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Hydrogeochemical modeling of the water seepages through Tannur Dam,

southern Jordan

Article in Environmental Earth Sciences · May 2004

DOI: 10.1007/s00254-004-0967-6

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Hydrogeochemical modeling of the
water seepages through Tannur
Dam, southern Jordan
Ali El Naqa Æ Mustafa Al Kuisi
Abstract This paper reveals the geochemical
processes of dissolution, precipitation and cation
exchange that took place during water–rock
interaction between water seepages through the
Tannur Dam. The Schoeller diagram indicates that
there are three major water types originating during
water–rock interaction. The first water type is
characterized by low salinity that ranges from 1,300
to 2,800 ls/cm, which represents the reservoir water
and the water in the right side of the central gallery.
The second water type is in the left side of the
central gallery, which exhibits medium salinity that
reaches about 4,400 ls/cm. The third water type is
characterized by very high salinity that reaches a
value of around 8,500 ls/cm and represents the
water in the right existing adit. The increase of
salinity can be explained due to the dissolution of
carbonate and sulfate minerals that form the matrix
of the foundation and the abutment rocks, and the
dissolution of the grout curtain, which is composed
of cement and bentonite. Hydrogeochemical
modeling, using a computer code PHREEQC, was
used to obtain the saturation indices of specific
mineral phases, which might be related to
interaction with water seepages, and to identify the
chemical species of the dissolved ions. The
thermodynamic calculations indicate that most of
the water samples were undersaturated with respect
to gypsum, anhydrite and halite, and were saturated
and/or supersaturated with respect to calcite and
Received: 2 October 2003 / Accepted: 16 December 2003
Published online: 24 March 2004
 Springer-Verlag 2004
A. El Naqa (&)
Institute of Lands, Water and Environment,
Department of Water Management and Environment,
Hashemite University, P.O. Box 150459, 13115 Zarqa, Jordan
E-mail: elnaqa@hu.edu.jo
Tel.: +9625-3826600
Fax: +9625-3826823
M. Al Kuisi
Specialized Engineering Service Company,
P.O. Box 430616, 11143 Amman, Jordan
Original article
dolomite. Ca(HCO3)2 is the primary water type, as a
result of dissolution of carbonate minerals such as
calcite and dolomite prevailing at the dam site.
However, cation-exchange processes are responsible
for the formation of the Na2SO4 water type from the
CaSO4 type that formed due to the dissolution of
gypsum.
Keywords Tannur Dam Æ Seepage water Æ
Geochemical modeling Æ Water–rock interaction Æ
Southern Jordan
Introduction
Jordan can be described as a semiarid region, which suf-
fers from water shortage and limited water supply. In re-
cent years, water demands have increased due to the high
rate of population growth, together with the higher needs
of industry in the country. To satisfy the water needs in the
future, decision-makers in the Ministry of Water and
Irrigation have selected a number of sites in southern
desert areas, which may be suitable for the construction of
storage dams to be used primarily for domestic use,
recharge of groundwater, and irrigation.
Tannur Dam is the first roller compacted concrete (RCC)
dam. It is 150 km south of Amman on the Wadi Hasa. The
dam is 60 m high, 250 m long, and has a storage capacity
of 17·106 m3 (Fig. 1). It forms part of a water-supply and
irrigation project serving 1,200 ha of farmland, plus
industrial demand in Southern Ghors, south of the Dead
Sea.
Tannur Dam lies in a narrow, V-shaped valley in a highly
seismic area. The steep sides of the valley rise at 30
for
100 m above the bed of the ‘‘wadi’’ (a stream that remains
dry, except in the rainy season when it feeds the southern
Dead Sea).
A combination of factors, including the narrow site and
reasonably good bedrock at shallow depth, led to the
choice of a concrete gravity dam, with the availability of
naturally occurring pozzolan making RCC the most suit-
able form. In total, the dam contains 215,000 m3 of RCC,
with a further 4,000 m3 in its stilling basin. The concrete
mix has a high cement content for water tightness because
DOI 10.1007/s00254-004-0967-6 Environmental Geology (2004) 45:1087–1100 1087
 Original article

