"UNIT 4

4.1 IN-SITU MOISTURE CONSERVATION TECHNIQUES

Micro catchments:

1. Functions

• To conserve insitu moisture and reduce soil loss

• Circular basin of one meter diameter for level lands depending upon infiltration and rainfall

• ‘ V’ ditches of size 5m x 5m with trees planted centre and height according to the rainfall and slope of slopy
lands

• Saucer basins / semi circular bunds with 2m diameter to a height of 15-20cm across the slope

Broad beds and furrows:

Function To control erosion and to conserve soil moisture in the soil during rainy days

General information The broad bed and furrow system is laid within the field boundaries. The land levels taken and it
is laid using either animal drawn or tractor drawn ridgers.

Cost Approximate cost for laying beds and furrows is Rs. 1000/- per ha.

Salient features Conserves soil moisture in dryland

Controls soil erosion.

Acts as a drainage channel during heavy rainy days.

Contour bund:

Function To intercept the runoff flowing down the slope by an embankment.

General information It helps to control runoff velocity. The embankment may be closed or open, surplus
arrangements are provided whenever necessary.

Cost Approximate cost for laying contour bund is Rs. 1500/- per ha.

Salient features It can be adopted in light and medium textured soils.

It can be laid upto 6% slopes.

It helps to retain moisture in the field.

SPECIFICATION FOR BUND CROSS SECTION

Depth of soil (m) Base width (m) Top width (m) Height (m) Side slope (m) Area cross section (sq.m)

Shallow soils

(7.5 – 22.5 cm) 2.67 0.38 0.75 1.5 : 1 1.14

Medium soil

(22.5 – 45 cm) 3.12 0.60 0.85 1.5 : 1 1.56

Medium deep soils 4.25 0.60 0.90 2:1 2.1

Bunding options Soil type Rainfall (mm) Slope (%)

Contour bund Light soil <600 >1.5

Graded bund All soils >600 1.5

Bench terraces Deep soil >1000 6.0

Graded boarder strip Deep alfisol and related red soil >800 >1.5

In-Situ Moisture Conservation Techniques

Soil Type Rainfall In-Situ Moisture Conservation Techniques

Red soil Low Dead furrow at 3-6 m interval

Medium Sowing on flat bed and riding later with eventual cultivation

High Graded border strips

Black soil Low Contour cultivation

Medium Dead furrows at 3-6 m interval

High Graded open furrow (0.2 to 0.3 m3) at 10 m interval across the slope

IMPROVING SOIL MOISTURE STORAGE

Addition of silt, clay, organic matter etc., increases field capacity and also raises wilting point to marginal increase in
available moisture holding capacity.

The moisture availability to the agricultural crops, it is necessary to adopt in-situ moisture conservation techniques in
addition to the large scale soil and moisture conservation and water harvesting structures in the watershed.

PRINCIPLE: Impounding the water on the surface of the soil to increase the opportunity time for infiltration and
modifying the land configuration for inter plot water harvesting. Behind the recommendation of different practices is to
increase the infiltration by reducing the rate of runoff, temporarily

EARLIER EFFORT: All the erosion control measures however, led to accumulation of water against the structures rather
than its proper and uniform distribution in the interacted area and at times led to reduction in crop yields.for moisture
conservation were concentrated upon construction of various types of bunds across the land slope to control erosion
and conserve soil.

TO OVERCOME: Generally, the sub soiling and deep digging decreases the soil penetration resistance and increases
profile water use when compared with conventional tillage.These problems the in situ moisture conservation techniques
are recommended.

In-situ moisture conservation methods to increase the moisture availability to the agricultural crops in the individual
farmer’s field and to increase the infiltration and percolation of rain water into the root profile, the in-situ moisture
conservation techniques are recommended.

DEEP TILLAGE: Deep tillage means performing tillage operations below the normal tillage depth to modify the physical or
chemical properties of a soil. It includes tillage operations commonly referred to as deep plowing, subsoiling, ripping, or
row-till, which are carried out on an as-needed basis.
MULCHING: The process is used both in commercial crop production and in gardening, and when applied correctly can
dramatically improve soil productivity.Mulching is one of the simplest methods to conserve soil moisture. A Mulch is
simply a protective layer of a material that is spread on top of a soil. Mulches can either be organic- such as straw bark
chips etc.,or inorganic like stones brick chips plastic.

ADVANTAGES OF MULCHING

Maintains a more even soil temperature. Prevents weed growth

Reduces compaction from the impact of heavy rains Protects from soil erosion

BASIN LISTING: in this method of soil and water conservations basins are constructed using a special implement called
basin lister. These basin are constructed across the slope. Basin listing provides maximum time to rain water for
infiltration into soil

BOARD BASED BED AND FURROWS: This system helps the soil to preserve the water level for a longer period. Holding
the moisture intact, the bed stimulates crops growth. This system not only help in water conservation but also help to
adopt to changing climate.

RIDGES AND FURROWS: It is an archeological pattern of ridges and troughs created by a system of ploughing used in
Europe during the middle age, typical of the open field system.

COMPARTMENTAL BUNDING: It means the entire field is divided into small compartments with pre determined size to
retain the rain water where it falls and arrest soil erosion. The compartmental bunds are formed using bund former. The
size of the bunds depends upon the slope of the land compartmental bunds provide more opportunity time for water to
infiltrate into the soil and help in conserving soil moisture.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPARTMENTAL BUNDING

It can be formed while ploughing itself or before early sowing.

Reduces the formation of cracks

Suitable for lesser rainfall areas

Conserves moisture

4.2 WATER HARVESTING

Importance of Water Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting, in its broadest sense, is a technology used for collecting and storing rainwater for human use from
rooftops, land surfaces or rock catchments using simple techniques such as jars and pots as well as engineered
techniques. Rainwater harvesting has been practiced for more than 4,000 years, owing to the temporal and spatial
variability of rainfall. It is an important water source in many areas with significant rainfall but lacking any kind of
conventional, centralised supply system. It is also a good option in areas where good quality fresh surface water or
ground water is lacking. Water harvesting enables efficient collection and storage of rainwater, makes it accessible and
substitute for poor quality water. There are a number of ways by which water harvesting can benefit a community.

• Improvement in the quality of ground water,

• Rise in the water levels in wells and bore wells that are drying up,

• Mitigation of the effects of drought and attainment of drought proofing,

• An ideal solution in areas having inadequate water resources,

• Reduction in the soil erosion as the surface runoff is reduced,

• Decrease in the choking of storm water drains and flooding of roads and

• Saving of energy to lift ground water.

Types of Water Harvesting

Rainwater Harvesting: Rainwater harvesting is defined as the method for inducing, collecting, storing and conserving
local surface runoff for agriculture in arid and semi-arid

regions. Three types of water harvesting are covered by rainwater harvesting.

• Water collected from roof tops, courtyards and similar compacted or treated surfaces is used for domestic
purpose or garden crops.

• Micro-catchment water harvesting is a method of collecting surface runoff from a small catchment area and
storing it in the root zone of an adjacent infiltration basin. The basin is planted with a tree, a bush or with annual crops.

• Macro-catchment water harvesting, also called harvesting from external catchments is the case where runoff
from hill-slope catchments is conveyed to the cropping area located at foothill on flat terrain.

Flood Water Harvesting: Flood water harvesting can be defined as the collection and storage of creek flow for irrigation
use. Flood water harvesting, also known as „large catchment water harvesting‟ or „Spate Irrigation‟, may be classified
into following two forms:

• In case of „flood water harvesting within stream bed‟, the water flow is dammed and as a result, inundates the
valley bottom of the flood plain. The water is forced to infiltrate and the wetted area can be used for agriculture or
pasture improvement.

• In case of „flood water diversion‟, the wadi water is forced to leave its natural course

and conveyed to nearby cropping fields.

Groundwater Harvesting: Groundwater harvesting is a rather new term and employed to cover traditional as well as
unconventional ways of ground water extraction. Qanat systems, underground dams and special types of wells are a few
examples of the groundwater harvesting techniques. Groundwater dams like „Subsurface Dams‟ and „Sand Storage
Dams‟ are other fine examples of groundwater harvesting. They obstruct the flow of ephemeral streams in a river bed;
the water is stored in the sediment below ground surface and can be used for aquifer recharge.

Fig. 28.1. Contour Bunds. (Source: Barron and Salas, 2009)

Semicircular Hoop: This type of structure consists of an earthen impartment constructed in the shape of a semicircle
(Fig. 28.2). The tips of the semicircular hoop are furnished on the contour. The water contributed from the area is
collected within the hoop to a maximum depth equal to the height of the embankment. Excess water is discharged from
the point around the tips to the next lower hoop. The rows of semicircular hoops are arranged in a

staggered form so that the over flowing water from the upper row can be easily interrupted by the lower row. The
height of hoop is kept from 0.1 to 0.5 m and radius varies from 5 to 30

m. Such type of structure is mostly used for irrigation of grasses, fodder, shrubs, trees etc.

