48
Stoothedor stud par titions or
stoothings, iii, 329,330,335 -339,
371,375-377,380
Stopp ed ends,i,4, 6-8,10
Storey rods, i, 29, 31; iii, 367, 371, 377
Stout heart boards, iii, 385
Straight-<:ut stone finish, i, 36, 41, 43
Straight edge, i, 24, 29, 31, 35, 126; ii,
2 27,234, 235
drain pipes, ii, 231-233
grain, iii, 291,292,304-311,413
Straining beams, iii, 330, 341-343
piece, iii, 330
sill, iii, 341, 343
Strap h inges, i, 92
Straps, wrought i ron, iii, 330- 332
Strata, classification, ii, 244-246
Stren gth, brickwork, ii, 174
cements, ii, 182,183
concretes, ii, 190, 191,193
granites, ii, 245
limestones, ii, 251
mortars, ii, 184,186
sandstones, ii, 249, 250
timber,iii,304, 389
Str etchers, i, 3, 7, 10, 17, 19; iii, 347
Stretching bond, i, 6, 7; ii, 199
Strike, ii, 163
Striking plate, i, 90; iii, 363
off board, ii, 219
String courses, i, 39, 4 6, 49, so; ii, 221,
222
Strings, copper, iii, 41 7
stai r, ii, 278, 279; iii, 365, 367,
370- 384
Strip e figure, iii, 292, 308,310, 311
Strip fl ooring, iii, 323
I a thing, iii, 4 01
Struck joints, i, 31
Structu re, stones, ii, 248, 253,254
wood, i, 55; iii, 288- 292
h ardwoods , iii, 289- 291
fi bres, iii, 290,291
g r owth rings, i, 55,58 - 6o;
iii, 288-292,306- 311
parenchyma,iii, 290, 291
pits, iii, 289,29 0
pores, i ii, 289- 292, 306,
307
ra ys, i, 55, 57,59,60; iii,
289- 292, 3o6- 3 11
v essels, iii, 289-292, 306,
307
softwoods, iii,289 -291
g rowth rings, i, 55 , 57-6o;
iii, 288- 292,304- 306,
4 13
parenchyma, iii,289
pits, iii, 289
rays, i, 55, 5 6, 59, 6o; ii~
289
resi n ducts, iii, 289,291,
305
tracheids, iii, 289, 291
Struts , i , 76, 78- 83; iii, 330, 331, 339-
341, 343 -349
Stru tting, floor, i, 66-68; iii, 318,336,
337
Stub-tenonedjoints,i, So, 8 1, 94, 106;
iii, 329,330,353,380- 382
Stu ck mouldings, i, 95- 97, 102; iii,
350,352
Studs, iii, 329, 330, 335-339,371,375-
377,380, no, I II
Stumps , i ii, 292,385
Subfloor s, concrete, i, 63, 65; ii, 214-
216 ; iii, 325,326, 291i
wood, iii, 325- 328
Subsoil drainage, ii, 214, 215
Suction , ii, 173,175
Suffolk l atch,i , 88, 89,91
Sugar maple, iii, 292,309,312, 325,
327,388
pine, iii, 305, 312
Summer wood, i, 55, 56;iii, 289,290,
292,294
Sump, iii,345
Sunk draw kiln, ii, 178
Superficial preserving processes, iii,
301
b ru sh appl ication,ii~ 301
dippi ng, iii, 301
spraying, iii, 301
Superimposed loads,ii~ 319, 321,322
Sur face checking, iii, 295
f inishes, stone. See "Stones"
planing and thicknessing machine,
i, 107; i ii, 315
v ib rator, ii, 194
Surfacing floors, iii, 315-317, 327,389
Sus pendedceiling, iii, 336
Sussex bond , ii, 208,209
Swage saw, iii, 313, 314
shaper, iii, 313
Swedish ma rbles, ii, 256
pin e. See "Redwood"
Sweet chestnut , iii, 292, 307, 312
Swelling, i, 56, 58, 100, 111; ii, 172; iii,
294,327
Swept valleys, i, 137, 141; iii, 393, 395-
397 ,413,416
Sycamore, iii, 292, 310, 312, 357, 385,
