BSC Thesis Final Report

MATTU UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
BSc THESIS SUBMITTED TO CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT FOR THE PARTIAL

FULFILMENT FOR THE REQUIREMENT OF BSc DEGREE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
Year: 5th Semester II
PROJECT/TITLE: BSc THESIS
DONE BY:
1. Lidetu Gebreyes
2. Kirubel Birhanu
3. Jibril Mehamed
4. Choul Jock
5. Amanuel Mihret
ADVISOR: MITIKU ADARE
JUNE 2023
MATTU, ETHIOPIA
FINAL BSc THESIS PROJECT 2015
DECLARATION OF STUDENT
We hereby declare that the work which is being presented in the BSc final Tsesis project carried under the
supervision of Mr. Mitku A. is our own work. All relevant resources of information used in this paper have
been duly acknowledged.
Students Name ID numbur Signature Date
1. Lidetu Gebreyes RU0642/1 ____________ _____________
2. Jibril Muhammed RU0665/11 ____________ _____________
3. Amanuel Mihret RU 0586 /11 ____________ _____________
4. Choul Jock RU0660/11 ____________ _____________
5. Kirubel Birhanu RU0641/11 ____________ _____________
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APPROVAL OF MENTOR
This to certify the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of our knowledge and belief.
This report has been submitted for presentation with our approval.
Name Signature Date

Advisor Mr. Mitku A. ________ ____________
Department Head Mr Gutema T ________ ____________
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all We would like to praise the almighty GOD for all his supporting in any direction during our
project work time.
Next, We have extend supreme gratitude to MaU, College of Engineering and Technology for providing
such kind of good opportunity for students.
Thirdly, We would like to convey heartiest thanks to our advisor Instructor Mitku A. for endowing us with
the courage and his dedication and time devotion on guiding us how to proceed and for his advice during the
progress of the project work. Our work could have been in vain in his absence. We just be able to perform
the given task which is helpful for our final thesis. With this we have grasped a good exposure of the
practical world during the course of his advice. Just he was like brother and we do not have enough words to
thank what he has done for us during our project.
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ABSTRACT
The project began from a given already selected corridor contour from the department and cope up the
project with desirable design. The design is made using ERA 2013 manual. This project is dedicated to the
structural analysis and design of: geometric design, , horizontal and vertical alignment, designing the curve
using the minimum speed and design standard, cross sectional detailing drawing, traffic analysis, pavement
design, and drainage design, earth work, mass haul diagram and road marking. More or less, horizontal
and vertical alignments were selected and designed, the curve is designed taking super elevation into
account, cross sectional drawings were drawn neatly and economic cut and fill areas were conducted and
used to design pavements. this project is done total ADT of 1876 with Link road function class with DC6
design class traffic with design period of 20years. traffic class of T-10 and sub grade strength class of s-4.
This project contains train class most them flat with design speed of 100m/hr. Total volume of cut is
51734.26m3 and Total volume fill 55021.54m3. finally the design is safe and economical with deep studies
traffic factor and we get many practical knowledge.
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LIST OF ABBREVIATION
AAD Average annual daily traffic

ADT Average daily traffic
BVC Beginning of vertical curve
DS Design standard
DV Design vehicle
DC Design class
ERA Ethiopian road authority
EVC End of vertical curve
L1 Lane that car travel from 4 kilo to Bus station
L2 Lane that car travel from Bus station to 4 kilo
PC Point of curvature
PI Point of intersection
PSD Passing sight distance
PT Point of tangency
PVI Point of vertical intersection
SSD Stopping sight distance
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION............................................................................................................................................I
DECLARATION OF STUDENT...................................................................................................................................... I
APPROVAL OF MENTOR ............................................................................................................................................. II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................................................... III
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................................................................IV
LIST OF ABBREVIATION ............................................................................................................................................. V
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................................................ 1
1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 GENERAL......................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Background of the study .................................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Objective of this thesis work ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.3.1 General objective ....................................................................................................................................... 1
1.3.2 Specific objective...................................................................................................................................... 2
1.4 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................................ 2
1.5 PROJECT BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................. 2
1.6 Topography and Terrain Classification ............................................................................................................. 2
1.6.1 Socio Economic Activity ........................................................................................................................... 4
1.6.2 Climate....................................................................................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER TWO................................................................................................................................................................5
2 .REVIEW OF LITERATURE ................................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Theoretical overview and facts .......................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Methodologies and materials ............................................................................................................................. 5
2.2.1 Project methodology .................................................................................................................................. 5
2.2.2 Materials .................................................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Software used .................................................................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................................................................... 8
3 ROUTE SURVEYING .............................................................................................................................................. 8
3.1 General............................................................................................................................................................... 8
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3.2 Route survey and its considerations .................................................................................................................. 8
3.3 The alignment of specific road for the project................................................................................................... 9
CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................................................................... 10
4 DESIGN CONTROL AND CRITERIA .................................................................................................................. 10
4.1 General............................................................................................................................................................. 10
4.2 Road functional classification.......................................................................................................................... 10
4.3 Terrain classification ....................................................................................................................................... 11
4.4 Design standard ............................................................................................................................................... 13
4.5 Design vehicle ................................................................................................................................................. 13
4.6 Design speed .................................................................................................................................................... 13
4.7 Design traffic volume ...................................................................................................................................... 14
4.8 SIGHT DISTANCES ...................................................................................................................................... 15
CHAPTER FIVE..............................................................................................................................................................16
5 PAVEMENT DESIGN ............................................................................................................................................ 16
5.1 Introductions to pavement design .................................................................................................................... 16
5.2 Pavements Types ............................................................................................................................................. 16
5.2.1 Flexible pavements .................................................................................................................................. 16
5.2.2 Rigid pavements. ..................................................................................................................................... 17
5.3 Factors affecting pavement design .................................................................................................................. 17
5.4 TRAFFIC SURVEY AND ANALYSIS ......................................................................................................... 19
5.5 Project Methodology ....................................................................................................................................... 19
5.6 Traffic Count ................................................................................................................................................... 19
5.7 Traffic Volumes ............................................................................................................................................... 20
Average Daily traffic (ADT) ................................................................................................................................... 20
5.8 Traffic forecast ................................................................................................................................................ 21
5.8.1 Road functional classification.................................................................................................................. 22
5.8.2 Commulative equivalent standard axle load calculation (CESA)............................................................ 23
5.8.3 Determination of ESAL .......................................................................................................................... 24
5.8.4 Cumulative equivalent standard axle (CESA) ......................................................................................... 25
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5.9 Sub-Grade Evaluation...................................................................................................................................... 25
5.9.1 Determination of CBR ................................................................................................................................. 26
CHAPTER SIX.................................................................................................................................................................33
6 GEOMETRIC DESIGN .......................................................................................................................................... 33
6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 33
6.1 Elements of geometric design .......................................................................................................................... 33
6.2 Design Control Factors .................................................................................................................................... 33
6.3 Horizontal Alignment ...................................................................................................................................... 33
6.3.1 The Circular Curve .................................................................................................................................. 34
Curve Elements........................................................................................................................................................ 36
6.4 Sight Distance .................................................................................................................................................. 37
6.5 Vertical Alignment .......................................................................................................................................... 41
6.5.1 Design of sag Curves ............................................................................................................................... 44
6.6 Gradients and Grade Controls ......................................................................................................................... 45
6.7 Road Cross Section Elements .......................................................................................................................... 47
6.7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 47
6.7.2 Road Cross Section Elements .................................................................................................................. 48
6.7.3 Figure road cross section elements .......................................................................................................... 48
CHAPTER SEVEN..........................................................................................................................................................51
7 EARTH WORK ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................................. 51
7.1 GENERAL....................................................................................................................................................... 51
7.2 Excavation ....................................................................................................................................................... 51
7.3 Shrinkage and swell ......................................................................................................................................... 52
7.4 Area and volume computation ......................................................................................................................... 53
7.4.1 Area of earthwork ........................................................................................................................................ 53
7.5 Estimating earthwork quantities ...................................................................................................................... 54
7.5.1 Mass haul diagram characteristics ........................................................................................................... 55
7.5.2 Use of mass haul diagram ............................................................................................................................ 55
CHAPTER EIGHT...........................................................................................................................................................56
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8 DRAINAGE DESIGN ............................................................................................................................................. 56
8.1 Surface drainage: ............................................................................................................................................. 56
8.2 Sub-surface drainage: ...................................................................................................................................... 57
8.3 Factors Affecting Drainage.............................................................................................................................. 58
8.4 The importance of highway drainage .............................................................................................................. 58
8.5 CROSS DRAINAGE ....................................................................................................................................... 59
8.6 Design of surface drainage systems ................................................................................................................. 59
CHAPTER NINE.............................................................................................................................................................61
9 ROAD FURNITURE AND MARKINGS FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL ................................................................. 61
9.1 General............................................................................................................................................................. 61
9.2 Traffic signals .................................................................................................................................................. 61
9.3 Traffic marking ................................................................................................................................................ 63
9.4 TRAFFIC SIGNS ............................................................................................................................................ 65
General principles of Traffic signing ....................................................................................................................... 65
CHAPTER TEN .......................................................................................................................................................... 68
10 CONCLUSION, LIMITATION AND RECOMMENDATION ......................................................................... 68
10.1 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................... 68
10.2 LIMITATION .................................................................................................................................................. 69
10.3 RECOMMENDATION ................................................................................................................................... 70
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................................ 71
APPENDICES.........................................................................................................................................81
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LIST OF TABLE
Table 4-1 Terrain classification (from eagle point out put) ........................................................................... 11
Table 4-2 In our project, the whole project terrain is tabulated like this.......................................................... 12
Table 4-3 Design Speed.................................................................................................................................... 14
Table 4-4 Design standard vs. road classification and AADT .......................................................................... 14
Table 5-1 Traffic Data for Design 4 kilo to Bus station .................................................................................. 19
Table 5-2 AADTo value of each vehicle .......................................................................................................... 20
Table 5-3 Seasonal adjustment factors ............................................................................................................ 20
Table 5-4 The adjusted annual traffic .............................................................................................................. 21
Table 5-5 AADTO AND AADT(5)1..................................................................................................................... 21
Table 5-6 Road classification .......................................................................................................................... 21
Table 5-7 Design Period .................................................................................................................................. 23
Table 5-8 Cumulative number vehicles (T) calculation .................................................................................. 24
Table 5-9 Equivalent axle load calculation ..................................................................................................... 25
Table 5-10 Cumulative equivalent standard axle load calculation ................................................................. 25
Table 5-11 Traffic class table ........................................................................................................................... 25
Table 5-12 Summary of Laboratory Test Results of Soil ................................................................................ 27
Table 5-13 Standard Load Values at Penetration ............................................................................................ 28
Table 5-14 CBR VALUE .................................................................................................................................. 31
Table 5-15 Arrange in ascending order ........................................................................................................... 31
Table 5-16 CBR VALUE .................................................................................................................................. 31
Table 5-17 Traffic class and Sub grade strength class table............................................................................... 32
Table 6-1 Minimum radii for horizontal curves for paved roads .................................................................... 34
Table 6-2 Geometric parameters for design class ........................................................................................... 35
Table 6-3 Horzontal curve calculation from eagle point auto cad ................................................................... 36
Table 6-4 Horzontal curve data........................................................................................................................ 37
Table 6-5 Stopping sight distances for unpaved roads .................................................................................... 38
Table 6-6 : Clearance distance for different ambient speeds ............................................................................. 40
Table 6-7 vertical curve calculation from eagle point auto cad ....................................................................... 44
Table 6-8 Climbing Lanes ............................................................................................................................... 46
Table 6-9 Vertical to Horizontal Slope Ratio .................................................................................................. 49
Table 7-1 Volume Report (Sample).................................................................................................................. 54
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LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1-1 Flat Terrain and Flat Roadway Alignment ........................................................................................ 3
Figure 1-2 Rolling Terrain and Roadway Alignment .......................................................................................... 3
Figure 1-3 Mountain Terrain and Road way Alignment ..................................................................................... 3
Figure 1-4 Escarpment Terrains and Roadway Alignment ................................................................................ 4
Figure 2-1: Typical cross section of a flexible pavement .................................................................................. 7
Figure 5-1 : flexible pavement layer ................................................................................................................ 16
Figure 5-2 :Typical Cross section of Rigid pavement ...................................................................................... 17
Figure 5-3 CBR determination chart ............................................................................................................. 30
Figure 6-1 Curve Elements .............................................................................................................................. 36
Figure 6-2: sight distance for horizontal curve.................................................................................................. 37
Figure 6-3 passing sight distance .................................................................................................................... 39
Figure 6-4 Setback distance ............................................................................................................................. 41
Figure 6-5 Crest Curve .................................................................................................................................. 43
Figure 6-6 Sag curve ....................................................................................................................................... 43
Figure 6-7 paved flat and rolling terrain typical cross section ....................................................................... 47
Figure 7-1 Mass haul diagram from Eagle point out put(source Egile point) .................................................. 55
Figure 8-1 Trapezoidal drainage ..................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 9-1 Traffic signals ............................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 9-2 Red signal light .............................................................................................................................. 61
Figure 9-3 Yellow signal light ......................................................................................................................... 62
Figure 9-4 Green Signal Light ......................................................................................................................... 62
Figure 9-5 Pavement marking .......................................................................................................................... 63
Figure 9-6 Object marking............................................................................................................................... 64
Figure 9-7 Road stands .................................................................................................................................... 64
Figure 9-8 Warning signs ................................................................................................................................ 66
Figure 9-9 Regulatory sign ............................................................................................................................... 67
Figure 9-10Information sign............................................................................................................................. 67
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CHAPTER ONE
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Transportation is movement of people and goods which is under taken to accomplish basic objectives or tasks
required transfer from one to another location. The pattern of growth of a towns and cities is determined by the
transport network and its efficiency.
But, the speed, cost and capacity of available transportation have a significant impact on the economic activity of the
society. Even though there are various types of transportations like road, railway, air, and water, road transportation
system is the most usable and accessible means due to the following reasons.
 It is more economical compared to the others
 Gives door to door service
 Construction is flexible
 Covers large area etc.
As road transportation has so much benefit, it has its own negative impacts such as:
 Air pollution(smoke during construction and after construction)
 Noise pollution
 Energy consumption
 Initial cost is high (construction cost) etc.
Road transportation system is essential infrastructure for a nation‗s development and growth both for public and
private sector. It is almost impossible to think of development without having accessible and safe transportation
means. In general when a road design is done the following consideration are done. horizontal alignment, vertical
alignment, sight distance requirements and cross sectional element
1.2 Background of the study
The project is intended for reduction of traffic load currently and for the expected traffic load in the future. The project
is done based on surveying data on existing road.
1.3 Objective of this thesis work
1.3.1 General objective
The objective of the project is to connect mainly; Mettu 4kilo and Bus station and to facilitate the inter movement.
Specifically, this project focuses to design short, easy and economical root connecting 4kilo to Bus station town.
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1.3.2 Specific objective
The main objective of this thesis work is to:-
 To develop integration and communication skills in a group project working.