Fig. 28.2. Layout of Semi-Circular Hoop. (Source: Barron and Salas 2009)

Trapezoidal Bunds: Such bunds also consist of an earthen embankment, constructed in the shape of trapezoids. The tips
of the bund wings are placed on the contour. The runoff water yielded from the watershed is collected into the covered
area. The excess water overflows around the tips. In this system of water harvesting the rows of bunds are also arranged
in staggered form to intercept the overflow of water from the adjacent upstream areas. The layout of the trapezoidal
bunds is the same as the semicircular hoops, but they unusually cover a larger area (Fig. 28.3). Trapezoidal bund
technique is suitable for the areas where the rainfall intensity is too high and causes large surface flow to damage the
contour bunds. This technique of water harvesting is widely used for irrigating crops, grasses, shrubs, trees etc.

Fig. 28.3. Layout of Trapezoidal Bund. (Source: Barron and Salas, 2009)

Graded Bunds: Graded bunds also referred as off contour bunds. They consist of earthen or stone embankments and are
constructed on a land with a slope range of 0.5 to 2%. The design and construction of graded bunds are different from
the contour bunds. They are used as an option where rainfall intensity and soils are such that the runoff water
discharged

from the field can be easily intercepted. The excess intercepted or harvested water is diverted to the next field though a
channel ranges. The height of the graded bund ranges from 0.3 to 0.6 m. The downstream bunds consist of wings to
intercept the overflowing water from the upstream bunds. Due to this, the configuration of the graded bund looks like
an open ended trapezoidal bund. That is why sometimes it is also known as modified trapezoidal bund. This type of
bunds for water harvesting is generally used for irrigating the crops.

Rock Catchment: The rock catchments are the exposed rock surfaces, used for collecting the runoff water in a part as
depressed area. The water harvesting under this method can be explained as: when rainfall occurs on the exposed rock
surface, runoff takes place very rapidly because there is very little loss. The runoff so formed is drained towards the
lowest point called storage tank and the harvested water is stored there. The area of rock catchment may vary from a
100 m2 to few 1000 m2; accordingly the dimensions of the storage tank should also be designed. The water collected in
the tank can be used for domestic use or irrigation purposes.

• There should be suitable collection site, where water can be safely stored.

• Appropriate techniques should be used for minimizing various types of water losses such as seepage and
evaporation during storage and its subsequent use in the watershed.

• There should also be some suitable methods for efficient utilization of the harvested water for maximizing crop
yield per unit volume of available water.

The most common long term runoff harvesting structures are:

• Dugout Ponds

• Embankment Type Reservoirs

Dugout Ponds: The dugout ponds are constructed by excavating the soil from the ground surface. These ponds may be
fed by ground water or surface runoff or by both. Construction of these ponds is limited to those areas which have land
slope less than 4% and where water table lies within 1.5-2 meters depth from the ground surface (Fig. 28.4). Dugout
ponds

involve more construction cost, therefore these are generally recommended when embankment type ponds are not
economically feasible. The dugout ponds can also be recommended where maximum utilization of the harvested runoff
water is possible for increasing the production of some important crops. This type of ponds require brick lining with
cement plastering to ensure maximum storage by reducing the seepage loss.

Fig. 28.4. Illustration of Dugout Pond. (Source: Barron and Salas, 2009)

Embankment Type Reservoir: These types of reservoirs are constructed by forming a dam or embankment on the valley
or depression of the catchment area. The runoff water is collected into this reservoir and is used as per requirement.
The storage capacity of the reservoir is determined on the basis of water requirement for various demands and available
surface runoff from the catchment. In a situation when heavy uses of water are expected, then the storage capacity of
the reservoir must be kept sufficient so that it can fulfill the demand for more than one year.

Embankment type reservoirs are again classified as given below according to the purpose for which they are meant.
Irrigation Dam: The irrigation dams are mainly meant to store the surface water for irrigating the crops. The capacity is
decided based on the amount of input water available and output water desired. These dams have the provisions of
gated pipe spillway for taking out the water from the reservoir. Spillway is located at the bottom of the dam leaving
some minimum dead storage below it.

Silt Detention Dam: The basic purpose of silt detention dam is to detain the silt load coming along with the runoff water
from the catchment area and simultaneously to harvest water. The silt laden water is stored in the depressed part of the
catchment where the silt deposition takes place and comparatively silt free water is diverted for use. Such dams are
located at the lower reaches of the catchment where water enters the valley and finally released into the streams. In
this type of dam, provision of outlet is made for taking out the water for irrigation purposes. For better result a series of
such dams can be constructed along the slope of the catchment.

High Level Pond: Such dams are located at the head of the valley to form the shape of a water tank or pond. The stored
water in the pond is used to irrigate the area lying downstream. Usually, for better result a series of ponds can be
constructed in such a way that the command area of the tank located upstream forms the catchment area for the

downstream tank. Thus all but the uppermost tanks are facilitated with the collection of runoff and excess irrigation
water from the adjacent higher catchment area.

Farm Pond: Farm ponds are constructed for multi-purpose objectives, such as for irrigation, live-stock, water supply to
the cattle feed, fish production etc. The pond should have adequate capacity to meet all the requirements. The location
of farm pond should be such that all requirements are easily and conveniently met.

Water Harvesting Pond: The farm ponds can be considered as water harvesting ponds. They may be dugout or
embankment type. Their capacity depends upon the size of catchment area. Runoff yield from the catchment is diverted
into these ponds, where it is properly stored. Measures against seepage and evaporation losses from these ponds
should also be.

Percolation Dam: These dams are generally constructed at the valley head, without the provision of checking the
percolation loss. Thus, a large portion of the runoff is stored in the soil. The growing crops on downstream side of the
dam, receive the percolated water for their growth.

• It has provision for overflow of excess water.

The typical examples of flood water harvesting through water spreading are given below.

Permeable Rock Dams (for Crops)

These are long low rock dams across valleys slowing and spreading floodwater as well as healing gullies (Fig. 28.5). These
are suitable for a situation where gently sloping valleys are likely to transform into gullies and better water spreading is
required.

Fig. 28.6. Floodwater farming systems: (a) spreading within channel bed; (b) diversion

system. (Source: Barron and Salas, 2009)

Flood Control Reservoir: The reservoirs constructed at suitable sites for controlling the flood are known as flood control
reservoirs. They are well equipped with self-operating mechanical outlets for letting out the harvested water into the
stream or canal below the reservoir as per requirement.

28.3.3 Groundwater Harvesting

Qanat System: A qanat consists of a long tunnel or conduit leading from a well dug at a reliable source of groundwater
(the mother well). Often, the mother well is dug at the base of a hill or in the foothills of a mountain range. The tunnel
leading from the mother well slopes gradually downward to communities in the valley below. Access shafts are dug
intermittently along the horizontal conduit to allow for construction and maintenance of the qanat (Fig. 28.7). The Qanat
system was used widely across Persia and the Middle East for many reasons. First, the system requires no energy, relies
on the force of gravity alone. Second, the system can carry water across long distances through subterranean chambers
avoiding leakage, evaporation, or pollution. And lastly, the discharge is fixed by nature, producing only the amount of
water that is distributed naturally from a spring or mountain, ensuring that the water table is not depleted. More
importantly, it allows access to a reliable and plentiful source of water to those living in otherwise marginal landscapes
(Fig. 28.8).

28.4 Runoff vs. Flood Water Harvesting

• Water harvesting techniques which harvest runoff from roofs or ground surfaces fall under the term rainwater
harvesting while all systems which collect discharges from watercourses are grouped under the term flood water
harvesting.

• Runoff harvesting increases water availability for on-site vegetation while flood waters harvesting provide a
valuable source of water to local and downstream water users and play an important role in replenishing floodplains,
rivers, wetlands and groundwater.

• Runoff harvesting reduces water flow velocity, as well as erosion rate and controls siltation problem while in
flood water harvesting, floodwater enters into the fields through the inundation canals, carrying not only rich silt but
also fish which can swim through the canals into the lakes and tanks to feed on the larva of mosquitoe

4.3 MICRO CATCHMENT

Negarim microcatchment

Although the first reports of such microcatchments are from southern Tunisia (Pacey and Cullis, 1986) the technique has
been developed in the Negev desert of Israel. The word "Negarim" is derived from the Hebrew word for runoff -
"Neger". Negarim microcatchments are the most well known form of all water harvesting systems.

Israel has the most widespread and best developed Negarim microcatchments, mostly located on research farms in the
Negev Desert, where rainfall is as low as 100-150 mm per annum. However the technique, and variations of it, is widely
used in other semi-arid and arid areas, especially in North and Sub-Saharan Africa Because it is a well-proven technique,
it is often one of the first to be tested by new projects.

Technical details

i. Suitability

Negarim microcatchments are mainly used for tree growing in arid and semi-arid areas.

Rainfall: can be as low as 150 mm per annum.

Soils: should be at least 1.5 m but preferably 2 m deep in order to ensure adequate root development and storage of the
water harvested.

Slopes: from flat up to 5.0%.

Topography: need not be even - if uneven a block of microcatchments should be subdivided.

ii. Overall configuration

Each microcatchment consists of a catchment area and an infiltration pit (cultivated area). The shape of each unit is
normally square, but the appearance from above is of a network of diamond shapes with infiltration pits in the lowest
corners (Figure 17).
iii. Limitations

While Negarim microcatchments are well suited for hand construction, they cannot easily be mechanized. Once the
trees are planted, it is not possible to operate and cultivate with machines between the tree lines.

iv. Microcatchment size

The area of each unit is either determined on the basis of a calculation of the plant (tree) water requirement (see
Chapter 4) or, more usually, an estimate of this.