388
Syenites, ii, 244,247

Syllabuses, Building Constructim, i, iv,
v, 1, 33, 55, 86, 132, 142, 158; ii,
Preface, 160, 230,244, 28o; iii,
Preface,428
T 389
Tabling, iii, 414
Tacking rivets, ii, 283
Tacks, lead, i, 144, 145
Tail stock, iii, 317
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
Talc, ii,213
Tally slates, i, 133
Tamper,ii,219
Tangential sawing, i, 57; iii, 291-294
413
shrinkage, iii, 294 389
Tannin, iii, 289
Tanpin,i,152, 156,157
Tan t, iii, 412
Taping machine, iii, 387
Tar , ii, 213
Tasmanian myrtle, iii, 309,312
oak, iii, 310,312,3 25
Teak, i, 6o, 65,108, n6;iii,292,308,
310,312,321,325,413
African, i, 6o; iii, 308, 312, 325
Rhodesian, iii, 292,311, 312,3 25
Tee-bars,i, 158
hinges, i, 88-92
Tempering mill, ii, 161
Templates. See"Stone pads"
Templets, i, 24; ii, 176, 211, 229; iii,
350, 366, 371, 373, 374
riser, iii, 366, 371,373
tread, iii, 366, 371, 373
Temporary timbering, i, 82-85; iii,
343-349
centering, i, 83- 85; iii, 34 7- 349
trenches, i, 82;iii, 343-347
Tenoningcutterblocks, iii,31 6, 317
m achine, i, 107; iii, 316
Tenon saw, i, 106,127, 131
Tenons, i,66, 74-81,86,87,92,94 98,
103, 106, 108, 110, 116; iii, 329, 330,
350,353,355,357,375,377,380,
382
barefaced, i, 92; iii,375, 377
double, i, 87, 92; iii, 350, 355, 357
dovetailed, i, n6
fork, i, 116
haunched, i,86, 92,100,108, n6
oblique, i, 74, 79, So; iii, 339, 375,
377
proportions of, i ,86
stub, i, 81, 94, 106; iii, 329, 330,
353, 380,382
tusk, i, 66, 67; iii, 3 75
GENERAL INDEX
twin,i,103
Tensile testing machine, ii, 182
Tensioning saw blades, iii, 314
Tension rods, iii, 330
stress, i, 20, 21, 66, 76; iii, 319, 349,
Ten test, iii, 336
Terra -cotta block and brick partitions,
iii,332
Terrazw, ii,219, 279
Test-piece timber, iii, 297
Tests, ii, 173, 174,181-183,190-193,
237, 258-260; iii, 325,392,407
bricks, ii, 173,174,191, 192
compression, ii, 174,191,192
efflorescence, ii, 174
frost resistance, ii, 174
permeability, ii, 173
cern en t, ii, 181-183
chemical composition, ii, 181,
182
cold-pat, ii, 183
compressive strength, ii, 182,
183
fineness, ii, 181
hot-pat, ii, 183
setting time, ii, 182, 183
final , ii, 183
in i rial, ii, 183
soundness, ii, 183
tensile strength, i i, 182
concrete, ii,190-193;iii, 325
compacting factor, i i, 191
com pres sive strength, ii, 191-
193
slump, ii, 190-193
drain,ii, 237
ball, ii, 237
hydraulic, ii, 237
smoke, ii,237
floor, drying, iii, 3 25
sand, ii, 185
chemical, ii, 185
sedimentation, ii, 185
stone, ii, 191, 192, 258- 260
compr es sive stre ngth, ii, 191,
192,260
frost resistance, ii, 259, 26o
percentageporosity, ii, 258
permeability, ii, 2 58
saturation coefficient, ii, 258,
259
ti I es, iii, 3 92, 407
freezing, iii, 392
permeability, iii, 392,407
transverse, iii, 392,407
tim ber, moisture con tent, iii, 294
297 , 298
Texture, b ricks, ii, 172, 220
stone, ii, 247-251, 253
tiles, iii, 392
