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S# Correct Assertion Correct Reason
7.1 INTRODUCTION; 7.2 AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A RESISTOR
Sinusoidal representation allows analyzing AC Mathematical representation (sine functions) enables
1
voltage and current behavior over time. predicting their variations throughout a cycle.
RMS current is a calculated value representing The RMS current eliminates the sign change in constantly
2 the effective current in an AC circuit. alternating current, resulting in a positive value reflecting
the heating effect equivalent to a DC current.
The average current in a pure resistor Positive and negative portions of the AC current cycle
3 connected to an AC source is zero. cancel each other out when averaged over a full cycle due
to the sine function's equal time spent above and below
zero. reach zero, minimum, and maximum values at the
AC voltage and current in a pure resistor are in They
4
phase. same time.
The Joule heating equation shows Squaring the current (I²) eliminates the effect of the
5 proportionality between dissipated power and alternating sign, resulting in a positive value that
the square of the current. determines the amount of heat produced.
The concept of RMS value simplifies AC power Defining rms voltage and current allows expressing AC
6
calculations. power in the same form (P=I²R) as DC power, simplifying
A specific mathematical relationship exists Equations establish a conversion between peak and rms
7 between peak and RMS values of voltage and values using a constant factor.
current.
Angular frequency (ω) characterizes both AC The equations demonstrate that the angular frequency (ω)
8
voltage and current waveforms. defines both.
Ohm's Law applies to AC circuits with the While Ohm's Law remains valid, impedance accounts for
9
introduction of impedance (Z). the combined influence of resistance and reactive
7.3 REPRESENTATION OF AC CURRENT AND VOLTAGE BY ROTATING VECTORS — PHASORS
Phasors: rotating vectors with magnitude (peak Phasors visualize key characteristics of AC voltage and
10 value) and angular speed, represent AC current (magnitude and angular properties).
quantities like voltage and current.
Phasor diagrams depict the phase difference Phasor orientations show the phase difference between
11 between voltage (V) and current (I) in AC voltage and current.
circuits.
Phasor analysis simplifies AC circuit analysis. Phasor diagrams, a visual tool for voltage and current
12
relationships, aid complex calculations.
Phasors analyze general phase relationships in Out-of-phase behavior in inductors and capacitors
13 AC circuits, extending beyond resistors (in- necessitates phasors for general phase relationships.
phase behavior).
Phasor magnitudes (VM and IM) correspond to Changes in phasor magnitudes reflect changes in peak
14 peak values (vm and im) of voltage and current. voltage and current.

7.4 AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO AN INDUCTOR

In a purely inductive circuit, the current lags the Inductive reactance (XL) opposes current changes,
15 voltage by π/2 (one-quarter cycle). inducing a self-induced emf that lags the source voltage
(Lenz's Law).
The average power supplied to an inductor over Instantaneous power oscillates at twice the source
16 a complete cycle is zero. voltage frequency, averaging to zero due to the sin(2wt)
term.
Inductive reactance (XL) limits current, similar Both XL and R oppose current flow, but XL arises from
17 to resistance (R), in an AC circuit. the inductor's self-induced emf, while R is an intrinsic
material property.
Inductive reactance (XL) is directly proportional XL = ωL (where ω = 2πf)
18 to both inductance (L) and the frequency (f) of
the current.
The instantaneous power supplied to an The product of the sinusoidal voltage and current
inductor oscillates between positive and waveforms results in a double-frequency power
19
negative values at twice the source voltage oscillation.
frequency.
The RMS current in an AC circuit reflects the The RMS current is calculated based on the average of the
20 equivalent heating effect of a steady DC current squared current values over a cycle.
with the same magnitude.
7.5 AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A CAPACITOR

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S# Correct Assertion Correct Reason
In a purely capacitive circuit, the current leads Capacitive reactance (X_C) opposes changes in current,
the voltage by π/2 (one-quarter cycle). inducing a self-induced voltage that leads the source
21
voltage. This phase difference causes the current to be
ahead of the voltage.
The average power supplied to a capacitor over The instantaneous power oscillates at twice the source
a complete cycle is zero. voltage frequency, averaging to zero due to the sin(2wt)
22
term. Positive and negative power cycles cancel each
other out.
Capacitive reactance (X_C) limits current in an Both X_C and R oppose current flow, but X_C arises from
AC circuit, similar to resistance (R). the capacitor's self-induced voltage, while R is an intrinsic
23
material property. They play a similar role but have
different underlying mechanisms.
Capacitive reactance (X_C) is inversely X_C = 1/ωC (where ω = 2πf). The formula explicitly shows
24 proportional to the frequency (f) of the current. the inverse proportionality between X_C and frequency.

