Environmental Modelling & Software 17 (2002) 333–344

www.elsevier.com/locate/envsoft

Landslide hazard and bioengineering: towards providing improved

decision support through integrated numerical model development
Paul L. Wilkinson a, Malcolm G. Anderson b,∗, David M. Lloyd a, Jean-Philippe Renaud b
a
ZNA UK Ltd, University Gate, Park Row, Bristol BS8 5UD, UK
b
School of Geographical Sciences, University of Bristol, University Road, Bristol BS8 1SS, UK

Received 23 March 2001; received in revised form 14 June 2001; accepted 18 October 2001

Abstract

The combined hydrology and stability model (CHASM) is a state-of-the-art software tool that aids the assessment of slope
stability. The hydrological component of the model solves the Richard’s equation for saturated and unsaturated groundwater flow
to derive the pressure head field as it changes through time. The generated hydrological conditions are used as input to limit
equilibrium stability computations to derive factors of safety (FOS). The software can be applied to both site-specific problems as
well as wide-area assessment to investigate the impacts of dynamic hydrology, with or without vegetation interactions, on slope
stability. The program code, originally developed in a UNIX environment using Fortran ’77, has been implemented in the Microsoft
Windows environment using C++ with the addition of a graphical user-interface (GUI) to enable more seamless and user-friendly
operation. The GUI allows the user to initialise the slope geometry, define the hydrological, vegetation and geotechnical variables
and, impose boundary conditions and initial conditions.  2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Slope stability; Hydrology; Vegetation; Highway management

Software availability and requirements: see
www.chasm-env.com; 486/33, 8MB RAM, Windows
3.1 or higher.
1. Introduction
Within the general field of slope stability assessment,
the nature of the questions being posed in relation to
possible designs, remedial measures and prioritisation of
expenditure increasingly demand high levels of inte-
gration of environmental processes. Questions arise that
relate to the desire to have more accurate stability assess-
ments that incorporate detailed slope surface cover
specifications (reflecting the aesthetics of vegetated
slopes), the allocation of potential expenditure for
remedial works (based upon a detailed analysis of stab-
ility that allows clear prioritisation to be established) and
∗
Corresponding author. Fax: +44-117-928-7878.
E-mail address: m.g.anderson@bristol.ac.uk (M.G. Anderson).
the establishment of links between design rainfalls and
slope stability for landslide warning systems.
Classical stability analysis procedures, whilst provid-
ing a certain level of information to aid decisions and
designs, have limitations in the context of the questions
that are now posed in projects requiring slope stability
assessment. Traditional methods, for example, do not
allow direct inclusion of elements relating to vegetation,
integrated physically based inclusion of rainfall, unsatu-
rated and saturated soil water dynamics and the role of
topographic plan curvature in controlling the slope pore
water pressure regime. Commercially available com-
puter models for slope stability analysis often involve the
use of classical limit equilibrium methods with a static
representation of slope hydrology defined by a fixed
water table height, ru coefficient or pore-pressure field,
with little or no account of soil suction. Whilst advances
have been made in the numerical modelling of slope
hydrodynamics (eg. Slope/w, Seep/w), there is a major
opportunity to improve representation of vegetation and
the architecture of integrated decision support schemes.
The Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Software
Directory (2001) illustrates the lack of integrated slope