ti mber,iii,291, 292,305-310
coa rse, iii, 292, 308, 310
even, iii, 292, 305, 307-310
fi ne, iii, 292,306,307
medi urn, iii,292,306
uneven, iii, 292
Thatch, i, 69, 70; i ii, 420,421
Thermacoust slabs, iii, 334,336, 337
Thermometer, dry and wet bulb, iii,
297,298
Thicknessing, iii, 315-317
machines, i, 107; iii, 315,317
Thornton Bluestone, ii, 246, 250,252
Th ree-light cased window, iii, 361, 362
quarter-turn stairs, iii, 366
Thresholds, i, 27, 28, 46, 49, 98, 99; ii,
274, 275; iii, 350-354
Throat, flu e, ii,224
Throating, i, 28,47; ii, 272
Through checking, iii, 295
Throughs ,i ,39-45
Thumb latch, i, 88, 89,91
Th wacker, iii, 399
Th wa eking frame, iii, 399
Tie beams, i, 76, 78-81; iii, 340-343,
349
Ties, cavity, ii, 199, 200
Ti ght-cut surface, plywood, iii, 387
Ti le battens, i, 14 0, 141; iii, 393-402,
404,406
creasing, i, 29; iii, 397,403,407
galleting, iii, 342,401-4 05
h an ging, iii, 397- 400
insets, iii, 39 5, 396, 399-401,404 -
407
nai ls, i, 141; iii, 393, 397, 401, 405,
408
tong ues , iii, 395,396
u n dercloaks, iii, 3 98-401, 4 05,
409 , 413
Ti led arch, ii, 223
Ti les, i, 26 , 28, 6 8- 70, 110 , 140, 141; ii,
225, 226; iii, 339,342, 343,391-
407,4 09, 410
a ng le, iii, 398, 400
asbestos-cement, iii, 409,410
Ba silican, iii, 403, 405,406
bonnet or granny, i, 141; iii, 395,
396
con crete, iii, 407
cone, iii, 396,403 ,407
eaves under, iii, 392 - 394, 397, 4 rn,
405, 406, 409
glazed, ii, 225,226
h alf-round,i, 137,139, 141; iii, 394,
396, 399, 400, 403, 405, 407,
413
hand-made, iii, 391- 393, 397,399,
403,405
h og -back, i,137,139-141; iii, 395,
396
i nterlocking, iii, 407
Ita !ian, iii, 403, 405,406
double Roman, iii,405 , 406
overs, iii,403, 406
u nders ,i ii, 403, 406
single Rom an, iii, 405, 406
ma chine-made, iii, 391,392,399,
407, 409
pan tiles, i, 68 - 70; ii, 242; iii, 343,
399,401-404,40~410
plain, i, 68- 70, 140, 141; ii, 242; iii,
339,391-400
ea ves u nder, iii, 392, 393, 3 97,
401,4 05
ridge under, iii, 392, 396
ti le-and-a-half, iii, 393,396-
398
purpose-made eaves, iii, 409
hi p, iii, 395, 396
purpose-made verge, iii, 403-405,
407, 409
va lley, iii, 403, 409
Roman, iii, 403, 405,406
segmental, iii, 407
Spanish or Sicilian, iii, 405 - 407
overs , iii,405 -407
unde rs, iii,405 - 407
"Tur nall"Trafford, iii, 409, 410
Ti I estones, ii, 248
Tiling, i, 68 - 70, 140, 141; ii, 242; iii,
391 - 401, 403-410
asbestos-cement, iii, 409 , 410
Basilican , iii, 403, 405,406
Ita !ian, iii, 403, 405,406
pan tiling, ii, 242; iii, 399, 401- 404,
409,410
plain, i, 140, 141; ii, 242; iii, 391-
399
Roman, iii, 403,405,406
Spa nish or Sicilian, iii, 405-407
ver tical, iii, 397-400
Tilting fillets, i, 136, 139-141; iii, 393,
394, 403, 404, 415
Tilting drum mixer, ii, 193
Tim ber, i, 55- 6o; iii,288- 318
cha r acteris tics, i, 6o; iii, 304-311

classification, i, 59, 6o; iii, 2&'l,
304-311