The instantaneous power supplied to a The product of the sinusoidal voltage and current
capacitor oscillates between positive and waveforms results in a double-frequency power
25
negative values at twice the source voltage oscillation. These cycles correspond to the capacitor
frequency. storing and releasing energy.
The RMS current in an AC circuit with a The RMS current is calculated based on the average of
capacitor reflects the equivalent heating effect squared current values over a cycle, representing the
26
of a steady DC current with the same heating effect experienced by the circuit elements.
magnitude.
Reducing capacitance (C) in a purely capacitive X_C = 1/ωC. Decreasing capacitance reduces the
27 circuit increases capacitive reactance (X_C). denominator, leading to a larger X_C. This is opposite to
the behavior of resistance in a DC circuit.
Introducing an iron rod into an inductor The iron rod enhances the magnetic field within the coil
28 increases its inductance (L). due to its higher magnetic permeability, leading to a
higher inductance.
Increasing the inductance (L) in an AC circuit X_L = ωL. A larger inductance (L) results in a greater
29
increases the inductive reactance (X_L). inductive reactance (X_L).
An increase in inductive reactance (X_L) in an As X_L increases, it offers greater opposition to current
AC circuit causes a larger voltage drop across flow. Consequently, a larger portion of the voltage is
30
the inductor, leaving less voltage for the bulb. "consumed" by the inductor, reducing the voltage
available for the bulb.
A decrease in voltage across the bulb in an AC The bulb's brightness is directly related to the voltage
31 circuit leads to a diminished glow. across it. A lower voltage translates to less power
delivered to the filament, resulting in a dimmer glow.
The current in an AC circuit with a capacitor Phasor diagrams and the equation for current in a
reaches its peak value before the voltage due to capacitive circuit show that the current leads the voltage
32
the phase difference. by π/2, which means it reaches its peak before the
voltage.
7.6 AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A SERIES LCR CIRCUIT
Phasor diagrams simplify AC circuit analysis. Phasors for voltage across each element (L, R, C) and the
33 source depict their relative phases, visually aiding in
understanding current behavior.
Impedance (Z) acts like resistance (R) in AC Z = √(R² + (XL - XC)²) incorporates both resistive (R) and
34 circuits, limiting current flow. reactive components (XL - XC), controlling current
amplitude.
The resonant frequency (ω ) minimizes At ω , inductive reactance (XL) cancels capacitive
impedance (Z) in an RLC circuit. reactance (XC), minimizing overall impedance (Z) as
35
shown by Z = √(R² + (XL - XC)²) , allowing maximum
current flow.
Resonance in an RLC circuit occurs when When XL and XC become equal and opposite in value,
reactances cancel, enabling maximum current their effects on the current phasor nullify each other. This
36
flow. allows the current to be in phase with the source voltage
and reach its maximum amplitude.
A phasor is a graphical representation of Phasors (visualized as vectors) simplify calculations by
37 magnitude and phase in an AC circuit. representing the amplitude and phase angle of
sinusoidally varying quantities (voltage, current).

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S# Correct Assertion Correct Reason
Both inductance (L) and capacitance (C) are Resonance relies on the cancellation of inductive and
38 prerequisites for resonance in a circuit. capacitive reactances. Without both L and C elements,
this cancellation is not possible.
The equation Z = √(R² + (XL - XC)²) shows the This equation mathematically demonstrates the
dependence of impedance (Z) on circuit relationship between Z and the circuit's resistive (R) and
39 properties. reactive (XL - XC) components. By varying these
components, the equation predicts the resulting changes
in impedance.
An RLC circuit exhibits resonance, a The presence of both L and C in an RLC circuit allows for
phenomenon not observed in simpler RC or RL the cancellation of their reactances at a specific frequency
40
circuits. (resonance), leading to a behavior not observed in simpler
RC or RL circuits.
The Pythagorean theorem determines the total VR and VC (voltages across resistor and capacitor) are
voltage (VT) in an AC circuit with a 90° phase out of phase. Directly adding their magnitudes
41 difference. misrepresents the total voltage. The Pythagorean theorem
(VT² = VR² + VC²) considers the phase difference and
provides the accurate total voltage.
7.7 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT: THE POWER FACTOR
Power factor (cosφ) reflects efficiency in AC Ratio of real power used (P) to apparent power (VI)
42
power transfer. indicates effective utilization.
Higher impedance (Z) reduces current (I) for Increased Z creates greater opposition to current flow
43
given voltage (V). (Ohm's Law).
LCR circuits require both inductance (L) and Opposing reactive behaviors of L (stores magnetic field
44 capacitance (C) for resonance. energy) and C (stores electric field energy) cancel at a
specific frequency.
Resonance in LCR circuits occurs when XL and XC cancellation minimizes overall impedance (Z),
45 inductive (XL) and capacitive (XC) reactances allowing maximum current at resonant frequency.
cancel, enabling maximum current flow.
Power (P) depends on voltage (V), current (I), Power factor (cosφ) based on phase difference
and power factor (cosφ). Zero phase difference determines how much voltage is in phase with current for
46
(φ = 0°) signifies maximum power dissipation. real power transfer.