 To develop problem solving ability on real life project.
 To integrate and use the courses covered in civil engineering through the five year learning process
and exercise engineering software‗s like Eagle point, AutoCAD, etc
 To exercise working manuals like ERA, AASHTO, INDIAN, etc
 To bring the theoretical knowledge in to practical one and solve societal problems on road
accessibility.
 To gain working experience and further knowledge on highway design.
 To work on practical project as partial fulfillment of B.Sc in civil engineering.
1.4 Methodology
The project start by describing the main objectives, then root selection and the traffic analysis The wide area of the
project, which is geometric design, will be done by the support of eagle point software. Earthwork analysis is also
manipulated by the software aid. But, drainage design part is manipulated manually.
1.5 Project Background
There was an existing route to connect 4Kilo with Bus station which was constructed by resident. This road was not
such good for transportation of goods and people. To overcome this problem, it is decided to design the road project
between these towns which is approximately 4km. Location The project is located in Oromia National Regional state
in south west zone. The project alignment starts at mettu and ends at bedele town.
1.6 Topography and Terrain Classification
Topography of the area affects geometric design of a highway. The geometric design elements strongly depend
on the transverse terrain through which the roads pass Generally terrain properties are categorized in to four
different classes:
A. Flat
B. Rolling
C. Mountainous
D. Escarpment
A. Flat
This offers few obstacles to the construction of the road having continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical
alignment. Transverse terrain slope up to 0-3% in level terrain, highway sight distances as governed by horizontal and
vertical restrictions are generally long or can be made to be so without construction difficulty or major expense. (
Source of the following Image GDM 2013 FIG. 5.4)
Figure 1-1 Flat Terrain and Flat Roadway Alignment
B. Rolling:
In this terrain type the slopes generally rise and fall moderately and where occasional slopes are encountered, resulting
in some restrictions in alignment (transverse terrain slope from 5 to 25 percent).
( Source of the following Image GDM 2013 FIG. 5.4)
Figure 1-2 Rolling Terrain and Roadway Alignment
C. Mountainous:
This class of terrain involves hilly, mountainous and river gorges. This terrain imposes definite restrictions on the
standard of alignment obtainable and often involves long steep grades and limited sight distance.
(Source of the following Image GDM 2013 FIG. 5.9)
Figure 1-3 Mountain Terrain and Road way Alignment

D. Escarpment:
In addition to the terrain classes given above a fourth class is added to cater to those situations
where by the standards associated with each of the above terrain types cannot be met. In general construction
costs will be greater as the terrain becomes more difficult and higher standards will become less justifiable or
achievable in such situations than for roads in either flat or rolling terrain.
(Source of the following Image GDM 2013 FIG. 5.11)
Figure 1-4 Escarpment Terrains and Roadway Alignment
Table 1-1 Terrain class
Type of Terrain Slope
Flat <3%
Rolling (3-25) %
Mountainous (26-50)%
Escarpment >50%
(Source Era 2013 Table )
1.6.1 Socio Economic Activity
The economy of the region under consideration is largely based on the production of coffee, and also honey.
There are also governmental and non-governmental activities helping the farmer providing fertilizers & giving technical
aids.
1.6.2 Climate
One of the environmental factors that affect performance of pavements structures is climate. Generally, climate of an
area is largely dependent on altitude, latitude and topography of that area. Therefore the project area is climatically
classified as moderate. This climatic Zone experiences low temperature, high rain fall and less evaporate-transpiration.

CHAPTER TWO
2 .REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Theoretical overview and facts
Highway engineering is an engineering discipline branching from civil engineering that involves the
planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of roads, bridges, and tunnels to ensure safe and
effective transportation of people and goods. Highway engineering became prominent towards the latter half
of the 20th century after World War II. Standards of highway engineering are continuously being improved.
Highway engineers must take into account future traffic flows, design of highway intersections/interchanges,
geometric alignment and design, highway pavement materials and design, structural design of pavement
thickness, and pavement maintenance.
2.2 Methodologies and materials
2.2.1 Project methodology
In designing high way, the following procedures need to be followed:
 Route surveying
 Design control and criteria
 Traffic counting and forecasting
 Pavement design
 Geometric design
 Drainage design
 Earth work analysis
2.2.2 Materials
Base & Sub base courses in pavement structures are granular materials from sand or gravel deposits or
crushed rock from quarries without admixtures. Materials in the Sub base layer should mainly satisfied
graduation requirement to prevent the intrusion of fine particles, & improve the subsurface drainage.
Graded crushed aggregate
This material is produced by crushing fresh, quarried rock, usually termed a ―crusher-run‖ or alternatively,
the material may be separated by screening and recombined to produce a desired particle size
distribution, as per the specifications. The rock used for crushed aggregates should be hard & durable.

Bituminous materials
Bituminous materials are derived from petroleum or occur in natural deposit in the different parts of the
world. Based on their sources there are two main categories of bituminous, namely, those which occur
naturally & those which are by product of the fractional distillation petroleum at refinery. Bituminous
materials (bitumen), also known as asphalt cement in the US, are a viscous liquid or solid material, black or
dark brown in colour, having adhesive properties. They are usually fairly hard at normal temperature.
When heat, they soften & flow. When mixed with aggregate in their fluid state, & then allowed to cool,
they solidify & binned the aggregate together, forming a pavement surface.
Surface course
Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally contains superior quality
materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt concrete(AC). The functions and
requirements of this layer are:
 It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also it will prevent the
entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying base, sub-base and sub-grade,
 It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid- resistant riding
surface,
 It must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade from the weakening effect of water.
Binder course
This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. It's chief purpose is to distribute load to the
base course The binder course generally consists of aggregates having less asphalt and doesn't require
quality as high as the surface course, so replacing a part of the surface course by the binder course results in
more economical design.
Base course
The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder course and it provides
additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface drainage It may be composed of crushed stone,
crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized materials.
Sub-Base course
The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and the primary functions are to provide
structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in the pavement
structure If the base course is open graded, then the sub-base course with more fines can serve as a filler
between sub-grade and the base course A sub-base course is not always needed or used. For example, a
pavement constructed over a high quality, stiff sub-grade may not need the additional features offered by a
sub-base course. In such situations, sub-base course may not be provided.

Sub-grade
The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from the layers above. It is
essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It should be compacted to the desirable density, near
the optimum moisture content.
Figure 2-1: Typical cross section of a flexible pavement
2.3 Software used
There is much software available which are used in civil engineering. Due to the technological revolution,
the numbers of software serving needs are increasing manifold. So there are much software used in the
architecture, construction, engineering, manufacturing and design. Some example of software used for High
way design;
 Eagle Point
 Excell

CHAPTER THREE
3 ROUTE SURVEYING
3.1 General
Road design, construction and maintenance require an approach depending on the terrain. The shortest Road alignment
is not necessarily the easiest, quickest or most economical option for construction and maintenance. Frequently;
topography, slope stability, flood hazard and erosion potential are likely to be the most significant controls in the
choice of the most suitable alignment and design of cross section. Therefore before any alignment of any route and
design of the selected route a detail route survey is needed to understand the terrain, hydrology, and any other
important parameters which affect the alignment of the route. In any road alignment projects highway surveying of the
area is essential and basic for best route and ease of design and economical route to be found.
3.2 Route survey and its considerations
As mentioned above highway surveying is the base before, during and after any alignment and design of road. Route
surveying include many considerations or steps in order to carry out. These are:-
i. Desk study
ii. Reconnaissance
iii. Preliminary survey
iv. Detail survey or location survey
i. Desk study
Topographical maps of the concerned area provide important features like river, cultivation areas, valleys, hills
together with contour lines. Routes or alignments could be selected keeping in view of the topographic features and
obligatory points to be touched by the road. In the map villages, water courses, churches and mosques should be
clearly shown.
Thus, each three selected routes it is tried to:-

 Incorporated more villages
 Cross minimum number of water courses
 Not to cross obligatory points like churches and mosques.
 Have recommended grades in different terrain types.
ii. Reconnaissance
Generally, in this stage, important data‗s for the previously selected routes will be collected. The data‗s are:-
 Gradient ,radius of horizontal curve
 Position of hills, lakes, water logged areas, bridge on river
 Number and types of cross drainage
 Types of soil along the route
From the data collected proposed alignments may be altered at few points or may be completely changed and finally
one or more alternative routes may be proposed for further study.
iii. Preliminary survey
The objective of this survey after reconnaissance stage is:

 For details of gradient, curve radius and cross diameter
 Quantity of earth work and materials for construction
 To compare routes with respect to the cost of construction and maintenance
Steps of preliminary survey
 To establish traverse of each alignment
 To survey the topographical features along the routes, collecting hydrological data‗s, leveling is done to
develop longitudinal and cross-sectional drawings for determining the earth work quantity
 Soil survey should be constructed to check its suitability for road construction, ground slope, bridge
construction, drainage conditions etc.
iv. Detail survey (location survey)
The alignment finalized as a result of preliminary survey is first located on the field and its detail survey is carried out.
These are:-
 Pegging the center line
 Centre line leveling
 Cross section
 Intersecting roads
 Ditches and streams
3.3 The alignment of specific road for the project
In this design project an alternative routes from 4kilo to Bus station road are suggested. This is done in such a way
that three possible routes are enumerated and the best one was selected based on some of the following criteria and the
result is tabulated in table below.
The possible alternatives are coated by the following criteria
 The relative length of the alternatives was considered.
 The average and mean gradient was computed for each route. Normally the least severe grade alternative is
preferred. However, minimum grade mostly give larger length.
 Route more closely follow an existing road or track are preferred.
 A route with least severe terrain type was considered.
 Route remain longer on the crest of the terrain minimize drainage structure.
 Economical route is selected after comparing earthworks.

CHAPTER FOUR
4 DESIGN CONTROL AND CRITERIA

4.1 General
Controls are physical and operational characteristics that guide the selection of criteria in the design of
thoroughfares. The physical design of a new highway is controlled by many factors. As these factors usually vary
along a route of some length, the design does not have to be constant for the whole length of a road. On the
contrary, changes in the design are usually required in order to obtain proper correlation between the road layout
and factors, whilst maintaining construction costs at realistic levels. The choice of design controls and criteria is
influenced by the following factors; the functional classification of the road; the nature of the terrain; the design
vehicle; the traffic Volumes expected on the road; the design speed ; the density and character of the adjoining
land use; and economic and environmental considerations.
Some of the major factors those affect design control and criteria are:-
 Road functional classification

 Terrain classification
 Design standards
4.2 Road functional classification

The functional classification of roadways defines the role each element of the roadway network plays in serving
these travel needs. It carries with it expectations about roadway design, including its speed, capacity and relationship to
existing and future land use development. The flow of traffic throughout roadway network is similar to the flow of
blood through the human circulatory system or the trunk and branch system of a tree. The units moving through
the system move through progressively smaller network elements as they approach their destination. Most travel
occurs through a network of interdependent roadways, with each roadway segment moving traffic through the
system towards destinations. Roadways are assigned to one of several possible functional classifications within a
hierarchy according to the character of travel service each roadway provides.
1. Trunk Roads (Class I)

Centre of international importance and roads terminating at international boundaries are linked with Addis Ababa by
trunk roads. Trunk roads have a present AADT ≥1000, although they can have volumes as low as 100 AADT.
2. Link Roads (Class II)
Centre of national or international importance, such as principal towns and urban centers, must be linked between each
other by link roads. A typical link road has over 400 - 1000 first year AADT, although values can range between 50-
10,000 AADT.

3. Main Access Roads (Class III)
Centers of provincial importance must be linked between each other by main access roads. First year AADTs are between
30-1,000 AADT.
4. Collector Roads (Class IV)

Roads linking locally important centers to each other, to a more important center, or to higher class roads must be
linked by a collector road. First year AADTs are between 25-
400 AADT.
5. Feeder Roads (Class V)

Any road link to a minor Center such as market and local locations is served by a feeder road. First year AADTs are
between 0-100. Roads of the highest classes, trunk and link roads have, as their major function to provide mobility,
while the primary function of lower class roads is to provide access. The roads of intermediate classes have,
for all practical purposes, to provide both mobility and access.
Our road design is proposed to connect two rural towns which are Gore and Metu and the first AADT is 205.86 so
depending on the above information the project road falls under the category of class III or Main Access Road.
4.3 Terrain classification
This topic is clearly explained in chapter one.
Calculation of slope
Slope = *100
Where, station deference of our project is = 50m
Based up on the table of the terrain classification is:-

Table 4-1 Terrain classification (from eagle point out put)
PI Station Left Offs Elevation Right Offs Elevation slope Terrain class
0+000.000 -25 1246.25 25 1244.783 2.934 Flat
0+020.000 -25 1245.92 25 1243.615 4.61 Rolling
0+040.000 -25 1243.553 25 1242.613 1.88 Flat
0+060.000 -25 1241.097 25 1240.328 1.538 Flat
0+080.000 -25 1239.08 25 1238.011 2.138 Flat
0+100.000 -25 1237.744 25 1236.81 1.868 Flat
0+120.000 -25 1234.881 25 1234.327 1.108 Flat
0+140.000 -25 1232.165 25 1232.061 0.208 Flat
PI 1 0+158.698 -25 1231.978 25 1230.077 3.802 Rolling
0+160.000 -25 1231.474 25 1230.238 2.472 Flat

0+180.000 -25 1226.145 25 1225.981 0.328 Flat
0+200.000 -25 1224.111 25 1223.911 0.4 Flat
0+220.000 -25 1223.903 25 1223.104 1.598 Flat
0+240.000 -25 1222.475 25 1221.654 1.642 Flat
0+260.000 -25 1221.325 25 1220.759 1.132 Flat
0+280.000 -25 1220.306 25 1219.706 1.2 Flat
0+300.000 -25 1219.154 25 1218.809 0.69 Flat
0+320.000 -25 1218.259 25 1218.117 0.284 Flat
0+340.000 -25 1219.954 25 1217.444 5.02 Rolling
0+360.000 -25 1217.854 25 1217.198 1.312 Flat
0+380.000 -25 1215.069 25 1214.454 1.23 Flat
0+400.000 -25 1213.624 25 1213.545 0.158 Flat
0+420.000 -25 1213.457 25 1212.596 1.722 Flat
0+440.000 -25 1211.496 25 1210.152 2.688 Flat
PI 2 0+446.740 -25 1211.496 25 1210.152 2.688 Flat
0+460.000 -25 1210.575 25 1209.152 2.846 Flat
0+480.000 -25 1209.434 25 1207.212 4.444 Rolling
0+500.000 -25 1208.252 25 1206.999 2.506 Flat
0+520.000 -25 1207.402 25 1206.111 2.582 Flat
0+540.000 -25 1206.18 25 1205.874 0.612 Flat
0+560.000 -25 1205.361 25 1204.862 0.998 Flat
0+580.000 -25 1204.237 25 1202.544 3.386 Rolling
0+600.000 -25 1202.75 25 1201.451 2.598 Flat
0+620.000 -25 1202.008 25 1201.091 1.834 Flat
0+640.000 -25 1200.452 25 1199.125 2.654 Flat
0+660.000 -25 1199.521 25 1198.733 1.576 Flat
0+680.000 -25 1198.952 25 1198.488 0.928 Flat
PI 3 0+685.515 -25 1196.999 25 1196.111 1.776 Flat
0+700.000 -25 1196.165 25 1195.995 0.34 Flat
0+720.000 -25 1195.985 25 1195.834 0.302 Flat
0+740.000 -25 1194.582 25 1194.533 0.098 Flat
0+760.000 -25 1193.346 25 1193.297 0.098 Flat
0+780.000 -25 1193.145 25 1192.106 2.078 Flat
0+800.000 -25 1191.684 25 1190.931 1.506 Flat
PI 4 0+809.575 -25 1191.005 25 1190.33 1.35 Flat
0+820.000 -25 1190.769 25 1190.32 0.898 Flat
(Source Eagle Point out put)
Table 4-2 In our project, the whole project terrain is tabulated like this
Terrain rolling flat Mountainous Escarpment Total

Total 10 192 0 0 202
Percentage(%) 4.95 % 95.05 % 0% 0% 100 %

There fore: Based up on the above value the governing terrain classification is flat.

4.4 Design standard
Although the detailed design must be produced to satisfy the current national design standards and guidelines (Design
Manual for Roads and Bridges and Manual for Streets) each Local Highway Authority will have its own local design
standards and construction details which the design must comply with for the works to be adopted by the Local Highway
Authority. ―Adoption‖ means that once construction is complete and has passed the period of provisional maintenance,
the Local Highway Authority takes over all future responsibility for the highway works and that they become part of the
public highway with all inferred rights. As well as layout geometry, pavement design and maintenance, road lining and
marking, traffic signs, lighting, traffic control and communications, the design standards also include highway structures,
geotechnical and drainage, assessment and preparation of road schemes, environmental design and assessments, traffic
appraisal of road schemes and economic assessment of road schemes and road maintenance.
4.5 Design vehicle
Both the physical characteristics and turning capabilities of vehicles are controls in geometric design. Vehicle
characteristics and dimensions affecting design include power to weight ratio, minimum turning radius and travel path
during a turn, and vehicle height and width. The road elements affected include the selection of maximum
gradient, lane width, horizontal curve widening, and junction design and width. The road elements affected include the
selection of maximum gradient, lane width, horizontal curve widening, and junction design. The present vehicle fleet in
Ethiopia includes a high number of four-wheel drive utility vehicles and overloaded trucks. Until more detailed
information becomes available regarding the makeup of the vehicle fleet in Ethiopia, the four design vehicles
indicated in the table below.
4.6 Design speed

It is the most important factor controlling the geometric design element of a highway. Design speed is a speed
determined for design and correlation of the physical features of a highway that influences vehicular operation. It
is the maximum safe speed that can be obtained over a specified section of a highway when conditions are so
favorable that the design feature of the highway governs. Different speed standards are assigned for different
classes of the road. The choice of a design speed depends on primarily on the surrounding terrain and the functional
class of the highway. Other factors determining the selection of design speed include traffic volume and
composition, costs of right of way and construction, and aesthetic considerations.
The speed that a driver adopts on a highway depends on factors such as:
 Physical characteristics of a high way and its surrounding Weather condition in the area.
 Presence of other vehicles and their nature.
 Speed limitations place up on the vehicle either by law or mechanical devices.

