Motion and Time

Motion
The movement of an object is called motion. The moment (or duration) in
which things occur is called time. An object is said to be in motion (or
moving) when its position changes with time.

Different objects show different types of motion (or movements).There are

four important types of motion : Rectilinear motion, Circular
motion,Rotational motion, and Periodic motion.

Rectilinear Motion

Motion in a straight line is called rectilinear motion. In other words, when an

object moves along a straight line path, it is called rectilinear motion.

(1) The motion of a bullock cart moving on a straight road is rectilinear

motion.

(2) Motion of a horse pulling a cart on a straight road

(3) Motion of a train on a straight bridge and

(4) March past of soldiers in a parade.

Circular Motion

A round path having the shape of a circle is called circular path. When an
object moves along a circular path, it is called circular motion.

(1) The earth moves around the sun in a circular path (or circular orbit), so
the motion of the earth around the sun is circular motion.

(2) Motion of a child in a merry-go-round, and

(3) Motion of pedals of a moving bicycle.

Rotational Motion

When an object turns (or spins) about a fixed axis, it is called rotational
motion.

(1) The spinning of earth on its axis.

(2) The turning of the blades of a fan

Periodic Motion

The motion which repeats itself after regular intervals of time, is called
periodic motion. Periodic motion is also called oscillatory motion.

(1) The swinging of a pendulum

(2) Motion of a swing

(3) Motion of hands of an athlete while running a race

(4) Motion of a child on a see-saw

(5) Motion of hammer in an electric bell

Slow and Fast moving Objects

An object which takes a longer time to cover a certain distance is
called slow whereas another object which takes a shorter time to cover the
same distance is said to be fast.

The way to find out which of the two objects is moving faster is to compare
the distances moved by them in a unit time.

The distance moved by an object in a unit time is called speed of the

object. A slow moving object is said to have a low speed. A fast moving
object is said to have high speed. A higher speed indicates that a given
distance has been covered in a shorter time.
Speed
Speed of an object is the distance travelled by it in unit time.

The speed of an object can be calculated by dividing the distance travelled

by the object, by the time taken to travel this distance.

Suppose a car travels a distance of 100 kilometres in 4 hours.Then the

speed of this car is given by

Speed = 100 kilometres/ 4 hours

Speed = 25 kilometres per hour

Thus, the speed of this car will be 25 kilometres per hour.

The Distance travelled divided by ‘Time taken’ actually gives us ‘Average

speed’ of the car during that time. While travelling in a car or a bus we
have noticed that it is very difficult to keep the speed of the car at a
constant (or uniform) value because at many places the brakes are to be
applied to slow down or stop the car due to various reasons. Thus, the speed
of an object is usually not constant and the distance travelled divided by
time gives us the average speed during that time.

Units of Speed
The unit of speed depends upon the unit of distance and the unit of time
used.

(1) The standard unit of distance is metre’ and the standard unit of time is
‘second: So, the standard unit of speed is metres per second (metres
/second). This unit of metres per second is written in short form as m/s. The
basic unit of speed is metres per second (m/s)
(2) Another unit of speed is metres per minute (metres/minute) which is
written in short form as m/min.

(3) The small values of speed are expressed in the units of ‘centimetres per
second’ which is written in short form as cm/s. The very small speeds
are expressed in the unit of millimetres per second (mm/s).

(4) The large speed values are expressed in the units of kilometres per hour
which is written in short form as km/h. When the distance travelled is
measured in kilometres and the time taken is measured in hours, then the
speed will come in the unit of ‘kilometres per hour. The speeds of
fast moving objects like cars, trains and aeroplanes are usually expressed in
the unit of kilometres per hour.

The very large speed values are expressed in the units of kilometres per
second (km/s). For example, a space rocket has a very, very large speed,
therefore, the speed of a space rocket is normally expressed in the units of
kilometres per second (km/s).

Speedometer and Odometer

An instrument on a vehicle’s dashboard which indicates the speed of
the vehicle when it is running, is called speedometer. The speedometer has
the symbol km/h written on its dial.

Odometer is an instrument for measuring the distance travelled by a vehicle.