The presence of highly fractured carbonate rocks on the

foundation and dam abutments causes increased leakage,
which may endanger the performance of the dam. There-
fore, water–rock interaction plays a major role in the
widening of fractures that led to channel solutions within
the carbonates or gypsum rocks. The fracture system in
the study area consists of three perpendicular sets of
fractures creating a series of cubes, bounded by fractures.
The fracture spacings range from 0.2 to 0.9 m, and the
fracture apertures are 5 mm, in some locations reaching
10 cm. This causes a dramatic increase of leakage and
dissolution rates along these fractures.
This study is focused on the geochemical interaction be-
tween the carbonate and sulfate rocks constituting the dam
abutment and foundation, which leads to an increase in
the salinity of seepage water through the dam itself. The
carbonate rocks consist mainly of limestone with inter-
Fig. 1 calation of gypsum layers. To evaluate the solubility
View of the Tannur Dam behavior of these rocks in water, water samples were taken
from different localities in the dam area and were analyzed
of the region’s high seismicity. Advanced methods were for their chemical constituents. Furthermore, a geochem-
used for placing both the RCC and the two-line foundation ical model was carried out using the computer software
grout curtain up to 55 m deep. Construction of the dam PHREEQC to explain the thermodynamic condition of the
was completed in 2002. water during water–rock interaction.

Fig. 2
Location map of the Tannur Dam

1088 Environmental Geology (2004) 45:1087–1100


Geological framework
The Tannur Dam site is in a steep valley of the Wadi Al-
Hasa at Jebel Tannur, approximately 5 km downstream
from the bridge of the King’s Highway, which is about
50 km south of Karak (Fig. 2) The dam area was investi-
gated by local and international consulting engineering
firms (McDonald and Partners 1965; Howard Humphreys
and Partners 1995; MacDonald 1999). A generalized geo-
logical map of the dam site and reservoir area is shown in
Fig. 3. On this map the outcrops of different bedrock
geologic units and the different types of surficial deposits
are shown. Outcropping rocks at the dam site and reser-
voir area belong to the Ajlun Group of Late Cretaceous
age. The oldest rocks in the dam site area are the Fuheis
Hummar Shueib (FHS) Formation (A3/A6), representing
the dam foundation rocks. This formation outcrops at the
left abutment and the reservoir area, and consists of thin
to moderately thick-bedded (1 to 50 cm thick) limestone,
marlstone, marl and clayey marl, with gypsum bands. The
limestone is moderately hard and moderately weak. These
strata were encountered in all exploratory boreholes along
Original article
the dam axis and in the adits constructed on the dam axis.
The sequence contains bands of marl and fossiliferous
limestone up to 0.5 m thick. The Wadi Es Sir Limestone
(A7) overlies the limestone sequence at the top of the FHS
and consists of massive, thickly and thinly bedded
limestone with nodules of chert interbedded with marly
limestone and dolomitic limestone.
The colluvial deposits are frequently encountered
throughout the dam area, primarily on hillsides and
hilltops outside of wadis. Colluvium comprises a hetero-
geneous mixture of angular to subrounded particles from
boulders to sand-sized particles, with some silt and silty
clay and marl. Mostly thick unstable landslide materials
and/or colluvium cover the dam site and the reservoir
area. The bed of the Wadi Al-Hasa downstream of the siq
in the Nau’r limestones comprises wadi gravel up to 70 m
wide, and a maximum thickness of 15 m at the dam axis.
The wadi gravel comprises cobbles and boulders with a
silty sand matrix.
The major structural feature of the area is the Wadi Al
Hasa Fault, which strikes WNW in the region of the dam
and lies 500 m to the northeast of the dam site. The Wadi
Fig. 3
Generalized geological map of the Tannur
dam site area
Environmental Geology (2004) 45:1087–1100 1089
 Original article
Al Hasa Fault strikes generally E–W from the Dead Sea
Fault, which is about 23 km west of the dam site. To the
east it dies away in a series of minor faults to merge with
the Karak-Faiha Fault (Bender 1974).
Structural features of the area are intimately related to the
tectonics and geological processes that contributed to the
Al-Hasa Fault. Characterization of the fracture system was
obtained through a geostructural survey carried out on
dam abutments and reservoir area. The fracture-orienta-
tion data were interpreted statistically and plotted on a
Schmitt net using the computer program Rockworks
(Rockware Inc. 1999). Three representative sets of fractures
have been identified from stereo diagrams of fractures in
the two formations: Wadi Sir (A7) and FHS (A3/A6). The
dip of bedding in both formations showed a general ori-
entation of 010
/20
on the right abutment, and 300
/20
on
the left abutment. Three major joint sets were also recog-
nized on the right abutment, which are oriented WNW–ESE
(186
/72
), NW–SE (244
/82
), which is inclined toward the
SW, and NNW–SSE (264
/88
), which is inclined toward
the SW (Fig. 4). In the left abutment, three major joint sets
also have been identified; the first set is oriented NW–SE
1090 Environmental Geology (2004) 45:1087–1100
(204
/88
), the second one striking NE–SW (116
/80
), and
the third joint set trending 254
/70
. In the right adit, three
joint sets were identified trending WNW–ESE (189
/72
),
NW–SE (254
/88
), and NNW–SSE (282
/82
). Three joint
sets striking NNW–SSE (248
/77
), NNE–SSW (285
/88
),
and NW–SE (215
/87
) characterize the left adit.
Hydrogeology
The aquifer systems in the study area can be differenti-
ated into three main aquifers, which are the Kurnub
Sandstone Aquifer (Lower Cretaceous), the Wadi Es Sir
Limestone Aquifer (Upper Cretaceous), and the alluvial
deposits aquifer (Recent).
Kurnub Sandstone Aquifer
The Kurnub Sandstone Formation, exposed 2 km away
from the dam site, consists mainly of massive white and
varicolored arenaceous sandstones. It is usually poorly
cemented and sorted sandstone, which contains a
Fig. 4
Topographic map and stereonets of joint
sampling sites
 Original article