Low power factor (cosφ) in transmission lines Maintaining power (P) with a lower power factor requires
47 leads to significant power loss (I²R) due to joule higher current (I), increasing I²R losses in resistive lines.
heating.
Introducing a capacitor in parallel with an Capacitor's leading wattless current (Icq) counteracts
48 inductive circuit improves power factor (cosφ). lagging inductive current (Iq), raising the in-phase current
component (Ip) and improving power factor.
Metal detectors use the resonance principle to Disruption of circuit's resonance due to eddy currents in
detect metal objects. Introduced metal alters the introduced metal causes a detectable change in current
49
coil's impedance, triggering an alarm. (impedance change).

Impedance (Z) limits current flow (I) (Ohm's Higher impedance creates a larger opposing EMF to
50
Law). current flow.
Phase difference (φ) determines power factor Phase difference dictates how much voltage is in phase
51
(cosφ) in AC circuits. with current for real power delivery.
Power factor (cosφ) influences real power Higher power factor indicates better utilization of apparent
52
transfer efficiency in AC circuits. power for real work.
Resonance in LCR circuits minimizes Inductive and capacitive reactances cancel each other at
53 impedance (Z), allowing maximum current flow. resonance, reducing overall impedance for maximum
current.
At resonance (f ), XL and XC cancel, minimizing Reduced impedance allows higher current flow through
54 impedance (Z ≈ R) and allowing maximum the resistor, leading to maximum power dissipation (P =
power dissipation. I²R).
7.8 TRANSFORMERS
Transformer uses mutual induction to change Transfers electrical energy between circuits by creating a
55 AC voltage. changing magnetic field linked between coils.

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S# Correct Assertion Correct Reason
Primary current variation creates alternating Changing primary current generates magnetic field that
56 magnetic flux, inducing emf in secondary coil. cuts through the secondary coil, inducing voltage.

Ideal transformer efficiency: Power input Minimal energy losses occur due to negligible resistance,
57 (primary) ≈ power output (secondary). perfect flux linkage, and small secondary current.

Ideal transformer voltage ratio: Vp/Vs = Np/Ns.
58
Ideal transformer current ratio: Ip/Is = Ns/Np.
59
Step-up transformer (Ns > Np): Increases
60 voltage, decreases current (Vp < Vs; Ip > Is).
Ratio of turns in primary (Np) to secondary coil (Ns)
determines voltage transformation.
Ratio of turns in secondary (Ns) to primary coil (Np)
determines current transformation.
More turns in secondary coil induce higher voltage but
require less current for power transfer (ideal relationship).

Step-down transformer (Ns < Np): Decreases Fewer turns in secondary coil induce lower voltage but
61 voltage, increases current (Vp > Vs; Ip < Is). necessitate higher current for power transfer (ideal
relationship).
Flux leakage: Imperfect core design or air gaps Escape of magnetic flux from the core reduces the
62 allow some magnetic flux to escape, reducing amount of flux linking the secondary coil, lowering the
secondary emf. induced emf.
Winding resistance: Energy loss occurs due to Current flow through resistive wires of the transformer
63
heat generation (I²R) in the coils. windings dissipates energy as heat.
Eddy currents: Energy loss occurs due to Alternating magnetic field induces electrical currents
64 induced circulating currents in the core, within the iron core, which circulate and dissipate energy
generating heat. as heat.
Hysteresis loss: Energy loss occurs due to Magnetic domains in the core require energy to overcome
65 repeated magnetic reversals in the core, internal friction during reversals, dissipating energy as
generating heat. heat.
High voltage transmission reduces I²R losses in Lower current is required to transmit the same amount of
66 power lines. power over long distances, minimizing energy loss due to
line resistance.
Ideal transformer assumptions: Negligible Achieving a perfect 1:1 power ratio (efficiency) requires
67 primary resistance, perfect flux linkage, and minimal energy losses from these sources.
small secondary current.
Real transformers achieve efficiency greater Supports the concept of an ideal transformer as a
68 than 95%. theoretical model and highlights the efficiency of well-
designed transformers in practice.
Transformer application: Step-up voltage for Reduces transmission current, minimizing I²R losses in
69
efficient transmission over long distances. power lines.
SUMMARY
RMS (root mean square) value represents Matches heating effect of equivalent DC values (V^2/R =
70 effective AC voltage/current for average power I^2R) for power dissipation.
calculation.
Inductance (L) opposes changes in current, A changing magnetic field due to current flow generates a
71 inducing a voltage (L di/dt) across itself voltage opposing that change.
(lagging by π/2) due to Lenz's Law.
Capacitor allows current changes, readily The electric field across the capacitor charges and
72 charging/discharging, leading its voltage by discharges in response to voltage changes, causing a
π/2. phase lead.
Impedance (Z) combines resistance (R) and Accounts for both in-phase power dissipation (resistance)
73 reactance (XL & XC) to represent total and out-of-phase energy storage (inductors & capacitors).
opposition to AC current.
Higher power factor (cosφ) signifies less Power factor determines the ratio of real power (P) to
74 reactive power (Q) and higher efficiency in AC apparent power (S), impacting efficiency.
circuit energy transfer.
Phasor diagrams visually represent magnitude Rotating vectors in phasor diagrams depict
and phase relationships of AC voltage and voltage/current magnitudes and their phase differences.
75
current, simplifying circuit analysis.