Figure 17 Negarim microcatchments - field layout

Size of microcatchments (per unit) normally range between 10 m2 and 100 m2 depending on the specie of tree to be
planted but larger sizes are also feasible, particularly when more than one tree will be grown within one unit.

Table 17. BUND HEIGHTS (cm) ON HIGHER GROUND SLOPES

Size Unit Microcatchment Ground slope

(m2) 2% 3% 4% 5%

3x3 even bund height

4x4 of 25 cm 30

5X5 30 35

6X6 35 45

8X8 35 45 55

10X12 30 45 55

12X12 35 50 not recommended

15 X 15 45

v. Design of bunds

The bund height is primarily dependent on the prevailing ground slope and the selected size of the micro-catchment. It
is recommended to construct bunds with a height of at least 25 cm in order to avoid the risk of over-topping and
subsequent damage.

Where the ground slope exceeds 2.0%, the bund height near the infiltration pit must be increased. Table 17 gives
recommended figures for different sizes and ground slopes.

vi. Size of infiltration pit

Table 18 presents recommended values for pit dimensions. A maximum depth of 40 cm should not be exceeded in order
to avoid water losses through deep percolation and to reduce the workload for excavation. Excavated soil from the pit
should be used for construction of the bunds.

vii. Quantities of Earthworks

Table 18 further gives required quantities of earthworks for different layouts. Quantities per unit include only the
infiltration pit and two sides of the catchment, while the other two bunds are included in the microcatchment above.
When a diversion ditch is required additional earthworks of 62.5 m3 per 100 m length of ditch will be needed.
Table 18. QUANTITIES OF EARTHWORKS FOR NEGARIM MICROCATCHMENTS

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) [

Size Unit Microcatchment (m2) Size Infiltration Pit (m) Ground Slopes Suitable for 25 cm Bund Volume Earthwork Per
Unit** No. Units Per ha Earthworks m³/ha

Sides (x) Area Sides,(y) Depth Height*(m2)

3 m x 3 m = 9 m2 1.4 x 1.4 x 0.4 up to 5% 0.75 1110 835

4 m x 4 m = 16 m2 1.6 x 1.6 x 0.4 up to 4% 1.00 625 625

5 m x 5 m = 25 m2 1.8 x 1.8 x 0.4 up to 3% 1.25 400 500

6 m x 6 m = 36 m2 1.9 x 1.9 x 0.4 up to 3% 1.50 275 415

8 m x 8 m = 64 m2 2.2 x 2.2 x 0.4 up to 2% 2.00 155 310

10 m x 10 m = 100 m2 2.5 x 2.5 x 0.4 up to 1% 2.50 100 250

12 m x 12 m = 144 m2 2.8 x 2.8 x 0.4 up to 1% 3.25 70 230

15 m x 15 m = 225 m2 3.0 x 3.0 x 0.4 up to 1% 3.50 45 160

* These ground slopes allow construction of a bund of 25 cm height throughout its length. Above these gradients the
bund should be constructed relatively higher at the bottom (below the pit) and lower upslope. Table 17 gives the height
of the bund below the pit for given microcatchment sizes.

** Calculation of earthworks per unit includes only two of the sides around the catchment: the other two sides are
included in the microcatchment above. Does not include earthworks required for diversion ditch (which is 62.5 m3 for
each 100 metre length).

viii. Design Variations

A common variation is to build microcatchments as single, open-ended structures in "V" or semi-circular shape (see
Figure 19). The advantage is that surplus water can flow around the tips of the bunds, however, the storage capacity is
less than that of a closed system. These types of bunds are particularly useful on broken terrain, and for small numbers
of trees around homesteads.

Figure 19. "V"-shaped microcatchments

Layout and construction

Step one

The first step is to find a contour line. This can be done by using a line level or a water tube level (see appendix). Since
natural contours are often not smooth, it will be necessary to even out the contours so that finally a straight line is
obtained. The first line, at the top of the block is marked (see Figure 20). If the topography is very uneven, separate
smaller blocks of microcatchments should be considered.

Step Two

By means of a tape measure, the tips of the bunds are now marked along the "straightened contour". The first line will
be open-ended. The distance between the tips (a-b) depends on the selected catchment size. Table 19 gives the
corresponding distance between a-b for different catchment sizes.

Table 19. DISTANCE BETWEEN BLINDS IN RELATION TO CATCHMENT SIZE

Microcatchment dimension Distance a - b

(m) (m)

3x3 4.2

4x4 5.7

5x5 7.1

6x6 8.5

8x8 11.3

10x10 14.1

Step Three

A piece of string as long as the side length of the catchment (5 m for a 5 m x 5 m microcatchment) is held at one tip (a)
and a second string of the same length at the other tip (b). They will exactly meet at the apex (c). The apex is now
marked with a peg and the catchment sides (a-c) and (b-c) marked on the ground alongside the strings with a hoe. This
procedure will be repeated until all bund alignments in the first row have been determined.

Step Four

The next row of microcatchments can now be staked out. The apexes of the bunds of the upper row will be the tips for
the second row and the corresponding apexed will be found according to Step 3. When the second row of
microcatchments has been marked, repeat the same procedure for the third row, etc. The final result will be a block of
diamond-shaped microcatchments, with a first row which is open at the upslope end.

Figure 20. Negarim microcatchment: layout technique

Step Five

The size of the infiltration put (dimension to be taken from Table 18) is staked out and the pit is excavated - leaving a
small step towards the back on which the seedling will be planted (see Figure 21).

Figure 21. Infiltration pit with planting step

Step Six

Before constructing the bunds, the area within the microcatchments should be cleared of all vegetation. The bunds
should then be constructed in two layers. The excavated material from the pit is used to form the bund.

The bunds should be compacted during construction. Before compaction, the soil should be wetted wherever possible.
Compaction may be done by foot or with a barrel filled with sand or water. To ensure a uniform height of the bund, a
string should be fixed at the beginning and the end of each bund alignment and be adjusted above ground according to
the selected bund height.

Step Seven

A diversion ditch should be provided above the block of microcatchments if there is a risk of damage by runoff from
upslope of the block. The diversion ditch should be aligned in a 0.25% slope and in most cases a depth of 50 cm and a
width of 1.0-1.5 m will be sufficient. The soil is deposited downslope. The diversion ditch should be constructed first to
prevent damage in case a rainstorm occurs during construction of the microcatchments.

Figure 22. Diversion ditch

Maintenance

Maintenance will be required for repair of damages to bunds, which may occur if storms are heavy soon after
construction when the bunds are not yet fully consolidated. The site should be inspected after each significant rainfall as
breakages can have a "domino" effect if left unrepaired.

Husbandry

Tree seedlings of at least 30 cm height should be planted immediately after the first rain of the season. It is
recommended that two seedlings are planted in each microcatchment - one in the bottom of the pit (which would
survive even in a dry year) and one on a step at the back of the pit. If both plants survive, the weaker can be removed
after the beginning of the second season. For some species, seeds can be planted directly. This eliminates the cost of a
nursery.

Figure 23. Planting site for seedling

Manure or compost should be applied to the planting pit to improve fertility and water-holding capacity. If grasses and
herbs are allowed to develop in the catchment area, the runoff will be reduced to some extent, however, the fodder
obtained gives a rapid return to the investment in construction. Regular weeding is necessary in the vicinity of the
planting pit. Socio-economic considerations

Negarim microcatchments have been developed in Israel for the production of fruit trees, but even there the returns on
investment are not always positive. It is not a cheap technique, bearing in mind that one person-day is required to build
(on average) two units, and costs per unit rise considerably as the microcatchment size increases.

It is essential that the costs are balanced against the potential benefits. In the case of multipurpose trees in arid/semi-
arid areas, for several years the main benefit will be the soil conservation effect and grass for fodder until the trees
become productive.

Negarim microcatchments are appropriate both in village afforestation blocks, or around homesteads where a few
open-ended "V" shaped microcatchments provide shade or support amenity trees.

CONTOUR BUNDS

Contour bunds for trees are a simplified form of microcatchments. Construction can be mechanized and the technique is
therefore suitable for implementation on a larger scale. As its name indicates, the bunds follow the contour, at close
spacing, and by provision of small earth ties the system is divided into individual microcatchments. Whether mechanized
or not, this system is more economical than Negarim microcatchment, particularly for large scale implementation on
even land - since less earth has to be moved. A second advantage of contour bunds is their suitability to the cultivation
of crops or fodder between the bunds. As with other forms of microcatchment water harvesting techniques, the yield of
runoff is high, and when designed correctly, there is no loss of runoff out of the system.

Contour bunding for tree planting is not yet as common as Negarim microcatchments. Examples of its application come
from Baringo District, Kenya.

Figure 24 Contour bunds for trees

Technical details

i. Suitability

Contour bunds for tree planting can be used under the following conditions:

Rainfall: 200 - 750 mm; from semi-arid to arid areas.

Soils: Must be at least 1.5 m and preferably 2 m deep to ensure adequate root development and water storage.

Slopes: from flat up to 5.0%.

Topography: must be even, without gullies or rills.

ii. Limitations

Contour bunds are not suitable for uneven or eroded land as overtopping of excess water with subsequent breakage
may occur at low spots.

iii. Overall Configuration

The overall layout consists of a series of parallel, or almost parallel, earth bunds approximately on the contour at a
spacing of between 5 and 10 metres.