considerable amount of fine particles and has a maximum limestone, dolomitic limestone, marl, marly limestone, and
thickness of about 300 m (Amireh and Abed 2000). One chert nodules. Permeability tests were carried out on the
well has been drilled in the Kurnub Sandstone Aquifer, dam abutments to determine the permeability of this
which produces water under artesian conditions. The aquifer. From these tests the permeability ranges between
hydraulic parameters of this aquifer were derived from the 2·10)8 and 1.49·10)5 m/s, with an average value of
pumping test data. The permeability of the aquifer is 5.5·10)6 m/s. It is obvious that the permeability of A7 is
4.5·10)5 m/s (WAJ 1999). In addition, the transmissivity quite similar to that of the Kurnub Sandstone Aquifer.
and storage coefficient of this aquifer were estimated to be
1.31·10)3 and 0.002, respectively. Alluvial deposits aquifer
This aquifer extends along the wadi floor and consists of
Wadi Es Sir Limestone Aquifer gravels and fragments of limestones, chert, and basalts.
This formation outcrops on dam abutments and reservoir The permeability of the aquifer ranges between 6.5·10)4
area and consists of alternating beds of crystalline and 1.3·10)2 m/s, with an average value of 6.6·10)3 m/s.

Fig. 5
Groundwater flow in the study
area

Environmental Geology (2004) 45:1087–1100 1091

 Original article
It is obvious that the permeability of the alluvial deposits is
about three orders of magnitude higher than the Kurnub
Sandstone and Wadi es Sir Limestone aquifers.
Groundwater flow
Groundwater levels were recorded in the boreholes drilled
on the dam abutments and reservoir area. The majority of
these boreholes tap the Wadi Sir Limestone Aquifer.
However, the groundwater contour map of this aquifer,
prepared using the Surfer 7.0 computer program (Keckler
1999) as shown in Fig. 5, shows that the groundwater flow
on the right side of the reservoir area and right abutment
is toward the southwest, while on the left side of the res-
ervoir area and the left abutment, groundwater flows to the
north and northeast.
1092 Environmental Geology (2004) 45:1087–1100
Water chemistry
Sampling and analytical procedures
Sampling of reservoir water and water from nine seep-
ages, as shown in Fig. 6, was performed between October
2001 and May 2002. All samples were collected in poly-
ethylene bottles (1,000 mL) and transported to a labora-
tory in cold storage. The samples for ion analysis
(200 mL) were then filtered through a 45-lm cellulose
nitrate membrane filter using a vacuum pump. Samples
for cation analysis were treated to acidify the samples to
pH<2, and all samples were cooled before chemical
analysis. Electrical conductivity, temperature, redox po-
tential (Eh), dissolved oxygen (DO) and pH were mea-
sured in situ using portable devices. The concentrations
Fig. 6
Location of the water sampling sites
 Table 1
Complete chemical analysis of the water samples

No. Source Date EC TDS pH va- Ca Mg Na K Cl SO4 CO3 HCO3 NO3

lue
(ls/cm) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)