Table 4-3 Design Speed
Terrain type Design speed (km/hr.)
Flat 85
Rolling 70
Mountainous 60
Escarpment 50
Urban / peri- urban 50

(Source from ERA manual 2013 Table )
4.7 Design traffic volume
A further factor influencing the development of road design standards, and in particular the design speed, is the
volume and composition of traffic. The design of a road should be based in part on factual traffic volumes. Traffic
indicates the need for improvement and directly affects features of design such as widths, alignments, and gradients.
Traffic data for a road or section of road, including traffic trends, is generally available in terms of annual average daily
traffic (AADT). The traffic engineers measure or indicator of traffic volume is the average daily traffic (ADT). The
ADT is the volume that results from dividing a traffic count obtained during a given time period by the number of
days in that time period. Another commonly used measure of traffic volume is the annual average daily traffic
(AADT), which is determined by dividing a count of the total yearly traffic volume by 365. The ADT and the AADT are
not the same and it‟s important to be aware of the time period when calculating the ADT.
Table 4-4 Design standard vs. road classification and AADT
(Source of this table ERA manual 2013 Table)

4.8 SIGHT DISTANCES
Sight distance is the length of highway visible to the driver of a vehicle. There are three different sight distances:
A. Stopping sight distance
B. Passing sight distance
C. Decision sight distance

Stopping sight distance is the minimum distance required to stop a vehicle travelling near a design speed before
it reaches a stationary object in the vehicle‟s path. The minimum stopping sight distance is determined from the
following formula, which takes into account both the driver reaction time and the distance required to stop the vehicle.
Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads that must be available to
enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely without interfering with the speed of an oncoming
vehicle travelling at the design speed.
C. Decision sight distance

Decision sight distance is the distance needed for a driver to detect an unexpected or otherwise difficult to perceive
information source or condition in a roadway environment then select an appropriate speed and path, and initiate and
complete the maneuver safely and efficiently.

CHAPTER FIVE
5 PAVEMENT DESIGN
5.1 Introductions to pavement design
Pavement design means a project level activity where detailed engineering and economic considerations are
given to alternative combinations of sub base, base, and surface materials which will provide adequate load
carrying capacity. Factors which are considered include: Materials, traffic, climate, maintenance, drainage,
and life-cycle costs. A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed
materials above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle loads
to the sub-grade. The pavement structure should be able to provide a surface of acceptable riding quality,
adequate skid resistance, favorable light reflecting characteristics, and low noise pollution. The ultimate aim
is to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to wheel load are sufficiently reduced, so that they will not
exceed bearing capacity of the sub-grade. Two types of pavements are generally recognized as serving this
purpose, namely flexible pavements and rigid pavements. This chapter gives an overview of pavement types,
layers, and their functions, and pavement failures. Improper design of pavements leads to early failure of
pavements affecting the riding quality.
5.2 Pavements Types
The pavements can be classified based on the structural performance into two, namely.
1. Flexible pavements
2. Rigid pavements.
5.2.1 Flexible pavements
Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain-to-grain transfer through
the points of contact in the granular structure.
Figure 5-1 : flexible pavement layer

5.2.2 Rigid pavements.
Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load stresses to a wider area below.
A typical cross section of the rigid pavement is shown in Figure . Compared to flexible pavement, rigid
pavements are placed either directly on the prepared sub-grade or on a single layer of granular or stabilized
material. Since there is only one layer of material between the concrete and the sub-grade, this layer can be
called as base or sub-base course.
Figure 5-2 :Typical Cross section of Rigid pavement
In rigid pavement, load is distributed by the slab action, and the pavement behaves like an elastic plate
resting on a viscous medium. Rigid pavements are constructed by Portland cement concrete (PCC) and
should be analyzed by plate theory instead of layer theory, assuming an elastic plate resting on viscous
foundation. Plate theory is a simplified version of layer theory that assumes the concrete slab as a medium
thick plate which is plane before loading and to remain plane after loading. Bending of the slab due to wheel
load and temperature variation and the resulting tensile and flexural stress.
5.3 Factors affecting pavement design
Traffic is the most important factor in the pavement design. The key factors include:
 Contact pressure
 Wheel load
 Axle configuration
 Moving loads
 Repetition of Loads
 Layered elastic model

Contact pressure
The type pressure is an important factor, as it determine the contact area and the contact pressure between
the wheel and the pavement surface. Even though the shape of the contact area is elliptical, for sake of
simplicity in analysis, a circular area is often considered.
Wheel load
The next important factor is the wheel load which determines the depth of the pavement required to ensure
that the subgrade soil is not failed. Wheel configuration affect the stress distribution and deflection within a
pavemnet. Many commercial vehicles have dual rear wheels which ensure that the contact pressure is within
the limits. The normal practice is to convert dual wheel into an equivalent single wheel load so that the
analysis is made simpler.
Axle configuration
The load carrying capacity of the commercial vehicle is further enhanced by the introduction of multiple
axles.
Moving loads:
The damage to the pavement is much higher if the vehicle is moving at creep speed. Many studies show that
when the speed is increased from 2 km/hr to 24 km/hr, the stresses and deflection reduced by 40 per cent.
Repetition of Loads:
The influence of traffic on pavement not only depend on the magnitude of the wheel load, but also on the
frequency of the load applications. Each load application causes some deformation and the total deformation
is the summation of all these. Although the pavement deformation due to single axle load is very small, the
cumulative effect of number of load repetition is significant. Therefore, modern design is based on total
number of standard axle load (usually 80 kN single axle).
Layered elastic model:
A layered elastic model can compute stresses, strains, and deflections at any point in a pavement structure
resulting from the application of a surface load. Layered elastic models assume that each pavement structural
layer is homogeneous, isotropic, and linearly elastic. In other words, the material properties are same at
every point in a given layer and the layer will rebound to its original form once the load is removed. The
layered elastic approach works with relatively simple mathematical models that relates stress, strain, and
deformation with wheel loading and material properties like modulus of elasticity and poissons ratio.

5.4 TRAFFIC SURVEY AND ANALYSIS
Traffic survey and analysis is very essential issue in the design of highway pavements. It is necessary to
consider the total number of vehicles and their wheel loads (axle load). So, the traffic volume has to be
properly estimated by considering current traffic and future growing traffic.
5.5 Project Methodology
In this project we have proposed to follow a task approach to render the methodology more specific to the goal of our
project requirement as follows.
5.6 Traffic Count
Traffic counts carried out over a short period as a basis for estimating the AADT can produce estimates which are
subject to large errors because traffic volumes can have large daily, weekly, Monthly and seasonal variation. Traffic
Count is necessary:
 To assess the traffic-carrying capacity of different types of roads.
 Examine the distribution of traffic between the available traffic lanes.
 In the preparation of maintenance schedules for in-service roads.
 In the forecasting of expected traffic on a proposed new road from traffic studies on the
surrounding road system.
Table 5-1 Traffic Data for Design 4 kilo to Bus station
DATE Car M/ Bus L/ Bus S/ Truck M/ Truck H/ Truck T&T

Total
L1 L2 L1 L2 L1 L2 L1 L2 L1 L2 L1 L2 L1 L2
05 April 2023 491 563 76 84 6 10 33 41 159 127 59 62 11 9 1738
06 April 2023 511 503 78 97 9 9 61 68 210 154 67 78 14 8 1865
07 April 2023 556 610 83 92 10 14 53 39 181 180 74 79 9 11 1991
08 April 2023 556 483 70 88 5 7 18 44 164 128 108 100 7 1 1779
09 April 2023 325 347 31 51 3 4 10 24 59 62 16 48 2 8 987
10 April 2023 421 492 68 81 10 9 29 19 146 171 82 87 11 8 1634
11 April 2023 445 455 68 73 16 13 66 45 144 125 37 58 11 5 1561
Total 3305 3453 474 566 59 66 270 280 1063 947 443 512 65 50 11555

5.7 Traffic Volumes
Average Daily traffic (ADT)
The ADT is the total volume during a given time period (in days) greater than one day and less than one
year, divided by numbers of days in that time per
Initial traffic volumes
In order to determine the traffic over the design period over the design life of the road, the first step is
estimate initial traffic volumes.
ADT (Average Daily Traffic) =

For car
Total number of traffic counted =491+563+511+503+556+483+352+347+421+492+445+455 = 6758
ADT (Average Daily Traffic) for car =
For M/Bus
Total number of traffic counted =76+84+78+97+83+92+70+88+31+51+68+81+68+73=1040
ADT (Average Daily Traffic) for car =
Based on above sample we can calculate the values of Seasonal factor factor for each vehicles using tables
Table 5-2 AADTo value of each vehicle
Date
Car M/ Bus L/ Bus S/ Truck M/ Truck H/ Truck T-T
05 April 2023 1054 160 16 74 286 121 20

06 April 2023 1014 175 18 129 364 145 22
07 April 2023 1166 175 24 92 361 153 20
08 April 2023 1039 158 12 62 292 208 8
09 April 2023 672 82 7 34 121 64 10
10 April 2023 913 149 19 48 317 169 19
11 April 2023 900 141 29 111 269 95 16
Total 6758 1040 125 550 2010 955 125
ADT 965 148 18 78 287 136 16
Table 5-3 Seasonal adjustment factors
Cycle Car M/ Bus L/ Bus S/ Truck M/ Truck H/ Truck T&T

1st Cycle 1.02 1.10 0.96 1.09 1.04 1.03 1.03
AADT is calculated by multiplying ADT with seasonal adjustment factor.

Table 5-4 The adjusted annual traffic
Vehicle Type Total

Car M/ Bus L/ Bus S/ Truck M/ Truck H/ Truck T&T
ADT 965 148 18 78 287 136 16

SCF 1.02 1.10 0.96 1.09 1.04 1.03 1.03
AADT0 984 162 17 85 298 140 16 1702
After multiplying with the seasonal factor, the average annual daily traffic will be 1702.
5.8 Traffic forecast
AADT (m)1 = AADT(m)0 (1+r) n

Where: AADT1 - Base line traffic (both directions) at the year of road opening 2025
AADTo- Annual Average Daily Traffic (both directions) at the year of traffic count 2023
r - Is the growth rate which is 5%
x - Is the number of years from AADTo to AADT1 which is 2
AADT(m)1 = AADT(m)0 (1+r) n
FOR CAR FOR M/Bus

AADT(5)1 = 984*(1+0.05) 2 AADT(5)1 = 162*(1+0.05) 2
AADT(5)1 = 984*(1.05)2=1085 AADT(5)1 = 107*(1.05)2=178
Based on obove sample we can calculate the values of AADTO and AADT1 for each vehicles using
tables.
Table 5-5 AADTO AND AADT(5)1
V. Type
Car M/ Bus L/ Bus S/ Truck M/ Truck H/ Truck T&T
Total
AADT0 984 162 17 85 298 140 16
AADT(2)1 1085 178 19 94 328 154 18 1876
Estimating of Traffic at the end of design period
Table 5-6 Road classification
Based on AADT(5)1 total and given road design period AADT(5)1 =1876 which are between 1000-3000
5.8.1 Road functional classification
The functional classification of roadways defines the role each element of the roadway network plays
in serving these travel needs. It carries with it expectations about roadway design, including its speed,
capacity and relationship to existing and future land use development. The flow of traffic throughout
roadway network is similar to the flow of blood through the human circulatory system or the trunk and
branch system of a tree. The units moving through the system move through progressively smaller
network elements as they approach their destination. Most travel occurs through a network of
interdependent roadways, with each roadway segment moving traffic through the system towards
destinations. Roadways are assigned to one of several possible functional classifications within a
hierarchy according to the character of travel service each roadway provides.
1. Trunk Roads (Class I)
Centre of international importance and roads terminating at international boundaries are linked with Addis
Ababa by trunk roads. Trunk roads have a present AADT ≥10000, although they can have volumes as low as
100 AADT.
2. Link Roads (Class II)
Centre of national or international importance, such as principal towns and urban centers, must be linked
between each other by link roads. A typical link road has over 400 - 1000 first year AADT, although values
can range between 50-10,000 AADT.
3. Main Access Roads (Class III)

Centers of provincial importance must be linked between each other by main access roads. First year AADTs
are between 30-1,000 AADT.
4. Collector Roads (Class IV)

Roads linking locally important centers to each other, to a more important center, or to higher class roads
must be linked by a collector road. First year AADTs are between 25-
400 AADT.
5. Feeder Roads (Class V)
Any road link to a minor Center such as market and local locations is served by a feeder road. First year
AADTs are between 0-100. Roads of the highest classes, trunk and link roads have, as their major function
to provide mobility, while the primary function of lower class roads is to provide access.
Design Period
Design period determination is the first step towards highway pavement design. There are factors
influencing the determination of design period. The designer should follow certain guidelines in choosing an
appropriate design period, taking into account the conditions governing the project. Some of the factors
include:

o Functional importance of the road
o Traffic volume
o Location and terrain of the project
o Financial constraints
o Difficulty in forecasting traffic
Table 5-7 Design Period
Road Classification Design Period (years)

Trunk Road 20
Link Road 20
Main Access Road 15
Other Roads 10
(Source of above table ERA 2013 manual)
Based on the above list of factors the design period is decided to be N=20 years.
Based on the values obtained from the total traffic we can take the maximum values from table 2-1
In order to determine the design speed at the middle life Selecting the maximum value at middle year (2025)
From the above table we can summarize that for AADT (2025) = 1876
 Road functional Classification…………………………………….Link road
 Design standard……………………………………………………DC6
 Surface type………………………………………………………..Paved
 Truck road for 15 year taking N=15
In addition to growth rate i=5% The cumulative number of vehicles, T over the chosen design period N (in
years) is obtained by
T(m) = 365 x P x D x AADT(m)1 [(1+r/100)N - 1]/r/100)
Where: T(m)= The cumulative traffic of traffic class m
AADT(m)1= The AADT of traffic class m in the first year
N= the design period in years
i= the annual growth rate of traffic in percent
5.8.2 Commulative equivalent standard axle load calculation (CESA)
Detemination commulative number vehicles(T)
FOR CAR
T(m) = 365 x D x AADT(m)1 [(1+r/100)N - 1]/r/100)
T(Car) = 365 x 0.5 x 1085[(1+5/100)20- 1]/5/100) =

T(Car) = 6,547,472
Based on above sample we can calculate the values of commulative number vehicles(T) for each vehicles
using tables

Table 5-8 Cumulative number vehicles (T) calculation
V. Type S/ H/
Car M/ Bus L/ Bus M/ Truck T&T
Truck Truck
T 6,547,472 1,074.278 114,670 567,315 1,979,570 929,432 108,634
5.8.3 Determination of ESAL
Equivalent standard axles per vehicle class

The number of equivalent standard axles (ef) of an axle is related to the axle load as follows
ef = (L/80)n (for loads in kN)

Where:
ef = number of equivalent standard axles (ESAs)
L = axle load (in kg or kN)
n = damage exponent (n = 4.5).
Vehicles Loads on Axle (kN)