con version, i, 57; iii, 291-294, 309,
385,387
defects, i, 55-60; iii, 291, 294, 295,
297,301-304,325,327,328,
338, 387, 390, 417
doors, i, 86-107; iii, 350-358
felling, i, 55; iii, 292
figure, iii, 291,292,304-311
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
fire-retarding, iii, 301,413
floors, i, 59-68; iii, 318-330, 332,
335-338
grain, iii, 291 , 292, 304-311
growth, i, 55; iii, 288, 289
hardwoods, i, 59, 6o; iii, 288-292,
306-312
identification, iii, 291
partitions, iii, 329-338,339, 371,
377,380, 388
preparation, iii, 311-317
preservation, i, 57; iii, 299-302
roofs , i, 68-81; iii, 338-343
sizes, finished or dressed or net or
wrought, i, 62, 97, 109,112,113
nominal or stuff, i, 62, 86, 87,
97, 112
seasoning, i, 55, 56; iii, 294-299,
325,387, 389
softwoods, i, 59,6o;iii, 288-292,
294-296, 299, 300, 304-306,
313,323,325,327,328,343,
357,385,393,397,398
sources, i, 6o;iii,288, 304-311
specification, i, 6o
stacking,i,56;iii, 295,297,298
stairs, iii, 3 6s - 384
stren gth, iii, 3 04, 3 89
structure, i, 55; iii, 288-292
texture, iii, 291, 292,305- 310
u ses, i, 6o; iii,304-311
weight, i, 6o; iii, 294, 304- 311,319,
321,322
windows, i, 107- 122; iii, 358-362
Tin os marble, ii, 256
Tinted glass, iii, 353,355
Ton gued and grooved joints, i, 52, 62,
67, 70, 88, 124; iii, 323,327,332,
334,345,350,357, 359, 367,370,
371,374,375, 383,401,417
grooved and beaded j oints, i, 88, 89
and dovetailed joints, iii, 325,
326
and lip mitred joints, iii, 322,
323
and V -joints, i, 76, 77, 88, 89
mi tredjoints, iii, 322, 323,383,384
GENERAL INDEX
Tongues,cross, iii, 322,323,359,360
feather, iii, 359
shoulder, iii, 353, 354,383, 384
Tonguing, iii, 316,317
head, iii, 316
Tools, bricklayers', i, 29
carpenters' and joiners', i, 126-131
masons', i, 29, 35,36-38
pi umbers', i, 156, 157
sl aters', i, 133,134
Toothing, i, 4
Tor Brake granite, ii, 245, 252
Down granite, ii, 245,252
Torching, i, 136,139, 140; iii, 393,394,
413, 414
Tower, concreting, ii, 194
Trace holes, ii, 167
Tracheids , ii~ 289-291
Trammels, i, 24, 85,126; ii, 229
Transomes, i, 41, 42, 49, 108; iii, 350-
353
lights, iii, 350-353
Transverse bars, iii, 323,326
septa, i, 55
test, tiles, ii~ 392, 407
Tra ps, drain, ii, 230-233,240-243
Travelling carriage, iii, 293
table,iii,293
Traverse, i, 132
Travertine marble, ii, 256
Treads, ii, 274-279;iii, 316,366-371,
374-384
Trenching, iii, 316, 370,371,374
Trench timbering, i , 82, 83; iii, 343-
347
Trimming floors,i, 62, 63,66-68
plywood boards, iii, 387,389
roofs, i, 74,77
Trinidad asphalt, ii, 213
cedar, iii, 307,312
Triple floor s, i, 59; iii, 321- 324
roofs, i, 76- 81; iii, 341-343
Troug h gutters, i, 154
Trowels, i, 24, 29, 31,37; ii, 219
Trucks, iii, 297,298
Truss , kingpostroof, i, 76, 78-81
I am ina ted wood, iii, 340, 341
queen post roof, iii, 341- 343
steel, ii, 280- 287, iii, 341,409,410