1364-8152/02/$ - see front matter  2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 1 3 6 4 - 8 1 5 2 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 7 8 - 0
334 P.L. Wilkinson et al. / Environmental Modelling & Software 17 (2002) 333–344
hydrology, stability, bioenginerring software develop-
ment afforded by the model structure outlined in this
paper.
This paper outlines the software CHASM (combined
hydrology and stability model). The model has been
developed to achieve a high level of integration of pro-
cess controls on slope stability. CHASM is designed to
help the user assess the effects on slope stability of selec-
ted storm events, surface covers, slope geometry
(including plan curvatures) and material properties
within a user friendly WINDOWS environment. Typical
simulations may focus on determining the impact of sin-
gle return period storm events on slope stability (e.g. 1
in 10 years, 24-h storm event; 1 in 100 years, 3-day
storm event) or more complex multiple storm events
over longer periods.
This paper highlights the key elements of the software
and provides example applications to wide-area stability
analyses. The wide-area examples illustrate the appli-
cation potential of the scheme as an aid to decision sup-
port for slope stability management.
2. CHASM technical overview
CHASM is a physically based combined soil
hydrology–slope stability model that allows simulation
of changes in pore water pressures in response to indi-
vidual rainfall events and considers their role in main-
taining slope stability. The model comprises fully inte-
grated hydrology, surface cover (vegetation) and
stability components: the bases of these are outlined
below. The program code, originally developed in a
UNIX environment using Fortran ’77, has been
implemented in the Microsoft Windows environment
using C++ with the addition of a graphical user-interface
(GUI) to enable more seamless and user-friendly oper-
ation.
2.1. Hydrological modelling
The procedure adopted to model the hydrological sys-
tem is a forward explicit finite difference scheme in
which the slope is divided into a series of rectangular
columns, each subdivided into regular cells. The model
simulates detention storage, infiltration, evapotranspir-
ation, and unsaturated and saturated flow regimes. Rain-
fall is allowed to infiltrate the top cells governed by the
infiltration capacity. Within CHASM, infiltration during
rainfall is calculated using Darcy’s Law (Darcy, 1856)
with the conductivity being equal to the average of the
saturated conductivity and the hydraulic conductivity of
the top two cells (whether saturated or unsaturated).
Unsaturated vertical flow through each column is com-
puted using the Richards’ equation (Richards, 1931)
solved in explicit form, with the unsaturated conductivity
defined by the Millington–Quirk (1959) procedure. Flow
between columns is modelled using the Darcy equation
for saturated flow, adopting the Dupuit–Forcheimer
(Forcheimer, 1930) assumption. The numerical stability
of the solution to the Richards equation is dependent on
both the time step and iteration period. Beven (1985)
provides a method of deriving the required time step
(iteration period) to maintain numerical stability based
on the distance between the computational nodes, the
gradient of the suction–moisture curve at a given suction
value and the flow velocity. For most applications the
commonly recommended spatial and temporal resol-
utions are an individual element size of 1×1m area, and
60s iteration period.
Within the integrated model structure (see Fig. 1), the
hydrology scheme facilitates representation of slope plan
curvature (convexity and concavity) by varying the col-
umn breadth. The effect that the three-dimensional topo-
graphic form has on hydrology, and thence stability, can
thus be investigated. Downslope fluxes are increased due
to slope plan convergence (reducing the downslope col-
umn breadth) or reduced due to slope plan divergence
(increasing the downslope column breadth). This
approach requires identification of the zero flux bound-
ary at either side of the slope—the degree of conver-
gence or divergence of which defines the downslope
change in column breadth (cf. radius of curvature; Geo-
technical Control Office, 1980). Within CHASM the
user is able to change the breadth of any column accord-
ing to the topographic scenario that is to be modelled.
The generated pore pressure field is then used as input
to standard two-dimensional stability analyses.
Fig. 1. CHASM Structure.
 P.L. Wilkinson et al. / Environmental Modelling & Software 17 (2002) 333–344
2.2. Stability assessment
Techniques for stability assessment, such as the limit
equilibrium methods, are used to perform static analyses
based on soil strengths and the force of gravity acting
on a slope. The techniques used in CHASM are Bishop’s
simplified circular method (Bishop, 1955) and Janbu’s
non-circular method (Janbu, 1954). These limit equilib-
rium methods are used to determine the shear strength
along the failure surface, the mobilised shear strength,
and the ratio between these two—the factor of safety
(FOS), providing a measure of the relative stability of
the slope (Nash, 1987). Slope stability assessment in an
engineering context takes advantage of the concept of
‘functional stability’ in which slope stability is related to
a specific need or governing criterion. As Cernica (1995)
states “a slope may be considered stable if it meets a
prescribed need for a fixed period of time with a suitable
factor of safety”. Whilst continuum methods of analysis
and discrete particle representation (Cendall, 2001) are
able to better represent the ‘failure’ process, it was
judged sensible, within CHASM, to implement the
hydrology, vegetation and topographic representations in
the context of limit equilibrium stability methods which
currently dominate the applied geotechnical engineering
discipline. The scheme does therefore have limitations
in the context of the description of the failure mech-
anisms, but is judged as being the best available for the
functional stability representation required. On each hour
of the simulation, the predicted hydrological conditions
are directly coupled to a limit equilibrium method for
determining slope stability. In the CHASM formulation,
pore pressures, both negative and positive, are incorpor-
ated directly into the effective stress determination of the
Mohr—Coulomb equation for soil shear strength. This
allows derivation of the minimum FOS, with temporal
variations arising from hydrodynamic responses and
changes in the position of the critical slip surface
(Wilkinson et al., 2000). The implementation of these
routines within CHASM is discussed in Section 3.1.
2.3. Vegetation modelling
A recent extension to the numerical scheme has been
the full inclusion of a surface cover model, which allows
comprehensive investigation into the hydrological and
geotechnical effects of vegetation on slope stability (Fig.
1). Vegetation affects slope stability through the follow-
ing principal mechanisms; interception, evapotranspir-
ation, hydraulic conductivity, root reinforcement and
surcharge. All of these process elements can be rep-
resented in the model.
In respect of interception, the procedure adopted in
CHASM depends on the type of vegetation. For
335
example, dense stands of tall grass can be flattened by
intense rainfall to form a semi-permeable barrier. This
is demonstrated by results from experimental plots in
Hong Kong where between half and three quarters of all
rain formed runoff without the infiltration capacity of the
soil having been reached (Lamb and Premchitt, 1990).
This process is incorporated into CHASM by reducing