The bunds are formed with soil excavated from an adjacent parallel furrow on their upslope side. Small earth ties
perpendicular to the bund on the upslope side subdivide the system into microcatchments. Infiltration pits are
excavated in the junction between ties and bunds. A diversion ditch protects the system where necessary.

iv. Unit Microcatchment Size

The size of microcatchment per tree is estimated in the same way as for Negarim microcatchments. However, the
system is more flexible, because the microcatchment size can be easily altered by adding or removing cross-ties within
the fixed spacing of the bunds. Common sizes of microcatchments are around 10 -50 m2 for each tree.

v. Bund and Infiltration Pit Design

Bund heights vary, but are in the order of 20 - 40 cm depending on the prevailing slope. As bunds are often made by
machine the actual shape of the bund depends on the type of machine; whether for example a disc plough or a motor
grader is used. It is recommended that the bund should not be less than 25 cm in height. Base width must be at least 75
cm. The configuration of the furrow upslope of the bund depends on the method of construction.

Figure 26. Microcatchment unit

Bunds should be spaced at either 5 m or 10 m apart. Cross-ties should be at least 2 metres long at a spacing of 2 to 10
metres. The exact size of each microcatchment is thus defined. It is recommended to provide 10 m spacing between the
bunds on slopes of up to 0.5% and 5 m on steeper slopes. A common size of microcatchment for multipurpose trees is
25 m2. This corresponds to 10 metre bund spacing with ties at 2.5 m spacing or 5 metre bund-spacing with ties at 5 m
spacing.

Excavated soil from the infiltration pit is used to form the ties. The pit is excavated in the junction of the bund and the
cross-tie. A pit size of 80 cm x 80 cm and 40 cm deep is usually sufficient.

vi. Quantities of Earthwork

Table 20 gives quantities of earthworks required for various layouts of contour bunds. The bund height assumed is 25
cm with 75 cm base width.

Table 20. QUANTITIES OF EARTHWORKS

Size Unit Microcatchment Volume Earthworks per Unit No. Units per ha Earthworks m3/ha

Bund spacing Tie spacing Area (m2) (m3)

5m 2m 10 0.5 1000 500

5m 5m 25 0.9 400 360

5m 10m 50 1.5 200 300

10m 2.5m 25 0.6 400 240

10m 5m 50 0.9 200 180

Layout and construction

Step One

The contour is determined by means of a simple surveying instrument, such as a line level or a water tube level (see
appendix). As contour bunds are implemented on even land, contours need only be staked out approximately every 50
metres. The real contour should be smoothed to a gentle curve. Bunds may become slightly wider apart at one end to
accommodate any change in the contour.

Step Two

The alignment of each bund should be marked on the ground before construction starts. As recommended under "bund
design" the bunds should be set at a spacing of 10 m for slopes up to 0.5% and 5 m for steeper slopes. When disc
ploughs are used, a single disc (with the remaining one or two removed) forms an adequate bund. Where available, a
reversible plough is preferred because furrows can be ploughed consecutively in both directions. Compaction of the
bunds is recommended. When no machines are available, this should be done by foot or with a barrel filled with sand.

Step Three

The catchment size required for each seedling determines the spacing between cross-ties. For example where a 25 m2
catchment area is required and bunds are 10 metres apart the cross-ties will be 2.5 metres apart. Cross-ties are made by
hand.

An infiltration pit of 80 cm x 80 cm and 40 cm deep is dug in the furrow above the bund. Water collected in the furrow
will then drain into the pit and supply the adjacent seedling. The excavated material is sufficient to form a cross-tie of 2
m length, 75 cm base width and 25 cm height. The cross-tie extends upslope from the main bund at an angle of 90° to
the main bund; at least 30 cm should be left between the cross-tie and the pit to allow sufficient space for planting the
seedling.

Step Four

At each side of the block, a lateral bund of 25 - 30 cm height is built to prevent loss of runoff out of the system. The
earth should be excavated from inside the system and the contour bunds must be joined up with the lateral bund.

Step Five

A diversion ditch should be provided above the scheme if there is a risk of damage by runoff from outside the block. The
diversion ditch is aligned on a 0.25% slope and a common dimension is 50 cm deep and 1 - 1.5 m wide, with the soil
piled downslope. The diversion ditch should be constructed before the contour bunds are built to prevent damage if
rainstorms occur during construction.

Maintenance

As with Negarim microcatchments, maintenance will in most cases be limited to repair of damage to bunds early in the
first season. It is essential that any breaches -which are unlikely unless the scheme crosses existing rills - are repaired
immediately and the repaired section compacted. Damage is frequently caused if animals invade the plots. Grass should
be allowed to develop on the bunds, thus assisting consolidation with their roots.

Husbandry

The majority of the husbandry factors noted under Negarim microcatchments also apply to this system: there are,
however, certain differences.

Tree seedlings, of at least 30 cm height, should be planted immediately after the first runoff has been harvested. The
seedlings are planted in the space between the infiltration pit and the cross-tie. It is advisable to plant an extra seedling
in the bottom of the pit for the eventuality of a very dry year. Manure or compost can be added to the planting pit to
improve fertility and water holding capacity.

One important advantage of contour bunds for tree establishment is that oxen or mechanized cultivation can take place
between the bunds, allowing crops or fodder to be produced before the trees become productive. However, this has the
disadvantage of reducing the amount of runoff reaching the trees.

Socio-economic factors

Contour bunds for trees are mainly made by machine; costs of bund construction can be relatively low and
implementation fast, especially where plots are large and even and the kind of mechanization well adapted.

However, as with all mechanization in areas with limited resources, there is a question mark about future sustainability.
Experience has shown that very often the machines come abruptly to a halt when the project itself ends.

Another aspect that must be addressed is the management after the scheme has been established (which is usually
done under the auspices of a development project). This is an issue which has to be seriously considered during the
planning phase. Management of a large afforestation block by the local community is in most cases a new challenge and
failure or success will depend on acceptance of the technique by the rural population.

Semi-circular bunds

________________________________________

Semi-circular bunds are earth embankments in the shape of a semi-circle with the tips of the bunds on the contour.
Semi-circular bunds, of varying dimensions, are used mainly for rangeland rehabilitation or fodder production. This
technique is also useful for growing trees and shrubs and, in some cases, has been used for growing crops. Depending on
the location, and the chosen catchment: cultivated area ratio, it may be a short slope or long slope catchment
technique. The examples described here are short slope catchment systems.

Semi-circular bunds, (the term "demi-lune" is used in Francophone Africa), are recommended as a quick and easy
method of improving rangelands in semi-arid areas. Semi-circular bunds are more efficient in terms of impounded area
to bund volume than other equivalent structures - such as trapezoidal bunds for example. Surprisingly, this technique
has never been used traditionally.

Technical details

i. Suitability

Semi-circular bunds for rangeland improvement and fodder production can be used under the following conditions:

Rainfall: 200 - 750 mm: from arid to semi-arid areas.

Soils: all soils which are not too shallow or saline.

Slopes: below 2%, but with modified bund designs up to 5%.

Topography: even topography required, especially for design "a" (see below).

The main limitation of semi-circular bunds is that construction cannot easily be mechanized.

Since semi-circular bunds can be designed to a variety of dimensions, two specific designs are explained in this section.
Design "a" comprises small structures, closely spaced. It is suitable for the relatively "wetter" semi-arid areas but
requires low slopes and even terrain. Design "b", with larger and wider spaced bunds, is more suitable for drier areas,
and does not need such even topography.

ii. Overall configuration

The two designs of semi-circular bunds considered here differ in the size of structure and in field layout. Design "a" has
bunds with radii of 6 metres, and design "b" has bunds with radii of 20 metres. In both designs the semi-circular bunds
are constructed in staggered lines with runoff producing catchments between structures.

Design "a" is a short slope catchment technique, and is not designed to use runoff from outside the treated area, nor to
accommodate overflow. Design "b" is also a short slope catchment system, but can accommodate limited runoff from an
external source. Overflow occurs around the tips of the bund which are set on the contour.

iii. Catchment: cultivated area ratio

As discussed in Chapter 4, C:CA ratios of up to 3:1 are generally recommended for water harvesting systems used for
rangeland improvement and fodder -production. A detailed calculation is not required. The reasons for applying low
ratios are that already adapted rangeland and fodder plants in semi-arid and arid areas need only a small amount of
extra moisture to respond significantly with higher yields. Larger ratios would require bigger and more expensive
structures, with a higher risk of breaching.

Design "a" as described here has a C:CA ratio of only 1.4:1, and does not require provision for overflow. Design "b" has a
C:CA ratio of 3:1, and therefore provision for overflow around the tips of the bunds is recommended, though occurrence
of overflow is usually rare. A larger C:CA ratio for design "b" is possible but it should not exceed 5:1.

iv. Bund design

Design "a":

This design, suitable for slopes of 1% or less, consists of a series of small semi-circular bunds with radii of 6 metres. Each
bund has a constant cross section over the whole length of 19 m. The recommended bund height is 25 cm with side
slopes of 1:1 which result in a base width of 75 cm at a selected top width of 25 cm.