Belgian, French or Fink roof, ii,
286,287
Trussed partitions, iii, 330- 332
pur lin, iii, 339, 340
Try-squares, i, 29, 36, 37, 106,126, 131,
157
Tub closets, ii,230
Tu ck pointing, i , 30, 32
Tucking boards, iii, 344
Tudor arch, ii, 211, 212
Tunnel dryers, ii, 164
kilns, ii, 169, 178; iii, 298
"Turnall" Tr afFord tiles, iii, 409,410
Turning pieces, i , 24, 83-85
stairs. See "Stairs"
Twin blade machine, ii, 261
pan tiles, iii, 409
tenon joint, i , 103
Twist, iii, 295
Tympa num, ii, 223,266,267
u pi a in tile, iii, 398-400
Undercloaks , tile, iii, 398-401,405,
409, 41 3
Undercut roll,ii~ 417,418
Under eaves slat es, iii,4o8, 410
tiles, iii, 392- 394.397,401,405,
406 ,409
Uneven grain, iii, 291
texture, iii, 292
Universal woodworker, i, 107; iii, 317
Un te arable f elt, i, 136, 139; iii, 393,
394,401, 402, 404 -406,413
Upper floor , i, 65-68
Up-dra ughtkiln,ii, 165
Upsets, i, 58
Uses, timber, i, 6o; iii, 304 - 311
v Vibrators, ii, 194
Val de Travers asphalt, ii, 213
Valleys, i, 70-72, 137, 141, 148, 151; iii,
393,395- 397, 403, 405,407,413,
421
copper, iii, 419
lea d, i , 70- 72, 137, 138, 148,151; iii,
397 ,403 ,404,416
open , i, 137,141, 148, 151; iii,
397, 403, 404
secret, i, 148, 151; ii~ 397
slates with soakers, i, 148
slated, swept, i, 137
til ed, i, 141; iii, 393, 395,397,403
laced, i, 141;iii, 393,395, 397
p u rpose-made or a ngula r, iii,
395,397,403
swept or circle, i, 141; iii, 393,
395- 397
th atched, iii, 421
Vee j oint, i, 29,32, 52
Vegetable glue, i, 86, 87; iii, 388
Veneers,i,94;iii, 293,327, 357,359,
3 83- 400
slicing, iii, 385, 387
Venetian a rch, ii, 211, 212
centre, iii, 347, 348
Ven tilating grate, i, 61, 63
Ven tilation, fl oors, roofs and general, i,
58, 61, 76, 1o8; iii, 302, 303
drain, ii,237, 241-243
hoi es, door, iii, 355, 358
Vents, i, 38
V erde Antico marble, ii, 256
Verges, slate, i, 135, 136, 138, 139
t il e , iii, 393,398-401, 403-405 ,
407,413,421
Ita !ian, iii, 405
pan tile, iii, 401 , 403, 404
Spanish, iii, 407
stone slate, iii, 4 13
t hatched, iii,421
Vertical battens, iii, 405,406
damp proof courses, ii, 211 - 2 19
grain, iii, 291-294 , 309,325,387,
413
I og b and mill, iii, 293
shi ngles, iii, 416
sla ting, iii, 399
s I iding sashes, i, 113-119; iii, 357,
360, 361
spin diem oulding rna chine, i, 107;
ii i, 3 16, 374
til ing, iii, 397-400
veneers licer, iii, 385
Vessels or pores, iii, 289-292,306- 311
Vi cat apparatus, ii, 183
Victoria red marble, ii, 256
Victorian oak, iii, 310,312,325
"Vitocrete" c ement, ii, 183
Volcanic rocks, ii, 247
V oussoirs, i, 22- 26, 4 7
V -shaped ridge, i, 137, 139; iii, 395 ,
396,412, 414
Vulcanizing, iii, 328
w
Wainscot oak, i,6o; iii, 309, 312
Walings, i, 82, 83;iii,343- 347
Wa I king line, iii, 367, 3 82, 38 3
Wall boards, iii, 335,336, 341,371,
407 , 416
piece, i, 72
plates, i, 19, 6 1- 63, 69, 7 1, 77, 139;
ii i,3 70, 372, 393,394,402,
406,414,415