the hourly rainfall intensity applied to the surface of the
slope, according to the depth of grass. For interception
by trees, the structure of the canopy is described by a
free throughfall coefficient, a stemflow-partitioning coef-
ficient, a canopy storage capacity and a trunk storage
capacity (Rutter et al., 1971; Valente et al., 1997). The
model estimates throughfall, stemflow and interception
loss from input rainfall and meteorological data. On each
iteration of the hydrology model the interception equ-
ation (Appendix A: Eq. 5) is solved explicitly in discrete
form to derive the effective rainfall reaching the ground
surface. This is then allowed to infiltrate the top cell of
the scheme according to the Darcy’s Law.
Evapotranspiration and root water uptake are mod-
elled in CHASM using the Penman–Monteith equation
for evapotranspiration (Monteith, 1973). When coupled
with the spatial distribution of the roots and the soil
moisture content the rate of water uptake from each por-
tion of the soil can be derived (Feddes et al., 1978; Wilk-
inson et al., 1998). The impact of vegetation on soil
hydraulic conductivity as a result of the presence of a
root network is modelled in CHASM by an equation
relating the root area ratio to the saturated hydraulic con-
ductivity (Collison, 1993).
Mechanically, vegetation affects slope stability
through the process of root reinforcement and vegetation
surcharge. The interaction between roots and soil can be
quantified using a simple perpendicular root model (Wu
et al., 1979; Wu and Sidle, 1995). The effect elastic ver-
tical roots have on crossing a shear zone undergoing dis-
placement is an increase in the confining stress and direct
shear resistance along the failure surface at the onset of
shear. Mobilisation of tensile resistance from roots in
vegetated soils is therefore modelled as an increase in
effective soil cohesion. The effect of vegetation sur-
charge is dependant on the stress–strain properties of the
slope material, soil permeability, slope geometry, and the
presence or absence of cohesion. To model this effect,
the corresponding force of the vegetation on the slope
surface is distributed through the soil profile according
to the vertical and horizontal distance from the source
of loading.
The principal equation for the mechanical impacts of
vegetation is given in Appendix A. The vegetation
components discussed above are incorporated directly
into the limit equilibrium method for deriving the FOS.
As an example, the Bishop equation presented in Appen-
dix A (Appendix A: Eq. 3) becomes:
336 P.L. Wilkinson et al. / Environmental Modelling & Software 17 (2002) 333–344
冋
Pv ⫽ (W ⫹ Sw)⫺
1
FOS
((c⬘ ⫹ c⬘r )lsina⫺((u
册
⫺uv)ltanf⬘sina)) / mα
where Pv is the normal force acting perpendicular to the
slope including vegetation, vegetation surcharge is rep-
resented by Sw, uv represents the combined effects of
interception, evapotranspiration and increased per-
meability (a combined function of Appendix A: Eqs. 5
and 6) and, c⬘r is the additional cohesion derived from
root reinforcement (Appendix A: Eq. 7). The final FOS
equation for the Bishop circular stability analysis may
now be expressed as:
冘 is important that such schemes are tested in order that
n
((c⬘ ⫹ c⬘r )l ⫹ (Pv⫺(u⫺uv))ltanf⬘)
FOS ⫽
i⫽0
. (2)
冘
n
(W ⫹ Sw)tana
i⫽0
The pressure head field derived by the finite difference
hydrodynamic scheme, including the hydrological
components of the vegetation scheme described in Sec-
tions 2.1 and 2.3, is calculated according to the time step
defined by the user. On each hour of the hydrological
simulation, the FOS is calculated using the Janbu or
Bishop methods of stability analysis with the incorpor-
ation of the mechanical vegetation components.
2.4. Model limitations
Inherent within the CHASM model structure and
approach are limitations that relate to process represen-
tation and numerical implementation. It is of vital impor-
tance, as for any software model, to understand the
model constraints and limitations for the purpose of
parameterisation and directing the scope and nature of
the intended application. Within CHASM, the limi-
tations relate to the assumptions made within the
hydrology scheme and the method of stability analysis.
For the hydrology model the simplifying assumptions
primarily relate to flow representation. Soils exhibiting
strong anisotropy in hydraulic conductivity or those
dominated by macropore flow are not capable of being
modelled by CHASM. For the stability assessment
component the use of limit equilibrium methods in
CHASM results in the imposition of the failure mech-
anism. Thus, stress–strain and progressive failure mech-
anisms cannot be accommodated. In addition the real
kinematics of slope failure, being three-dimensional, are
grossly simplified by consideration of only two dimen-
sions.
Notwithstanding these issues, the integrated model
aims to improve on the present widely applied limit
equilibrium methods of analysis in defining the func-
(1)
tional stability of a slope. In this context the limitations
outlined above are not considered restrictive but should
be noted in order that the process mechanics in any
application of the model are not ‘over described’.
2.5. Model ‘validation’
With development of integrated models of the type
outlined there is an increasing awareness that modellers
fail to declare models ‘invalid’ largely because there are
so many variables capable of adjustment to limited field
data. In particular, a critical general issue is one of dis-
tinguishing a good fit of an over-parameterised model
from a good fit based on accurate process description
(Anderson and Bates, 2001). Against this background, it
some judgement can be formed as to their appropriate-
ness. CHASM has undergone extensive testing in Malay-
sia, Hong Kong and New Zealand, with evaluation of
the hydrology, stability and vegetation components of
the model. Pore-water pressure/suction data collected
from the Kuala Lumpur–Karak Highway in Malaysia
provided a means to evaluate, successfully, the two-
dimensional finite-difference soil hydrology component
of the combined model (Anderson et al., 1988; Anderson
and Kemp, 1991). CHASM has also undergone compari-
son with standard approaches to stability analysis for a
sample of known stable and failed slopes in Hong Kong.
Some 40 slopes were analysed (slope angles ranged
between 40 and 50°, saturated hydraulic conductivities
ranged between 10–5–10–6 ms–1). In this exercise, the
coupled model correctly classified 77% of failed slopes
(Anderson, 1990). The vegetation model has also been
successfully applied and tested in the Hawke’s Bay
region of the North Island of New Zealand (Wilkinson,
2000), and Anderson et al., 1988 report successful com-
parisons between observed and predicted pore pressures
on an instrumented slope in Malaysia. Whilst such
results are encouraging, they are not definitive; it is how-
ever important to undertake both external and internal
model validation of this type (Anderson and Bates,
2001).
2.6. Parameter requirements
The model structure described in the previous sections
requires user parameterisation for each major component
of the model; hydrology, stability and vegetation. In
addition to this, other temporal and numerical infor-
mation is required such as simulation length and iteration
period. A full listing of the model parameters is given
in Table 1. Typically, the values ascribed to each para-
meter will be based on field-derived measurements or
obtained from a desk study. A sensitivity analysis of
each parameter is beyond the scope of this paper given
the number of parameters involved. Lloyd (1990) and
 P.L. Wilkinson et al. / Environmental Modelling & Software 17 (2002) 333–344 337