1 Wadi water 8/9/1999 1,150 774.95 7.89 122.00 85.00 136.00 12.00 281.00 359.00 0.00 260.00 6.50
2 Spring downstream 31/10/2000 1,782 1,200.83 7.15 162.32 43.72 64.86 8.97 140.73 321.64 0.00 192.76 1.00
3 Drain water bottom outlet 17/12/2000 2,260 1,522.94 7.78 202.40 74.08 169.97 28.08 351.72 533.24 0.00 186.05 1.00
4 Lake water 8/10/2001 3,550 2,392.22 7.93 155.00 117.00 277.00 40.00 711.00 347.00 0.00 184.00 14.00
5 Lake water 19/3/2002 1,429 962.95 8.06 89.38 54.20 89.70 7.80 188.94 232.99 9.00 184.22 16.12
6 Drain water right existing adit 16/1/2002 6,299 4,244.68 7.39 290.98 207.50 499.79 24.57 1,423.79 381.35 0.00 289.75 52.00
7 Middle drain (central gallery) 10/2/2002 5,062 3,411.11 7.33 260.00 226.00 511.00 42.00 1,233.00 711.00 0.00 316.00 30.00
8 Right drain (spring) 10/2/2002 5,075 3,419.87 7.31 260.00 229.00 502.00 35.00 1,234.00 719.00 0.00 331.00 33.00
9 Right drain (spring) 17/3/2002 5,960 4,016.24 7.19 271.54 226.71 518.88 15.65 1,367.00 558.58 0.00 316.59 60.14
10 River upstream (base flow) 17/3/2002 1,802 1,214.31 8.28 89.18 82.03 112.47 6.63 278.99 264.70 13.00 184.22 16.74
11 River downstream 17/3/2002 5,870 3,955.59 7.35 244.29 237.43 586.50 21.84 1,433.13 550.53 0.00 25.80 45.88
12 Main drain downstream 17/3/2002 5,995 4,039.83 7.48 290.98 207.50 499.79 24.57 1,423.79 381.35 0.00 289.75 52.00
13 Right drain (spring) 17/3/2002 5,880 3,962.33 7.35 388.00 212.00 430.00 32.00 1,550.00 239.00 0.00 545.00 38.00
14 Middle drain (central gallery) 17/3/2002 3,090 2,082.25 7.33 323.80 57.37 159.85 11.70 4,74.43 443.79 0.00 289.75 7.44
15 Drain water right existing adit 17/3/2001 7,840 5,283.11 7.34 333.67 253.83 899.99 21.84 1,912.82 856.08 0.00 316.59 77.50
16 Drain water right existing adit 17/3/2002 7,760 5,229.20 7.20 335.00 255.00 900.00 23.00 1,911.00 853.00 0.00 318.00 68.00
17 CSD 28 center 1/5/2002 4,390 2,958.27 7.26 280.60 149.38 399.97 19.89 899.64 646.56 0.00 263.52 14.26
18 Center L/D 1/5/2002 3,990 2,688.73 7.44 292.20 122.18 349.83 29.64 795.23 648.00 0.00 157.99 11.78
19 D/S right 1/5/2002 7,510 5,060.73 7.84 290.40 276.18 899.99 29.64 1,849.21 939.84 0.00 211.06 40.30
20 Center right 1/5/2002 7,030 4,737.28 7.71 290.40 235.01 849.85 39.78 1,713.15 943.20 0.00 237.29 40.92
21 Reservoir 1.5·106 1/5/2002 1,369 922.52 7.97 94.80 50.64 111.32 8.97 165.94 285.60 0.00 211.06 3.10
22 D/S left 1/5/2002 5,680 3,827.56 7.87 261.40 199.66 545.79 29.64 1,313.78 654.24 0.00 211.06 27.90
23 D/S middle 1/5/2002 7,440 5,013.56 7.79 309.80 258.57 815.81 29.64 1,863.62 738.24 0.00 263.52 39.06
24 D/S right 1/5/2002 7,330 4,939.44 7.73 309.80 264.40 864.80 19.89 1,820.38 706.08 0.00 553.88 33.48
25 Existing right adit 1/5/2002 8,810 5,936.76 7.41 329.00 305.69 713.92 24.57 2,131.86 787.68 0.00 289.75 52.70
26 Downstream river 1/5/2002 7,010 4,723.80 7.70 271.00 246.79 999.81 24.57 1,604.87 1,330.08 0.00 211.06 32.86
27 Right drain (spring) 1/5/2002 7,240 4,878.79 7.23 290.40 270.35 907.81 19.89 1,676.59 1,050.72 0.00 316.59 32.86
28 Central gallery right drain 1/5/2002 2,800 1,886.82 7.50 150.20 72.87 245.87 7.80 253.83 123.36 0.00 474.58 4.34
29 D/S middle drain 19/5/2002 7,330 4,939.44 7.23 309.80 246.79 815.81 24.57 1,748.66 815.04 0.00 263.52 39.68
30 Central gallery middle 19/5/2002 4,660 3,140.22 7.16 290.40 199.79 369.84 24.57 934.09 729.60 0.00 263.52 11.16
31 Central gallery left drain 19/5/2002 2,130 1,435.33 7.49 145.20 64.49 199.87 9.75 306.56 468.00 0.00 105.53 6.20
32 Existing right adit 19/5/2002 8,160 5,498.75 7.21 309.80 282.01 966.92 24.57 1,940.26 945.60 0.00 316.59 50.22
33 Downstream right drain 19/5/2002 7,190 4,845.10 7.20 280.60 258.57 761.99 24.57 1,676.59 779.52 0.00 263.52 37.82
34 Downstream left drain 19/5/2002 5,720 3,854.51 7.69 367.80 135.05 603.98 24.57 1,293.39 683.04 0.00 263.52 28.52
35 Reservoir 19/5/2002 1,355 913.09 8.01 73.40 61.09 52.90 8.97 181.76 143.52 6.40 184.22 3.10
36 Central section CSD15 1/7/2002 4,810 3,241.30 12.24 286.20 0.00 522.79 79.56 761.48 573.12 258.00 26.23 5.58
37 Existing right adit 1/7/2002 7,010 4,723.80 7.92 233.20 228.20 871.70 30.42 1,582.02 919.20 0.00 289.75 47.12
38 Existing right adit drain 1/7/2002 5,350 3,605.18 8.00 199.80 166.75 731.40 29.64 1,125.70 956.16 3.20 263.52 26.04
39 Right gallery drain 1/7/2002 2,230 1,502.72 12.30 88.20 5.95 199.87 59.67 239.41 181.92 75.00 262.30 6.20
40 Mixed right gallery/adit 1/7/2002 5,870 3,955.59 8.86 199.80 171.85 799.94 30.42 1,269.13 915.36 25.80 263.52 35.96
41 Central gallery left drain 1/7/2002 4,160 2,803.28 8.81 203.20 127.28 485.99 34.71 774.49 782.88 25.20 214.72 9.92
42 Central gallery left drain 1/7/2002 4,260 2,870.67 9.30 233.20 151.69 492.89 39.78 790.31 879.36 72.00 289.75 11.78
43 Central gallery right drain 1/7/2002 3,020 2,035.08 9.21 146.60 105.18 316.02 29.64 528.04 621.60 69.60 184.22 1.86
44 Left drain downstream 1/7/2002 5,320 3,584.97 8.11 216.40 166.14 690.69 24.57 1,153.12 832.32 39.00 263.52 20.46
45 Right drain downstream 1/7/2002 6,340 4,272.31 7.76 199.80 202.34 876.99 24.57 1,413.27 953.28 0.00 263.52 34.72
46 Middle drain (central gallery) 1/7/2002 5,630 3,793.87 7.72 233.20 202.34 822.94 24.57 1,508.90 840.00 0.00 289.75 34.72

