NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – MANILA

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CECMAT20: CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

AND TESTING - LECTURE

SEATWORK NO.1
SECTION: CIV223

SUBMITTED BY:
POSADAS, MARVIN M.

APRIL 12, 2024

DATE PERFORMED

APRIL 16, 2024

DATE SUBMITTED

SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR. APRIL L. INAHID, CE

RATING
 NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – MANILA
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

NAME: POSADAS, MARVIN M. DATE

SUBMITTED: APRIL 16, 2024
SECTION: CIV223 RATINGS:

SEATWORK NO. 1.0

(Ta
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Ho
me)
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CM
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20

Part 1: ENUMERATE AND DEFINE THE FOLLOWING (INCLUDE IMAGES):

A. AGGREGATES
• Definition of Aggregates

- Construction aggregate, or simply aggregate, is

a broad category of coarse to medium grained particulate
material used in construction,
including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled
concrete and geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregates are the
most mined materials in the world. Aggregates are a
component of composite materials such as concrete and asphalt; the aggregate serves as
reinforcement to add strength to the overall composite material. Due to the relatively high
hydraulic conductivity value as compared to most soils, aggregates are widely used in
drainage applications such as foundation and French drains, septic drain fields, retaining wall
drains, and roadside edge drains. Aggregates are also used as base material under
foundations, roads, and railroads. In other words, aggregates are used as a stable foundation
or road/rail base with predictable, uniform properties (e.g. to help prevent differential settling
under the road or building), or as a low-cost extender that binds with more expensive cement
or asphalt to form concrete. Although most kinds of aggregate require a form of binding
agent, there are types of self-binding aggregate which require no form of binding agent.
Sources of Aggregates
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Aggregates can come from either natural or manufactured sources. Natural aggregates
come from rock, of which there are three broad geological classifications (Roberts, et al.,
1996):

Igneous rock
These rocks are primarily crystalline and are formed by the cooling of molten rock
material beneath the earth’s crust (magma).
Sedimentary rocks
These rocks are formed from deposited insoluble material (e.g., the remains of
existing rock deposited on the bottom of an ocean or lake). This material is
transformed to rock by heat and pressure. Sedimentary rocks are layered in
appearance and are further classified based on their predominant mineral as
calcareous (limestone, chalk, etc.), siliceous (chert, sandstone, etc.) or argillaceous
(shale, etc.).
Metamorphic rock
These are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been subjected to heat and/or
pressure great enough to change their mineral structure to be different from the
original rock.
Manufactured rock typically consists of industrial byproducts such as slag (byproduct of the
metallurgical processing – typically produced from processing steel, tin and copper) or
specialty rock that is produced to have a particular physical characteristic not found in natural
rock (such as the low density of lightweight aggregate).

• Methods of Extraction and Processing

Aggregate processing can include many
different steps depending on the specific
material desired. However, all aggregate
processing includes two steps: extraction and
screening. Most aggregate processing also
involves crushing.
• Aggregate Extraction
The first step in aggregate processing is
extraction. Aggregates must be extracted from their source. Usually this is a natural source such as
a quarry. Stone, sand, and other materials are removed from the earth with heavy machinery such
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as excavators. However, sometimes aggregate extraction is performed at build sites, such as
demolished roads and buildings, where broken concrete can be recycled into new aggregate.
• Aggregate Crushing
Most of the time, aggregate emerges from extraction as masses larger than the final product
desired. Aggregate crushing is the process of breaking down the large pieces into smaller particles,
using several types of heavy machinery, including:
- Jaw crushers
- Impact crushers
- Cone crushers
• Aggregate Screening
Screening is the process of separating aggregates into their different size categories. Depending on
the type of heavy machinery used, the source material, and the desired number and type of size
categories, aggregate screening might be conducted in multiple stages.
• Other Aggregate Processing Steps
In addition to the above, aggregate processing often involves other steps. Conveying, for example,
is an automated process for transporting aggregate materials between the different steps. Washing
might be necessary for some types of materials to help them meet the material standards.
Calcination (exposure to high heat) might also be required to remove impurities.
• Heavy Machinery for Aggregate Processing
All steps in aggregate processing require some type of heavy machinery. Here is a summary of
some of the most common types of heavy machinery for aggregate processing.
- Earthmoving
Earthmoving equipment like crawler or wheeled excavators, help extract aggregates from their
source. Loaders, either crawler or wheeled, can transport the extracted materials from where
they’re excavated to where they’re crushed and/or screened.
- Conveyors
Conveyors are an efficient automated way to transport aggregate materials. Rather than have
loaders move all the material, conveyors can transport a steady stream of materials to the place
where they are crushed and/or screened. Conveyors can also help control the flow of materials so
that it doesn’t overwhelm the crusher and/or screener.
- Screens
Screens separate aggregate materials into their different size categories. Depending on the type of
screen, they can separate the source material into multiple different categories at the same time.
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- Crushers
Aggregates often come out of the earth in much larger form than desired. Crushers break down the
material into smaller pieces.
- Wash Plants
Some types of aggregate must be washed to remove impurities and meet certain standards. Wash
plants are heavy machinery that performs this task on the job site. Some are portable, while others
are modular for assembly at the site and removal.
• Properties and Uses