The tips of each bund are set on the contour, and the distance between the tips of adjacent bunds in the same row is 3
metres. Bunds in the row below are staggered, thus allowing the collection of runoff from the area between the bunds
above. The distance between the two rows, from the base of bunds in the first line to tips of bunds in the second, is 3
metres. At this spacing 70-75 bunds per hectare are required.

Design "b"

The radius of the semi-circle is 20 metres. The cross-section of the bund changes over its length. At the wing tip, the
bund is only 10 cm high, but the height increases towards the middle of the base to 50 cm with side slopes of 3:1
(horizontal: vertical), and a top width of 10 cm. Corresponding base widths are 70 cm and 3.10 metres, respectively.

As with design "a", the bunds must be arranged in a staggered configuration. Due to the larger dimensions of the bunds
there are only 4 structures required per hectare. The distance between the tips of two adjacent structures in one row is
10 m while 30 metres are recommended between the base of the upper structure and the tips of the lower one. As
already mentioned above, radii and distances between the structures can be increased or decreased according to the
selected C:CA ratio. Design "b" is recommended on slopes up to 2%. For higher slopes, smaller radii are required. For
example, on a slope of 4%, the radius should be reduced to 10 metres and the distance between two adjacent rows from
30 metres to 15 metres while the tips of two adjacent structures should be 5 m apart instead of 10 m. The number of
structures required for one hectare would thus increase to 16 which maintains the C:CA ratio of 3:1.

v. Quantities of earthworks

Semi-circular bunds can be constructed in a variety of sizes, with a range of both radii and bund dimensions. Small radii
are common when semi-circular bunds are used for tree growing and production of crops. A recommended radius for
these smaller structures is 2 to 3 metres, with bunds of about 25 cm in height.

Layout, and construction

The layout for both designs is similar, only dimensions differ.

Step One

The first contour, at the top of the scheme, is staked out using a simple surveying instrument as described in the
appendix. This line need not be smooth.

Step Two

A tape measure is now used to mark the tips of the semi-circular bunds on the contour. For design "a", the tips of one
structure are 12 metres apart (2 times the radius) and the distance to the next unit is 3 m. For design "b", the tips are 40
metres apart and the distance to the next structure is 10 m.

Step Three

The centre point between the tips of each semi-circular unit is marked. A piece of string as long as the selected radius is
now fixed at the centre point by means of a peg. Holding the string tight at the other end, the alignment of the semi-
circle is defined by swinging the end of the string from one tip to the other. The alignment can be marked by pegs or
small stones (see Figure 31).

Step Four

Staking out and construction of the semi-circular bunds in the second and all following rows will be carried out in the
same way. It is important that the structures in each row are staggered in relation to structures in the row above. The
centre points of the bunds, for example, in the second row should coincide with the middle of the gaps between bunds
in the first row and so forth. It must be ensured that the space between bunds from one row to another is according to
the chosen distance, that is, 3 m for design "a" and 30 m for design "b".

Step Five

After setting out, bund construction is started with excavation of a small trench inside the bund. Further excavation
should always be from inside the bund, as evenly as possible. This will increase the storage capacity of the semi-circular
bund. The bund should be constructed in layers of 10-15 cm with each layer being compacted and wetted first if
possible.

Step Six

For design "b", it is recommended that the bund tips are protected with a layer of stones, as shown in Figure 32. This will
ensure that the bund tips are more resistant to erosion when excess water discharges around them. A diversion ditch
above the first row of structures may be necessary for design "a" to protect the first row of bunds against runoff coming
from the catchment area above. Where semi-circular bunds of design "a" are built in one block of several hectares it is
advisable to provide one or more diversion ditches within the block as a safety factor. Diversion ditches should be 1 - 1.5
metre wide and 50 cm deep, with a gradient of 0.25%.

Maintenance

As with all earthen structures, the most critical period for semi-circular bunds is when rainstorms occur just after
construction, since at this time the bunds are not yet fully consolidated. Any breakages must be repaired immediately. If
damage occurs, it is recommended that a diversion ditch is provided if not already constructed. Semi-circular bunds
which are used for fodder production normally need repairs of initial breaches only. This is because in the course of
time, a dense network of the perennial grasses will protect the bunds against erosion and damage. The situation is
different if animals have access into the bunded area and are allowed to graze. In this case, regular inspections and
maintenance (repair) of bund damages will be necessary.

Grass grown in semi-circular bund

Husbandry
It may be possible to allow the already existing vegetation to develop - provided it consists of desirable species or
perennial rootstocks. In most cases, however, it will be more appropriate to re-seed with seed from outside. Local
collection of perennial grass seed from useful species can also be appropriate provided the seed is taken from "virgin
land". Together with grass, trees and shrub seedlings may be planted within the bunds.

Socio-economic Factors

Water harvesting for range improvement and for fodder production will mainly be applied in areas where the majority
of the inhabitants are agro-pastoralists - at least in the Sub-Saharan Africa context. In these areas, the concept of
improving communally used rangeland is usually alien. Therefore, it may be difficult to motivate the population to invest
voluntarily, in the time and effort required for implementing and maintaining such a water harvesting system. Even
when this is possible it is equally important to introduce an appropriate and acceptable range management programme
to avoid over-grazing and subsequent degradation of the range.

Controlled grazing is also essential to maintain good quality rangeland, and the bunded area must be rested periodically
for it to regenerate, so that natural reseeding can take place.

Contour ridge system

Contour ridges, sometimes called contour furrows or microwatersheds, are used for crop production. This is again a
microcatchment technique. Ridges follow the contour at a spacing of usually 1 to 2 metres. Runoff is collected from the
uncultivated strip between ridges and stored in a furrow just above the ridges. Crops are planted on both sides of the
furrow. The system is simple to construct - by hand or by machine - and can be even less labour intensive than the
conventional tilling of a plot.

The yield of runoff from the very short catchment lengths is extremely efficient and when designed and constructed
correctly there should be no loss of runoff out of the system. Another advantage is an even crop growth due to the fact
that each plant has approximately the same contributing catchment area.

Contour ridges for crops are not yet a widespread technique. They are being tested for crop production on various
projects in Africa.

Technical details

i. Suitability

Contour ridges for crop production can be used under the following conditions:

Rainfall: 350 - 750 mm.

Soils: all soils which are suitable for agriculture. Heavy and compacted soils may be a constraint to construction of ridges
by hand.

Slopes: from flat up to 5.0%.

Topography: must be even - areas with rills or undulations should be avoided.

ii. Limitations

Contour ridges are limited to areas with relatively high rainfall, as the amount of harvested runoff is comparatively small
due to the small catchment area.

iii. Overall configuration

The overall layout consists of parallel, or almost parallel, earth ridges approximately on the contour at a spacing of
between one and two metres. Soil is excavated and placed downslope to form a ridge, and the excavated furrow above
the ridge collects runoff from the catchment strip between ridges. Small earth ties in the furrow are provided every few
metres to ensure an even storage of runoff. A diversion ditch may be necessary to protect the system against runoff
from outside.

Figure 33. Contour ridges: field layout

iv. Catchment: cultivated area ratio

The cultivated area is not easy to define. It is a common practice to assume a 50 cm strip with the furrow at its centre.
Crops are planted within this zone, and use the runoff concentrated in the furrow. Thus for a typical distance of 1.5 m
between ridges, the C:CA ratio is 2:1; that is a catchment strip of one metre and a cultivated strip of half a metre. A
distance of 2 metres between ridges would give a 3:1 ratio. The C:CA ratio can be adjusted by increasing or decreasing
the distance between the ridges.

The calculation of the catchment: cultivated area ratio follows the design model of Chapter 4. In practice a spacing of 1.5
- 2.0 metres between ridges (C:CA ratios of 2:1 and 3:1 respectively) is generally recommended for annual crops in semi-
arid areas.

v. Ridge design

Ridges need only be as high as necessary to prevent overtopping by runoff. As the runoff is harvested only from a small
strip between the ridges, a height of 15 -20 cm is sufficient. If bunds are spaced at more than 2 metres, the ridge height
must be increased.

Figure 34. Contour ridge dimensions

Table 22 QUANTITIES OF EARTHWORK FOR CONTOUR RIDGES

Ridge spacing Ridge & Tie height Earthworks per ha

(m) (cm) (m3)

1.5 15 270

1.5 20 480

2.0 20 360

vi. Quantities and labour

Quantities of earthwork for different contour ridge spacing and ridge heights are given below. It should be noted that
the construction of the ridges already includes land preparation - no further cultivation is required. Where a diversion
ditch is necessary, an additional 62.5 m3 for each 100 metre of length of ditch has to be added.

vii. Design variations

Design variations developed in Israel are the "runoff strips" ("Shananim") and "strip collectors" as described by Shanan
and Tadmore (1979). A series of wide, but shallow ridges and furrows are formed by means of a blade grader. The space
in between the ridges can be several metres (for strip collectors, the space is usually between 2-5 metres).

Figure 35. Design variations

Layout and construction

Step One

Contours are surveyed by a simple surveying instrument such as a water tube level or line level (see appendix). The real
contour should be smoothed to obtain a better alignment for agricultural operations.

Step Two
Contour keylines should be staked out every 10 or 15 metres. The alignment for the ridges is then marked in between
the keylines according to selected spacing. On uneven terrain, the contours may come closer together at one point or
widen at other points. It is necessary to stop lines where the contours converge or to add short extra lines in between
where the contours diverge.