Environmental Geology (2004) 45:1087–1100

Original article

47 Downstream right (spring) 1/7/2002 6,600 4,447.52 7.65 233.20 227.60 822.94 19.89 1,508.90 927.84 0.00 263.52 33.48

1093
 Original article

of selected ions (Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, SO4, HCO3, CO3, and

(mg/L)

23.56
NO3

6.20
6.20

7.44
3.10
8.06
NO3) were analyzed at the laboratories of the Department
of Water Management and Environment and the
(mg/L) Department of Chemistry at Hashemite University. The
211.06
257.42
237.29
105.53
105.53
HCO3

26.23
analytical error was calculated to verify the analytical
accuracy, which has been discussed in Arnold and others
(1992). It was found that the analytical errors of all
samples were less than 5%, which ensured the reliability
(mg/L)

147.00
45.60
21.00
67.20

51.60
CO3

0.00

of the chemical data.

Statistical analysis
(mg/L)

721.92
240.48
464.64
469.44
36.96
82.56

The complete water analyses for the water samples are

SO4

summarized in Table 1.
Table 2 summarizes the descriptive statistics of the
1,484.99
(mg/L)

chemical analyses of water samples. The concentration of

100.55
100.55

181.76
323.08
682.38
Cl

chemical constituents of the water seepages from the

drains is higher than the original reservoir water. The
average pH value of the water is around 7.5, indicating
(mg/L)

13.65
29.64
11.70
49.53
99.45
9.75

that the dissolved carbonates are predominantly in the

K

HCO3 form. Nevertheless, the pH value of some water

samples in the reservoir reaches a value of 8.28. The total
(mg/L)

734.39
117.53
224.71
474.72

dissolved solids (TDS) vary widely from 694 mg/L of

69.92
69.92
Na

floodwater to around 6,000 mg/L in the right adit. The

increase in salinity can be explained by the chemical
reactions that take place during water–rock interaction,
(mg/L)

207.44
17.12
22.23

44.57
61.94
80.76
Mg

and that led to dissolution and precipitation of mineral

phases.
The Pearson’s correlation matrix to find the relation-
(mg/L)

224.80
49.80
69.80

68.20
89.80
66.60

ships between two or more variables was carried out

Ca

using Statistica software (Swan and Sandilands 1995), as

shown in Fig. 7. Samples showing r>0.7 are considered
pH va-

to be strongly correlated, whereas r>0.5–0.7 shows

10.00
7.33
8.17
8.55
9.02

9.31
lue

moderate correlation at a significance level (p) of <0.05.