Choosing the right size and grade of aggregates

impact the overall strength of concrete. The
aggregates are taken out from the natural resources
and classified into different grades. Grading of
aggregates helps to identify the right aggregates for
any construction works.

Advantages of Aggregates
- Available in many locations
- Low cost
- Abrasion resistance
- Easy to blend with the other concrete ingredients.
- Provides strength.

The aggregates are used as an important ingredient in the preparation of concrete. The fine
aggregates are used in concrete as a filler material, and the coarse aggregates give the
compressive strength to the concrete.

• Properties of aggregates
1. SPECIFIC GRAVITY- The specific gravity of aggregates is calculated by the ratio
between the weight of aggregates to the weight of water which equals the aggregate
weight. The high specific gravity of aggregates contains good quality, and at the same
time, low specific gravity aggregates are weak and permeable.
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2. BULKAGE OF AGGREGATES- The volume of aggregates will change when it is
subjected to moisture called bulkage.

When the moisture content is present in the sand, it forms a thin film around each sand
particle that makes the adjusted particles push a little away from them. This change
makes the overall volume of the sand increase. The bulking of sand is in the range
between 20% to 30% and for the coarse aggregate is minimal. Bulk density is the ratio
between the dry weight of the aggregates to the saturated weight of aggregates in kg/liter.
The bulk density of aggregates is dependent on the compaction and grading of aggregates
in concrete.
3. VOIDS- The presence of space between the aggregate particles is called voids. The
saturated aggregates volume will be changed due to the presence of voids.