Front
Intermediate Axle Rear Axle
Type of Axle
No.
Vehicles Single Single Tandem Tridem Single Tandem Tridem
Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle Axle
1 Car/Taxi 10 11
Pick-up/4-
2 32 40
WD
3 M/Bus 27 33
4 L/Bus 59 148
5 S/Truck 37 53
6 M/Truck 67 137
7 H/Truck 46 126 198
8 T&T 78 242 287
For car For M/Bus
ef = (10/80)4.5 + (11/80)4.5 ef = (27/80)4.5 + (33/80)4.5
=0.00005+0.000133= 0.000219 0.00754+0.0186= 0.0261
Based on obove sample we can calculate the values of for Equivalent standard axles each vehicles using
tables
Table 5-9 Equivalent axle load calculation
V. Type S/ M/ H/
Car M/ Bus L/ Bus T- T
Truck Truck Truck
ef 0.000219 0.0261 16.186 0.1879 11.05 66.84 460.26
5.8.4 Cumulative equivalent standard axle (CESA)

CESA= ef x T
Table 5-10 Cumulative equivalent standard axle load calculation
V.
Car M/ Bus L/ Bus S/ Truck M/ Truck H/ Truck T- T
Type
ef 0.000219 0.0261 16.186 0.1879 11.05 66.84 460.26
T 6,547,472 1,074.278 114,670 567,315 1,979,570 929,432 108,634
CESA 1,433.90 28,038.66 1,856,048.62 106,598.49 21,874,248.5 62.123,234.88 49,999,884.84
Total CESA= 1,433.90+28,038.66+ 1,856,048.62+106,598.49+21,874,248.5+62.123,234.88+49,999,884.84

=136.00 x 106
Table 5-11 Traffic class table
(Source of table ERA 2013)
From the above table we obtained the value of ESAL =136.00 x 106 which is greater than 80 x 106 from this we
can chose our traffic class T10.
5.9 Sub-Grade Evaluation

The type of sub grade encountered is largely determined by the location of the road, but where the soils within the
possible corridor for the road vary significantly in strength from place to place, it is clearly desirable to locate the
pavement on the stronger soils if this does not conflict with other constraints. The strength of road sub grades is
commonly assessed in terms of the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and this is dependent on the type of soil, its
density, and its moisture content. For designing the thickness of a road pavement, the strength of the sub grade should
be taken as that of the soil at a moisture content equal to the wettest moisture condition likely to occur in the sub
grade after the road is opened to traffic

Investigation
Soil surveys shall be planned and conducted in a manner that classifies all materials according to their suitability as
load bearing layers. A preliminary vertical alignment shall be assumed at the time of the soilsurvey in order to ensure
that soil samples for subgrade classifications are actually taken at levels that fallwithin the likely subgrade level .
Investigations shall be extended deeper as required to detect problems that need special consideration. These include .
 presence of problem soils
 unfavorable sub-grade conditions
 features associated with slope and embankment stability
 investigations in cuttings
Evaluation of subgrade strength in embankment areas shall be based on the best possible information aboutlikely
sources of earthworks fill materials.
There are basically two modes of testing available for estimation of subgrade support values; laboratorytesting and field
testing .
Field testing is only applicable where it is proposed that subgrade support values are to be extrapolated from an existing
pavement and the subgrade soilconditions are similar to thoseof the proposed pavement.Laboratory testing is applicable
both where a suitable existing pavement for extrapolationexists, or from first principles.
Field testing may be used to determine the design CBR where soils similar to those of the subgrade of theroad being
designed have existed under a sealed pavement for at least two years and are at density andmoisture conditions similar
to those likely to occur in service. Care must be taken to carry out tests when thesubgrade is in a critical moisture
condition or alternatively, seasonal adjustments may be made.
A number of field tests may be used to estimate subgrade CBR such as Insitu CBR test and Dynamic
ConePenetrometer (DCP).
The results of such tests should be analyzed statistically and the design CBR shall be calculated as theten percentile
level value (mean minus 1.28 times standard deviation) of the CBR results obtained in thathomogeneous section.
5.9.1 Determination of CBR

The aim of subgrade evaluation is to estimate a value of subgrade support to use in design. The measure ofsubgrade
support used in the ERA Manual is California Bearing Ratio (CBR).
The following factors must beconsidered in determining the design strength/stiffness of the subgrade:
 Sequence of earthworks construction
 The compaction moisture content used and field density achieved
 Moisture changes during service life
 Sub-grade variability
The total pavement thickness may be governed by the presence of weak layers below the design sub-grade level.
Additional criteria are required to evaluate whether the sub-grade material is suitable as pavement subgrade.Swelling
potential of the soil gives indication whether the material shows considerable volume change or not,which is a very
significant factor in the performance of the road. Sub-grade soils having swelling potential >2% are not suitable
roadbed materials. When laboratory test results are not available, it is also possible to estimate the sub-grade soil CBR
valuefrom some supplementary tests.The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) soil types, provides representative
values foreach of the soil types and recommends their suitability as sub-grade.

Problem of Soils
Sub-grade materials with low strength or other unfavorable properties for use as sub-grade are classified as problem
soil.
Problem Soils include
1. Low strength soils 3. Dispersive soils
2. Expansive soils 4. Organic soils
These soils require special treatment before acceptance in the pavement foundation. After appropriate treatment, their
revised CBR value shall be determined by appropriate test methods.
1) Low strength soils
Soils with CBR less than 3% are described as Low Strength Soils. Before acceptance as foundation of thepavement
within the design depth these soils require special treatment that may include one or more of thefollowing
measures:removal and replacement of soilschemical stabilization or modification mechanical stabilizationrising of the
vertical alignment to increase soil cover.
2) Expansive soils
Expansive soils are those that exhibit particularly large volumetric changes (swell and shrinkage) followingvariations in
their in-service moisture contents. Expansive soils shall be assessed also when they occurbelow design depth.
3) Dispersive Soils
The general properties of dispersive soils are usually poor and likely to exclude them from use in theearthworks due to
non-compliance with the general material standards.
4) Organic Soils
Organic soils, e.g. in swamp areas, require special investigations to assess ground stability and potential forexcessive
settlements. A high content of organic matter is undesirable in pavement materials, particularlywhen used in cement or
lime stabilized layers. Excessive amounts of organic matter causes increaseddemands for stabilizer to achieve the
required unconfined compression strength.
Table 5-12 Summary of Laboratory Test Results of Soil
Penetration
Unit load (kg/cm²)
(mm)
From Station 0+000.00 0+500.00 1+000.00 1+500.00 2+000.00 2+500.00
to Station 0+500.00 1+000.00 1+500.00 2+000.00 2+500.00 3+000.00
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.5 0.4 6.2 2.8 1.0 1.50 5
1.0 0.9 6.7 5.6 4.2 2.00 7.2
1.5 2.0 9.3 8.7 8.9 3.00 8.6
2.0 3.0 12.6 12.4 11.1 9.30 11.2
2.5 4.5 16.4 14.1 15.3 17.20 14.3
3.0 8.0 19.3 18.4 19.2 22.30 17.5
4.0 16.0 22.4 21.2 22.7 27.80 19.8
5.0 22.0 25.6 24.7 25.4 29.00 21.6
7.5 27.0 31.2 30.3 29.1 33.40 24.3
10.0 33.0 33.5 35.2 33.7 34.2 27.5
12.5 36.0 39.5 29.7

CBR Determination station 0+000.00 – 0+500.00
CBR is the ratio expressed in percentage of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with a standard
circular plunger of 50 mm diameter at the rate of 1.25 mm/min to that required for corresponding penetration in a
standard material. The ratio is usually determined for penetration of 2.5 and 5 mm . When the ratio at 5 mm is
consistently higher than that at 2.5 mm, the ratio at 5 mm is used.
The following table gives the standard loads adopted for different penetrations for the standard material with
a C.B.R. value of 100%.
Table 5-13 Standard Load Values at Penetration
Penetration(mm) Standard load (kg/cm2)

CBR data for G - I 2.5 70.0
5.0 105.0
Calculation
1. If the initial portion of the curve is concave upwards, apply correction by drawing a tangent to the curve at
the point of greatest slope and shift the origin. Find and record the correct load reading corresponding to
each penetration.
C.B.R. = (
2. Standard specimen load for 2.5 mm penetration = 1370Kg

3. . Standard specimen load for 5.0 mm penetration = 2055Kg
4. The C.B.R. values are usually calculated for penetration of 2.5 mm and 5 mm.
4.1 Generally the C.B.R. value at 2.5 mm will be greater than at 5 mm and in such a case/the former shall
be taken as C.B.R. for design purpose.
4.2 If C.B.R. for 5 mm exceeds that for 2.5 mm, the test should be repeated.
4.3 If identical results follow, the C.B.R. corresponding to 5 mm penetration should be taken for design.
C.B.R.@ 2.5mm penetration = (
C.B.R.@ 2.5mm penetration = ( = 5.12%
C.B.R.@ 5mm penetration = (

C.B.R.@ 2.5mm penetration = ( = 5.12%
The C.B.R. are identical results both in C.B.R.@ 2.5mm penetration and C.B.R.@ 5mm penetration. The
C.B.R. corresponding to 5 mm penetration should be taken for design.
Design CBR = 5.12%
CBR Determination station 0+500.00 – 1+000.00 CBR Determination station 1+000.00 – 1+500.00
CBR determination chart CBR determination chart

n=11 n=12
d=0 .1(n-1) d=0 .1(n-1)
0.1(11-1)=1 which between 0.5 and 1.5 0.1(12-1)=1.1 which between 1 and 1.5
1+1=2 1+1.1=2.1
1.5=9.3 2=12.4
2=CBR 2.1=CBR
2.5=16.4 2.5=14.1
by interpolating CBR=11.95% by interpolating CBR=12.74%

CBR Determination station 1+500.00 – 2+000.00 CBR Determination station 2+000.00 – 2+500.00
CBR determination chart CBR determination chart

Figure 5-3 CBR determination chart
n=11 n=11
d=0 .1(n-1) d=0 .1(n-1)
0.1(11-1)=1 which between 0.5 and 1.5 0.1(11-1)=1 which between 0.5 and 1.5
1+1=2 1+1=2
1.5=8.9 1.5=3
2=CBR 2=CBR
2.5=15.3 2.5=17.20
by interpolating CBR=11.1% by interpolating CBR=9.3%
CBR Determination station 2+500.00 – 3+000.00
CBR determination chart

n=12 2=11.2
d=0 .1(n-1) 2.1=CBR
0.1(12-1)=1.1 which between 1 and 1.5 2.5=14.3
1+1.1=2.1 By interpolating CBR=11.82
Table 5-14 CBR VALUE
Station CBR in %
0+000.00 – 0+500.00 5.12
0+500.00– 1+000.00 11.95
1+000.00 – 1+500.00 12.74
1+500.00 – 2+000.00 11.1
2+000.00 – 2+500.00 9.3
2+500.00 – 3+000.00 11.82
Table 5-15 Arrange in ascending order
Station Cbr in %
0+000.00 – 0+500.00 5.12
2+000.00 – 2+500.00 9.3
1+500.00 – 2+000.00 11.1
2+500.00 – 3+000.00 11.82
0+500.00– 1+000.00 11.95
1+000.00 – 1+500.00 12.74
Table 5-16 CBR VALUE
CBR 5.12 9.3 11.1 11.82 11.95 12.74

Frequance 1 1 1 1 1 1
%f = *100 % = *100 % = *100 % = *100 % = *100 % = *100 % = *100

=16.67 =16.67
=16.67 =16.67 =16.67 =16.67
commulative 16.67 33.34 50.01 66.68 83.35 100
% left 100% 83.35% 66.68% 50.0% 33.34% 16.67%
83.35%=9.3
90=CBR
100 =5.12
By interpolation CBR = 8.1
From ERA 2013 sub grade strength class S-4
Therefore, based on the above analysis, the value would be belonging to the traffic Class T10 and S4 flexible
pavement design. Used for this project ERA manual the following catalogue.

Table 5-17 Traffic class and Sub grade strength class table
(Source of figure ERA 2013 Flexible pavement Design)
(Source of figure ERA 2013 Flexible pavement Design)

CHAPTER SIX
6 GEOMETRIC DESIGN
6.1 Introduction
Geometric Design is the process whereby the layout of the road through the terrain is designed to meet the
needs of road users.(ERA 2013). It also involves the design of geometric elements of a highway and fixation of
standards with respect to various components. The safety, efficiency , and economic operation of a high way is
governed to a large extent by the care in which the geometric design is worked out.
The engineer has to consider the following points when selecting design standards.
 Volume and composition of traffic in the design year should be the basis of design.
 Faulty geometries are costly to rectify at a later date…should be avoid
 The design should be consistent and the standards used for the different elements should be
compatible with one another .
 The design should hold all aspects of design including signs, markings, lighting, etc.
 The road should be considered as an element of the total environment and its location
and design should enhance rather than degrade the environment
 The design should minimize the total transportation cost
 Safety should be built in the design
6.1 Elements of geometric design
A. Horizontal alignment
B. Vertical alignment
C. Cross section
6.2 Design Control Factors
The elements of design are influenced by a wide variety of design controls, engineering criteria, and
project specific objectives which include: functional classification of the road, topography, design traffic
volume and composition, traffic capacity, design speed, economic & Environmental Considerations, road
users characteristics, vehicle size and performance (Design Vehicle), level of service to be provided and
available fund and Safety, Etc.
6.3 Horizontal Alignment
The Horizontal alignment is one of the geometric designs of highway elements which consist of a series of straight
sections (tangents), circular curves; transition curves (Spirals) and super elevation. It is necessary to establish the

proper relation between design speed and curvature as well as the relationship with super elevation and side
friction. Either their radius or the degree of the curve describes horizontal curve.
The main objectives of horizontal alignments are enabling:
To Identify the curve types and their components, To ensure that vehicles can negotiate them safely or
avoiding sharp changes in curvature, thereby achieving a safe uniform driving speed, To derive the
minimum radius (Rain) of a curvature formula, To tell a typical range of side friction values, To explain
different methods of distributing super elevations e and side friction, To tell which method is used for
urban area streets, at which the speed is low and other higher speed roadways, To compute a radius of a
curve for super elevation for a roadway given at a maximum super elevation, To compute different
parameters that related to the horizontal curves and etc.
6.3.1 The Circular Curve
When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it is forced radically outward by centrifugal force. The
centrifugal force is counterbalanced by super elevation of the roadway and/or the side friction developed
between the tires and the road surface. In order to calculate the minimum horizontal radius of curvature,
Rmin, for a particular design speed, the equationis:
R min= (Vd)2 /127(e+f)
Where: Vd = Design Speed (km/h)

e = Maximum super elevation (%)
f = Side friction coefficient
Table 6-1 Minimum radii for horizontal curves for paved roads

For DC6 : Vd=100km/h , f=11%, e=8%
Rmin=1002/ [127(0.08+0.11)]=414.42m
Therefore, R=max {414.42, ERA Recommended value} R = 410m (ERA Recommended)
R provided=414.42m
Side friction coefficients are dependent on;

i) Vehicle speed;
ii) Type, condition and texture of roadway surface;
iii) Weather conditions; and
iv) Type and condition of tires.
v) Minimum Radius for Horizontal Curves: 4% Super elevation
Table 6-2 Geometric parameters for design class

Curve Elements
The elements of circular curves are shown in Figure below
Figure 6-1 Curve Elements
Where;
∆ is the Deflection Angle (in degrees).
R is the Radius of the curve.
T is the Tangent Distance PC to PI; T = R.tan (∆/2)
E is the External Distance: E = R.[sec(∆/2) – 1]
Table 6-3 Horzontal curve calculation from eagle point auto cad
(Source above two table Eagle point out put)