Strong correlations exist among the major elements Na,
Ca, Mg, SO4, Cl, NO3, and EC (r>0.7; Fig. 8). These
4,258.83

1,522.94
2,223.76
(mg/L)

516.86
605.13

901.63
TDS

relationships clearly identify the main elements con-

tributing to the salinity of water seepages, and their
tendency to follow a similar trend (e.g., due to con-
(ls/cm)

centration by water–rock interaction and ion exchange).

6,320
1,338
2,260
3,300
767
898
EC

Moderate correlations (r>0.5–0.7) between NO3, K, and

SO4 were obtained.
The major exchangeable ions, Na–Ca and Na–Mg, corre-
1/7/2002
1/7/2002
1/7/2002
1/7/2002
1/7/2002
1/7/2002

late positively, as shown in Fig. 9. It can therefore be

Date

postulated that the concurrent increase/decrease in the

cations is the result mainly of dissolution/precipitation
reactions and concentration effects.
Umm Ishrian Spring (500 m) DS
Umm Ishrian Spring (200 m) DS

To determine the relationship between different parame-

ters of the carbonate systems, the carbonate species were
subjected to product linear correlations to determine the
Downstream river
Reservoir 1.5·106
Left drain gallery

correlation coefficient with other variables. These rela-

CSD 13

tionships show that HCO3 correlates directly with Ca and

Source

Mg (Fig. 10), which means an increase in carbonate con-

centration results from increasing calcium and magnesium
concentrations. The source of calcium and magnesium in
the water seepages is believed to be calcite, dolomite,
gypsum and anhydrite in the Wadi Es Sir and FHS for-
Table 1

mations. The reverse relationship between Ca and HCO3

with pH value can be attributed to the decrease of these
(Contd.)

two ions at high pH values due to the precipitation of

No.

48
49
50
51
52
53

calcite.

1094 Environmental Geology (2004) 45:1087–1100

 Original article

Table 2
Descriptive statistics of hydrochemical data (S.D. standard deviation)

Parameter No. Mean Minimum Maximum S.D.

EC (ls/cm) 50 4,470.46 574.00 8,810.00 2,649.27

TDS (mg/L) 50 3,012.49 694 5,936.76 1,785.25
pH value 50 7.53 7.15 8.28 0.31
Temperature (
C) 50 22 18 27 11.23
Ca (mg/L) 50 223.41 40.48 388.00 103.73
Mg (mg/L) 50 157.68 18.00 305.69 94.57
Na (mg/L) 50 445.17 38.41 999.81 323.26
K (mg/L) 50 20.57 5.00 42.00 10.40
HCO3 (mg/L) 50 251.88 25.80 553.88 103.23
Cl (mg/L) 50 1,000.26 72.00 2131.86 700.42
SO4 (mg/L) 50 541.50 41.79 1,330.08 309.35
NO3 (mg/L) 50 26.36 0.10 77.50 21.31

Fig. 7
Pearson’s correlation matrix of
the hydrochemical data

Representation of hydrochemical data
A Schoeller diagram provides a convenient means for the
visual inspection of chemical data from water samples. The
Schoeller semi-logarithmic plot permits the total concen-
tration (mequiv/L) of major cations and anions of several
water samples to be represented on a single graph.
Therefore, major groupings or trends in the data can be
distinguished visually. The ionic composition lines for
mean concentrations (mequiv/L) of major cations and
anions in water samples collected from all locations are
plotted in Fig. 11. The mean values were used because
there was no statistically significant difference in the mean
concentration values of the major ions over time at each
location.
The difference between ionic composition lines on the
Schoeller diagram indicates that there are three major
water types originating during water–rock interaction. The
first water type is characterized by low salinity that ranges
from 1,300 to 2,800 ls/cm, which represents the reservoir
water and the water in the right side of the central gallery.
The second water type is in the left side of the central
gallery, which exhibits medium salinity that reaches about
4,400 ls/cm. The third water type is characterized by very
high salinity that reaches a value of around 8,800 ls/cm
and represents the water in the right adit.
Furthermore, the major cations and anions for the ana-
lyzed water were plotted on a Piper diagram (Piper 1944)
to determine the water type according to the Langguth
classification (Furtak and Langguth 1967), as shown in
Fig. 12. From this figure, it is evident that the water type is
earth alkaline water with increased portions of alkalis and
prevailing sulfate. The Ca(HCO3)2 is primarily a result of
dissolution of carbonate minerals, such as calcite and
dolomite, which is prevalent at the dam site. The removal
of calcium, through the precipitation of carbonate min-
erals, may cause a disturbance in chemical equilibrium,
resulting in the dissolution of minerals containing calcium
such as gypsum (Freeze and Cherry 1979). This is con-
firmed by the saturation index of the water with respect to
gypsum, which is undersaturated. Thus, CaSO4-type water
may be developed, and sulfate reduction leads to the for-
mation of Ca(HCO3)2.