4. COMPOSITION- The aggregates may contain different chemical particles that react
with the cement and form cracks on the concrete surface. So, the aggregates must be
tested to ensure that such kinds of particles are not present in the aggregates.
5. SIZE AND SHAPE- The size of aggregates less than 4.75mm is called fine
aggregate and beyond 4.75mm is called coarse aggregates. The size and shape of the
aggregates impact the strength and durability of the concrete. The workability of
concrete might be affected when using large size aggregates. The maximum size of
aggregates must not be less than 20mm in Reinforced concrete.
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• Uses
1. Constructional in general- Aggregates are used in construction to provide drainage,
fill voids, protect pipes, and to provide hard surfaces. They are also used in water
filtration and sewage treatment processes. Water will percolate through a trench filled
with aggregate more quickly than it will through the surrounding soil, thus enabling an
area to be drained of surface water. This technique is frequently used alongside roads to
disperse water collected from the asphalt surfacing.
2. Concrete- Concrete is a mixture of aggregates, cement, and water. The purpose of the
aggregates within this mixture is to provide a rigid skeletal structure and to reduce the
space occupied by the cement paste. Both coarse aggregates (particle sizes of 20mm to
4mm) and fine aggregates (particle sizes less than 4mm) are required but the
proportions of different sizes of coarse aggregate will vary depending on the mix
required for each individual end use.
3. Asphalt and roadstone- This category includes not just roads, but also pavements,
airport runways, school playgrounds, car parks, most footpaths or cycleways, and other
similar structures. Although each type of structure will require some variation in the
material, it is useful to look at the basic structure of roads because they represent the
bulk of the aggregate use in this category.
4. Mortar- Mortar consists of sand, cement, and water. In some circumstances lime may
also be added, together with admixtures which are chemicals to control setting and
workability and/or pigments if required. They are used to bond bricks or concrete
blocks together in walls and to provide weather protection or rendering. There are also
types of mortar that can be used as internal plasters, but these should not be confused
with the more normally used, gypsum based, plasters.
5. Railway ballast- A fully loaded train weighs over 2,000t, added to this is the weight
of the track itself and the sleepers it rests on. It soon becomes obvious that a very
tough aggregate is needed to support this weight and distribute the load of a passing
train to avoid serious damage to the ground, or other structures, underneath. Similarly,
the railway track and sleepers must be held in place firmly and not move as a train
passes along them. Railway ballast generally consists of a tough igneous rock, such as
granite, with large (40-50mm size) angular pieces that lock together. Because of the
way igneous rock is formed it is highly resistant to pressure and does not break easily.
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• Test for Aggregates
Tests on Aggregates are done to test the quality of aggregates such as aggregate abrasion
test, flakiness index test, aggregate crushing test, aggregate impact test, elongation index
test, etc. Before discussing the different types of tests on aggregates, we will discuss,
what are aggregates. Aggregates are inert granular materials like sand, gravel, or crushed
stone used in concrete or mortar, along with water and Portland cement. 75% of the
volume of concrete is occupied by aggregates. Aggregates should be clean, hard, strong
particles devoid of absorbed chemicals for a good concrete mix.
1. ASTM C 29/AASHTO T 19: Standard Test Method for Bulk Density ("Unit
Weight") and Voids in Aggregates
This test method covers the determination of bulk density ("unit weight") of aggregate in
a compacted or loose condition, and calculated voids between particles in fine, coarse, or
mixed aggregates based on the same determination. This test method is applicable to
aggregates not exceeding 5 in. (125 mm) in nominal maximum size.
2. ASTM C 40: Standard Test Method for Organic Impurities in Fine Aggregates
for Concrete
This test method covers procedures for an approximate determination of the presence of
injurious organic impurities in fine aggregates that are to be used in hydraulic cement mortar
or concrete.
3. ASTM C 127/AASHTO T 85: Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity and
Absorption of Coarse Aggregate
This test method covers the determination of specific gravity and absorption of coarse
aggregate. The specific gravity may be expressed as bulk specific gravity, bulk specific
gravity (SSD) (saturated-surface-dry), or apparent specific gravity. The bulk specific gravity
(SSD) and absorption are based on aggregate after 24 hours soaking in water. This test
method is not intended to be used with lightweight aggregates.
4. ASTM C 128/AASHTO T 84: Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity and
Absorption of Fine Aggregate

This test method covers the determination of bulk and apparent specific gravity, 23/23°C
(73.4/73.4°F), and absorption of fine aggregate. This test method also determines (after 24
hours in water) the bulk specific gravity and the apparent specific gravity, the bulk specific
gravity on the basis of weight of saturated surface-dry aggregate, and absorption.
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5. ASTM C 131/AASHTO T 96: Standard Test Method for Resistance to
Degradation of Small-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los
Angeles Machine

This test method covers a procedure for testing sizes of coarse aggregate smaller than 37.5
mm (1 1/2 in.) for resistance to degradation using the Los Angeles testing machine.

6. ASTM C 136/AASHTO T 27; Standard Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine
and Coarse Aggregates

This test method covers the determination of the particle size distribution of fine and coarse
aggregates by sieving. A sample of dry aggregate of known mass is separated through a series
of sieves of progressively smaller openings for determination of particle size distribution.

7. AASHTO T 103: Soundness of Aggregates by Freezing and Thawing

This test method covers three procedures in testing aggregates to determine their resistance to
disintegration by freezing and thawing. It furnishes information helpful in judging the
soundness of aggregates subjected to weathering, particularly when adequate information is
not available from service records of the behavior of the aggregate.

8. ASTM C 88/AASHTO T 104: Soundness of Aggregate by Use of Sodium Sulfate

or Magnesium Sulfate

This test method covers the procedure to be followed in testing aggregates to determine their
resistance to disintegration by saturated solutions of sodium sulfate or magnesium sulfate.
This is accomplished by repeated immersion in saturated solutions of sodium or magnesium
sulfate followed by oven drying to partially or completely dehydrate the salt precipitated in
permeable pore spaces. The internal expansive force, derived from the rehydration of the salt
upon immersion, simulates the expansion of water on freezing. NOTE: this test method
furnishes information helpful in judging the soundness of aggregates subject to weathering
action, particularly when adequate information is not available from service records of the
material exposed to actual weathering conditions.