Odometer records the distance travelled by a vehicle in kilometres. We can
usually see a small rectangular window within the speedometer dial with the
symbol ‘km’ written on its right side. This gives us the odometer reading for
the distance covered by the vehicle.

The meter fitted on the top of the handles of scooters and motorcycles is the
speedometer. It shows the speed of the running scooter or motorcycle. This
meter has also an inbuilt odometer for recording the distance covered

Some animals move slowly and have low speeds whereas other animals can
run (or fly) very fast and they can have high speeds.

Uniform and Non-Uniform Motion

When the speed of an object moving along a straight line path remains the
same (or unchanged), we say that the speed is constant. If the speed of an
object moving along a straight line path keeps changing (increasing or
decreasing), we say that the speed is not constant. So, depending on
the nature of its speed, a moving object may have uniform motion or non-
uniform motion.

An object moving along a straight line path is said to have uniform

motion if its speed remains constant. An object having uniform motion
travels equal distances in equal intervals of time.

A car running at a constant speed is an example of uniform motion. A car

running at constant speed will cover equal distances in equal intervals of
time.

In the case of uniform motion, the average speed of the moving object is the
same as its actual speed.

An object moving along a straight line path is said to have non-uniform

motion if its speed keeps changing. An object having non-uniform motion
travels unequal distance in equal intervals of time.

The non-uniform motion (in which the speed of an object keeps changing) is
also called accelerated motion.

Graphical Representation of Motion

A distance-time graph shows how distance travelled by a moving object
changes with time.

(1) Distance-Time Graph for Uniform Speed (or Constant Speed)

When an object moves with a uniform speed (or constant speed), it travels
equal distances in equal intervals of time. So, the distance travelled is
directly proportional to time. When the two things are directly
proportional to each other, then the graph drawn between them is a straight
line.

Thus, the distance-time graph of an object moving with a uniform speed

(or constant speed) is a straight line. The straight line graph OB is sloping
upwards showing that as the time increases, the distance travelled by the
object increases in the same proportion.

So, if the distance-time graph of an object is a straight line, it indicates that

the object is moving with a uniform speed (or constant speed).

The slope (or slant) of a distance-time graph indicates the speed of the
object.
(a) If the distance time graph has a low slope (it is less steep), then the
object has low speed.

(b) If the distance-time graph has a higher slope (it is more steep), then the
object has a higher speed.

Just by looking at the slopes of two distance-time graph lines drawn on the
same paper, we can tell which of the two objects is moving faster and which
is moving slower. This is because greater the slope of a distance-time graph,
the higher will be the speed.

In Figure , distance-time graphs have been drawn for two moving objects.
Now, graph B has a smaller slope (it makes smaller angle with -axis), so
graph B represents a lower speed.

The graph A has a greater slope (it makes a greater angle with x-axis),
therefore, graph A represents a higher speed. So, we can now say that the
object having distance-time graph A is moving faster than another
object whose distance-time graph is B.

(2) Distance-Time Graph for Non-Uniform Speed (or Changing

Speed)

When an object moves with a non-uniform speed (or changing speed),

it travels unequal distances in equal intervals of time. In this case, the
distance travelled by object is not directly proportional to time and hence the
distance-time graph is not a straight line.
The distance-time graph for an object moving with non-uniform speed (or
changing speed) is a curved line. Thus, a curved line graph between distance
and time tells us that the object is moving with a non-uniform speed (or
changing speed).

The distance-time graph in the form of a curved line tells us that the object
is moving with a speed which is not constant.

(3) Distance-Time Graph When the Object is Stationary (Not Moving)

After travelling a certain distance, when a moving object stops moving (or
becomes stationary), then the distance travelled by it does not change with
time, it remains the same (or constant).

The distance-time graph for an object which stops moving (or becomes
stationary) is a straight line parallel to the time-axis (or x-axis).

A straight line graph parallel to the time-axis shows that the speed of object
is zero. The distance-time graph for a stationary object is a horizontal line.
(see line AB).