Environmental Geology (2004) 45:1087–1100 1095

 Original article

Fig. 8 determined by calculating the chemical equilibrium of the

Correlation analysis between EC and Ca, Mg, Na, Cl, SO4 concentra-
tions of analyzed samples
Geochemical modeling
The geochemical interactions lead to changes in water
chemistry. The potential for a chemical reaction can be
water with the mineral phases. The equilibrium state of the
water with respect to a mineral phase can be determined
by calculating a saturation index (SI) using analytical data.
The SI is defined as the logarithm of the ratio of the ion
activity product to the mineral equilibrium constant at a

1096 Environmental Geology (2004) 45:1087–1100

 Original article

Fig. 9
Correlation between Na and Ca and Mg concentrations of the
analyzed samples

given temperature. If SI is equal to zero (0), the water is in

equilibrium with the mineral; if it is less than 0, the water
is undersaturated and, if present, that mineral will dis-
solve. If the ratio is greater than 0, the water is supersat-
urated and mineral precipitation would be possible.
Because of uncertainties in analytical and thermodynamic
constants, water with a SI value between 0.1 and )0.1 is
assumed to represent saturation conditions or is in equi-
librium with respect to the mineral phase (Swancar and
Hutchinson 1992). The mass-balance model PHREEQE
(Parkhurst and others 1980) was used to simulate the
geochemical reactions that may occur when water reacts
with minerals making up the dam abutments and foun-
dation area. PHREEQE is a generalized aqueous specia-
tion, solubility, mass-transfer computer code that can Fig. 10
simulate several types of reactions including acid-base, Correlation between Ca, Mg, pH and HCO3 concentrations of the
cation-exchange, and redox reactions. Modeled reactions analyzed samples
were evaluated based on the equilibrium state of water
with respect to selected mineral phases. The selected sat- supersaturated with respect to calcite and dolomite,
uration indices are summarized in Table 3. The values in slightly undersaturated with respect to the gypsum, and
Table 3 show that most of the water is saturated to highly undersaturated with respect to halite.

Environmental Geology (2004) 45:1087–1100 1097

 Original article

Fig. 11
Schoeller diagram of the chemi-
cal constituents of the water
samples

and gypsum, and highly undersaturated with respect to

halite.

Discussion
From a geochemical viewpoint, the development of saline-
water seepage in the foundation area of the Tannur Dam
can be explained in terms of mineral availability and
mineral solubility. There are several soluble sedimentary
minerals that release SO42) or Cl) upon dissolution.
Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and anhydrite (CaSO4) are the
most common of the sulfate-bearing minerals. Highly
soluble chloride minerals such as halite (NaCl) often occur
as salt strata and very thin bands originally deposited
Fig. 12 during evaporation of closed Sabkha or restricted marine
Piper diagram of the water samples basins several million years ago. Chloride minerals of
sedimentary origin dissolve rapidly in water. These
conditions formed the framework for the development of a
The saturation indices at different water sampling sites are conceptual model of water seepage evolution in the dam
plotted on Fig. 13. Generally, it is clear that all the water area. Processes that may be responsible for the formation
samples are oversaturated with respect to calcite and of the various water types are depicted in Fig. 14 (Adams
dolomite, slightly undersaturated with respect to anhydrite and others 2001).

Table 3
Selected saturation indices from WATEQ4F model results

Sample location SI calcite SI dolomite SI anhydite SI gypsum SI halite pCO2

Base flow 0.33 1.13 )1.382 )1.4 )6.038 2.91·10)3

Reservoir 0.645 1.29 )1.152 )1.19 )6.347 2.02·10)3
Drain D/L 0.773 1.687 )0.709 )0.73 )4.828 2.91·10)3
Drain D/M 0.819 1.814 )0.663 )0.68 )4.52 3.2·10)3
Drain D/R 1.091 2.388 )0.684 )0.72 )4.511 7.89·10)3
R/E adit 0.492 1.204 )0.641 )0.65 )4.523 8.48·10)3
DS river 0.573 1.398 )0.477 )0.53 )4.511 3.35·10)3
Spring R/A 0.351 0.97 )0.533 )0.59 )4.534 1.52·10)2
Drain C/C 0.667 1.248 )1.419 )1.42 )5.857 1.25·10)2