Table 6-4 Horzontal curve data
curve Topography Deflection Radius Speed Tangent Length Chord Middle Chainage Chainage Chainage
Angle (∆) (R) (V) length of curve length Ordinate of PI of PC of PT
(T) (L) (C)
1 Flat 11.1913 410 100 40.64 81.01 80.88 1.999 0+158.698 0+118.063 0+199.069
Flat 410 100
2 7.4136 27.57 55.053 55.011 0.924 0+685.168 0+678.863 0.691.471
Flat 410 100
3 1.4543 6.3044 12.608 12.607 0.04846 0+685.168 0+678.863 0+691.471
Flat 410 100
4 31.3110 115.9069 225.5480 222.715 15.412 0+809.226 0+693.520 0+919.068
Flat 410 100
5 2.3723 9.386 18.7697 18.7696 0.1074 0+956.312 0+946.925 0+965.695
Flat 410 100
6 0.4212 2.517 5.0333 5.0333 0.00772 1+642.721 1+640.204 1+645.238
Flat 410 100
7 0.3217 1.925 3.850 3.850 0.00452 2+302.889 2+300.964 2+304.814
Flat 410 100
8 3.1017 11.35 22.69 22.69 0.157 3+608.158 3+596.808 3+619.502
(Source above two table Eagle point out put)
6.4 Sight Distance
It is a length of the roadway that forward visible to the drivers, must allow driver to perceive, react, stop,
change speed, and change direction etc. When it may be necessary for:-
A. Stopping sight distance (SSD)
B. Passing sight distance (PSD )
C. Decision sight distance (DSD)
Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances: the distance traversed by the vehicle from the instant
the driver sights an object necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes are applied and the distance
required to stop the vehicle from the instant brake application begins. These are referred to as brake
reaction distance and braking distance, respectively.
Figure 6-2: sight distance for horizontal curve

Table 6-5 Stopping sight distances for unpaved roads
(Source of above table ERA manual 2013)

Factors affecting SSD Values are:
 Speed of the vehicles,
 Driver‘s and vehicles characteristics,
 characteristics of the road (Frictional coefficient),Paved or unpaved, rough or smooth,
 Gradient of the roads,
The minimum stopping sight distance can be due to:-
 Distance travelled during the time the breaks are under application.
 Distance travelling during perception & break reaction time.
Therefore, the minimum stopping sight distance can be determined from the following formulas.
d1=0.278Vt
d2=V2/254(f +g/100)
SSD= d1+d2
Where: d1=reaction distance d2=breaking distance
t= reaction time (2.5 sec) f=coefficient of friction b/n tire & the road
V=100 Km/hr

SSD calculation
Design speed =70 Km/hr.
Topography = flat
Time= 2.5 s
Friction coefficient= 0.285
For a flat road the value of g=0
d1=0.278*100*2.5=69.5m
d2=V2/254(f)
d2=1002/254(0.25) = 157.48m
SSD= d1+d2
SSD=69.5 + 157.48 =226.98m
It is a minimum distance required to safely complete passing maneuver on 2-lane two-way highway.
Allows time for driver to avoid collision with approaching vehicle and not cut off passed vehicle when
upon return to lane. Assumes:
 Vehicle that is passed travels at uniform speed

 Speed of passing vehicle is reduced behind passed vehicle as it reaches passing section
 Time elapses as driver reaches decision to pass
The sight distance available for passing at any place is the longest distance at which a driver whose eyes
are 1.07m above the pavement surface can see the top of an object 1.07m high on the road.
Figure 6-3 passing sight distance

PSD Calculation
The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four components, as follows:
d1 = 0.278 t1 (v - m + a t/2)
Where t1 = time of initial manoeuvre, take 2.5 sec
a = average acceleration, take 2.4075km/h
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h =70 km/h
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, take 16km/h
d1 = 0.278 *2.5(100- 16 + 2.4075*2.5/2)=56.29m
d2 = 0.278 vt2 = 0.278*100*10= 278m
Where t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane = 10sec
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h = 70 km/h
d3= safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the man oeuvre)
Table 6-6 : Clearance distance for different ambient speeds
d3=80
d4=2*278/3 = 185m
The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore:
PSD = d1 + d2 + d3
PSD= 56.29+278+80+185= 675m
In the design of this road project all horizontal length of curve which are less than the minimum required
passing sight distance. So this implies all curves are inadequate for vehicle over taking, to minimize the
accident due inadequate PSD provision on the curve, vehicle over passing is restricted by traffic road
marking using solid line for a distance less or equal to PSD
Setback distance at the obstruction of horizontal curves
On horizontal curves with obstruction on the inside an important consideration is the lateral clearance so
as to obtain the sight distance. Sight distance is measured along the arc of the curve, if pavement has two
or more lanes, sight distance is measured along the arc at the and Center line of the inner lane.
Figure 6-4 Setback distance
6.5 Vertical Alignment
Vertical alignment of a highway and its effect on the safe and economical operation of vehicle
constitutes one of the most important features of highway design. Vertical alignment of a highway
consists of straight sections of the highway known as grades, or tangents connected by vertical curves. The
design criteria which dominate in deciding on the appropriate vertical alignment vary with the type
of road being considered. An important requirement of a vertical curve is that they should provide a
constant rate of change of grade, and the parabola fulfils this requirement, is shown below:
Y(x) = r.X2/200 + X.g1/100 + YBVCE

r = (g2 – g1)/L = G/L
Where
BVC = Beginning of the vertical curve. The coordinates are normally (0, Y(0)),
EVC = End of the vertical curve. The coordinates are normally (L, Y(L)),
Y(X) = Elevation of a point on the curve (meters)
X = Horizontal distance from the (BVC) (meters)
g1 = Starting gradient (%),
g2 = Ending gradient (%),
r = Rate of change of grade per section (% per meter),
L = Length of curve (horizontal distance) in meters,
G = g1 - g2 (%),
K = L/G = horizontal distance required to achieve a 1% change in grade
(Meters),
Z = vertical distance from the tangent to the curve (meters)
Useful relationships are;
Equation of tangent g1 is Y(X) = Y (0) + g1.X/100
Equation of tangent g2 is Y(X) = Y (L) + g2.(X-L)/100
The y coordinate of the EVC is Y (L) = (g1+g2)L/200 + Y(0)
The Intersection Point always occurs at an x coordinate of 0.5L hence the elevation is always;
Y (IP) = (g2+3.g1) L/800 + Y (0)
 G2-G1=negative, then curve is crest curve.
 If G2-G1= positive, then curve is sag curve.
g1=-3.54% g2=2.91%
2.91-(-4.68) =7.59 sag curve
General Consideration
Vertical curves should be provided at points of change of grade. The vertical curve serves a number of
purposes: They serve as a gradual transition from one gradient to another without discomfort to a driver ,
they eliminate sudden humps and troughs and they provide adequate visibility for stopping and over
taking.
If the point of vertical intersection (terminal PIV) is above the road surface, the curve is a summit or
crest curve and if is below the road surface, the curve is a sag curve. If the total change in gradient
from one
tangent to another does not exceed 0.5 percent, vertical curves can be dispensed with. The parabola is a
vertical
curve most frequently use because of the ease with which it can be laid out. Due to the
difficulties of the the vertical alignment of highway generally defined as the presence of heights and
depths in vertical axis with respect to horizontal axis of alignment. These heights and depths in roads
may be in the form of gradients (straight lines in a vertical plane) or vertical curves. topography, it is
not possible to join two given points straight horizontally. Therefore, it must to use different series of
grades. Moreover, to create a smooth transition b/n these grades parabolic curves are used. Therefore,
vertical alignment includes: location of appropriate gradients and joining the grades with smooth
Maximum grade limit

The selection of grade is depends on the economic benefit of the highway, safety, traffic volume and
drainage. The maximum grade limit for the design standard DS6 is given in ERA geometric design
manual 2002(table 9-3) depending on terrain type of the highway.
Critical length of gradient

Critical length may be defined at the point at which a truck reaches a certain speed or the point at
which it has lost a certain amount of speed. Critical length of gradient is considered to be the maximum
length of a designated upgrade upon which a loaded truck can operate without unreasonable
reduction in speed. It depends on the grade of the highway. Generally, critical length is decreased a
the gradient increase and increase as the gradient.( ERA Geometric design manual 2013 decrease
table)

Types of vertical curves
There are two types of vertical curves
A. Crest curves
B. Sag curve
A. Crest curves
Crest curve is a type of vertical curves that having its convexity upward. When a vertical curve connects a
positive grade with a negative grade, it is referred to as a << crest curve >>
This curve occurred;
a) If there is a change in gradient from large positive to small positive.
b) If there is a change in gradient from positive to negative.
c) If there is a change in gradient small negative to large negative
Figure 6-5 Crest Curve
B. Sag Curve
Curve Since there is a change in gradient from negative to positive so the vertical curve is sag vertical
curve. our project have 3 sag carves with its difference grades.
Figure 6-6 Sag curve

Table 6-7 vertical curve calculation from eagle point auto cad
6.5.1 Design of sag Curves
Vd= 100km/hr.
Topography= flat
Maximum gradient desirable= 6%
Maximum gradient absolute= 8%
Departed gradient G1=-3% and G2=2 % Curve type=sag
Coefficient of friction= 0.315
h1=1.05 (derivers eye height)
h2= 0.6 (object height for stopping sight distance)
Minimum allowable "K" value = 25m (from ERA geometric design manual 2013)
Data computation:
Algebraic difference in grade (G) = /3-(-2)/ = 5%
Station of PVI is 0+446.476
Computation of the curve length for curve 2
1. Curve length required for minimum curvature, k

L=AK
K is rate of vertical curvature, From ERA table
K=25 for sag curve, of V=100km/hr
L= 7.57*25= 189.25m
2. Length required for safe stopping site distance
When Sd> L
L=2Sd- 200(h+ Sd(tan α))/A

Where for sag curve, the height from the ground to the eye of the driver, h =0.6 and the angle b/n the ray
from the observer‘s eye to the object, α= 1o
Then, the required curve length is:
L=2(300) - 200(0.6+300*tan1o)/7.57= 445.79m
3. Length required for passengers comfort
Lc = Vd2*A /389
Lc = 602*7.57 /389 Lc =70.1m
4. Length required for aesthetic (appearance)
Lc = 30 *A
Lc = 30*7.57= 227.1m
L provided = maximum of the lengths above= 300m
There fore, the length the curve should be maximum of the above calculations.
Lmin = Max(136.26 , 445.79 , 70.1 , 227.1)
Lmin = 445.79m
Lprovided = 445.79m
Determination of the curve elements

Sag curve with Station of PVI =0+446.740
G1=-3.54 G2=-2.92%
Elevation of PVI = 1186.786
Station of PVC = PVI- Lc/2= (0+446.40)-445.79/2=0+223.505
Station of PVT= PVI + Lc/2=(0+446.4)+445.79/2=0+669.295
Elevation of PVC = Elevation of PVI+Lc/2(g1) =1186.786+445.79/2(3.54/100) = 1187.596

Elevation of PVT = Elevation of PVI-lc/2*g2/100=1186.786-200/2*2.92/100=1189.71
6.6 Gradients and Grade Controls
In determination of grades for vertical alignment the following are taken in to consideration;
1. For the maximum limit.
Visibility related to sight distance cost of vehicle operation , cut and fill (earth work) , passengers
comfort , general appearance and existing road intersections & adjacent land use.
2. For the minimum limit

The selection of the minimum grade for a highway depends on the drainage condition of the highway.
Longitudinal drainage slope is mostly 0.5% for lined and 1% for unlined roads.
Selection of grade

We select the grade of the road with considering the following factors:
Cut & fill , critical length of gradient according to ERA manual table 9.4 , maximum grade limit and
phasing of vertical & horizontal curves.
1. Cut and fill
When the cut is much greater than the amount of fill there will be an increase in excavation and damping
cost due waste material or excess cut material whereas when the amount of the fill is much higher there
will be cost incurred for bore material. In our case, we tried to place change of grade from plus to minus
in cuts and change from minus grade to plus grade in fills so that the design will avoid the appearance of
building hills and producing depressions contrary to the general existing contours of the land.
Critical length of gradient according to ERA manual table 9.4
Critical length may be defined at the point at which a truck reaches a certain speed or the point at which it
has lost a certain amount of speed. Critical length of gradient is considered to be the maximum length of a
designated upgrade upon which a loaded truck can operate without unreasonable reduction in speed.
Critical length of gradient is, to some extent, dependent on the gradient of the approach; a downhill
approach will allow vehicles to gain momentum and increase the critical length general, the critical length
of gradient decreases, as gradient increases. This is shown in Table 3.3 below. Where it is necessary to
exceed the critical length of gradient on heavily trafficked roads, it is desirable to provide either with safe
passing distances on the rise, or a climbing lane for heavy vehicles.
Table 6-8 Climbing Lanes
Design Class Gradient Critical Length of Maximum

(%) Gradient above which a Desirable Length
Climbing Lane is of Gradient (m)
required (m)
DS2 &3 4 300 900
DS2, 3 & 4 5 240 800
DS2, 3 & 4 6 200 700
DS2, 3 & 4 7 170 600
DS2, 3 & 4 8 150 500
DS2, 3 & 4 9 130 400
DS2, 3 & 4 10 Required 400
DS4 11 Required 400
DS4 12 Required 400

Maximum grade limits
It is desirable to have a very long length of steep grade. On both the upgrade and the down grade, the
lower operating speed of trucks may cause inconvenience to other traffic. For very low levels of traffic
flow represented by only a few four-wheel drive vehicles other references advocate a maximum
traversable gradient of up to 18 percent. Small commercial vehicles can usually negotiate an 18 per cent
gradient; whilst two-wheel drive trucks can successfully manage gradients of 15-16 per cent except when
heavily laden.
However, the vehicle fleet in Ethiopia is composed of a high percentage of vehicles that are
underpowered and poorly maintained. These performance considerations have formed the basic limiting
criteria for gradient as shown in the table.
However, the vehicle fleet in Ethiopia is composed of a high percentage of vehicles that are
underpowered and poorly maintained. These performance considerations have formed
6.7 Road Cross Section Elements
6.7.1 Introduction
The road cross section should be designed depending on the terrain characteristics and traffic
requirements. Even though the cross section may vary over a particular route because of varying
controlling factors, the section should be designed in such a way that it can fulfill the basic requirements.
The basic requirements include:
 Changes in cross section standards shall be uniform within each subsection of the route.
 Any changes of a cross section shall be effected gradually & logically over a transition length. An
abrupt or isolated change in cross section leads to increased hazards, reduced traffic capacity &
complicated traffic operation.
Figure 6-7 paved flat and rolling terrain typical cross section

6.7.2 Road Cross Section Elements
Highways are categorized into:

 Divided highways
 Undivided highways
The distinction is based on the presence of median-traffic barrier. The components of divided highways
within the right of way are:
 Carriageway or travelling lanes
 Median
 Shoulder
 Side-slopes
 Cross section slope
6.7.3 Figure road cross section elements
A cross section will normally consist of the carriage way, shoulders, or curbs, drainage features and earth
work profiles.
Carriage way: the part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic. Includes: traffic lanes , auxiliary
lanes such as acceleration and declaration lanes , climbing lanes and passing lanes.
Road way: consists of the carriage way and shoulders.
Earth work profile: Includes side slop and back slope.
Lane width and shoulder width should be adjusted to traffic requirements and characteristics of the
terrain.
Lane width
It is the width of the carriage way in which the vehicle moves with comfort & safety. To increase the
safety & comfort the width of the carriage way shall be increased & shall be constructed from good
quality asphalt. However for low volume roads, narrower lanes are provided & auxiliary lanes at
intersections often help to facilitate traffic movement especially in curves & mountain Areas. Minimum
side clearance is required between two lanes depending on the size of the vehicle and it should be
designed for large sized vehicle. The number of lanes depends on the traffic volume.
Shoulders
Shoulders is a portion of the road way contiguous to carriage way for the accumulation of stopped
vehicles, traditional and intimidate non motorized traffic, animals, pedestrians and emergency use. And
also used for the recovery of stopped vehicles and lateral support of the pavement course. our project
have shoulder with of 1.25 with grade 6% we from era 2013
Normal cross fall

Normal cross fall should be sufficient to provide adequate surface drainage whilst not being so great as to
make steering difficult.
Generally, cambers are transverse slope given to the road surface to drain off water from the road surface.
According to ERA normal cross fall should be 6% on paved roads and 4% .
Side slopes and back slopes
Side slopes and back slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the road way and to provide a
reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle.
Embankment or fill slopes parallel to the flow of the traffic may be defined as recoverable or non-
recoverable or, critical.
Recoverable slopes: 1:4 or flatter slopes are categorized under this category. A driver whom encroaches
on this kind of slope can easily stop or return to the road way easily.
Non-recoverable slopes: slopes between 1:3 to1:4 generally fall into this category. A driver will be
unable to stop and return the vehicle easily to the road way.
Critical slopes: slopes on which a vehicle is likely to overturn, Slopes steeper than 1:3 generally falls in
to this category
The selection of a side slope & aback slope dependent on three factors:
 safety consideration
 height of cut or fill &
 economic consideration but we used ½ based our soil and rainfall we calculated in chapter 5
Table 6-9 Vertical to Horizontal Slope Ratio
Material Height of Slope Side Slope Back Slope Zone Description
Cut Fill
Earth or Soil 0.0 - 1.0m 1:4 1:4 1:3 Recoverable
1.0 - 2.0m 1:3 1:3 1:2 Non-recoverable
Over 2.0m 1:2 1:2 1:1.5 Critical
Rock Any height See Standard Details Critical
Black Cotton Soil* 0.0 - 2.0m - 1:6 - Recoverable
Over 2.0m 1:4
Depending to the given standard ratio our project is designed and set out the appropriate and economical
road section.
Road side ditches
Chambers, side slopes and back slopes are provided for the purpose drainage in order to remove this
water road side ditches are provided. For this project, trapezoidal open channel ditch is provided.