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XII_Phy_New_Chap-07 _ ALTERNATING CURRENT
S# Correct Assertion
Transformer turn ratio (Np/Ns) dictates voltage
76 transformation: more secondary turns (Ns > Np)
lead to step-up (Vs > Vp).
Transformer turn ratio (Np/Ns) dictates current
transformation: a step-up in voltage (Vs > Vp)
77 due to more secondary turns (Ns > Np) causes a
decrease in secondary current (Is < Ip) to
maintain power transfer (P = VI).
Flux leakage reduces magnetic flux linking the
78 secondary coil, lowering the induced emf and
transformer efficiency.
Real transformers achieve high efficiency (often
> 95%) due to minimal energy losses from
79
resistance, flux leakage, and eddy currents.
POINTS TO PONDER
RMS value of AC voltage/current represents Matches heating effect of equivalent DC values
80 effective value for average power calculations. (conformity to Joule's Law).
AC ampere defined based on Joule heating,
81 independent of current direction for universal
measurement.
Phasor diagrams consider phase differences for
82
accurate summation of AC voltages.
Power factor reflects how close an AC circuit is
83 to maximum real power transfer (unity power
factor).
Resonance in an RLC circuit requires both
84 inductance (L) and capacitance (C) to be
present.
Transformers change voltage levels (step-
85 up/down) while maintaining power (P=VI)
through current adjustments.
AC current is represented by a vector in phasor
86 diagrams (for simplification), though it's a
scalar quantity.
Only resistive elements dissipate power in AC
87 circuits; capacitors and inductors store and
release energy cyclically.
Generators and motors convert energy:
88 generators (mechanical to electrical), motors
(electrical to mechanical).
AC voltmeter reading reflects RMS value,
89 representing effective voltage for average
power calculations.
Impedance (Z) limits current flow in AC circuits,
90 similar to resistance in DC circuits.
AC power calculation uses the average of
91 voltage and current product (due to sign
changes during the cycle).
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Correct Reason
The ratio of turns determines the induced emf in the
secondary coil, resulting in a higher voltage with more
turns.
To conserve power, an increase in voltage is
accompanied by a decrease in current.
Imperfect core design or air gaps allow some magnetic
flux to escape, diminishing the voltage transformation
effect.
Supports the concept of ideal transformers and
emphasizes well-designed transformers' effectiveness.
Mutual attraction of AC current-carrying wires averages to
zero due to direction changes.
AC voltages can be out of phase, requiring consideration
of phase angles for proper addition.
Ratio of real power (P) to apparent power (S) impacts
circuit efficiency.
Combined effect of L (opposing current changes) and C
(storing/releasing energy) enables voltage cancellation at
resonance.
Conservation of energy principle applies; a voltage
increase is accompanied by a decrease in current to
maintain constant power transfer.
Phasor diagrams depict magnitude and phase
relationships of AC current visually, mimicking vector
addition behavior.
Resistors convert electrical energy to heat (Joule
heating), while capacitors and inductors undergo cyclic
energy exchange.
They differ in energy flow direction but operate on the
same energy conversion principle.
AC voltage readings align with the effective heating effect,
which aligns with the concept of RMS value.
Combines resistance (opposing current) and reactance
(inductive & capacitive opposition) to control current flow.
Negative product values during the AC cycle are averaged
out, reflecting net power transfer.
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