Step Three

The furrows are excavated usually by means of a hoe or are ploughed parallel to the marked alignments for the ridges.
The excavated soil is placed downslope, next to the furrow, and the ridge is formed.

Step Four

Small cross-ties are built at intervals of about 5 metres dividing each furrow into a number of segments. The ties are 15-
20 cm high and 50 - 75 cm long.

Step Five A diversion ditch should be provided above the block of contour ridges if there is a risk of damage caused by
runoff from outside the system. The diversion ditch should be 50 cm deep and 1-1.5 m wide, with a gradient of 0.25%.
The excavated soil is placed downslope. The ditch should be constructed before the contour ridges are built to prevent
damage from early rains.

Maintenance

If contour ridges are correctly laid out and built, it is unlikely that there will be any overtopping and breaching.
Nevertheless if breaches do occur, the ridges or ties must be repaired immediately. The uncultivated catchment area
between the ridges should be kept free of vegetation to ensure that the optimum amount of runoff flows into the
furrows.

At the end of each season the ridges need to be rebuilt to their original height. After two or three seasons, depending on
the fertility status of the soils, it may be necessary to move the ridges downslope by approximately a metre or more,
which will result in a fresh supply of nutrients to the plants.

Husbandry

The main crop (usually a cereal) is seeded into the upslope side of the ridge between the top of the ridge and the
furrow. At this point, the plants have a greater depth of top soil. An intercrop, usually a legume, can be planted in front
of the furrow. It is recommended that the plant population of the cereal crop be reduced to approximately 65% of the
standard for conventional rainfed cultivation. The reduced number of plants thus have more moisture available in years
of low rainfall.

Weeding must be carried out regularly around the plants and within the catchment strip.

Socio-economic factors

Since the contour ridge technique implies a new tillage and planting method compared with conventional cultivation,
farmers may be initially reluctant to accept this technique. Demonstration and motivation are therefore very important.
On the other hand, it is one of the simplest and cheapest methods of water harvesting. It can be implemented by the
farmer using a hoe, at no or little extra cost. External support is limited to a minimum. Alternatively it can be
mechanized and a variety of implements can be used. When used by a farmer on his own land, the system does not
create any conflicts of interest between the implementor and the beneficiary.

4.4 FARM PONDS

Farm ponds have a significantly role in rainfed farming system where annual rainfall is more than 500 mm. It helps in
mitigating the ill effect of rainfall variability as it stores water from rainfall excess and provides for utilization during
prolonged dry spells by means of supplemental/protective irrigation. It also helps in pre-sowing irrigation of rabi crop. In
high rainfall semi-arid regions of India, farm pond can be used for multiple uses such as protective/supplemental
irrigation, fish culture, duck farming integrated with poultry.
Types of Farm Ponds

Broadly farm ponds can be categorized into two type i.e. embankment type and excavated or dugout type.

Embankment Type

These type farm ponds are constructed across the stream or water course and consist of an earthen dam. Dimension of
embankment are determined based on the required storage. These ponds are suitable for areas having gentle to
moderately steep slope and also where stream valleys are sufficiently depressed to permit a maximum storage volume
with least earth work. Given the Indian farming system, this type of pond is constructed largely at common land
resources as it requires substantial land under submergence.

Capacity of the Ponds

The capacity of the pond is calculated using trapezoidal or Simpson’s rule. In trapezoidal rule, the volume of storage
between two successive contours is given as: , in which his contour interval and and are area bounded by upper and
lower contour respectively.

In Simpson rule which is more accurate than trapezoidal method, the volume is estimated as:

The design aspect of earthen embankment has been discussed in lessons 23 and 24. Like any hydraulic structures, the
embankment design also includes hydrologic design, hydraulic design and structural design.

The storage capacity at different heights of the embankment is presented in Table 27.1.

Table 27.1Storage capacity at different height of embankment

Contour level Contour Interval Maximum Water Depth Area Bounded by (Ha) Incremental Volume, Using
Trapezoidal Method

(ha-m) Cumulative volume

(ha-m)

Upper contour, Au Lower Contour, Al

211 1 0 0.4 0 0.20 0.20

212 1 1 1.5 0.4 0.95 1.15

213 1 2 2.6 1.5 2.05 3.20

214 1 3 3.7 2.6 3.15 6.35

215 1 4 4.3 3.7 4.00 10.35

216 1 5 5.6 4.3 4.95 15.30

217 1 6 6.5 5.6 6.05 21.35

Like drop structures, here also the pond is designed under heading of hydrologic design, hydraulic design and structural
design.

A. Hydrologic design

(i) Water Yield Estimation

Average annual monsoon rainfall =750 mm. Expected runoff volume or water yield from 65 ha catchment considering
20% of the rainfall as the runoff

(ii) Estimation of Peak Discharge

(B) Hydraulic Design

(i) Storage Capacity

Total storage capacity = live storage+dead storage

Live storage: 9.75 ha-m as determined from hydrologic design

Dead storage:

First 5 years @40 t/ha/annum = 200 t/ha

5-10 years @ 20 t/ha/annum = 100 t/ha

10-15 years @10 t/ha/annum = 50 t/ha

15-20 years @5 t/ha/annum = 25 t/ha

20-25 years @ 210 t/ha/annum = 1050 t/ha

Total = 385 t/ha

Total sediment yield during 25 years from 65 ha catchment

= 25 X 385 = 9625 ton

Assuming the bulk density of the sediment as 1.5 g/cc,

1 ha-m of sediment = 15000 tonnes

Thus dead storage = 9625/15000 = 0.64 ha-m.

Thus total storage capacity required = 9.75+0.64 = 10.39 ha-m.

From storage capacity table, the dead storage of 0.64 corresponds to 212 m contour level which will the top level of
dead storage. The total capacity of 10.91 ha-m corresponds to 215.2 m contour. Thus the net height of the embankment
at maximum water level will be 215.2 - 211 = 4.2 m. in which maximum water depth would be 3.2 meter.

(iii) Height of the Embankment

Height of water upto full level = 215.2 – 211.0 = 4.2 m

Height of free board (15%) = 15% of 4.2 m = 0.63 m.

Wave height for a fetch of 1.5 km,

= 0.542m

Since free board is more than wave height, free board will be considered.

Height of embankment will be 4.2+0.63 = 4.83. Add 5% settlement allowance thus height will be 4.83+5% = 5.07 m.
Location of principal spillway = at maximum water level = 215.2 m level.

Location of emergency spillway = 211 + 5.07 = 216.07 m level.

Thus the temporary storage between emergency spillway level and principal storage level will be

16.5 ha-m (at 216.07 m level) – 10.91(at 215.2 m level) = 5.59 ha-m

(ii) Design of Principal Spillway

24-hour maximum rainfall at 5 percent probability level is 300 mm with 30% resulted into runoff. Thus expected storm
runoff = = 5.85 ha-m. This principal spillway are mostly in the form of drop inlet spillway. Thus standard RCC pipes are
selected from the manufacturer and laid at proper grade such that the condition of pipe running full could be obtained.

Designing drop inlet spillway (principal spillway)

The design discharge for drop inlet spillway is determined by the following relationship (Singh et al. 1990). Procedure is
already discussed in case of drop inlet spillway design earlier. However, for the sake of completion of design it is also
given here.

The above polynomial equation are solved for different and given in Table 27.2 for quick solution. For intermittent
values of and , do the interpolation.

Table 27.2. Estimating principal spillway discharge allowing for temporary storage (for watershed of less than 100 ha)
,

0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09

0.0 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.88

0.1 0.87 0.85 0.84 0.82 0.81 0.79 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.73

0.2 0.72 0.70 0.68 0.67 0.65 0.64 0.62 0.61 0.60 0.58

0.3 0.57 0.55 0.54 052 0.51 0.50 0.49 0.47 0.46 0.45

0.4 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.41 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35

0.5 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.27 026

0.6 0.25 0.24 0.23 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.20 0.19 0.18

0.7 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.12

0.8 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.06

0.9 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01

(Source: Singh et al. 1990)

Here = 5.59 ha-m, = 5.85 ha-m; = 6 cumec.

Thus = 0.96, for this ratio, = 0.02 (from above table)

And so = 0.02 X 6 = 0.12 cumec

Thus select the suitable RCC pipe which is capable to handle 120lps discharge.
(iii) Design of Emergency Spillway

Expected peak discharge = 6.0 cumec

Discharge through principal spillway = 0.12cumec

So, design discharge for emergency spillway = 6.0 – 0.12 = 5.88cumec.

So at the level 216.07 m, chute spillway should be constructed for the capacity of 5.88cumec (see design of chute
spillway).

(c)Structural Design

Top width = H/5+1.5 = 5.07/5+1.5 = 2.01 m say 2 m.

U/s and D/s slope = 3:1 and 2.5:1

Provide berm of 2.0 meter at the level of 215.2 m i.e. at the level of principal spillway to install pipe inlet.

Excavated or Dugout Ponds

These types of farm ponds are small dug out structures with well-defined shape and size. These structures have
provision for inlet and outlet. Farm ponds are constructed at lower portion of the farm and generally stored water is
used for irrigation. In some places farm ponds are used for recharging groundwater. However, for recharging
groundwater, high capacity structures located in the highly permeable soil are more suitable. These structures are also
called percolation tank (Reddy et al. 2012).