(a) If the distance-time graph of an object is a straight line, then it is

moving with a constant speed. (The greater the slope of distance-time
graph, the greater the speed)

(b) If the distance-time graph of an object is not a straight line (it is a

curved line), then the speed of is not constant. The speed is changing.

(c) If the distance-time graph of an object is a horizontal line parallel to the

time-axis, then the object is zero. The object is not moving. It is stationary.

How to Draw Distance-Time Graphs

(1) We use a graph paper to draw distance-time graph.

(2) The graph paper has 1 centimetre squares marked on it. Each centimetre
square has 100 smaller squares in it (which are millimetre squares).

(3) The side of bigger square on the graph paper is 1 cm and that of the
smaller square is 1 mm.
(4) To draw the distance-time graph for a moving object, we need a graph
paper, and the readings of distances travelled by the object and the
corresponding time values which have been obtained experimentally.

(5) We should draw a horizontal line on the graph paper to represent x-axis.
Label the x-axis by writing Time. The unit of time should be written in
bracket such as Time (s), Time (min) or Time (h). An arrow should be put in
front of the labelling of time and its unit like Time (min).

(6) Draw a vertical line on the left side of the graph paper to represent y-
axis. Label the y-axis by writing the word Distance. The unit of distance
should be written in bracket such as Distance (m), Distance (cm) or Distance
(km). An arrow should be put in front of the labelling of distance and its unit
like Distance (km). The point of intersection of x-axis and y-axis is called
‘origin’ and marked as O.

(7) We should choose suitable scales so as to represent the large values of

‘time’ and ‘distance conveniently on the small graph paper. The scales to be
used depend on the range of time and distance values, and hence vary from
question to question.

(8) Take the first value of time and the first value of distance from the data
given in the question and mark one point on the graph paper where the
graph lines representing these two values meet. Then take second, third,
fourth and fifth sets of values of time and distance and mark corresponding
points (as pencil dots) on the graph paper.

(9) Join all the marked points (or pencil dots) with a pencil line graph to
obtain the required distance time graph.

Advantages of distance-time graphs

(1) The variation of distance travelled by an object with time can be seen
more easily from a distance-time graph than from the distance and time
values given in the table form.

For example :

(a) A straight line distance-time graph tells us that the moving object covers
equal distances in equal time intervals, so its speed is constant (or
uniform).
(b) A curved line distance-time graph tells us that the moving object covers
unequal distances in equal time intervals and hence its speed is not constant
(it is non-uniform).

(c) A straight line distance-time graph parallel to the time-axis (or a

horizontal line graph) tells us that the distance moved by the object does not
change with time, so its speed is zero (it is stationary)

(2) The data given in table form may give information about the distance
moved by the object only at certain definite time intervals but from a
distance-time graph we can find the distance moved by the object at any
point of time.

(3) The speed of an object can be obtained from its distance-time graph. By
using distance-time graph, we can find the distance moved by the object
between any two time readings. And if we divide this distance by time (given
by the difference in the two time readings), we will obtain speed of the
object.

Other Types of Graphs

Line graphs show the variation of distance travelled by a moving object (car,
bus, truck, etc.) with time.There are two other kinds of graphs.

Bar Graph

A bar graph is a diagram which shows information as bars (thin rectangles)

of different heights in a bar graph, the positions and heights of the bars
represent the values of the variable quantity about which information is
being given.

Pie Chart

A pie chart is a kind of graph or diagram which shows the percentage

composition of something in the form of slices of a circle (the whole circle
representing 100 per cent).

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Time
Time is a moment or duration in which things occur. We measure time with
the help of clocks and watches.

Measurement of Time in Ancient Times

In ancient times, people used some natural events which repeated regularly
after fixed time intervals, to measure time.

It was observed that full moon occurs regularly after fixed time interval and
the sunrise also occurs regularly after fixed time interval. So, the two natural
periodic events which were used in ancient times to measure time were the
occurrence of full moon and sunrise.

(1) The time from one full moon to the next full moon was called a month.

(2) The time from one sunrise to the next sunrise was called a day.

The important time measuring devices used in ancient times were : Sundial,
Sand clock and Water clock.