Clear zone
For adequate safety it is desirable to have good clear zone road for recovery area. That is as wide as a
practical on the specific high way section. The cleared width should be a minimum of 15m each side from
the edge of roadway for a higher road standards. For lower road standards it can be reduced as practical
lateral clearance between road sides

CHAPTER SEVEN
7 EARTH WORK ANALYSIS

7.1 General
Earth work is conversion of natural condition to required section and grade. Earth work in high way design
includes determination of cuts and fills, location of borrow, waste sites, the free haul and over haul
distance determination. The most common item of work encountered in high project is earth work.
Earth work includes the following are earthwork operations: Site clearing , grubbing-clear off roots ,
excavation of structures , borrows , haul and over haul , grading , preparation of side slopes , reconditions
of roadway and other operations for preparing the sub grade for highway or runway pavement construction.
7.2 Excavation
There are mainly three types of excavations in the construction of highway.
A. Road ways and drainage excavation
This is the excavating and grading of the road way and ditches including the removal of all
excavated materials and all work needed for the construction and completion of the
cuts, embankments, ditches, approaches, intersections and similar operations of the work.
B. Excavation for structures
This refers to the excavation of materials in order to permit the construction of pipe culverts,
concrete box culverts, foundation for bridges, retaining walls and practically all other structures
that may be required in particular work
C. Borrow excavation
When sufficient materials for the formation of embankments and other elements of the road way
structures is not available for excavation performed within the limit of the right of way,
additional suitable materials is generally taken from the borrow pits.
Excavated materials are usually classified as:
 Common excavation: is largely earth, or with detached boulders.

 Loose excavation: usually refers to rock which can be removed pick and bar, Also the use of power
shovels or blasting may be advantageous.
 Solid rock excavation: comprises hard rock in place and boulders that can be Removed only by the
use of drilling and blasting equipment.

The estimation of earth quantities deserves a detailed treatment. According to ERA specification the rate of
earth work in it such as:-
 Excavation in borrow area
 Transporting to the site of embankment including all lifting and loads not Greater than 50
meter.
The quantity of work in embankment and cuts are computed by the cross sectional end area method.
The area of earth work in each cross section is computed by the help of mm paper or Plano meter and also
can be calculated by using software programs.
Basic earth work operations
1) Clearing and garbing (m2): the removal of top soil, trees, bushes and etc.
2) Excavation (m3): the process of losing and removal of soil and rocks. It can be done For t
reasons. These are:-
 In order to maintain the grades for roads and drainage

 For structure foundation
 For borrow excavation
Classification of excavation
 Rock excavation
 Common excavation
 Borrow excavation
 Unsuitable material excavation: removal and disposal of unsuitable materials For the road.
3) Embankment /compaction (m3k.hr): densification of fill section of the road.
4) Transporting /hauling: moving excavated material place to place: Unit price of Excavation including
the cost of transportation from cut to fill is free haul
7.3 Shrinkage and swell
Compaction factors for excavated materials must be determined or estimated in order to determine
quantities of excavation and embankment. The process of excavation breaks up earth and makes it take
up more space. After placing the excavated in a fill and compacting, volume will become less than
the original for excavated soil and usually greater than the original for excavated rock.

7.4 Area and volume computation
Area can be computed using coordinate method, trapezoidal method and Simpson rule. In this project the
area is calculated using eagle point software. For volume computation there are different methods; the
average-end area formula and primordial formula are the most frequently applicable. In this project
volume calculations are made using eagle point
software.
7.4.1 Area of earthwork

Trapezoidal rule
A trapezoidal rule assumes that if the interval between offset is small, the boundary c
approximated to a straight line between the offset.
A=L/2(O1+On+2(O2+O3+…..+On-1)
When; A-area, L-length, and O-ordinate
Simpson rule
This method assumes that instead of being made up of a series of straight lines the boundary consists of
a series of parabolic area.
A=L/3(O1+On+4(∑even offset) +2(∑odd offset))
When; A-area, L-length, and O-ordinate
But in our project the area of earth work in each cross section is computed by the help of software
programs.
7.3.2. Volume of earthwork
The volume of earthwork may be found by means: Average end area.
Average end area formula
V12= *L
Where: V= volume in m3
A1& A2 is area of successive cross-section in m2
L= distance between successive cross section in m.
This formula is applied to areas of any shape, but the results are slightly too large. The error is small if
the sections do not change rapidly. The average end area method is simple and is generally preferred
by most high engineers, so we choose this method for this particular project.

7.5 Estimating earthwork quantities
Here, both the quantities earth to be removed and the volume of earth necessary to form an
embankment are involved. Balancing the two sometimes determines the grades to which the road will
be laid. This needs a lot of trail and it is difficult to work out manually. We have tried to balance cut
and fill volumes by changing the grade direction as well as percent of grade in the software. To
compute the earthwork quantities cross-sections are taken at 20m interval on tangents and 10m on
curves.
Table 7-1 Volume Report (Sample)
station material CUT CUT FILL AREA FILL VOLUME

AREA VOLUME
0+000.000 Orig_Surface 0 0
Total 0 0 0 0
0+020.000 Orig_Surface 11.599 115.993
Total 11.599 115.993 0.271 2.714
0+040.000 Orig_Surface 17.934 295.334
Total 17.934 295.334 0 2.714
0+060.000 Orig_Surface 6.261 241.948
Total 6.261 241.948 0 0
0+080.000 Orig_Surface 0.166 64.264
Total 0.166 64.264 9.876 98.763
0+100.000 Orig_Surface 0.629 7.945
Total 0.629 7.945 8.405 182.811
0+120.000 Orig_Surface 0 6.277
Total 0 6.277 15.134 235.434
Total 0 0 24.543 396.539
Total 0 0 30.616 514.781
Total 0 0 31.16 40.159
Total 0 0 33.831 650.133
Total 0 0 47.715 814.574
Total 0 0 52.196 999.116
Total 0 0 51.936 1041.32
Total 0 0 48.328 1002.64
TOTAL CUT VOLUME=51734.26m3
TOTAL FILL VOLUME=55021.54m3

7.5.1 Mass haul diagram characteristics
It is a graphical representation of the amount of earth work and embankment involved in a project
and the manner in which the earth is to be moved. Mass haul diagram is a continuous curve showing
the accumulated algebraic sum of the cut (+ve) and fill (-ve) volume from some initial station for any
succeeding section. The horizontal or x-axis represents distance and is usually expressed in
meters or stations. The vertical or y- axis represents the cumulative quantity of earth work in cubic meter.
The quantity of excavation on the mass diagram is considered positive, and embankment is negative.
To draw the mass haul diagram it is convenient to tabulate the cumulative volumes of cuts and fill at
each station. The mass diagram allows a high way engineer to determine direction of haul and the
quantity of earth taken from or hauled to any location. It shows ‗‘balance point ‗‘ the station between
which is the volume of excavation.
Figure 7-1 Mass haul diagram from Eagle point out put(source Egile point)
7.5.2 Use of mass haul diagram
 If mass haul is drawn for each trial grade line it can be used for selecting the most economical
gradient.
 Once the formation level is designed it can be used to indicate the most economical method of
moving the earth of the soil.
In proportion and enabling suitable plant, equipment or machine

CHAPTER EIGHT
8 DRAINAGE DESIGN
The process of removing and controlling excess surface and sub-surface water with in the right of way of
the road is termed as highway drainage. This highway drainage includes interception and diversion of
water from the road surface and sub grade. During rains, part of the rain water flows on the surface and
part of it reach the ground water. There are two type of highway drainage.
8.1 Surface drainage:
it is the removal and diversion of surface water from the road way and adjoining land. Surface drainage
encompasses all means by which surface water is removed from the pavement and right of way of the
highway or street. A properly designed highway surface drainage system should effectively intercept
all surface and watershed runoff and direct this water into adequately designed channels and gutters for
eventual discharge into the natural waterways. Water seeping through cracks in the highway riding
surface and shoulder areas into underlying layers of the pavement may result in serious damage to the
highway pavement. The major source of water for this type of intrusion is surface runoff. An
adequately designed surface drainage system will therefore minimize this type of damage. The
surface drainage system includes:
i) Transverse slopes:-These include crowning of pavements on either side of the center line or providing a
slope in one direction across the pavement width and crowning of shoulders away from the pavement to
facilitate the removal of surface water from the pavement surface in the shortest possible time.
ii) Longitudinal slopes: - A minimum gradient in the longitudinal direction of the highway is required to
obtain adequate slope in the longitudinal channels, particular at cut sections.
iii) Longitudinal Channels: - These are ditches constructed along the sides of the highway to collect the
surface water that runs off from the pavement surface, subsurface drains, and other areas of the highway
right of way.
Iv) Curbs and gutters: - Curbs and gutters are facilities more frequently in urban areas, particularly
in residential areas, where they are used in conjunction with storm sewer systems to control street runoff in
addition to other functions, which include preventing the encroachment of vehicles on adjacent areas and
delineating pavement edges. When it is necessary to provide relatively long continuous sections of curbs in
urban areas, the inlets to the storm sewers must be adequately designed for both size and spacing so that
the impounding of large amounts of water on the pavement surface is prevented.

v) Cross- Drainage Structures: - Cross drainage structures are constructed to carry trafficover natural
waterways that flow below the right of way of the highway. These structures also provide for the flow of
water below the highway, along the natural channel, without significant alternation or disturbance to its
normal-course. One of the main concerns of the highwayengineer is to provide an adequate size structure,
such that the waterway opening is sufficiently large to discharge the expected flow of water. Inadequately
sized structures can result in water impounding, which may lead to failure of the adjacent sections
of the highway due to embankments being submerged in water for long periods.
vi) Sediment and Erosion Controls: - Continuous flow of surface water over shoulders, side slopes and
unlined channels often results in soil erosion which can lead to conditions that are detrimental to the
pavement structures, embankments and cut sections.
The methods used to prevent erosion and control sediment include: Intercepting drains at the top of a
cut to collect and transport runoff to paved spillways that are placed at strategic locations on the side of
the cut and then to the longitudinal ditches alongside the highway , curbs and gutters be used to prevent
un-surfaced shoulders and embankment slopes from erosion and then direct surface water into paved
spillways and Turf cover on unpaved shoulders, ditches, embankments, and cut slopes in an efficient
and economic method of preventing erosion when slopes are flatter than 3 to the turf cover is
commonly developed by sowing suitable grasses immediately after grading.
The designer of surface drainage systems for a highway may be divided into three major phases:
 An estimate of the quantity of water that may be expected to reach any element of the system;
 The hydraulic design of each element of the system and
 The comparison of alternative systems, alternative materials, and other variables in order to select
the most economical system that can be devised. In the third phase, attention must be given to
selecting the system that has the lowest annual cost when all variables are taken into consideration
8.2 Sub-surface drainage:

it is the diversion or removal of excess soil-water from the sub grade. Subsurface drainage systems are
provided within the pavement to drain water that: has percolated through cracks and joints in the pavements
to the underlying strata , has moved upward through the underlying soil strata as a result of capillary action
and exists in the natural ground below the water table, usually referred to as ground water The design of
subsurface drainage should be carried out as an integral part of the complete design of the highway,
since inadequate subsurface drainage has detrimental on the stability of slopes and pavement
performance.

Subsurface drainage systems are usually classified into five general categories:
1. Longitudinal drains
2. Transverse drains
3. Horizontal drains
4. Well Systems
1. Longitudinal drains. Subsurface longitudinal drains usually consist of pipes laid in trenches, within the
pavement structure and parallel to the center line of the highway.
2. Transverse drains. Transverse drains are pleased transversely below the pavement, usually in a direction
perpendicular to the centerline, although they may be skewed to form a herringbone configuration
8.3 Factors Affecting Drainage

In the hydrologic analysis for a drainage structure, there are many factors affecting floods. Some of the
factors that need to be considered are: rainfall amount and storm distribution , Catchment area, size, shape
and orientation, ground cover , soil groups and land use and slope of the terrain and stream(s).
8.4 The importance of highway drainage

The strength of stability of soil mass decreases with increasing moisture content also depends on the soil
type and mode of stress application. Highway drainage is important because of the following reasons:
 Excess moisture in sub grade soil causes considerable lowering of pavement strength. So, the
pavement is likely to fail due to sub grade failure.
 In some clay soil, there is variation in volume of sub grade. This sometimes contributes for
pavement failure.
 Sustained contact of water with bituminous pavement causes failure due to striping of bitumen
from aggregate like losing or detachment of the bituminous pavement layers and formation of
potholes.
 Excess water in shoulder and pavement edge causes considerable damage.
 Erosion of soil from top of subsurface road and slope of embankment cut and fill side also caused
due to surface water.
To have adequate and efficient surface drainage system which runs longitudinally at both sides of the
road, it is necessary to do hydrological and hydraulics analysis.
In the hydrological analysis for a drainage facility, some of the factors which need to be recognized and
considered on an individual site by site basis include:-
 Rainfall amount and storm distribution

 Drainage area size, shape and orientation
 Slope of terrain and streams Water shed development potential and
 Types of precipitation(rain, snow, hail or combinations)
Hence the drainage should enable to drain the surface water efficiently peak flows with an acceptable
approach should be known to design the surface drainage systems.
8.5 CROSS DRAINAGE
The stream cross the road way, facility for cross drainage is to be provided. The water from side drain is
often taken by cross drain. Cross drain also used to divert the water away from the road to water course or
valley. When small stream crosses a road with a linear water way less than about six meter, the cross
drainage provided is called culvert. The commonly used types of culverts are:-
 Slab culvert
 Box culvert
 Arch culvert
 Pipe culvert
In our case, we designed pipe culvert at the place where cross drainage is required.
8.6 Design of surface drainage systems

The design of surface drainage system for a high way may be divided into three major phases.
 Estimation of quantity of water to be drained but in our cause design Discharge is Given
 Hydraulic design of each drainage element
 The comparison of alternatives systems, alternative materials and other variables in order to
selects the most economical system.
Step 1: Determination of cross-sectional Area.
By using continuity equation
Q = AV
A= = = 1.75m2
Step 2 : Compute the hydraulic radius
R= for trapezoidal section the following holds true
A=D(B+2D)=D(B+1D)=D(B+D) R= =

P=B+2D ²=B+2D DB+2.828D2-2DB+2D2 = 0
P=B+2 =B+2.828D -DB+0.828D2 = 0
R= = B = 0.828D
A= DB+D2 -Substitute the value of A = 1.75m2 and B = 0.828D
1.75m2 = D(0.828D)+D2 1.75m2 = 1.828D2
1.75m2 = 0.828D2+D2 D2 = =
0.96m
D = 0.96m = 0.98m and B = 0.828(0.98) = 0.8m
The Cross Section is Safe with d = 1.0m, b = 0.8m & Side Slope Of 1V:2H Take trapezoidal Section
1 1m
0.8m
Figure 8-1 Trapezoidal drainage

CHAPTER NINE
9 ROAD FURNITURE AND MARKINGS FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL

9.1 General
For the safe traffic operation on highways adequate regulation and controls have to be imposed.
The most commonly used control measures are Traffic signals, Road markings and Traffic signal
9.2 Traffic signals

Traffic signals are designed to ensure an orderly flow of traffic, provide an opportunity for pedestrians or
vehicles to cross an intersection and help reduce the number of conflicts between vehicles entering
intersections from different directions.
Figure 9-1 Traffic signals
Red Signal Light
Red- A red signal light means stop. A right turn can be made against a red light ONLY after you stop and
yield to pedestrians and vehicles in your path. DO NOT turn if there is a sign posted for NO TURN ON
RED.
Flashing red- a flashing red signal light means exactly the same as a stop sign: STOP! After stopping,
proceed when safe and observe the right-of-way rules.
Red arrow- a red arrow means STOP until the green signal or green arrow appears. A turn may not be
made against a red arrow.
Figure 9-2 Red signal light

Yellow Signal Light
Yellow- A yellow signal light warns you that the red signal is about to appear. When you see the yellow light, you
should stop, if you can do so safely. If you can't stop, look out for vehicles that may enter the intersection when the
light changes.