9. ASTM D 7012 (formerly ASTM D 2938): Standard Test Method for

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Compressive Strength and Elastic Moduli of Intact Rock Core Specimens under
Varying States of Stress and Temperatures

This test method covers the determination of the strength of intact rock core specimens in
uniaxial compression and confined compression. The tests provide data in determining the
strength of rock, namely: the uniaxial strength, shear strengths at varying pressures and
varying temperatures, angle of internal friction, (angle of shearing resistance), and cohesion
intercept. The test method specifies the apparatus, instrumentation, and procedures for
determining the stress-axial strain and the stress-lateral strain curves, as well as Young's
modulus, E, and Poisson's ratio, y. It should be observed that this method makes no provision
for pore pressure measurements and specimens are undrained (platens are not vented). Thus,
the strength values determined are in terms of total stress, that is, are not corrected for pore
pressures. This test method does not include the procedures necessary to obtain a stress-strain
curve beyond the ultimate strength.

10. ASTM D 4543: Standard Practices for Preparing Rock Core Specimens and
Determining Dimensional and Shape Tolerances

This practice specifies procedures for laboratory specimen preparation and determining the
length and diameter of rock core specimens and the conformance of the dimensions with
established standards.

11. ASTM C 39: Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical
Concrete Specimens

This test method covers determination of compressive strength of cylindrical concrete

specimens such as molded cylinders and drilled cores. It is limited to concrete having a unit
weight more than 50 lb/ft3 [800 kg/m3].

12. ASTM C 78: Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using
Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading)

This test method covers the determination of the flexural strength of concrete using a simple
beam with third-point loading.
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13. ASTM C 293: Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using
Simple Beam with Center-Point Loading)

This test method covers determination of the flexural strength of concrete specimens by the
use of a simple beam with center-point loading. It is not an alternative to Test Method C78.

B. Portland
Cement
Concrete
- Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general use around the
world as a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, stucco, and non-specialty grout. It was
developed from other types of hydraulic lime in England in the early 19th century by
Joseph Aspdin and is usually made from limestone. It is a fine powder, produced by
heating limestone and clay minerals in a kiln to form clinker, grinding the clinker, and
adding 2 to 3 percent of gypsum. Several types of Portland cement are available. The
most common, called ordinary Portland cement (OPC), is grey, but white Portland
cement is also available. Its name is derived from its resemblance to Portland stone
which is quarried on the Isle of Portland in Dorset, England. It was named by Joseph
Aspdin who obtained a patent for it in 1824.

Manufacture of Portland Cement

Manufacturing of cement involves
various raw materials and processes. Each
process is explained chemical reactions for
manufacture of Portland Cement. Cement is a
greenish grey colored powder, made of calcined
mixtures of clay and limestone. When mixed
with water becomes a hard and strong building
material. The history of cement goes back into
Roman Empire. The modern day cements. That
is Portland cement was first produced by a British stone mason, Joseph Aspdin in 1824, who
cooked cement in his kitchen. He heated a mixture of limestone and clay powder in his
kitchen, and grind the mixture into powder creating cement, that hardens when mixed with
water. The name Portland was given by the inventor as it resembles a stone quarried on the
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Isle of Portland. The first use of modern-day Portland cement was in the tunnel construction
in the Thames River in 1828.

The manufacture procedures of Portland cement are described below.

- Mixing of raw material
- Burning
- Grinding
- Storage and packaging

1. Mixing of raw
material
The major raw
materials used in
the manufacture
of cement are
Calcium, Silicon,
Iron and
Aluminum. These minerals are used in different form as per the availability of the minerals.