Walls, brick, i , 6- 32; ii, 195 -226
ca vity or h ollow, i, 4 ; ii, 176, 197,
199-205,274, 275;iii,3 20, 321,
332, 336, 393, 394, 398, 400,
402-404,406,41 5

circular, ii, 203, 229
compound, i, 44-48; ii, 267,269,
271, 273, 275
construction, i,31, 53
reinforced, i, 21; ii, 204-207; iii,
330,332
stone, i, 39-53; ii, 264-274
Walnut, iii, 304, 308,311,312,327,
357,385,389
African, iii, 311,312
Downloaded by [University of Liverpool] at 07:38 18 February 2017
Am erican black, iii, 311, 312
Australian, iii, 311, 312,389
Benin, iii, 311, 312
Bl a ck Sea, iii, 311, 312
Circa ssian, ii~ 311, 312
East Indian, iii, 308, 312
English, iii, 311,312
European, iii, 311, 312
French, iii, 311, 312
Ita !ian, iii, 311, 312
Nigerian, iii, 311,312
Queensland, iii, 311,312, 389
Wane,i,59
Warping,i, 57-59;iii, 8,10,40,102,103,
130
bow, i, 58; iii, 295
cup, i, 59; ii~ 295,327
spring, iii, 295
twist, ii~ 295, 389
wind, iii, 295
Wash bank, ii, 160
Washers, i, 78, 81,159;ii, 283
Washing-off frame, iii, 399
Wash mill, ii, 160,181
Waste pipes, ii, 237, 241-243
Water bars,i, 28, 47, 98, 99, 108- 110,
114, 115; iii,353, 356,359, 36o, 364,
399,400
carriage system, ii, 230
cement ratio, ii, 190
closets, ii, 237, 242, 243
of Ay r stone, ii, 264
proofed concrete, ii, 195, 216
mortar, i, 32, 137; ii, 186,216,
217, 224; iii, 403
Water shot, i, 45
Wavy grain, iii, 291,292,304,307-311
Weather boards, i, 98; iii, 350, 353
tiling, iii, 397- 400
Weathering,i, 26, 47, 114;ii,161
Wedges, wood, i, 65,66, 83 - 88, 106,
116, 144;iii, 343-349,370- 374,
376,378,384
lead, i,143, 146,147,149,150
Weight, asbestos-cement covering, i,
70 ; iii, 4o8
brickwork, iii, 334
GENERAL INDEX
copper, i, 70; iii, 417
fibrous wood cement, iii, 334
pantiles, i, 70; iii,401
pi a in tiles, i, 70; iii, 401, 403
pi aster, iii, 319, 322
shingles, i, 70;iii,413
timber, i, 6o; iii, 294, 304-311, 319,
321,322
ceilingjoists, iii, 322
floor boards, iii, 319, 321
binders, iii, 319, 322
joists, iii, 319,321
zinc, i, 7o;ii~ 419
Weights, cast iron, i, 113-115, 117-119;
iii,360-362
Weights, lead, i, 118;iii, 361,362
Welding, i, 143, 152, 157; ii, 28o; iii,
323,361
Weldon stone, ii, 246, 251-253, 255
Well field stone, ii, 246, 250, 252, 255
Well stair, ii~ 367, 368, 380-382
Welsh slates, i, 132-134;ii,246-256
Welted drips, iii, 418,420
rolls,ii~ 417,418
Welts, copper,iii, 417-419
lead, i , 145, 148,151
zinc, iii, 418, 420
West End stone, ii, 250,252
Western hemlock, iii, 304, 312, 325
red cedar, i, 6o; iii, 304, 312,413
whitepine, iii, 305,312
West Indian cedar, iii, 307,312
mahogany, iii, 292, 3o8, 312, 357,
385
satinwood, ii~ 310,312, 385
Westminster Hall roof, iii, 303
Wet-dipped process, ii, 175
gl uedprocess, iii, 387
pan, ii, 161
rot, i , 58
Weymouthpine,ii~ 288,289,292,
305, 312
Wh i nston e, ii, 24 7
Whitbed, i, 33;ii,253
White chuglam, iii, 307, 312,357,385