Sundial

A sundial measures time by the position of the shadow cast by the sun.The
sun rises in the east, appears to move in the sky during the day, and finally
sets in the west. Due to this apparent movement of the sun in the sky , the
position of shadow of a vertical object on the ground changes continuously
throughout the day.

The sundial has a triangular blade which is fixed vertically on a dial marked
with hours of the day.The sun casts a shadow of this vertical blade on the
dial. As the position of sun changes in the sky, the position of shadow of
blade on the dial also changes. The position of shadow of vertical blade on
the dial gives the time of the day.

Some historical sundials still exist in India at Jantar Mantar in Delhi and at
Jaipur in Rajasthan

Sand Clock

Sand clock is also known as sand-glass or hour-glass. The sand clock uses
the flow of sand (from one glass bulb to another) to measure time. The
length of time taken by the sand to pass from one bulb of the sand clock to
the other, gives a constant time interval. A sand clock consists of two glass
bulbs joined together through a narrow tube.

Some sand is filled in one of the glass bulbs. The two glass bulbs are closed
at the outer ends. When the sand clock is kept in such a way that the sand is
in the upper bulb, the entire sand flows down to the lower bulb slowly, in a
fixed time interval. When the sand clock is to be used again, it is turned
upside down so that the sand containing bulb comes at the top. The sand
clock (or sand glass) is usually filled with so much sand that it takes one
hour to fall from the upper bulb to the lower bulb. This is why sand clock (or
sand-glass) is also called an hour-glass

Water Clock

A water clock uses the rate at which water drips from one vessel to another
to measure time intervals. Water was allowed to drip from one vessel to
another vessel kept at a lower level. The time taken by the entire water to
drip from upper vessel to lower vessel was used for measuring time
intervals. Every time the upper vessel is filled with water, its water takes
exactly the same time to drip into the lower vessel.

Units of Time
The standard unit of measuring time is second. The symbol of second is ‘s’.
The standard unit of time is also called basic unit of time. The larger units of
time than second are minute and hour. The symbol of ‘minute’ is ‘min’ and
the symbol of hour’ is h.

Time is normally measured in the units of hours, minutes and seconds.

1 hour = 60 minutes

1 minute = 60 seconds

The bigger units of time for expressing longer time intervals are : Day,
Month and Year.
24 hours =1 day

30 days =1 month

12 months =1 year

The still bigger units for expressing very long time intervals are decade,
century and millenium.

10 years =1 decade

100 years (or 10 decades)= 1 century

1000 years (or 10 centuries)=1 millenium

Different units of time are used depending on the purpose for which they are
to be used.

1) The time taken to cover the distance between our home and school
should be expressed in minutes (or hours) and not in days or months.

2) The age of a person should be expressed in years and not in days or

hours.

3) The ages of stars and planets are expressed in billions of years.

The two extremely small units of time which are used for expressing very,
very small time intervals are ‘microsecond and ‘nanosecond’.

Periodic Motion
A motion which repeats itself at regular intervals of time is called periodic
motion.

Clocks and watches which are used for measuring time are based on
the principle of periodic motion.

The pendulum clock used for measuring time is based on the periodic motion
of a pendulum.
Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of a small metal ball (called bob) suspended by

a long thread from a rigid support, such that the bob is free to swing back
and forth.

The motion of pendulum was first studied by Galileo.

A pendulum completes every swing (or every oscillation) in exactly the same
time, provided its length is kept constant.

The time period of oscillation of a given pendulum is constant.

A simple pendulum can be made by tying about one metre long thread to a
small metal ball (called bob) and suspending it from a rigid support so that
the bob is free to swing When the pendulum is at rest, then its bob is at the
mean position. If the bob of this pendulum is pulled to one side and then
released, it will begin to oscillate to-and-fro (back and forth) like a swing.
Initially the bob is at the mean position A. Now, suppose the bob is pulled a
little to the right side to position-B-and then released. It will be seen to
come back and move on to position C, at an equal distance on the other side
of the mean position A, and then go on repeating this back and forth motion
between the two extreme positions B and C. And we say that the simple
pendulum is oscillating (or vibrating).

The to-and-fro motion of a simple pendulum is an example of

periodic motion (or oscillatory motion).