1098 Environmental Geology (2004) 45:1087–1100


The following analysis of the theoretical basis for the
conceptual model is an adaptation of a related discussion
presented by Freeze and Cherry (1979).
The relatively high ionic concentrations of sodium, chlo-
ride, and sulfate in the water seepages at the Tannur Dam
site can be described as the end result of a number of
interrelated geochemical processes, as shown in Fig. 14.
The four principal geochemical processes are represented
by the reactions (Tedaldi and Loehr 1992):
CaSO4
2H2 O ! Ca2þ þ SO2
4 þ 2H2 O
Ca2þ þ 2NaðexchangedÞ $ 2Naþ þ CaðexchangedÞ
CaCO3 þ H2 CO3 ! 2Ca2þ þ 2HCO
3 ð3Þ
NaCl ! Naþ þ Cl
where ‘‘exchanged’’ denotes cations exchanged on clays.
The dissolution and precipitation of gypsum (CaSO4.2-
H2O) represent significant mechanisms for the addition or
removal of salinity from the water seepages at the Tannur
Dam site. Because gypsum deposits typically contain some
magnesium, the dissolution of gypsum will also result in
an increase in the concentration of magnesium in water
seepages. Although the dissolution and precipitation of
gypsum involve equimolar concentrations of Ca2+ and
SO42) (Eq. 1), calcium concentrations in the water seep-
ages are less than that of sulfate, as calcium may replace
exchangeable sodium (Eq. 2) or magnesium in the soil or
precipitate as CaCO3 (Eq. 3).
The exchange of calcium for sodium on the clays of the A7
and FHS formations can be represented by Eq. (2). The
equilibrium for Eq. (2) is far to the right as long as there is
appreciable Na on the exchange sites of the clays. Equa-
tion (1) will proceed to the right as long as the reactivity
product (Ca2+) (SO42)) is less than the equilibrium con-
stant for gypsum, and as long as gypsum is available for
dissolution. The removal of Ca2+ from solution by
Original article
Fig. 13
Saturation indices of minerals related to
interactions with water samples
ð1Þ
ð2Þ
ð4Þ
Fig. 14
Outline of the chemical processes responsible for the various water
types
exchange with Na+ causes the water seepages to become or
remain undersaturated with respect to gypsum, thereby
enabling gypsum dissolution to continue. Thus, the influx
of Ca2+ derived from the dissolution of gypsum causes
increased Na+ (and Mg2+) concentrations as the cation-
exchange reactions adjust to maintain equilibrium. The
increased Ca2+ concentrations also cause the solubility
product of calcite to be exceeded, and drive Eq. (3) to the
left, resulting in the precipitation of calcite. The precipi-
tation of calcite would cause a loss of Ca2+ and HCO3) and
dissolution of more gypsum. Because the HCO3) content
in the water seepages is primarily derived from soil zone
CO2, and from dissolution of calcite and dolomite, the
removal of HCO3) due to precipitation of calcite would
result in a decrease in water-seepage buffering capacity
and, with this decrease, the increased probability of a
trend toward decreasing pH.
Environmental Geology (2004) 45:1087–1100 1099
 Original article
Only very small amounts of chloride need be present in the
clay for relatively high concentrations to develop in water
seepage if dilution is not significant. Because chloride
generally does not participate in chemical or biological
reactions within groundwater systems, it is often consid-
ered to be a conservative substance. As such, once disso-
lution of NaCl occurs, Cl will remain in solution,
unaffected by precipitation, ion exchange, or biochemical
degradation.
Conclusions
The geochemical processes of dissolution, precipitation,
and cation exchange control the formation of water types
that evolve between Ca(HCO3)2- and NaCl-type waters.
Mineral saturation state calculations indicate that the
water is undersaturated with respect to gypsum and halite,
and saturated and/or supersaturated with respect to calcite
and dolomite. Cation-exchange processes are responsible
for the formation of NaCl. Dissolution and precipitation of
mineral phases determine the contribution to, and re-
moval of, ionic species in solution. Precipitation of calcite
causes an equilibrium disturbance in Ca concentrations,
and leads to the dissolution of gypsum (where available).
The formation of CaSO4-type water may result from this
process. The CaSO4-type water can be reduced to CaHCO3
waters. Cation-exchange processes are responsible for the
formation of Na2SO4-type waters from CaSO4 waters. At
higher salinities, reverse cation exchange may occur with
the formation of CaCl2-type water from NaCl type.
Salinization because of long residence times causes the
formation of NaCl and CaCl2.
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