Dugout ponds are constructed by excavating the soil from the ground and the excavated soil is used to make
embankment around the pond. The pond could either be fed by surface runoff or groundwater wherever aquifers are
available. The depth and size of pond depend upon the volume of water to be stored. This type of pond is more featured
in individual farm. Dug-out ponds can be grouped into the following four categories:

1. Excavated or dug out ponds

2. Surface ponds

3. Spring or creek fed ponds and

4. Off stream storage ponds

Excavated or Dugout Ponds

Excavated pond site should be chosen based on general slope of the field. Various locations of dug-pond are illustrated
in Fig. 27.1 based on the prevailing land slope. If slope is towards left bottom corner of the field, a form pond must be
constructed in the left corner of the plot and similarly for slope towards right bottom corner. If the slope is towards the
bottom of the field, pond can be constructed at either side corner with proper field channel at the bottom of the field
connecting to the inlet of the structure. If the farm area has multiple slopes in different direction, pond should be
located in a portion of the area where maximum water can be drained into the structure.

Surface Pond

When the surface runoff from a farm area is collected into a local depression or the lowest portion of the farm such that
the excavation is minimum, this type of pond is called surface pond (Fig. 27.2). Surface pond is possible in the farm area
with undulating topography. This type of pond does not require a formal inlet provision but it should have formal outlet
provision.

Spring or Creek Fed Ponds

This type of pond is generally constructed at the foothills of the hilly catchments. After the soil saturation occurred due
to excess rainfall, the subsurface flow of the catchment oozes up to the surface at the foothills as base flow (Fig. 27.3).

Off Stream Storage Ponds

This type of pond should be adopted where construction of embankment across the natural channel is not feasible or
economically viable. Off-stream storage ponds collect water from the stream using diversion (Fig. 27.4). In hilly
catchment where, storage volume upstream of embankment of dam is not sufficient and unable to sustain the high flow
velocity, these types of structure can be adopted.

Site Selection for Dugout Type Farm Pond

The site selection for a single or multiple pond system requires careful planning considering several variables. These
include local soil condition, topography, drainage capacity, infiltration and rainfall pattern and its distribution. A suitable
pond site should be selected to ensure long-term success. Generally such area should be selected where a limited
amount of excavation is required to contain, or hold back, a large volume of water. However, the specific selection
criteria for different type of ponds are explained in detail by Reddy et al.(2012).

Soil type

Soil type is also playing a major role in deciding the site for farm ponds. The soils having stones and boulders should be
avoided for digging farm ponds particularly when pond is to be remained unlined. The soil profile must be investigated
and location with good soil depth, free of stones, low Ph, EC and ground water level can be selected for farm ponds.

Topography

The proposed pond construction should be based on the topographic features of the site such that higher excavation to
storage ratio could be achieved to attain the economy. Depending upon the capacity of the farm pond, contour survey
should be conducted. However for smaller catchment (less than 5 ha), a reconnaissance survey is sufficient. Fig. 27.5
presents a sample contour map and respective location of ponds (Reddy et al. 2012).

Design Approach for Dugout Farm Ponds

Rainfall is the most important hydrological parameters for design of farm ponds. The design approach includes
determination of design rainfall, probability analysis, surface runoff or water yield, rainfall-runoff relationship of the
catchment, shape of the pond and utilization.

Design rainfall

The design rainfall refers to the quantum of rain required during the cropping season in catchment area to provide
sufficient runoff to meet the crop water requirement. The design rainfall is very delicate preposition: if actual rainfall is
less than design rainfall in cropping season, moisture stress will occur but when actual rainfall is more than design
rainfall, surplus runoff may cause damage to the structure. Thus proper probability analysis of the historical rainfall
event of the area should be carried out.

4.5 Earthen Dam

An earthen embankment is a raised confining structure made from compacted soil. The purpose of an earthen
embankment is to confine and divert the storm water runoff. It can also be used for increasing infiltration, detention and
retention facilities. Earthen embankments are generally trapezoidal in shape and most simple and economic in nature.
They are mainly built with clay, sand and gravel, hence they are also known as earth fill dams or earthen dams. They are
constructed where the foundation or the underlying material or rocks are weak to support the masonry dam or where
the suitable competent rocks are at greater depth. They are relatively smaller in height and broader at the base.

Components of An Earthen Dam

The various components of an earthen dam are shown in Fig. 11.1.

1. Shell, Upstream Fill, Downstream Fill or Shoulder: These components of the earthen dam are constructed with
pervious or semi-pervious materials upstream or downstream of the core. The upstream fill is called the upstream shell
and the downstream portion is the downstream shell.

2. Upstream Blanket: It is a layer of impervious material laid on the upstream side of an earthen dam where the
substratum is pervious, to reduce seepage and increase the path of flow. The blanket decreases both the seepage flow
and excess pressure on the downstream side of the dam. A natural blanket is a cover of naturally occurring soil material
of low permeability.

3. Drainage Filter: It is a blanket of pervious material constructed at the foundation to the downstream side of an
earthen dam, to permit the discharge of seepage and minimize the possibility of piping failure.

4. Cutoff Wall or Cutoff: It is a wall, collar or other structure intended to reduce percolation of water through
porous strata. It is provided in or on the foundations.

5. Riprap: Broken stones or rock pieces are placed on the slopes of embankment particularly the upstream side for
protecting the slope against the action of water, mainly wave action and erosion.

6. Core Wall, Membrane or Core: It is a centrally provided fairly impervious wall in the dam. It checks the flow of
water through the dam section. It may be of compacted puddled clay, masonry, or concrete built inside the dam.

7. Toe Drain: It is a drain constructed at the downstream slope of an earthen dam to collect and drain away the
seepage water collected by the drain filters.

8. Transition Filter: It is a component of an earthen dam section which is provided with core and consists of an
intermediate grade of material placed between the core and the shells to serve as a filter and prevent lateral movement
of fine material from the core.

Fig. 11.1. Cross-section of an Earthen Dam with Various Components.

Advantages

1. Design procedures are straightforward and easy.

3. If it is not adequately compacted during construction, the dam will have weak

structure prone to seepage.

4. Earthen dams require continual maintenance to prevent erosion, tree growth, subsidence, animal and insect
damage and seepage.

Types of Earthen Dam

1. Based on the method of construction:

(a) Rolled Fill Earthen Dams: In this type of dams, successive layers of moistened or damp soils are placed one
above the other. Each layer not exceeding 20 cm in thickness is properly consolidated at optimum moisture content
maintained by sprinkling water. It is compacted by a mechanical roller and only then the next layer is laid.

(b) Hydraulic Fill Earthen Dam: In this type of dams, the construction, excavation and transportation of the earth are
done by hydraulic methods. Outer edges of the embankments are kept slightly higher than the middle portion of each
layer. During construction, a mixture of excavated materials in slurry condition is pumped and discharged at the edges

This slurry of excavated materials and water consists of coarse and fine materials. When it is discharged near the outer
edges, the coarser materials settle first at the edges, while the finer materials move to the middle and settle there. Fine
particles are deposited in the central portion to form a water tight central core. In this method, compaction is not
required.

2. Based on the mechanical characteristics of earth materials used in making the section of dam:

3. (a) Homogeneous Earthen Dams: It is composed of one kind of material (excluding slope protection). The
material used must be sufficiently impervious to provide an adequate water barrier, and the slopes must be moderately
flat for stability and ease of maintenance (Fig. 11.2).

Fig. 11.3. Zoned Earthen Dam.

(c) Diaphragm Earthen Dam: This type of dam (Fig. 11.4) is a modified form of homogenous dam which is
constructed with pervious materials, with a thin impervious diaphragm in the central part to prevent seepage of water.
The thin impervious diaphragm may be made of impervious clayey soil, cement concrete or masonry or any impervious
material. The diaphragm can be constructed in the central portion or on the upstream face of the dam. The main
difference in zoned and diaphragm type of dams depends on the thickness of the impervious core or diaphragm. The
thickness of the diaphragm is not more than 10 m.

(d)

Fig. 11.4. Diaphragm Earthen Dam.

Design Criteria

Following main design criteria may be laid down for the safety of an earth dam:

1. To prevent hydraulic failures the dam must be so designed that erosion of the embankment is prevented. For
this purpose, the following steps should be followed:

(a) Spillway capacity is sufficient to pass the peak flow.

(b) Overtopping by wave action at maximum water level is prevented.

(c) The original height of structure is sufficient to maintain the minimum safe freeboard after settlement has
occurred.

(d) Erosion of the embankment due to wave action and surface runoff does not occur.

(e) The crest should be wide enough to withstand wave action and earthquake shock

2. To prevent the failures due to seepage:

(b) The foundation shear stresses should be within the permissible limits of shear strength of the material.

Design of Earthen Dam

The preliminary design of earthen dam is done on the basis of past experiences. For designing purpose several
parameters, given below should be considered.