(1) Length of Pendulum

The length of thread from the point of suspension to the centre of bob,
is called length of pendulum. The time-period of a pendulum depends on its
length. As the length of a pendulum is increased, its time-period also
increases. The time-period of a pendulum of given length is constant.

(2) Oscillations

One complete to-and-fro movement of the pendulum bob is called an

oscillation.

One oscillation can be counted starting from one of the extreme positions of
the bob or from the mean position.
The motion of pendulum bob from its extreme position B to C, and back to
B is called one oscillation. The motion of bob from its mean position A to B,
then from B to C, and back to A is also equal to one oscillation.

(3) Time-Period

The time taken by pendulum bob to make one complete oscillation is called
time period of the pendulum. The time taken by bob to travel from position
B to C and back to B is the time-period of pendulum. The time taken by bob
in going from position A to B, then from B to C and back to A is also equal to
time-period. To find the time taken by one oscillation (or time period), we
measure the time taken by a large number of oscillations. Dividing the total
time by the total number of oscillations, we get the time for one oscillation
(or time-period) of the pendulum.

(4) Amplitude

As the pendulum oscillates (or swings) to-and-fro, the maximum

displacement of the bob from its mean position on either side is called the
amplitude of pendulum.The distance AB is the amplitude of pendulum. The
distance AC is also equal to amplitude of pendulum. Whether the amplitude
of oscillations of a pendulum is large or small, the time taken for one
complete oscillation (or time-period) remains the same.

A pendulum of given length always takes the same time to complete

one oscillation.The time period of a pendulum of given length is
constant. Thus, the periodic motion of pendulum has been used to
make pendulum clocks for measuring time.

Pendulum Clock
The periodic motion of a pendulum is utilised in pendulum clocks
for measuring time. So, in a pendulum clock the swinging
pendulum regulates time. The pendulum of a ‘pendulum clock’ is a long
metal rod having a heavy metal bob at its lower end. When the lower end of
pendulum is displaced to one side and then released, the pendulum starts
swinging left and right continuously.

The pendulum clock uses this periodic motion of pendulum for measuring
time.When the pendulum swings continuously, its upper end drives some
toothed wheels.The toothed wheels then turn the hours’ hand, minutes’ hand
and seconds hand on the dial of the clock due to which we are able to read
time.

The pendulum clocks were big and bulky, so they could not be carried
everywhere easily.

A balance wheel connected to a hair spring shows periodic motion. The inner
end of hair spring is attached to the centre of balance wheel and the outer
end of hair spring is fixed to the frame of a clock or watch. When the
balance wheel is displaced slightly to one side and released, it starts
oscillating back and forth continuously. Each oscillation of balance wheel
takes the same time.

Most of the clocks and watches used the periodic motion of balance wheel
and hair spring arrangement for their working. These were called winding
clocks and watches. Winding type clocks and watches are not used much
these days. They have been replaced by quartz clocks and watches.

Use of Quartz Crystals

These days, the regular oscillations for vibrations) of a tiny quartz crystal
(when joined into an electric circuit), are used for measuring time very
accurately. So most of the accurate clocks and watches these days use
quartz crystals for measuring time.The clocks and watches which use quartz
crystals for their working are called quartz clocks and quartz watches.
They are also called electronic clocks and watches.

The quartz clocks and watches(or electronic clocks and watches) can be of
two types: non-digital and digital.

The non-digital quartz clocks and watches are just like traditional clocks
and watches having hours, minutes and seconds hands which move on a
dial.

The digital quartz clocks and watches do not have the traditional hours,
minutes’ and seconds hands. These clocks and watches display time directly
in digits.

Quartz clocks and watches require electric cells for their working. The very
accurate measurement of time is also done by using atomic
clocks which make use of the regular oscillations (or vibrations) of
individual atoms for their time keeping.

The smallest time interval that can be measured with commonly available
clocks and watches is 1 second.

The clocks and watches used in sports meets can measure time
intervals that are one-tenth of a second or one-hundredth of a second. There
are some clocks which can measure intervals as small as microsecond or
even a nanosecond.