1. What are the different between probability and non-probability?

Sampling is a statistical technique where the researchers take a predetermined

number of observations from a larger population. The sampling or selection of the sample
used for the study is intended for the sample to be sufficiently representative to know its
characteristics and analyze the information. So, sampling cuts back when the population
is too large and all its members cannot be surveyed. Sampling aims to obtain information
from a smaller group representing the entire population. Sampling methods are divided
into two types: probability sampling and non–probability sampling. The article
defines the two sampling techniques, their types, and the difference between probability
and non probability sampling.

Probability Sampling

Probability sampling is a sampling method that uses random selection methods.

The essential characteristic of probability sampling is that everyone in a population has
an equal chance of selection. The probability sampling method allows you to create a
representative population sample.

For example, in a population of 100, each person would have a 1 in 100 chance of being
selected.

Probability sampling uses statistical theory. It randomly selects a small group of

people from a large existing population and then predicts that all the answers together
will match the population.

Non-Probability Sampling

Non-probability sampling is a technique where a sampler selects samples based on

subjective judgment rather than random selection. Unlike in probability sampling, where
everyone in a population has a chance of getting selected, in non-probability sampling,
not all population members can participate.

Non-probability sampling is advantageous in exploratory studies such as the pilot

survey (a survey implemented on a smaller sample compared to the default sample size).
It is used where it is impossible to draw a random probability sample due to time or cost
considerations. Non-probability sampling is a less stringent method. This sampling
method is highly dependent on the experience of the researchers.

Non-probability sampling is commonly carried out using observational methods

and is widely used in qualitative research.
Types of Probability Sampling

The types of probabilistic sampling are as follows –

Simple random sampling

It is a random and automated method to select a sample. This sampling method

assigns numbers to the individuals and then randomly chooses numbers. The selected
members are then included in the sample.

The samples are chosen in two ways: Through a lottery system and random
number generation software. This sampling technique generally works in large
populations and has both advantages and disadvantages.

Stratified Sampling

This is a method in which a large population is divided into two smaller groups,
which usually do not overlap but represent the entire population. These groups can be
organized during sampling, and each group can be sampled separately after sampling.

In this method, the samples are classified and analyzed by gender, age, ethnicity,
etc. Stratified Sampling divides subjects into mutually exclusive groups and uses simple
random sampling to select group members.

Cluster Sampling

Cluster Sampling is a method that randomly selects participants when they are
geographically dispersed. For example, we have 1000 participants from the entire
population of Bangalore. Let’s assume obtaining a complete list of all these is impossible.
But instead, what the researcher does is select areas at random (i.e., localities, societies,
etc.) and select randomly within those boundaries.

Cluster sampling usually analyzes a population in which the sample consists of

several elements, for example, city, family, university, etc.

Systematic Sampling

Systematic sampling is a comprehensive implementation of the same probability

technique in which each group member is selected at regular periods to form a sample.
When this sampling method is used, there is an equal chance that each member of a
population will be selected
Types of Non-Probability Sampling

The types of non-probabilistic sampling are as follows –

Quota sampling

Also called “accidental.” It is generally established based on a good knowledge of the

strata of the population and the most “representative” or “adequate” individuals.
Therefore, it is similar to stratified random sampling but does not have the random nature
of the former.

In this type of sampling, “quotas” consist of several individuals who meet certain
conditions, for example, 20 individuals between the ages of 25 and 40, females, and
residents in New Delhi. Once the quota is determined, the first ones found to meet these
characteristics are chosen. This method is widely used in opinion polls.

Opinion sampling

This type of sampling is characterized by a deliberate effort to obtain “representative”

samples by including supposedly specific groups. Its use is widespread in pre-election
polls of areas that have marked voting trends in the previous voting. That is, the result of
the elections in that area was the same as the overall result.

Snowball sampling

Some elements in the universe lead to others, which then lead to others until a sufficient
sample is obtained, complete the census of the universe. Although it may seem useless, it
is frequently used when we know the population, for example, with populations such as
students, criminals, and certain types of diseases, among others.

Discretionary sampling

Discretionary sampling is more commonly known as purposive sampling. In this type of

sampling, the subjects are chosen to be part of the sample with a specific objective. With
discretionary sampling, the researcher believes that some subjects are more suitable for
research than others. For this reason, those are deliberately chosen as subjects
2. Critically discuss about the references and in-text citation
What is an in-text citation?
An in-text citation is an acknowledgement you include in your text whenever
you quote or paraphrase a source. It usually gives the author’s last name, the year of
publication, and the page number of the relevant text. In-text citations allow the reader to
look up the full source information in your reference list and see your sources for
themselves.

An in-text citation is the brief form of the reference that you include in the body of your
work. It gives enough information to uniquely identify the source in your reference list.
The brief form usually consists of:

 family name of the author(s), and

 year of publication.

In-text citations will look the same, regardless of whether you're referencing a journal
article, a report, or a video.
Parenthetical citation
The general form is (Author, date), within parentheses. Parenthetical citation is also
known as information-prominent citation: it is used to emphasise the information being
cited.
A parenthetical citation should directly follow the idea being cited. Include it within the
punctuation of the sentence. For instance:
... as has been shown in a recent study (Mihrshahi & Baur, 2018), and discussed at length
in the literature in years past (Smith, 2007).