1. Top Width

2. Free Board

3. Settlement Allowance

4. Casing or Outer Shell

5. Cut-off Trench
6. Downstream Drainage System

1. Top Width: Minimum top width (W) should be such that it can enhance the practicability and protect it against
the wave action and earth wave shocks. Sometimes it is also used for transportation purposes. It depends upon the
height of the earthen dam and can be calculated as follows:

Nature of

spillway Height of dam

Free board

Free

Any Minimum 2 m and maximum 3 m over the maximum flood level

Controlled < 60 m 2.5 m above the top of the gate

Controlled > 60 m 3 m above the top of the gate

If fetch length or exposure is given then the free board can also be calculated by Hawksley's formula:

(11.4)

where, = wave height (m); Dm = fetch or exposure (m).

2. Settlement Allowance: It is the result of the settlement of the fill and foundation material resulting in the
decrease of dam storage. It depends upon the type of fill material and the method and speed of construction. It varies
from 10% of design height for hand compacted to 5% for machine compacted earthfill.

3. Casing or Outer Shell: Its main function is to provide stability and protection to the core. Depending upon the
upstream and downstream slopes, a recommendation for the casing and outer shell slopes for different types of soils
given by Terzaghi is presented

Table 11.2. Recommended Slopes of Earthen Dam (Sources: S.K. Garg, 2008)

Cutoff Trench: It is provided to reduce the seepage through the foundation and also to reduce the piping in the dam. It
should be aligned in a way that its central line should be within the upstream face of the impervious core. Its depth
should be more than 1 m. Bottom width of cutoff trench (B) is calculated as:

where h = reservoir head above the ground surface (m); and d = depth of cutoff trench below the ground surface (m).

4. Downstream Drainage System: It is performed by providing the filter material in the earthen dam which is more
pervious than the rest of the fill material. It reduces the pore water pressure thus adding stability to the dam.

Three types of drains used for this purpose are:

a) Toe Drains

b) Horizontal Blanket

c) Chimney Drains.

4.6 RETAINING WALLS

Retaining walls are relatively rigid walls used for supporting soil laterally so that it can be retained at different levels on
the two sides. Retaining walls are structures designed to restrain soil to a slope that it would not naturally keep to
(typically a steep, near-vertical or vertical slope). They are used to bound soils between two different elevations often in
areas of terrain possessing undesirable slopes or in areas where the landscape needs to be shaped severely and
engineered for more specific purposes like hillside farming or roadway overpasses. A retaining wall that retains soil on
the backside and water on the frontside is called a seawall or a bulkhead.

Definition

A retaining wall is designed to hold in place a mass of earth or the like, such as the edge of a terrace or excavation. The
structure is constructed to resist the lateral pressure of soil when there is a desired change in ground elevation that
exceeds the angle of repose of the soil.[1]

A basement wall is thus one kind of retaining wall; however, the term usually refers to a cantilever retaining wall, which
is a freestanding structure without lateral support at its top. These are cantilevered from a footing and rise above the
grade on one side to retain a higher level grade on the opposite side. The walls must resist the lateral pressures
generated by loose soils or, in some cases, water pressures.

Every retaining wall supports a "wedge" of soil. The wedge is defined as the soil which extends beyond the failure plane
of the soil type present at the wall site, and can be calculated once the soil friction angle is known. As the setback of the
wall increases, the size of the sliding wedge is reduced. This reduction lowers the pressure on the retaining wall.[4]

The most important consideration in proper design and installation of retaining walls is to recognize and counteract the
tendency of the retained material to move downslope due to gravity. This creates lateral earth pressure behind the wall
which depends on the angle of internal friction (phi) and the cohesive strength (c) of the retained material, as well as the
direction and magnitude of movement the retaining structure undergoes.

Lateral earth pressures are zero at the top of the wall and – in homogeneous ground – increase proportionally to a
maximum value at the lowest depth. Earth pressures will push the wall forward or overturn it if not properly addressed.
Also, any groundwater behind the wall that is not dissipated by a drainage system causes hydrostatic pressure on the
wall. The total pressure or thrust may be assumed to act at one-third from the lowest depth for lengthwise stretches of
uniform height.

It is important to have proper drainage behind the wall in order to limit the pressure to the wall's design value. Drainage
materials will reduce or eliminate the hydrostatic pressure and improve the stability of the material behind the wall.
Drystone retaining walls are normally self-draining.

As an example, the International Building Code requires retaining walls to be designed to ensure stability against
overturning, sliding, excessive foundation pressure and water uplift; and that they be designed for a safety factor of 1.5
against lateral sliding and overturning.

Various types of retaining walls

Gravity

Construction types of gravity retaining walls

An example of crib wall

Gravity walls depend on their mass (stone, concrete or other heavy material) to resist pressure from behind and may
have a 'batter' setback to improve stability by leaning back toward the retained soil. For short landscaping walls, they are
often made from mortarless stone or segmental concrete units (masonry units). Dry-stacked gravity walls are somewhat
flexible and do not require a rigid footing.

Earlier in the 20th century, taller retaining walls were often gravity walls made from large masses of concrete or stone.
Today, taller retaining walls are increasingly built as composite gravity walls such as: geosynthetics such as geocell
cellular confinement earth retention or with precast facing; gabions (stacked steel wire baskets filled with rocks); crib
walls (cells built up log cabin style from precast concrete or timber and filled with granular material)

Cantilevered
Cantilevered retaining walls are made from an internal stem of steel-reinforced, cast-in-place concrete or mortared
masonry (often in the shape of an inverted T). These walls cantilever loads (like a beam) to a large, structural footing,
converting horizontal pressures from behind the wall to vertical pressures on the ground below. Sometimes cantilevered
walls are buttressed on the front, or include a counterfort on the back, to improve their strength resisting high loads.
Buttresses are short wing walls at right angles to the main trend of the wall. These walls require rigid concrete footings
below seasonal frost depth. This type of wall uses much less material than a traditional gravity wall.

Diaphragm wall

Diaphragm walls are a type of retaining walls that are very stiff and generally watertight. Diaphragm walls are expensive
walls, but they save time and space, and hence are used in urban constructions.

Sheet piling

Sheet pile wall

Sheet pile retaining walls are usually used in soft soil and tight spaces. Sheet pile walls are driven into the ground and
are composed of a variety of material including steel, vinyl, aluminum, fiberglass or wood planks. For a quick estimate
the material is usually driven 1/3 above ground, 2/3 below ground, but this may be altered depending on the
environment. Taller sheet pile walls will need a tie-back anchor, or "dead-man" placed in the soil a distance behind the
face of the wall, that is tied to the wall, usually by a cable or a rod. Anchors are then placed behind the potential failure
plane in the soil.

Bored pile

Bored pile retaining walls are built by assembling a sequence of bored piles, followed by excavating away the excess soil.
Depending on the project, the bored pile retaining wall may include a series of earth anchors, reinforcing beams, soil
improvement operations and shotcrete reinforcement layer. This construction technique tends to be employed in
scenarios where sheet piling is a valid construction solution, but where the vibration or noise levels generated by a pile
driver are not acceptable.

Anchored

An anchored retaining wall can be constructed in any of the aforementioned styles but also includes additional strength
using cables or other stays anchored in the rock or soil behind it. Usually driven into the material with boring, anchors
are then expanded at the end of the cable, either by mechanical means or often by injecting pressurized concrete, which
expands to form a bulb in the soil. Technically complex, this method is very useful where high loads are expected, or
where the wall itself has to be slender and would otherwise be too weak.

Soil nailing

Soil nailing is a technique in which soil slopes, excavations or retaining walls are reinforced by the insertion of relatively
slender elements – normally steel reinforcing bars. The bars are usually installed into a pre-drilled hole and then grouted
into place or drilled and grouted simultaneously. They are usually installed untensioned at a slight downward inclination.
A rigid or flexible facing (often sprayed concrete) or isolated soil nail heads may be used at the surface.

Soil-strengthened

A number of systems exist that do not consist of just the wall, but reduce the earth pressure acting directly on the wall.
These are usually used in combination with one of the other wall types, though some may only use it as facing, i.e., for
visual purposes.

Stones of retaining wall used in preventing soil run-off in dale

Gabion meshes
This type of soil strengthening, often also used without an outside wall, consists of wire mesh "boxes", which are filled
with roughly cut stone or other material. The mesh cages reduce some internal movement and forces, and also reduce
erosive forces. Gabion walls are free-draining retaining structures and as such are often built in locations where ground
water is present. However, management and control of the ground water in and around all retaining walls is important.

Mechanical stabilization

Mechanically stabilized earth, also called MSE, is soil constructed with artificial reinforcing via layered horizontal mats
(geosynthetics) fixed at their ends. These mats provide added internal shear resistance beyond that of simple gravity
wall structures. Other options include steel straps, also layered. This type of soil strengthening usually needs outer facing
walls (S.R.W.'s – Segmental Retaining Walls) to affix the layers to and vice versa.

The wall face is often of precast concrete units[7] that can tolerate some differential movement. The reinforced soil's
mass, along with the facing, then acts as an improved gravity wall. The reinforced mass must be built large enough to
retain the pressures from the soil behind it. Gravity walls usually must be a minimum of 50 to 60 percent as deep or
thick as the height of the wall, and may have to be larger if there is a slope or surcharge on the wall.

Cellular confinement systems (geocells) are also used for steep earth stabilization in gravity and reinforced retaining
walls with geogrids. Geocell retaining walls are structurally stable under self- weight and externally imposed loads, while
the flexibility of the structure offers very high seismic resistance. The outer fascia cells of the wall can be planted with
vegetation to create a green wall" make it into a lecture notes elaborately