deal or fir, i, 6o, 62; iii, 288 ,306 ,
312,325
elm, iii, 307, 312
gu area, iii, 307,312
I a u a n, iii, 308, 312
maple, iii, 292,309,312,325,327,
388
mer anti, iii, 309, 312
oak, American, i, 6o; iii, 309,312,
325
pine, iii, 288,289, 292, 305, 312
Portland cement, ii, 183,186
sera ya, iii, 310, 312, 325
spruce, i, 6o, 62,82; iii, 288, 305,
312
Whitewood, i, 6o, 62; iii, 288,306,311,
312,325
American, iii, 311, 312
Baltic, i, 6o, 62; iii, 288,306, 311,
312,325
canary, ii~ 311,312
Wickets, ii, 166, 167
Widthing, iii, 315
Winchester cut, tiling, iii, 399, 400
Wind or twist, iii, 295
Winders, iii, 365, 367, 369, 382, 383
Windfilling, i, 76
Winding stairs, iii, 366
strips, i, 104
Window boards ,i , 110, 111
fr ames, i, 108-115, 117-122;iii, 357,
359-365
sashes , i, 108-113, 115-122; iii,
359-365
sills, brick, i, 26--28,108-109
stone, i, 46-49, 108,109, 115,
119; ii , 269,271, 275; iii,
360,361
tile, i, 110
wood, i, 108-115,120-122; iii,
359,360,364
Windows, types , i, 107-122; iii, 35 7,
359-365
cas ed frame and sliding sashes, i,
113-119; iii, 357,359-361
casements, i, 108-113, 119
dormer, iii, 338,339
double -glazed, iii, 338
fix ed, i, 109 , 113
metal, iii, 3 61,36 3- 365, 380- 382
pi voted, i, 119, 120
s eg mental-h eaded cased, iii, 359,
361, 362
s em icircular headed cased, iii, 357,
359, 360
thr ee-light cased, iii, 361, 362
Yorkshire light, i, 121, 122
Windyway stone, ii, 250, 2 52
Wipedjoint, i, 152,153, 155
Wipi ng cloth, i, 15 3, 15 7
Wire-cut bricks, i, 1; ii, 162,172, 174,
176, 177
tiles, iii, 391, 392,399
cutting table, tiles, iii, 3 91
Wired tiles, iii, 407
Withes, ii, 224
Withies, thatch, iii, 420
Wood bending, iii, 350,359, 384
mas tic, iii, 327, 380
rolls, copper, iii, 417,418
l ead, i , 144-146
zinc, iii,418-420
wool cern ent, iii, 334
Woodkirk stone, ii, 246, 250, 252, 255
Wool ton stone, i, 33,45;ii, 246-248,
250, 252 , 254
Worki ng , i i~ 294
stresses, timber, iii, 318,319
Wrought iron water or weather bars,i,
28, 4 7, 98, 99, 108-no, 114,115; iii,
353 , 356,35~360,364,399 , 400
b ol ts , i,2o, 73, 78, 8 1, 158, 159
b rackets, gutter, i, 153,155
straps, i, So, 81 , 87; ii, 202-204
Wrou ght stone, i, 34
tim b er,i,62
Wych elm, iii, 307, 312
X
Xestnbium rufovillosum, iii, 303
Xylem,ii~289
y
Yang, iii, 308, 312, 325
Yellow birch, iii,307,312, 323
deal. See "Redwood"
mer anti, iii, 3 09, 312
pin e, iii, 288, 289,292,305,312
Yew, iii, 306,312
York stone, i, 33, 36; ii, 248, 274; iii,
412
Yorkshire light,i , 121, 122
z
Zig zag kiln, ii, 167
Zinc, i, 68- 70; iii, 418-420
roofin g, iii, 418-42 o
cappings, iii, 418,420
cha r acteristics, iii, 419
chi or ide, iii, 299,300,3 03
clips, iii, 418-420
flashings, ii~ 420
joints, iii, 418-420
dr ip s, iii,418,420
beaded, iii, 418,420
wei ted, 418, 420
welts, iii,418,420
wood r olls, iii,418-420
manufacture, iii, 419
p it ch , i, 69
sizes, sh eets,i i~ 419