Table shows the raw materials for Portland cement manufacture

The mixing procedure of the manufacture of cement is done in 2 methods,
- Dry process
- Wet process

a) Dry Process
The both calcareous and argillaceous raw materials are
firstly crushed in the gyratory crushers to get 2-5cm size pieces
separately. The crushed materials are again grinded to get fine
particles into ball or tube mill. Each finely grinded material is
stored in hopper after screening. Now these powdered minerals
are mixed in required proportion to get dry raw mix which is
then stored in silos and kept ready to be sent into rotary kiln.
Now the raw materials are mixed in specific proportions so that
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the average composition of the final product is maintained properly.

b) Wet Process
The raw materials are firstly crushed and made into powdered form
and stored in silos. The clay is then washed in washing mills to
remove adhering organic matters found in clay. The powdered
limestone and water washed clay are sent to flow in the channels and
transfer to grinding mills where they are completely mixed and the
paste is formed, i.e., known as slurry. The grinding process can be
done in ball or tube mill or even both. Then the slurry is led into
collecting basin where composition can be adjusted. The slurry
contains around 38-40% water that is stored in storage tanks and kept

ready for the rotary kiln.

Comparison of dry process and wet process of Cement Manufacture

2. Burning of Raw Materials

The burning process is carried out in the rotary kiln while the raw materials are rotated at 1-
2rpm at its longitudinal axis. The rotary kiln is made up of steel tubes having the diameter of
2.5-3.0 meter and the length differs from 90-120meter. The inner side of the kiln is lined with
refractory bricks. The kiln is supported on the columns of masonry or concrete and rested on
roller bearing in slightly inclined position at the gradient of 1 in 25 to 1 in 30. The raw mix of
dry process of corrected slurry of wet process is injected into the kiln from the upper end. The
kiln is heated with the help of powdered coal or oil or hot gases from the lower end of the
kiln so that the long hot flames is produced. As the kiln position is inclined and it rotates
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slowly, the material charged from upper end moves towards lower end at the speed of
15m/hr. In the upper part, water or moisture in the material is evaporated at 400oC temp, so
this process is known as Drying Zone. The central part i.e. calcination zone, the temperature
is around 10000C, where decomposition of limestone takes place. The remaining material is
in the form of small lumps known as nodules after the CO2 is released.
CaCO3 = CaO + CO2

The lower part (clinkering zone) have temperature in between 1500-17000C where lime and
clay are reacts to yielding calcium aluminates and calcium silicates. These aluminates and
silicates of calcium fuse to gather to form small and hard stones are known as clinkers. The
size of the clinker is varying from 5-10mm. The lower part i.e. clinkering zone has the
temperature around 1500-1700C. In the region lime and clay reacts to yield calcium
aluminates and calcium silicates. This products of aluminates and silicates of calcium fuses
together to form hard and small stones known as clinkers. The size of the small and hard
clinkers varies from 5 to 10mm.
2CaO + SiO2 = Ca2SiO4 (declaim silicate (C2S))
3CaO + SiO2 = Ca3SiO5 (tricalcium silicate (C3S))

3CaO + Al2O3 = Ca3Al2O6 (dicalcium aluminate (C2A))

4CaO + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 = Ca4Al2Fe2O10 (tetra calcium aluminoferrite(C4AF))

3. Grinding of Clinkers
The cooled clinkers are received from the cooling pans and sent into mills. The clinkers are
grinded finely into powder in ball mill or tube mill. Powdered gypsum is added around 2-3%
as retarding agent during final grinding. The final obtained product is cement that does not
settle quickly when comes in contact with water. After the initial setting time of the cement,
the cement becomes stiff and the gypsum retards the dissolution of tri-calcium aluminates by
forming tricalcium sulfoaluminate which is insoluble and prevents too early further reactions
of setting and hardening.
3CaO.Al2O3 + xCaSO4.7H2O = 3CaO.Al2O3.xCaSO4.7H2O
4. Storage and packaging
The grinded cement is stored in silos, from which it is marketed either in container load or
50kg bags.
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Chemical Composition of Portland

Cement is the chief ingredient in cement paste – the binding agent in portland cement concrete
(PCC). It is a hydraulic cement that, when combined with water, hardens into a solid mass.
Interspersed in an aggregate matrix it forms PCC. As a material, portland cement has been used
for well over 175 years and, from an empirical perspective, its behavior is well-understood.
Chemically, however, portland cement is a complex substance whose mechanisms and
interactions have yet to be fully defined. ASTM C 125 and the Portland Cement Association
(PCA) provide the following precise definitions:

- Hydraulic cement: An inorganic material or a mixture of inorganic materials that sets and
develops strength by chemical reaction with water by formation of hydrates and can do so
under water.
- Portland cement: A hydraulic cement composed primarily of hydraulic calcium silicates.