Narrative citation
You do not necessarily need to use parenthetical citations in your work, but you must
include both the author and the date of the work you wish to cite within the body of your
text. There are multiple ways to include a citation within the narrative. Here are two
examples:
Kessler (2014) found that among epidemiological samples . . .
Narrative citation is also known as author-prominent citation. Narrative citations place
more emphasis on the author of the work you are using. This type of citation can
introduce some variety into your writing, and will sound more natural in an oral
presentation than a citation at the end of the sentence. However, it does require more skill
to use clearly.
Academic Skills Essentials has tip sheets and tutorials on writing clearly and
appropriately in a variety of academic writing genres, and on integrating others' ideas
into your work with appropriate attribution. You can also find some great examples of
citing works you have paraphrased on the APA Style website.

Number of authors

Parenthetical citation Narrative citation

1 author (Smith, 2007) Smith (2007)

2 authors (Mihrshahi & Baur, 2018) Mihrshahi and Baur (2018)

3 or more (Hewit et al., 2016) Hewit et al. (2016)

authors

Group author (Department of Health, 2020) Department of Health (2020)

  If the work you are citing has one or two authors, include them in your citation
every time. Separate two authors with an ampersand (&) in parenthetical citations,
but write out the word 'and' if discussing the work in-text.
 If the work has 3 or more authors, your brief in-text citation will give only the
family name of the first author, followed by "et al." (which means "and others").
 If the author is a company, government organisation, or other group, use the full
name in your citation.
 If you have multiple authors with the same name or no author, click on the
appropriate question under In-Text Citations

Direct quotations
If you are including a word-for-word quote from another work, you must enclose the
quote in quotation marks and add the page number or numbers to your citation. For
electronic sources where there is no page number, use the paragraph number or section
heading.
You may also optionally include a page or paragraph number when it would help the
reader locate the relevant information in a long or complex text, even when you have
paraphrased instead of quoting. Note: Some Schools prefer that you only provide a page
number for a quotation, so check with your lecturer to understand their preference.
If your quote spans more than one page in the source, use the abbreviation "pp." instead
of "p.":
(Pitcan et al., 2018, pp. 170-171).
To cite information from a work with no page numbers, click on "How do you cite a
specific part of a text?" below.

For quotations with 40 or more words, the formatting of both the quotation and the
citation are slightly different. The quotation is offset from your text, and the punctuation
of the quote comes before the in-text citation.
Example:
Social media users will share different types of content on different sites, often basing
their decisions on a mental model of how their audience on each site will react.
Many participants curate a respectable online presence by avoiding sexual innuendo
and censoring opinions on controversial topics. Aviva was “very wary about the
things [she] puts online.” . . . She described her online self as a different “form.”
 She chose to present a fragment of herself, because certain facets of her being
would be unacceptable to her imagined audience. (Pitcan et al., 2018, p. 170).

3. Define hypothesis:

What is Hypothesis?
A hypothesis is an assumption that is made based on some evidence. This is the initial
point of any investigation that translates the research questions into predictions. It
includes components like variables, population and the relation between the variables. A
research hypothesis is a hypothesis that is used to test the relationship between two or
more variables.
Characteristics of Hypothesis
Following are the characteristics of the hypothesis:
 The hypothesis should be clear and precise to consider it to be reliable.
 If the hypothesis is a relational hypothesis, then it should be stating the
relationship between variables.
 The hypothesis must be specific and should have scope for conducting more tests.
 The way of explanation of the hypothesis must be very simple and it should also
be understood that the simplicity of the hypothesis is not related to its significance.
Sources of Hypothesis
Following are the sources of hypothesis:
 The resemblance between the phenomenon.
 Observations from past studies, present-day experiences and from the competitors.
 Scientific theories.
 General patterns that influence the thinking process of people.
Types of Hypothesis
There are six forms of hypothesis and they are:
 Simple hypothesis
 Complex hypothesis
 Directional hypothesis
 Non-directional hypothesis
 Null hypothesis
 Associative and casual hypothesis
Simple Hypothesis
It shows a relationship between one dependent variable and a single independent
variable. For example – If you eat more vegetables, you will lose weight faster. Here,
eating more vegetables is an independent variable, while losing weight is the dependent
variable.
Complex Hypothesis
It shows the relationship between two or more dependent variables and two or more
independent variables. Eating more vegetables and fruits leads to weight loss, glowing
skin, and reduces the risk of many diseases such as heart disease.
Directional Hypothesis
It shows how a researcher is intellectual and committed to a particular outcome. The
relationship between the variables can also predict its nature. For example- children aged
four years eating proper food over a five-year period are having higher IQ levels than
children not having a proper meal. This shows the effect and direction of the effect.
Non-directional Hypothesis
It is used when there is no theory involved. It is a statement that a relationship exists
between two variables, without predicting the exact nature (direction) of the relationship.
Null Hypothesis
It provides a statement which is contrary to the hypothesis. It’s a negative statement, and
there is no relationship between independent and dependent variables. The symbol is
denoted by “HO”.
Associative and Causal Hypothesis
Associative hypothesis occurs when there is a change in one variable resulting in a
change in the other variable. Whereas, the causal hypothesis proposes a cause and effect
interaction between two or more variables.
Functions of Hypothesis
Following are the functions performed by the hypothesis:
 Hypothesis helps in making an observation and experiments possible.
 It becomes the start point for the investigation.
 Hypothesis helps in verifying the observations.
 It helps in directing the inquiries in the right direction.