Flashing yellow- What does a flashing yellow light mean? A flashing yellow signal light warns you to be careful.
Slow down and be especially alert.
Yellow arrow- A lighted red arrow is about to appear. Stop if you are not already in the intersection.
Figure 9-3 Yellow signal light

Green Signal Light
GREEN—A green light mea ns GO, but you must first let any vehicles, bicycles, or pedestrians
remaining in the intersection get through before you move ahead.
FLASHING GREEN- You can turn left ONLY if you have enough space to complete the turn before any
oncoming vehicle, bicycle, or pedestrian becomes a hazard. Vehicles turning left must always yield to
those going straight from the opposite direction. Do not enter an intersection, even when the light is
green, unless there is enough space to cross GREEN ARROW—A green arrow means GO, but first you
must yield to any vehicle, bicycle, or pedestrian still in the intersection. The green arrow pointing right or
left allows you to make a protected turn; oncoming vehicles, bicycles, and pedestrians are stopped by a
red light as long as the green arrow is lit.completely before the light turns red. If heavy traffic causes you
to block traffic, you can be cited.
Figure 9-4 Green Signal Light
Traffic signal blackout- If all traffic signal lights are not working because of an electrical power failure,
you must stop at the intersection and then proceed when you know other turning and approaching
vehicles, bicycles, or pedestrians have stopped. A blacked-out traffic signal works the same as a four-way
stop intersection.

9.3 Traffic marking
In order to achieve a high degree of self-discipline by road users, it is desirable to use line markings
through the length of modern highways. The function of this marking is to encourage safe and
expeditious operation. Road markings either supplement traffic signs and marker posts or
serve independently to indicate certain regulations or hazardous conditions.
Types of Road Markings
There are three general types of road markings in use. These are:
1) Pavement(Carriageway Marking)
2) Object Markings
3) Road Studs
1. Pavement Markings
Consist of centerlines, lane lines, no overtaking lines, edge lines, etc. Nighttime visibility of these
markings can be markedly improved by mixing small glass beads into the paint or thermoplastic
before applying it to the road surface. Other pavement markings such as stop and pedestrian crossings and
various word and symbol markings may supplement pavement markings.
Carriages way marking are often categorized as:

1. center line marking 4. pavement edge line
2. traffic lane line 5. pedestrian crossings
3. non-over taking zone marking . 6. Parking zone
There are certain guidelines for pavement markings. These are as follows;
1. solid lines are restrictive in nature and it is an offence to cross such line
2. broken line can be crossed provided that it can be done safely
3. Double line indicates maximum restrictions, and the like.
Figure 9-5 Pavement marking

2. Object Markings
Physical obstructions in or near the carriageway should be removed in order to provide the
appropriate clear zone. Where removal is impractical, such objects should be adequately marked by
painting or by use of other high-visibility material. Where the object is in the direct line of traffic, the
obstruction and marking thereon should be reflective.
Figure 9-6 Object marking
3. Road Studs
Road studs are manufactured plastic objects incorporating reflective patches. Hybrid markings
consisting of both reflective road markings and reflective studs can be useful for nighttime driving in unlit
areas. They are generally placed along the centerline of the road, in the middle of the ―brokenline‖ portion
of the marking, for added demarcation. The studs can also be used to give an audible and tactile warning
of crossing any line that incorporates them, such as a pedestrian crossing. The configuration for road
markings is shown in the ERA Standard Detail Drawings-2002(for detail information)
Figure 9-7 Road stands
All permanent pavement and object markings shall be formed in thermoplastic materials and shall
be reflective. Generally, Road markings are classified as follows:
 Longitudinal markings - dividing lines, lane lines and edge lines.
 Transverse markings - stop line, give way line and pedestrian crossings.
 Other markings - arrows, restricted areas, text and symbols.

9.4 TRAFFIC SIGNS
The safety and efficiency of a road depends to a considerable degree on its geometric
design. However, physical layout must also be supplemented by effective traffic signing as a
means of informing and warning drivers, and controlling drivers. In short, traffic sign is a measure
to convey specific information to drivers quite in advance, so that he/she drives carefully. The
following are the main importance of traffic signs
 Give timely warning of hazardous situations when drivers are not self evident.
 They give information as to highway routes, directions and points of interest.
 Regulating of traffic by imparting messages to the drivers about the need to stop, give way,
and limit their speeds
General principles of Traffic signing
The traffic signs can be best used if some general principles are observed in their installation. These
are:
 Traffic signs should be installed efficiently or by authority of law and should be essential.
 For imparting and sense of respect towards signs, proper enforcement should be taken.
 A conservative use of signs is recommended, not excessive.
 The sign should be designed so that they will be fully seen.
 It should be legible and can be understood in easily to produce proper response.
 High visibility both in night and day time.
 Simple and uniformity in design, position and application.
 Should be of standard size.
Types of Traffic Sign

According to the U.N. protocol (United Nations publication) and as it is recorded in ERA manual
the international system of traffic sign comprises of the following classes;
A) Warning sign/ Danger sign
B) Regulatory sign/ Mandatory signs
C) Information signs

A) Warning sign
Warning Signs indicate conditions that may be hazardous to highway users. Regarding the shape of the
board where this sign is plotted the UN protocol recommends an equilateral triangle with one point
upwards.
Figure 9-8 Warning signs
b) Regulatory Sign
Regulatory Signs indicate legal requirements of traffic movement. This implies that an obligation
of the traffic to comply with statutory regulations and non-compliance of an offence. These signs
also convey to the driver not to exceed specific speed limit or not to park his vehicle.

No parking, speed limit, dead slow, weight limit overtaking prohibition, etc. are classified
as regulatory sign. In this case we have recommended the use of speed limit and overtaking
prohibited on the approach of both side of the reverse curves and along the road. It will be better
if a design speed as a speed limit is posted at a specific interval.
Figure 9-9 Regulatory sign
c) Information Sign
It provides information and guidance to drivers. End of speed limit sign, parking sign, parking
limits, road junction approach etc are examples of informatory sign.
Figure 9-10 Information sign

CHAPTER TEN
10 CONCLUSION, LIMITATION AND RECOMMENDATION

10.1 CONCLUSION
Firstly; we conclude that to design a safe and economical road through the desired design period, deep
studies on the traffic survey and analysis, environmental factors and traffic volume should be done.
Secondly; from this project we conclude that it is an opportunity for student to change theoretical
knowledge to practical, give better knowledge how to use eagle point software and gate better knowledge
on traffic count our aim towards this project is so great. To achieve this complete task such project has a
great role in the practical and office practice.
Finally; we conclude that the result of this project will definitely benefit students, municipality, and
contractor.

10.2 LIMITATION
Some problems encounter us while doing this project are:
 Lack of sufficient reference materials

10.3 RECOMMENDATION
It is known that to complete one project smoothly and uniformly money is the back bone. To do this the
department should fund the students for future generation but for us it is already passed. Also the
available computer is efficient, but it should be allowed to provide full service for graduating students.
The department should help the students by printing the paper.

REFERENCES
 ERA manual 2013

 A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 4th ed., American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C., 2001.
 Guide to Metric Conversion, American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, Washington, D.C., 1993.
 Ethiopian Roads Authority (July 1998). Design Standards for Rural Roads (Draft).
 Sewage treatment and transportation text book(crag)

APPENDICES
A. OUT PUTS FROM SOFTWARE SHOULD HAVE
1. Alignment
10.1 Horizontal Alignment
1.2 Vertical Alignment

B. Terrain classification (from eagle point out put)

PI Station Left Offs Elevation Right Offs Elevation slope Terrain class
0+000.000 -25 1246.25 25 1244.783 2.934 Flat
0+020.000 -25 1245.92 25 1243.615 4.61 Rolling
0+040.000 -25 1243.553 25 1242.613 1.88 Flat
0+060.000 -25 1241.097 25 1240.328 1.538 Flat
0+080.000 -25 1239.08 25 1238.011 2.138 Flat
0+100.000 -25 1237.744 25 1236.81 1.868 Flat
0+120.000 -25 1234.881 25 1234.327 1.108 Flat
0+140.000 -25 1232.165 25 1232.061 0.208 Flat
PI 1 0+158.698 -25 1231.978 25 1230.077 3.802 Rolling
0+160.000 -25 1231.474 25 1230.238 2.472 Flat
0+180.000 -25 1226.145 25 1225.981 0.328 Flat
0+200.000 -25 1224.111 25 1223.911 0.4 Flat
0+220.000 -25 1223.903 25 1223.104 1.598 Flat
0+240.000 -25 1222.475 25 1221.654 1.642 Flat
0+260.000 -25 1221.325 25 1220.759 1.132 Flat
0+280.000 -25 1220.306 25 1219.706 1.2 Flat
0+300.000 -25 1219.154 25 1218.809 0.69 Flat
0+320.000 -25 1218.259 25 1218.117 0.284 Flat
0+340.000 -25 1219.954 25 1217.444 5.02 Rolling
0+360.000 -25 1217.854 25 1217.198 1.312 Flat
0+380.000 -25 1215.069 25 1214.454 1.23 Flat
0+400.000 -25 1213.624 25 1213.545 0.158 Flat
0+420.000 -25 1213.457 25 1212.596 1.722 Flat
0+440.000 -25 1211.496 25 1210.152 2.688 Flat
PI 2 0+446.740 -25 1211.496 25 1210.152 2.688 Flat
0+460.000 -25 1210.575 25 1209.152 2.846 Flat
0+480.000 -25 1209.434 25 1207.212 4.444 Rolling
0+500.000 -25 1208.252 25 1206.999 2.506 Flat
0+520.000 -25 1207.402 25 1206.111 2.582 Flat
0+540.000 -25 1206.18 25 1205.874 0.612 Flat
0+560.000 -25 1205.361 25 1204.862 0.998 Flat
0+580.000 -25 1204.237 25 1202.544 3.386 Rolling
0+600.000 -25 1202.75 25 1201.451 2.598 Flat
0+620.000 -25 1202.008 25 1201.091 1.834 Flat
0+640.000 -25 1200.452 25 1199.125 2.654 Flat
0+660.000 -25 1199.521 25 1198.733 1.576 Flat
0+680.000 -25 1198.952 25 1198.488 0.928 Flat
PI 3 0+685.515 -25 1196.999 25 1196.111 1.776 Flat
0+700.000 -25 1196.165 25 1195.995 0.34 Flat
0+720.000 -25 1195.985 25 1195.834 0.302 Flat
0+740.000 -25 1194.582 25 1194.533 0.098 Flat
0+760.000 -25 1193.346 25 1193.297 0.098 Flat
0+780.000 -25 1193.145 25 1192.106 2.078 Flat
0+800.000 -25 1191.684 25 1190.931 1.506 Flat

PI 4 0+809.575 -25 1191.005 25 1190.33 1.35 Flat
0+820.000 -25 1190.769 25 1190.32 0.898 Flat
0+840.000 -25 1190.074 25 1189.489 1.17 Flat
0+860.000 -25 1188.812 25 1187.829 1.966 Flat
0+880.000 -25 1187.744 25 1186.594 2.3 Flat
0+900.000 -25 1186.719 25 1184.513 4.412 Rolling
0+920.000 -25 1184.659 25 1182.77 3.778 Rolling
0+940.000 -25 1181.521 25 1180.512 2.018 Flat
0+960.000 -25 1181.249 25 1179.802 2.894 Flat
PI 5 0+962.526 -25 1180.939 25 1179.683 2.512 Flat
0+980.000 -25 1180.402 25 1179.211 2.382 Flat
1+000.000 -25 1179.516 25 1178.481 2.07 Flat
1+020.000 -25 1179.148 25 1177.954 2.388 Flat
1+040.000 -25 1178.477 25 1177.26 2.434 Flat
1+060.000 -25 1177.985 25 1177.203 1.564 Flat
1+080.000 -25 1177.26 25 1176.321 1.878 Flat
1+100.000 -25 1177.203 25 1176.141 2.124 Flat
1+120.000 -25 1176.321 25 1175.549 1.544 Flat
1+140.000 -25 1176.141 25 1175.211 1.86 Flat
1+160.000 -25 1175.549 25 1175.145 0.808 Flat
1+180.000 -25 1175.211 25 1174.947 0.528 Flat
1+200.000 -25 1175.145 25 1174.893 0.504 Flat
1+220.000 -25 1174.947 25 1174.654 0.586 Flat
1+240.000 -25 1174.893 25 1174.575 0.636 Flat
1+260.000 -25 1174.654 25 1174.27 0.768 Flat
1+280.000 -25 1174.251 25 1174.17 0.162 Flat
1+300.000 -25 1174.074 25 1173.412 1.324 Flat
1+320.000 -25 1173.636 25 1173.311 0.65 Flat
1+340.000 -25 1173.52 25 1173.235 0.57 Flat
1+360.000 -25 1172.999 25 1172.303 1.392 Flat
1+380.000 -25 1172.888 25 1172.002 1.772 Flat
1+400.000 -25 1172.301 25 1171.919 0.764 Flat
1+420.000 -25 1172.303 25 1171.557 1.492 Flat
1+440.000 -25 1172.002 25 1171.125 1.754 Flat
1+460.000 -25 1171.919 25 1171.098 1.642 Flat
1+480.000 -25 1171.557 25 1171.098 0.918 Flat
1+500.000 -25 1171.125 25 1170.999 0.252 Flat
1+520.000 -25 1171.098 25 1170.354 1.488 Flat
1+540.000 -25 1170.999 25 1170.898 0.202 Flat
1+560.000 -25 1170.354 25 1170.222 0.264 Flat
1+580.000 -25 1170.222 25 1170.005 0.434 Flat
1+600.000 -25 1169.988 25 1169.142 1.692 Flat
1+620.000 -25 1169.952 25 1169.054 1.796 Flat
1+640.000 -25 1169.541 25 1169.024 1.034 Flat
PI 6 1+648.939 -25 1169.024 25 1168.922 0.204 Flat
1+660.000 -25 1168.922 25 1168.745 0.354 Flat
1+680.000 -25 1168.621 25 1168.47 0.302 Flat

