Semiconductor Diodes

Introduction
Semiconductors are materials whose
electrical properties lie between
Conductors and Insulators.

Ex : Silicon and Germanium

Electrical Properties of Solids
 Conductors
 e.g. copper or aluminium
 have a cloud of free electrons (at all temperatures above
absolute zero). If an electric field is applied electrons will
flow causing an electric current
 Insulators
 e.g. polythene
 electrons are tightly bound to atoms so few can break
free to conduct electricity
 Semiconductors

 e.g. silicon or germanium

 at very low temperatures these have the properties of
insulators
 as the material warms up some electrons break free and
can move about, and it takes on the properties of a
conductor - albeit a poor one
 however, semiconductors have several properties that
make them distinct from conductors and insulators
 Semiconductors
 Pure semiconductors
 thermal vibration results in some bonds being broken
generating free electrons which move about
 these leave behind holes which accept electrons from
adjacent atoms and therefore also move about
 electrons are negative charge carriers
 holes are positive charge carriers
 At room temperatures there are few charge carriers
 pure semiconductors are poor conductors
 this is intrinsic conduction
What are P-type and N-type ?
 Semiconductors are classified in to P-type and N-type
semiconductor
 P-type: A P-type material is one in which holes are
majority carriers i.e. they are positively charged
materials (++++)
 N-type: A N-type material is one in which electrons are
majority charge carriers i.e. they are negatively
charged materials (-----)
 Doping

 the addition of small amounts of impurities drastically

affects its properties
 some materials form an excess of electrons and produce
an n-type semiconductor
 some materials form an excess of holes and produce a p-
type semiconductor
 both n-type and p-type materials have much greater
conductivity than pure semiconductors
 this is extrinsic conduction
 The dominant charge carriers in a doped semiconductor (e.g.
electrons in n-type material) are called majority charge
carriers. Other type are minority charge carriers
 The overall doped material is electrically neutral
Diodes
Electronic devices created by bringing together a p-
type and n-type region within the same semiconductor
lattice. Used for rectifiers, LED etc
Forward Bias and Reverse Bias
 Forward Bias : Connect positive of the Diode to
positive of supply…negative of Diode to negative of
supply
 Reverse Bias: Connect positive of the Diode to negative
of supply…negative of diode to positive of supply.
Characteristics of Diode
 Diode always conducts in one direction.
 Diodes always conduct current when “Forward Biased”
( Zero resistance)
 Diodes do not conduct when Reverse Biased
(Infinite resistance)
 P-N Junctions
 When p-type and n-type materials are joined this forms
a pn junction
 majority charge carriers on each side diffuse across the
junction where they combine with (and remove) charge
carriers of the opposite polarity
 hence around the junction there are few free charge
carriers and we have a depletion layer (also called a
space-charge layer)
 The diffusion of positive
charge in one direction and
negative charge in the other
produces a charge imbalance
 this results in a potential
barrier across the junction
 Potential barrier
 the barrier opposes the flow of majority charge carriers
and only a small number have enough energy to
surmount it
 this generates a small diffusion current

 the barrier encourages the flow of minority carriers and

any that come close to it will be swept over
 this generates a small drift current

 for an isolated junction these two currents must balance

each other and the net current is zero
I-V characteristics of Ideal diode
I-V Characteristics of Practical Diode
 Silicon diodes

 generally have a turn-on voltage of about 0.5 V

 generally have a conduction voltage of about 0.7 V
 have a breakdown voltage that depends on their
construction
 perhaps 75 V for a small-signal diode
 perhaps 400 V for a power device
 have a maximum current that depends on their
construction
 perhaps 100 mA for a small-signal diode
 perhaps many amps for a power device
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
• LED emits light in response to sufficient forward current (IF).
Radiated
light(in
mW)

IF
I F (in mA)
Figure 3: Forward biased
Figure 4: Light output versus
LED
forward current

• Few examples of semiconductor material used for manufacturing of LED

are GaAsP, GaAs, GaP, SiC.
STRUCTURE OF LED

• Electron hole recombination takes place in P region, hence it is kept uppermost.

• On forward biasing PN junction, electrons and holes recombine. Free electrons,

found in conduction band, have greater energy than holes (found in valence
band). After recombination, the energy of electron decreases and falls from CB
to VB, thus releasing energy in the form of heat or light. This process of emitting
photon is known as electroluminescence.

• The whole unit is enclosed in a hermetically sealed enclosure, which is also

having a lens to focus the light out of LED structure.

Metal film anode

connection

Gold film cathode

connection
• Choice of material depends on
The value of forbidden energy gap (Eg). This value of Eg determines the
wavelength of light emitted due to release of energy during recombination process.

Semiconductor Wavelength Color

material emitted
GaAs 850-940 nm Infra-red
GaAsP 630-660 nm Red
GaInN 450 nm White
AlGaP 550-570 nm Green
SiC 430-505 nm Blue
NOTE:
How does an incandescent light bulb work?
A wire filament is heated by passing an electric current through it. It works on the
principle that any material heated to a high enough temperature will glow. The color
of light given off depends on the temperature of the object being heated.
LEDs are solid-state devices, they can be extremely small and durable and provide
much longer lamp life than normal light sources
Applications
• LED’s are used in visual displays of calculators, watches and many other
display devices.
• A very popular use of LED is in construction of “seven segment display”.
• Lighting applications.
• Remote controls, such as for TVs and VCRs, often use infrared LEDs.
• In optical fiber and Free Space Optic communications.