Table 1
Model parameter requirementsa

Parameter group Parameter name Symbol/Units

Feature geometry Slope height H (m)

Slope angle a (degrees)
Slope plan convergence/divergence radius C (m)
Numerical Mesh resolution (width, depth, breadth)b w, d, b (m)
Iteration periodb t (s)
Hydrological Rainfall p (ms⫺1)
Saturated hydraulic conductivity Ks (ms⫺1)
Initial surface suctionc yt0 m)
Initial water table heightc wt (m)
Saturated moisture content qs (m3m⫺3)
Suction-moisture curve y (m) - q (m3m⫺3)
Geotechnical Effective angle of internal friction f⬘ (degrees)
Unsaturated/saturated bulk density gus , gs (kNm⫺3)
Effective cohesion c⬘(kNm⫺2)
Vegetation Root tensile strength tr (kNm⫺2)
Vegetation cover/spacing vc (%), vs (m)
Leaf area index lai (m2m⫺2)
Aerodynamic resistance ra (sm⫺1)
Canopy resistance rc (sm⫺1)
Canopy/trunk storage capacity cs, ts (m)
Root depth/lateral extent Rd, Rl (m)
Vegetation surcharge Sw (kNm⫺2)
Atmosphericc Net radiation Rn (Wm⫺2)
Relative humidity Rh (%)
Temperature T (°Centigade)

a
The above are the key required input parameters. In any application the initial model configuration would be run to establish appropriate initial
conditions upon which model simulation would then be based.
b
Determined according to Beven (1985) to maintain numerical stability in the Richards equation.
c
Initial surface suction and water table heights are assigned according to measured field conditions or a hypothetical scenario.

Wilkinson (2000), however, have undertaken determin-
istic and stochastic sensitivity analysis; the former
enabling verification of the mathematical procedure, the
latter enabling insight to the impacts of parameter uncer-
tainty on the model solution.
A major component of the GUI is an automated mesh
generator. Fig. 2 shows an example of the mesh gener-
ator window, which allows the user to draw a slope pro-
file on the screen, through a simple point and click oper-
ation. By the same manner, definition of soil layers,

3. GUI

Physically based distributed models like CHASM are

demanding in their requirement for numerical discretis-
ation and model parameterisation. Such demands
additionally foster potential for end-user input error. In
order to minimise such error and to maximise practi-
cality a GUI has been developed, allowing more seam-
less and user-friendly pre and post-processing.

3.1. Pre-processing

The pre-processing module within CHASM is

designed to be as simple and efficient as possible for the
user. A protocol was established for building the input
file, mesh generation, initialisation of the hydrology,
vegetation, storm and soil components and finally, para-
meterisation of the stability analysis. Fig. 2. Finite difference mesh generation.
338 P.L. Wilkinson et al. / Environmental Modelling & Software 17 (2002) 333–344

Fig. 3. Hydrology dialog box (with 3D convergence).

water table, and choice of slip-circle search grid location
(for the Bishop circular stability analysis) is achieved.
A seperate hydrology dialog box allows editing,
through simple point and click operation, of the slope
cross-section (including three-dimensional slope rep-
resentation—hydrological convergence/divergence),
water table height, and mesh dimensions, Fig. 3. The
slope visualisation changes ‘on-the-fly’ in response to
any alteration of the parameters. Access to other win-
dows may be gained through the hydrology dialogue box
for initialisation of the soil, storm and vegetation para-
meters, as listed in Table 1.
Fig. 4 shows the format of the vegetation dialog box.
Within this window the user is able to cycle through
each column in the finite difference mesh, select a veg-
etation species from a pre-defined database and add it
to the slope surface. The geotechnical and hydrological
properties of the soil are then automatically updated
according to the chosen vegetation species. The ability
to spatially distribute the vegetation is particularly useful
as it allows investigation into the relationship between
vegetation density, planting patterns and vegetation
growth and decay on slope stability. The effects of main-
taining or removing vegetation from any location on the
slope can thus also be assessed.
The final stage of model parameterisation is the speci-
fication of the stability analysis. The methods employed
within CHASM are the Bishop circular stability analysis
and the Janbu simplified non-circular analysis (Section
2.2). For the Bishop circular analysis, a slip circle centre

Fig. 4. Vegetation dialog box.