Portland cements can be characterized by their chemical composition although they rarely are for
pavement applications. However, it is a portland cement’s chemical properties that determine its
physical properties and how it cures. Therefore, a basic understanding of portland cement
chemistry can help one understand how and why it behaves as it does. This section briefly
describes the basic chemical composition of a typical portland cement and how it hydrates.
Basic Composition

Chemical Name Chemical Formula Shorthand Percent by

Notation Weight

Tricalcium Silicate 3CaO×SiO2 C3S 50

Dicalcium Silicate 2CaO×SiO2 C2S 25

Tricalcium Aluminate 3CaO×Al2O3 C3A 12

Tetracalcium 4CaO×Al2O3×Fe2O3 C4AF 8

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Chemical Name Chemical Formula Shorthand Percent by

Notation Weight

Aluminoferrite

Gypsum CaSO4×H2O CSH2 3.5

Table 1. Main Constituents in a Typical Portland Cement (Mindess and Young, 1981[1])

Figure 3. Typical oxide composition of a general-purpose portland cement Mindess and

Young, 1981).

Hydration
When Portland cement is mixed with water its chemical compound constituents undergo a series
of chemical reactions that cause it to harden (or set). These chemical reactions all involve the
addition of water to the basic chemical compounds listed in Table 1. This chemical reaction with
water is called “hydration”. Each one of these reactions occurs at a different time and rate.
Together, the results of these reactions determine how Portland cement hardens and gains
strength.

- Tricalcium silicate (C3S). Hydrates and hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial
set and early strength. Portland cements with higher percentages of C3S will exhibit higher
early strength.
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- Dicalcium silicate (C2S). Hydrates and hardens slowly and is largely responsible for
strength increases beyond one week.
- Tricalcium aluminate (C3A). Hydrates and hardens the quickest. Liberates a large amount
of heat almost immediately and contributes somewhat to early strength. Gypsum is added to
Portland cement to retard C3A hydration. Without gypsum, C3A hydration would cause
Portland cement to set almost immediately after adding water.
- Tetra calcium aluminoferrite (C4AF). Hydrates rapidly but contributes very little to
strength. Its use allows lower kiln temperatures in Portland cement manufacturing. Most
Portland cement color effects are due to C4AF.
Cement Physical Properties of Portland Cement
Portland cements are commonly characterized by their physical properties for quality
control purposes. Their physical properties can be used to classify and compare Portland
cements. The challenge in physical property characterization is to develop physical tests that
can satisfactorily characterize key parameters. This section, taken largely from the PCA
(1988[5]), lists the more common U.S. Portland cement physical properties that are tested.
Specification values, where given, are taken from ASTM C 150, Standard Specification for
Portland Cement.
Keep in mind that these properties, in general, apply to “neat” cement pastes – that is,
they only include Portland cement and water. Neat cement pastes are typically difficult to
handle and test and thus they introduce more variability into the results. Cements may also
perform differently when used in a “mortar” (cement + water + sand). Over time, mortar tests
have been found to provide a better indication of cement quality and thus, tests on neat cement
pastes are typically used only for research purposes (Mindess and Young, 1981[1]). However,
if the sand is not carefully specified in a mortar test, the results may not be transferable.

• Fineness
• Soundness
• Setting Time
• Strength
• Specific Gravity
• Heat of Hydration
• Loss on Ignition
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Types of Portland Cement
Knowing the basic characteristics of Portland cement’s constituent chemical
compounds, it is possible to modify its properties by adjusting the amounts of each
compound. In the U.S., AASHTO M 85 and ASTM C 150, Standard Specification for
Portland Cement, recognize eight basic types of Portland cement concrete (Table 2). There
are also many other types of blended and proprietary cements that are not mentioned here.

Table 2. ASTM Types of Portland Cement

Type Name Purpose

I Normal General-purpose cement suitable for most purposes.

IA Normal-Air An air-entraining modification of Type I.

Entraining

II Moderate Sulfate Used as a precaution against moderate sulfate attack. It will usually generate less
Resistance heat at a slower rate than Type I cement.

IIA Moderate Sulfate An air-entraining modification of Type II.