ADVANTAGES

• Fast response time (nanoseconds)

• Offer good contrast ratios for visibility.
• In general, LEDs operate at voltage levels from 1.7 to 3.3 V, which makes
them completely compatible with solid-state circuits.
SEMICONDUCTORS

Zener diodes
 SEMICONDUCTORS
Ordinary PN junction diodes can be damaged if they are
subjected to their respective breakdown voltages.

The reverse current produces more heat than the diodes

can safely dissipate.

Zener diodes are different in this regard.

 SEMICONDUCTORS
The zener diode is specifically designed to operate
with a reverse bias voltage that is high enough to cause
the device to breakdown and conduct a high reverse
current.
 SEMICONDUCTORS
The reverse current is low until breakdown occurs.

After breakdown, the reverse current increases rapidly.

This occurs because the resistance of the zener diode

decreases as the reverse voltage increases.
 SEMICONDUCTORS
Once the breakdown point is reached the diode is
operating in its zener region.

The ability of a zener diode to dissipate power

decreases as the temperature increases.
ZENER CURRENT IS
REPRESENTED BY
THE SYMBOL

Iz
 SEMICONDUCTORS
This is the Zener diode V-I curve showing the
breakdown region
 SEMICONDUCTORS
A zener diode is manufactured to have a specific
breakdown voltage rating which is the diode’s zener
region designated as Vz.

Some common Vz ratings are 3.3, 4.7, 5.1, 5.6, 6.2 and
9.1 volts

Also within the breakdown region is the diode’s

current value called the zener test current designated
as (Izt)
 SEMICONDUCTORS
Zener diodes are available in a variety of voltage ratings
which is referred to as the zener volatage (Iv), but so
far, we have been unable to make these diodes capable
of dropping an exact voltage.

Therefore, when you buy a zener diode, it comes with a

tolerance value (just like a resistor) of approx. +- 20%
 SEMICONDUCTORS
They also specify maximum power that the diode can
safely dissipate at a given temperature, the most widely
used are rated for 400mW, 500mW and 1W.

Power dissipation ratings are based on room

temperature and are specified by the manufacture for
temp ratings of 25C, 50C or 75C.

If the temperature increases the ability of the zener

diode to dissipate will decrease.
 SEMICONDUCTORS
This chart shows and example of a zener diode’s power
temperature derating curve.
 SEMICONDUCTORS
The maximum reverse current that can flow through a
zener diode without exceeding it’s power dissipation
rating is referred to as the maximum zener current
which is designated as Izm.

If Izm is not specified it can be determined by the

formula:
 SEMICONDUCTORS
Zener voltage temperature coefficient is a
characteristic that must be considered in certain
applications.

This means that diodes with a Vz of 5 volts or more

have breakdown voltages that increase as temperature
increases

Most diodes that have breakdown voltages of 4 volts or

less have breakdown voltages that will decrease with
an increase of temperature
 SEMICONDUCTORS
Zener impedance is another important characteristic
which is designated by (Zzt)

Zener impedance is determined by the formula:

A low zener impedance indicates that the zener

voltage changes only slightly with changes in current.
 SEMICONDUCTORS
Zener diodes are most widely used in applications
where it is continually reversed-biased so that it
operates constantly within its zener breakdown region.

Under these conditions the zener diode is effectively

used to provide voltage regulation and stabilization.

Voltage regulation is often required because most solid

state circuits require a fixed or constant DC power
supply voltage for proper operation.
For this reason zener diodes work great because they
provide a constant DC output voltage.
SEMICONDUCTORS
The input voltage is connected so that the zener diode
is reverse biased, the series resistor allows enough
current to flow through the diode so it operates within
it’s zener region.
The DC voltage must be higher than the zener
SEMICONDUCTORS
breakdown voltage rating.

The voltage across the resistor will be equal to the

difference between the diode’s zener voltage (Vz) and
the input DC voltage.
When a load (RL) is connected to the output of the
regulator circuit, the regulator must supply voltage and
SEMICONDUCTORS
current to the load.

Here the load resistor (RL) requires a specific load

current (IL).
The load current (IL) is determined by it’s resistance
SEMICONDUCTORS
and output voltage.

The current through the zener diode (Iz) combines

with (IL) and flows through the series resistor (Rs)
 SEMICONDUCTORS
The value of (Rs) must be choosen so the (Iz) remains
at a sufficient level to keep the diode within it
breakdown region and at the same time allow the
required value of (IL ) to flow through the load.

The zener diode prevents any voltage or current

fluctuations from occurring at the load (RL)
Key Points
 Diodes allow current to flow in only one direction
 At low temperatures semiconductors act like insulators
 At higher temperatures they begin to conduct
 Doping of semiconductors leads to the production of p-type
and n-type materials
 A junction between p-type and n-type semiconductors has the
properties of a diode
 Silicon semiconductor diodes approximate the behaviour of
ideal diodes but have a conduction voltage of about 0.7 V
 There are also a wide range of special purpose diodes
 Diodes are used in a range of applications