 P.L. Wilkinson et al. / Environmental Modelling & Software 17 (2002) 333–344
search grid is defined by choosing the X–Y co-ordinates
for the start of the grid, the grid dimensions and the grid
increment (Fig. 5). Each generated grid point represents
the centre of a potential slip circle. During the compu-
tation, the slip circle radius is incremented and the FOS
computed for each generated slip surface. The minimum
FOS and its associated slip surface are stored for each
hour of the simulation. The Janbu method of stability
analysis does not include an automated slip search pro-
cedure in the Windows version of CHASM; rather the
user is required to enter the co-ordinates of a fixed (non-
circular) slip surface. This is a useful tool that allows
iterative back analysis of a known failure surface and
for other circumstances in which the location of the
probable slip surface can be estimated.
3.2. Post-processing
On running the program from the main dialogue box
the user is offered the option of resetting the initial soil
moisture conditions. If reset, the initial soil moisture
conditions defined in the data file are used. However, by
choosing not to reset the soil moisture conditions, the
prevailing conditions at the end of the previous simul-
ation, are used. This is a useful option if the user wishes
to study the effect of successive storms on stability. Dur-
ing the simulation period, a results window displays the
factor of safety, the X–Y co-ordinates of slip grid, the
slip circle radius and mass of soil above the critical slip
Fig. 5. Bishops circular slip search.
339
surface. These are displayed in real-time (i.e. as the cal-
culations are made), so that the user can monitor the
progress of the simulation. Once the simulation has fin-
ished, the user may examine the temporal changes in the
factor of safety and position of the critical failure surface
(Fig. 6a). Additionally, the spatial distribution of the soil
moisture within the slope may be examined at the time
of the minimum factor of safety by ‘point and click’ on
the finite difference mesh (Fig. 6b).
4. Example applications of CHASM within a
decision support architecture
Physically based models are often perceived as being
tools that are limited to site-specific applications. This
is based generally on their high demands on input data
and hence operating time/cost. With optimised user-fri-
endly systems such demands are minimised and with
increasing computing power more generalised appli-
cations become a practical reality. Through multiple
applications of the model across a broad range of poten-
tial slope geometries, hydrological conditions and/or sur-
face vegetation conditions, greater understanding of sys-
tem interactions and responses can be developed. Of
particular benefit is the use of such an approach within
decision support systems, which extend the scope of
application from ‘site specific’ to ‘wide area’ analysis.
Two illustrations of the use of CHASM in such a
decision support architecture are provided.
340 P.L. Wilkinson et al. / Environmental Modelling & Software 17 (2002) 333–344
Fig. 6. CHASM Visualisation of (a) critical slip surface and (b) soil moisture distribution.
4.1. Bioengineering design charts
Summaries of a broad range of potential input con-
ditions utilising CHASM are usefully illustrated in the
form of design charts. Anderson and Lloyd (1991) and
Anderson et al. (1997) used this technique to facilitate
rapid wide area assessment of stability and design of cut
slopes in the tropics.
Given the high degree of variability in ‘below’ and
‘above ground’ biomass characteristics among different
vegetation types, it is not feasible to represent every veg-
etation–slope scenario within a single design chart. In
the following example, each vegetation component out-
lined in Section 2.3 has been represented in terms of a
range of likely values to produce a summary ‘design
chart’ (Watson and O’Loughlin, 1985, 1990; Philips and
Watson, 1998).
The aim of such design charts is to enable comparison
between slopes with no vegetation cover and those with
a generalised vegetation cover to see whether the effect
is beneficial, negligible or detrimental to slope stability.
In this example, comparison is made in the form of the
FOS after a single storm event (24-h duration, 1 in 10
years return period). Fig. 7 indicates that the strongest
negative effect (i.e. a significant reduction in the FOS
towards unity) is experienced when the soil is of low
permeability, low friction angle and there is a high
additional surcharge.
Soils of low permeability experience an increase in
hydraulic conductivity within the root zone resulting in
increased infiltration and either reduction in matric suc-
tion or the development of a perched water table.
Increasing the surcharge acting upon the slope will, in
general, be detrimental to stability in circumstances
where the slope angle is greater than the effective fric-
tion angle. However, this effect can be beneficial if the
inverse is true or vegetation is placed at the toe of the
slope. These two potentially negative effects are of parti-
cular importance as there is no interaction between the
root zone and slip surface; accordingly in the absence
of root derived cohesion the overall impact of vegetation
is negative.
With an increase in effective cohesion provided by
roots the impact of vegetation ceases to be detrimental
due principally to increased root zone–slip surface inter-
action. This effectively offsets the detrimental impact of
increased surcharge and increased hydraulic conduc-
tivity. Vegetation in these cases has a negligible impact
on slope stability.
For slopes where vegetation surcharge is a positive
component (slope angle less than the effective friction
angle) the effect of root reinforcement not only balances
the detrimental impact of enhanced permeability but
results in a net increase in available shear strength. In
such cases vegetation is beneficial to stability, increasing
the factor of safety.
This design chart allows delineation of vegetation
effects in to ‘very strong’, ‘significant’ and ‘negligible’
effects in terms of their modeled impact on available
shear strength and, therefore, FOS. In this example,
CHASM modelling shows that clear differentiation is
possible between those slope topographic, geotechnical
and hydrological characteristics that result in vegetation
having a net negative effect and those resulting in a net
positive effect. In particular, there are especially critical
elements of the result domain that illustrate the role that
root area ratio and soil hydraulic conductivity play in
establishing threshold vegetation net benefits in relation
to slope stabilisation.
As previously indicated, integrated models of this type
cannot be truly ‘validated’ in a conventional sense. Thus
the concept advanced here is one of providing a firmer
reference frame for decision making within the bioengi-
neering context by the development of a model structure
 P.L. Wilkinson et al. / Environmental Modelling & Software 17 (2002) 333–344
Fig. 7. Vegetation design chart: the change in FOS compared to a non-vegetated slope for a range of vegetation and slope parameter combinations
(E=Evapotranspiration, I=Interception, Sw=Vegetation surcharge, Ksat=Saturated hydraulic conductivity, Rc=Added root cohesion, a=Slope angle,
f=Effective angle of internal friction).
aimed at providing greater insights to complex slope
stability processes and relationships. The design chart
approach we believe achieves this goal in that it enables:
1. the determination of the likely net effect of vegetation
on slope stability under a range of pre-specified veg-
etation-slope conditions, thus providing a rapid bioen-
gineering decision tool;
2. a preliminary investigation into vegetation change
scenarios. The charts may assist modelling growth
and decay cycles associated with timber harvesting,
for example;
3. the identification of appropriate site investigation stra-
tegies. This may include more rigorous numerical
approaches and simulations, or indeed, different stra-
tegies for instrumentation and remediation.
4.2. Landslide hazard assessment
The second example of the use of CHASM within a
decision support structure is in an ‘Expert System’ for
slope maintenance management. Created for a project in
Malaysia, the Malaysian engineered hillslope manage-
ment system (MEHMS—Fig. 8) has a structured datab-
ase, recording all slope attributes by site and has full
data reporting facilities linked to both design charts
(Anderson et al., 1996) and CHASM. The database
architecture allows complete data entry of all relevant
slope attributes. Thus slope location (chainage),
geometry, soil, and geological information can all be
recorded and retrieved to construct the appropriate input
files such that, for slopes selected, CHASM can be run
automatically from within MEHMS, or compared
directly to summary design charts of CHASM simula-
341
tions. The system thus enables practical and seamless
stability assessment for any slope (or range of slopes)
held within the database Fig. 9 illustrates the output from
such the scheme; note that each slope feature can be
assessed utilising the full topographic
divergence/convergence capability of CHASM if so
desired. The MEHMS system design thus provides an
important component of an overall system architecture
that is designed to establish a ranking of slopes con-
sidered ‘ at risk of failure’ for preventive remedial works
prioritisation. It is important to emphasise that such sys-
tems must still, however, rely on expert knowledge at
critical stages of the decision process. It is considered
inappropriate to try and fully automate such decision
processes due to local scale variability and process rep-
resentation limitations. This also applies to any definition
of remedial works as local conditions and cost factors
would preclude a suitable detailed design and/or cost
optimisation within such a process. However, the
CHASM scheme, implemented within a database archi-
tecture does allow the users to rapidly review and
initially appraise potential stability conditions prior to
further more detailed analyses—a facility that would
conventionally be impracticable.
5. Conclusions
As the complexity of terrain increases in which
arterial routes and buildings are constructed and the legal
framework for responsibility becomes ever more
demanding, there is an identified need to more compre-
hensively integrate slope processes within models of
slope stability. CHASM integrates stability analysis with
342 P.L. Wilkinson et al. / Environmental Modelling & Software 17 (2002) 333–344