Resistance-Air
Entraining

III High Early Strength Used when high early strength is needed. It is has more C3S than Type I cement
and has been ground finer to provide a higher surface-to-volume ratio, both of
which speed hydration. Strength gain is double that of Type I cement in the first
24 hours.

IIIA High Early An air-entraining modification of Type III.

Strength-Air
Entraining
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Type Name Purpose

IV Low Heat of Used when hydration heat must be minimized in large volume applications such
Hydration as gravity dams. Contains about half the C3S and C3A and double the C2S of
Type I cement.

V High Sulfate Used as a precaution against severe sulfate action – principally where soils or
Resistance groundwaters have a high sulfate content. It gains strength at a slower rate than
Type I cement. High sulfate resistance is attributable to low C3A content.

Proportioning Concrete Ingredients

Concrete is the single most important material in modern building and concrete mix
proportions are the most important aspects of working with concrete. Without concrete,
residential homes and commercial skyscrapers fall, bridges have no anchors, piers or
abutments, tunnels, sidewalks, curbs, sewer systems… concrete is — literally — the
foundation of development.
There are only four fundamental ingredients in concrete: cement, aggregate, sand, and water,
but each serves a particular purpose. Understanding the purpose of each ingredient is key to
determining what concrete mix proportions are best in each situation.

• Ingredients
Cement
An adhesive, the principal ingredient in cement is calcium oxide. Calcium oxide is a
product of superheated limestone. Cement also has silicon, aluminum, iron, and a variety of
other secondary ingredients. Cement is the bonding agent that holds the aggregate and sand
of concrete together once it cures.
While very hard, the strength of cured cement does not compare to that of rock and sand. As
such, cement is the reason concrete has weak tensile strength and requires rebar. Torque can
easily break concrete. That is because concrete relies on the strength of the cement to resist
torque.
It is important to remember, more cement does not mean greater compressive strength, it
means better adhesion. The two are not synonymous.
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Aggregate
Washed, crushed rock — often mistakenly called gravel — aggregate is the
component that gives concrete its compressive structural integrity. Concrete has tremendous
compressive strength. The rocks and sand support the concrete when it is being compressed.
Sand
Not only the filling agent that eliminates air pockets and spaces between the
individual crushed rocks, but sand also has a very high compressive strength.
Water
Water creates the chemical change in the quicklime of cement that makes it adhere to
rock and sand, water also makes concrete workable. Without water, mixing, forming, and
finishing concrete is not possible.
• Concrete Mix Proportions
Four-two-one and the Seven Part Mix Ratio
The safest bet for any concrete mix is four-two-one: four parts crushed rock; two parts
sand; and one part cement. The four-two-one mix, obviously, has seven parts. Conveniently,
when mixing concrete, the ratio can be mixed on any range of scales. That can mean four
shovel fulls of rock with two of sand and one of cement; four 5-gallon buckets full of rock,
two of sand and one of cement; or four front-end loader buckets full of rock, two sand and
one cement.
But the four-two-one mixture is not ideal for every situation. For those projects that require
even extreme compressive strength — the floor of a diesel engine mechanic shop, for
example, — a greater amount of rock is required: maybe a five-two-one-and-a-half mix. For
projects that will not require concrete with high compressive strength, but a great degree of
workability — a garden fountain, for example, — more sand and less rock is best: a two-four-
one mix possibly.
Water Proportions
The biggest x-factor in concrete, water is an unpredictable variable. The amount of
water required depends on the air temperature outside, the humidity, the amount of direct
sunlight, and the concrete mix ratio. The most important thing to remember about water is
that the more there is in concrete mix proportions, the weaker the cement’s cured tensile
strength, adhesive strength. Ideally, the least amount of water possible is the best if strong
adhesion is a high priority.
But, again, sometimes there are situations where workability is a higher priority than
 NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – MANILA
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
structural integrity and water is the secret to workability.
Concrete Mix Proportions Notes to Remember
1) The more rock, the greater the compressive strength of concrete. The more sand, the
greater the workability.
2) Adhesion (cement) and compressive strength (rock) are two different factors in the quality
of concrete. More cement does not mean more compressive strength; it means more tensile
strength.
3) The less water, the stronger the adhesion of cement, but the more difficult it is to work
with the concrete.
 NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – MANILA
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
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