Fig. 8. MEHMS interface screen for an individual slope.

demands of the discretisation and parameterisation pro-

cesses, thereby minimising the risk of user errors. As a
component within slope management decision support
architecture, CHASM has potential—whether directly or
through the use of a summary matrix of model simula-
tions—to significantly aid the decision process.

Appendix A. Principle equation set

A.1. Richards equation (1931)

∂q
∂t
∂ ∂q ∂K
⫽⫺ D
∂z ∂z 冉 冊
⫺ .
dz

앫 q: volumetric moisture content (m3m⫺3)

앫 t: time (s)
앫 z: vertical depth (m)
앫 D: hydraulic diffusivity (m2s⫺1)
Fig. 9. An example of hazard and risk maps.
A.2. Millington–Quirk equation (Millington and Quirk,
1959)

冘
dynamic slope hydrology. In addition the scheme allows m
the impacts of vegetation to be investigated. As such the Ks(qi / qs)p ((2j ⫹ 1⫺2i)yj⫺2)
combined physically based scheme represents a techni- j⫽i
Ki ⫽ .
冘
cal innovation over standard approaches to the assess- m
ment of stability. Implemented within the WINDOWS ((2j⫺1)yj⫺2)
environment, the GUI successfully minimises the j⫽1
 P.L. Wilkinson et al. / Environmental Modelling & Software 17 (2002) 333–344 343

앫 p: pore interaction term where f0 is a correction factor to account for interslice

앫 Ki: unsaturated conductivity (ms⫺1) shear forces.
앫 Ks: saturated conductivity (ms⫺1)
앫 qi: unsaturated moisture content (m3m⫺3) A.5. Interception equation (Rutter et al., 1971;
앫 qs: saturated moisture content (m3m⫺3) Valente et al., 1997)

冕 冕 冕
앫 yj: suction value at moisture content qi (m)
앫 m: number of equal increments of q from q=0 to q=qs (1⫺p⫺pt) Rdt ⫽ Ddt ⫹ Edt ⫹ ⌬C
앫 j,i: summation indices

A.3. Mohr–Coulomb equation (Coulomb, 1776) 冕 冕

pt Rdt ⫽ Sf ⫹ Etdt ⫹ ⌬Ct

s ⫽ c⬘ ⫹ (s⫺u)tanf⬘.
앫 S: canopy storage capacity (m)
앫 s: soil shear strength (kNm⫺2) 앫 St: trunk storage capacity (m)
앫 c⬘: effective soil cohesion (kNm⫺2) 앫 p: free throughfall coefficient
앫 f⬘: effective angle of internal friction (degrees) 앫 pt: stemflow partitioning coefficient
앫 s: total normal stress (kNm⫺2) 앫 R: gross rainfall intensity (ms⫺1)
앫 u: pore water pressure (kNm⫺2) 앫 D: drainage rate from the canopy (ms⫺1)
앫 E: evaporation rate of water intercepted by the can-
A.4. Bishop and Janbu stability equations (Bishop, opy (ms⫺1)
1955) 앫 ⌬C: change in canopy storage (m)
앫 Sf: stemflow (m)
Bishop: 앫 Et: evaporation rate of the water intercepted by the
trunks (ms⫺1)

冘 앫 ⌬Ct: change in the trunk storage (m)

n

(c⬘l ⫹ (P⫺ul)tanf⬘)
FOS ⫽
i=0

冘
n A.6. Penman–Monteith equation (Monteith, 1973)
Wtana
i=0
⌬Rn ⫹ rcpVPD / ra
Ep ⫽ .
where l[⌬ ⫹ g(1 ⫹ rc / ra)]

P ⫽ W⫺冋 1
FS0
(c⬘lsina⫺ultanf⬘sina) / mα 册 앫 Ep: potential evapotranspiration rate (ms⫺1)
앫 ra, rc: aerodynamic and canopy resistance, respect-
and ively (sm⫺1)

冉 冊
앫 ⌬: slope of the saturation vapour pressure–tempera-
tanf⬘ ture curve (kgm⫺3K⫺1)
mα ⫽ cosa 1 ⫹ tana .
FS0 앫 VPD: represents the vapour pressure deficit
(kgm⫺1s⫺2)
앫 n: number of slices 앫 cp: specific heat of air (Jkg⫺1K⫺1)
앫 FS: factor of safety 앫 Rn : net radiation (Wm⫺2).
앫 c⬘: effective soil cohesion (kNm⫺2)
앫 l: slice length (m) A.7. Root reinforcement equation (Wu et al., 1979;
앫 a: slice angle (degrees) Wu, 1995)
앫 u: pore water pressure (kNm⫺2)
앫 f⬘: effective angle of internal friction (degrees)
앫 W: weight of the soil (kNm⫺2) ⌬c⬘ ⫽ c⬘R ⫽ tR(cosqtanf ⫹ sinq)

Janbu: 앫 c’: effective cohesion (kNm⫺2)

앫 c’R: effective cohesion attributed to the root net-
冘
n

(c⬘l ⫹ (P⫺ul)tanf⬘)seca work (kNm⫺2)

앫 q: angle of shear rotation (degrees)
FOS ⫽ f0
i=0
앫 f: angle of internal friction (degrees)
冘
n

Wtana 앫 tR : average tensile strength of the roots per unit area

i=0 of soil (kNm⫺2)
344 P.L. Wilkinson et al. / Environmental Modelling & Software 17 (2002) 333–344
References
Anderson, M.G., 1990. A feasibility study in mathematical modelling
of slope hydrology and stability. Geotechnical Control Office Civil
Engineering Services Department Hong Kong Report CE 23/90.
Anderson, M.G., Kemp, M.J., 1991. Towards an improved specifi-
cation of slope hydrology in the analysis of slope instability prob-
lems in the tropics. Progress in Physical Geography 15 (1), 29–52.
Anderson, M.G., Lloyd, D.M., 1991. Using a combined slope
hydrology–stability model to develop cut slope design charts. Pro-
ceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers 91 (2), 705–718.
Anderson, M.G., Bates, P.D. (Eds.), 2001. Model Validation—Per-
spectives in Hydrological Science. Wiley, Chichester, p. 500.
Anderson, M.G., Kemp, M.J., Lloyd, D.M., 1988. Applications of soil
water finite difference models to slope stability problems. In: Pro-
ceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Landslides, vol.
1. Lausanne, pp. 525–530.
Anderson, M.G., Collison, A.J.C., Hartshorne, J., Lloyd, D.M., Park,
A., 1996. Developments in slope hydrology—stability modelling
for tropical slopes. In: Anderson, M.G., Brooks, S.M. (Eds.),
Advances in Hillslope Processes, pp. 799–821.
Anderson, M.G., Kemp, M.J., Lloyd, D.M., 1997. Hydrological Design
Manual for Slope Stability in the Tropics. Transport Research Lab-
oratory p. 58.
Beven, K.J., 1985. Distributed models. In: Anderson, M.G., Burt, T.B.
(Eds.), Hydrological Forecasting. Wiley, New York, pp. 405–435.
Bishop, A.W., 1955. The use of the slip circle in the stability analysis
of slopes. Geotechnique 5 (1), 7–77.
Cendall, P.A., 2001. A discontinuous future for modelling in geomech-
anics? Geotechnical Engineering 149, 41–47.
Cernica, J.N., 1995. Geotechnical Engineering: Soil Mechanics. Wiley,
Chichester, p. 453.
Collison, A.J.C., 1993. Assessing the influence of vegetation on slope
stability in the tropics, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Bristol.
Coulomb, C.A., 1776. Essai sur une application des regles des maximis
a quelques problemes de statique relatifs a l’architecture. Memor-
andum Academie Ryale, Pres. Div. Sav. 7, 343–382.
Darcy, H., 1856. Les Fontaines Publique de la Ville de Dijon. Dal-
mont, Paris.
Feddes, R.A., Kowalik, P.J., Zaradny, H., 1978. Simulation of field
water use and crop yield. Simulation Monographs. Pudoc. Wagen-
ingen, p. 189.
Forcheimer, P., 1930. Hydraulik, 3rd ed. Teubner, Leipzig and Berlin.
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Software Directory, 2001,
www.ggsd.com/
Geotechnical Control Office 1980. CHASE Cutslopes in Hong Kong:
Assessment of Stability by Empiricism. Public Works Department,
Hong Kong.
Janbu, N., 1954. Application of composite slip surface for stability
analysis. Proceedings of the European Conference on the Stability
of Earth Slopes 3, 43–49.
Lamb, T.S.K., Premchitt, J., 1990. Rainfall-runoff on slopes 1984–
1988. Civil Engineering Services Report Hong Kong 1990. Special
Project Report I 1/90.
Lloyd, D.M. 1990. Modelling the hydrology and stability of tropical
cut slopes, PhD thesis, University of Bristol.
Millington, R.J., Quirk, J.P., 1959. Permeability of porous media. Nat-
ure 183, 387–388.
Monteith, J.L., 1973. Principles of Environmental Physics. Edward
Arnold, London.
Nash, D., 1987. A comparative review of limit equilibrium methods
of stability analysis. In: Anderson, M.G., Richards, K.S. (Eds.),
Slope Stability, pp. 11–73.
Philips, C.J., Watson, A.J., 1998. Structural Tree Root Research in
New Zealand: a Review. Manaaki Whenua Press, Christchurch.
Richards, L.A., 1931. Capillary conduction of liquids in porous
mediums. Physics 1, 318–333.
Rutter, A.J., Kershaw, K.A., Robins, P.C., 1971. A predictive model
of rainfall interception in forests. I. Derivation of the model from
observation in a plantation of corsican pine. Agric. Meteorol. 9,
367–384.
Valente, F., David, J.S., Gash, J.H.C., 1997. Modelling interception
loss for two sparse eucalypt and pine forests in central Portugal
using reformulated Rutter and Gash analytical models. Journal of
Hydrology 190, 141–162.
Watson, A.J., O’Loughlin, C.L., 1985. Morphology strength and
biomass of manuka roots and their influence on slope stability. New
Zealand Journal of Forestry Science 15 (3), 337–348.
Watson, A.J., O’Loughlin, C.L., 1990. Structural root morphology and
biomass of three age classes of Pinus radiata. New Zealand Journal
of Forestry Science 20 (1), 97–110.
Wilkinson, P.L., 2000. Investigating the hydrological and geotechnical
effects of vegetation on slope stability: development of a fully inte-
grated numerical model, PhD thesis, University of Bristol.
Wilkinson, P.L., Brooks, S.M., Anderson, M.G., 1998. Investigating
the effect of moisture extraction by vegetation upon slope stability:
further developments of a Combined Hydrology and Stability
Model (CHASM). British Hydrological Society International Sym-
posium on Hydrology in a Changing Environment. Theme 4:
Hydrology of environmental hazards, pp. 165–178.
Wilkinson, P.L., Brooks, S.M., Anderson, M.G., 2000. Design and
application of an automated non-circular slip surface search within
a Combined Hydrology And Stability Model (CHASM). Hydrolog-
ical Processes 14, 2003–2017.
Wu, W., Sidle, R.C., 1995. A distributed slope stability model for steep
forested basins. Water Resources Research 31, 2097–2110.
Wu, T.H., McKinnell III, W.P., Swanston, D.N., 1979. Strength of tree
roots and landslides on Prince of Wales Island, Alaska. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal 16 (1), 19–33.