1+700.000 -25 1168.544 25 1168.054 0.98 Flat
1+720.000 -25 1168.458 25 1167.956 1.004 Flat
1+740.000 -25 1168.124 25 1167.852 0.544 Flat
1+760.000 -25 1168.054 25 1167.565 0.978 Flat
1+780.000 -25 1167.956 25 1167.046 1.82 Flat
1+800.000 -25 1167.852 25 1166.954 1.796 Flat
1+820.000 -25 1167.565 25 1166.325 2.4792 Flat
1+840.000 -25 1167.046 25 1166.251 1.59 Flat
1+860.000 -25 1166.954 25 1166.111 1.686 Flat
1+880.000 -25 1166.325 25 1165.784 1.0828 Flat
1+900.000 -25 1166.251 25 1165.482 1.538 Flat
1+920.000 -25 1166.111 25 1165.974 0.274 Flat
1+940.000 -25 1165.784 25 1165.578 0.412 Flat
1+960.000 -25 1164.898 25 1164.411 0.974 Flat
1+980.000 -25 1164.679 25 1164.311 0.736 Flat
2+000.000 -25 1164.474 25 1164.256 0.436 Flat
2+020.000 -25 1164.393 25 1164.222 0.342 Flat
2+040.000 -25 1164.025 25 1163.999 0.052 Flat
2+060.000 -25 1163.917 25 1163.567 0.7 Flat
2+080.000 -25 1163.774 25 1162.999 1.55 Flat
2+100.000 -25 1163.452 25 1152.652 21.6 Rolling
2+120.000 -25 1163.084 25 1162.521 1.126 Flat
2+140.000 -25 1162.755 25 1162.444 0.622 Flat
2+160.000 -25 1162.595 25 1162.323 0.544 Flat
2+180.000 -25 1162.454 25 1162.094 0.72 Flat
2+200.000 -25 1161.882 25 1161.675 0.414 Flat
2+220.000 -25 1161.738 25 1161.643 0.19 Flat
2+240.000 -25 1161.522 25 1161.111 0.822 Flat
2+260.000 -25 1161.421 25 1161.075 0.692 Flat
2+280.000 -25 1161.11 25 1161.05 0.12 Flat
2+300.000 -25 1160.952 25 1160.944 0.016 Flat
PI 7 2+309.107 -25 1160.911 25 1160.889 0.044 Flat
2+320.000 -25 1160.852 25 1160.663 0.378 Flat
2+340.000 -25 1160.252 25 1159.926 0.652 Flat
2+360.000 -25 1159.651 25 1159.541 0.22 Flat
2+380.000 -25 1159.889 25 1159.451 0.876 Flat
2+400.000 -25 1159.93 25 1159.388 1.084 Flat
2+420.000 -25 1159.45 25 1159.289 0.322 Flat
2+440.000 -25 1159.354 25 1159.154 0.4 Flat
2+460.000 -25 1159.075 25 1158.986 0.178 Flat
2+480.000 -25 1158.954 25 1158.745 0.418 Flat
2+500.000 -25 1158.654 25 1158.429 0.45 Flat
2+520.000 -25 1158.378 25 1158.246 0.264 Flat
2+540.000 -25 1158.413 25 1158.055 0.716 Flat
2+560.000 -25 1158.221 25 1157.676 1.09 Flat
2+580.000 -25 1157.799 25 1157.492 0.614 Flat
2+600.000 -25 1157.888 25 1157.193 1.39 Flat

2+620.000 -25 1157.323 25 1157.085 0.476 Flat
2+640.000 -25 1157.111 25 1156.988 0.246 Flat
2+660.000 -25 1156.988 25 1156.793 0.39 Flat
2+680.000 -25 1156.687 25 1156.502 0.37 Flat
2+700.000 -25 1156.413 25 1155.962 0.902 Flat
2+720.000 -25 1156.325 25 1156.27 0.11 Flat
2+740.000 -25 1156.114 25 1155.792 0.644 Flat
2+760.000 -25 1155.985 25 1155.859 0.252 Flat
2+780.000 -25 1155.654 25 1155.354 0.6 Flat
2+800.000 -25 1155.411 25 1155.203 0.416 Flat
2+820.000 -25 1155.457 25 1155.153 0.608 Flat
2+840.000 -25 1154.829 25 1154.685 0.288 Flat
2+860.000 -25 1154.789 25 1154.661 0.256 Flat
2+880.000 -25 1154.555 25 1154.32 0.47 Flat
2+900.000 -25 1154.354 25 1154.176 0.356 Flat
2+920.000 -25 1154.082 25 1153.928 0.308 Flat
2+940.000 -25 1154.074 25 1153.83 0.488 Flat
2+960.000 -25 1154.065 25 1153.815 0.5 Flat
2+980.000 -25 1153.882 25 1153.447 0.87 Flat
3+000.000 -25 1153.499 25 1153.445 0.108 Flat
3+020.000 -25 1153.564 25 1153.105 0.918 Flat
3+040.000 -25 1153.454 25 1152.771 1.366 Flat
3+060.000 -25 1153.354 25 1152.994 0.72 Flat
3+080.000 -25 1153.134 25 1152.985 0.298 Flat
3+100.000 -25 1152.985 25 1152.789 0.392 Flat
3+120.000 -25 1152.721 25 1152.446 0.55 Flat
3+140.000 -25 1152.462 25 1152.399 0.126 Flat
3+160.000 -25 1152.241 25 1152.018 0.446 Flat
3+180.000 -25 1152.077 25 1151.451 1.252 Flat
3+200.000 -25 1151.685 25 1151.412 0.546 Flat
3+220.000 -25 1151.546 25 1150.965 1.162 Flat
3+240.000 -25 1151.444 25 1150.993 0.902 Flat
3+260.000 -25 1151.363 25 1151.175 0.376 Flat
3+280.000 -25 1151.111 25 1150.999 0.224 Flat
3+300.000 -25 1150.754 25 1150.688 0.132 Flat
3+320.000 -25 1150.654 25 1150.61 0.088 Flat
3+340.000 -25 1150.549 25 1150.425 0.248 Flat
3+360.000 -25 1150.66 25 1149.815 1.69 Flat
3+380.000 -25 1150.254 25 1148.616 3.276 Rolling
3+400.000 -25 1150.186 25 1149.831 0.71 Flat
3+420.000 -25 1150.094 25 1149.947 0.294 Flat
3+440.000 -25 1149.997 25 1149.212 1.57 Flat
3+460.000 -25 1149.888 25 1148.025 3.726 Rolling
3+480.000 -25 1149.844 25 1149.076 1.536 Flat
3+500.000 -25 1149.785 25 1149.272 1.026 Flat
3+520.000 -25 1149.735 25 1149.111 1.248 Flat
3+540.000 -25 1149.795 25 1149.045 1.5 Flat

3+560.000 -25 1149.944 25 1148.985 1.918 Flat
3+580.000 -25 1149.993 25 1148.855 2.276 Flat
3+600.000 -25 1149.454 25 1148.745 1.418 Flat
PI 8 3+614.375 -25 1148.985 25 1148.555 0.86 Flat
3+620.000 -25 1148.855 25 1148.488 0.734 Flat
3+640.000 -25 1148.745 25 1148.356 0.778 Flat
3+660.000 -25 1148.669 25 1148.355 0.628 Flat
3+680.000 -25 1148.406 25 1148.258 0.296 Flat
3+700.000 -25 1148.072 25 1147.957 0.23 Flat
3+720.000 -25 1148.237 25 1147.696 1.082 Flat
3+740.000 -25 1147.454 25 1147.333 0.242 Flat
3+760.000 -25 1147.254 25 1147.111 0.286 Flat
3+780.000 -25 1147.101 25 1146.999 0.204 Flat
3+800.000 -25 1146.903 25 1146.745 0.316 Flat
3+820.000 -25 1146.664 25 1146.556 0.216 Flat
3+840.000 -25 1146.525 25 1146.441 0.168 Flat
3+846.122 -25 1146.462 25 1146.321 0.282 Flat
C. Typical Cross section

D. Cross section graphics
E. Profile and Plan sheet

F. Profile graphics
G. Cross-section sheet

H. Mass haul diagram sheet
I. Volumes reports
station material CUT CUT FILL AREA FILL VOLUME

AREA VOLUME
Total 0 0 0 0
0+020.000 Orig_Surface 11.599 115.993
Total 11.599 115.993 0.271 2.714
0+040.000 Orig_Surface 17.934 295.334
Total 17.934 295.334 0 2.714
0+060.000 Orig_Surface 6.261 241.948
Total 6.261 241.948 0 0
0+080.000 Orig_Surface 0.166 64.264
Total 0.166 64.264 9.876 98.763
0+100.000 Orig_Surface 0.629 7.945
Total 0.629 7.945 8.405 182.811
0+120.000 Orig_Surface 0 6.277
Total 0 6.277 15.134 235.434
Total 0 0 24.543 396.539
Total 0 0 30.616 514.781
Total 0 0 31.16 40.159

Total 0 0 33.831 650.133
Total 0 0 47.715 814.574
Total 0 0 52.196 999.116
Total 0 0 51.936 1041.32
Total 0 0 48.328 1002.64
Total 0 0 37.222 855.504
Total 0 0 25.739 629.608
Total 0 0 15.307 410.457
0+340.000 Orig_Surface 0.303 3.029
Total 0.303 3.029 5.428 207.349
0+360.000 Orig_Surface 4.651 49.536
Total 4.651 49.536 0.003 54.311
0+380.000 Orig_Surface 12.106 167.565
Total 12.106 167.565 0 0.032
0+400.000 Orig_Surface 14.758 268.637
Total 14.758 268.637 0 0
0+420.000 Orig_Surface 27.443 421.947
Total 27.443 421.947 0 0
0+440.000 Orig_Surface 37.958 652.541
Total 37.958 652.541 0 0
0+446.740 Orig_Surface 42.271 269.656
Total 42.271 269.656 0 0
0+460.000 Orig_Surface 45.865 581.137
Total 45.865 581.137 0 0
0+480.000 Orig_Surface 65.087 1105.732
Total 65.087 1105.732 0 0
0+500.000 Orig_Surface 73.269 1383.557
Total 73.269 1383.557 0 0
0+520.000 Orig_Surface 79.012 1522.809
Total 79.012 1522.809 0 0
0+540.000 Orig_Surface 70.868 1498.804
Total 70.868 1498.804 0 0
0+560.000 Orig_Surface 76.906 1477.742
Total 76.906 1477.742 0 0
0+580.000 Orig_Surface 73.238 1501.444
Total 73.238 1501.444 0 0
0+600.000 Orig_Surface 95.472 1687.104
Total 95.472 1687.104 0 0
0+620.000 Orig_Surface 100.61 1960.817

Total 100.61 1960.817 0 0
0+640.000 Orig_Surface 100.929 2015.389
Total 100.929 2015.389 0 0
0+660.000 Orig_Surface 84.623 1855.519
Total 84.623 1855.519 0 0
0+680.000 Orig_Surface 118.433 2030.312
Total 118.433 2030.312 0 0
0+685.515 Orig_Surface 115.955 646.073
Total 115.955 646.073 0 0
0+700.000 Orig_Surface 116.392 1681.967
Total 116.392 1681.967 0 0
0+720.000 Orig_Surface 118.301 2356.925
Total 118.301 2356.925 0 0
0+740.000 Orig_Surface 132.171 2508.769
Total 132.171 2508.769 0 0
0+760.000 Orig_Surface 129.058 2608.923
Total 129.058 2608.923 0 0
0+780.000 Orig_Surface 119.245 2483.188
Total 119.245 2483.188 0 0
0+800.000 Orig_Surface 127.447 2464.304
Total 127.447 2464.304 0 0
0+809.575 Orig_Surface 120.004 1181.074
Total 120.004 1181.074 0 0
0+820.000 Orig_Surface 127.654 1287.332
Total 127.654 1287.332 0 0
0+840.000 Orig_Surface 105.62 2330.126
Total 105.62 2330.126 0 0
0+860.000 Orig_Surface 97.454 2027.033
Total 97.454 2027.033 0 0
0+880.000 Orig_Surface 73.157 1698.319
Total 73.157 1698.319 0 0
0+900.000 Orig_Surface 46.848 1193.767
Total 46.848 1193.767 0 0
0+920.000 Orig_Surface 5.09 515.734
Total 5.09 515.734 3.44 34.723
0+940.000 Orig_Surface 0 50.896
Total 0 50.896 17.441 208.808
Total 0 0 32.116 496.666
Total 0 0 32.181 81.426
Total 0 0 43.076 657.95
Total 0 0 41.265 843.409
Total 0 0 45.922 871.867

Total 0 0 48.893 948.147
Total 0 0 53.853 1027.462
Total 0 0 48.926 1027.793
Total 0 0 47.957 968.832
Total 0 0 52.83 1007.872
Total 0 0 55.193 1080.23
Total 0 0 53.531 1087.238
Total 0 0 62.709 1162.405
Total 0 0 51.938 1146.471
Total 0 0 59.406 1113.438
Total 0 0 54.683 1140.889
Total 0 0 52.983 1076.66
Total 0 0 52.266 1052.489
Total 0 0 49.081 1013.465
Total 0 0 49.421 985.021
Total 0 0 45.371 947.92
Total 0 0 45.31 906.809
Total 0 0 46.272 915.826
Total 0 0 42.532 888.046
Total 0 0 39.688 822.202
Total 0 0 38.372 780.603
Total 0 0 35.583 739.552
Total 0 0 37.797 733.802

Total 0 0 38.919 767.165
Total 0 0 37.807 767.264
Total 0 0 37.013 748.203
Total 0 0 30.962 679.752
Total 0 0 34.995 659.574
Total 0 0 26.978 619.732
Total 0 0 36.459 634.367
Total 0 0 40.407 768.658
Total 0 0 40.069 359.954
Total 0 0 34.885 414.548
Total 0 0 35.066 699.509
Total 0 0 30.63 656.957
Total 0 0 30.145 607.75
Total 0 0 30.707 608.519
Total 0 0 28.864 595.706
Total 0 0 31.563 604.265
Total 0 0 31.033 625.95
Total 0 0 25.158 561.908
Total 0 0 14.022 391.805
Total 0 0 20.35 343.719
Total 0 0 0 203.496
Total 0 0 23.629 236.286
Total 0 0 18.042 416.705
Total 0 0 15.367 334.087

Total 0 0 11.449 268.158
1+980.000 Orig_Surface 0.096 0.959
Total 0.096 0.959 9.692 211.407
2+000.000 Orig_Surface 0 0.959
Total 0 0.959 7.643 173.346
2+020.000 Orig_Surface 0.114 1.143
Total 0.114 1.143 6.542 141.846
2+040.000 Orig_Surface 0.019 1.336
Total 0.019 1.336 8.469 150.105
2+060.000 Orig_Surface 0 0.192
Total 0 0.192 9.152 176.206
2+080.000 Orig_Surface 0.151 1.51
Total 0.151 1.51 5.226 143.778
2+100.000 Orig_Surface 0 1.51
Total 0 1.51 10.089 153.148
Total 0 0 8.955 190.44
2+140.000 Orig_Surface 0.009 0.087
Total 0.009 0.087 7.259 162.137
2+160.000 Orig_Surface 0.046 0.544
Total 0.046 0.544 7.777 150.351
2+180.000 Orig_Surface 0.238 2.842
Total 0.238 2.842 5.555 133.32
2+200.000 Orig_Surface 0.239 4.775
Total 0.239 4.775 5.331 108.864
2+220.000 Orig_Surface 0.742 9.811
Total 0.742 9.811 3.315 86.464
2+240.000 Orig_Surface 1.75 24.918
Total 1.75 24.918 0.582 38.976
2+260.000 Orig_Surface 1.802 35.519
Total 1.802 35.519 1.466 20.483
2+280.000 Orig_Surface 3.053 48.552
Total 3.053 48.552 0.785 22.509
2+300.000 Orig_Surface 5.524 85.767
Total 5.524 85.767 0.405 11.899
2+309.107 Orig_Surface 4.471 45.374
Total 4.471 45.374 0.36 3.496
2+320.000 Orig_Surface 5.087 52.062
Total 5.087 52.062 0.365 3.946
2+340.000 Orig_Surface 6.233 113.203
Total 6.233 113.203 0 3.65
2+360.000 Orig_Surface 6.438 126.707
Total 6.438 126.707 0 0
2+380.000 Orig_Surface 3.332 97.702
Total 3.332 97.702 0.181 1.813
2+400.000 Orig_Surface 0.558 38.9

Total 0.558 38.9 0.607 7.888
2+420.000 Orig_Surface 0.382 9.397
Total 0.382 9.397 1.643 22.509
2+440.000 Orig_Surface 1.866 22.477
Total 1.866 22.477 0.55 21.937
2+460.000 Orig_Surface 0.989 28.548
Total 0.989 28.548 1.231 17.811
2+480.000 Orig_Surface 1.306 22.953
Total 1.306 22.953 0.617 18.48
2+500.000 Orig_Surface 0 13.064
Total 0 13.064 6.141 67.586
2+520.000 Orig_Surface 0.537 5.371
Total 0.537 5.371 2.989 91.305
2+540.000 Orig_Surface 0.453 9.905
Total 0.453 9.905 1.822 48.113
2+560.000 Orig_Surface 0.455 9.081
Total 0.455 9.081 8.164 99.859
2+580.000 Orig_Surface 0.102 5.571
Total 0.102 5.571 6.158 143.221
2+600.000 Orig_Surface 0.293 3.955
Total 0.293 3.955 5.002 111.607
2+620.000 Orig_Surface 0.103 3.958
Total 0.103 3.958 6.581 115.832
2+640.000 Orig_Surface 0.391 4.936
Total 0.391 4.936 3.006 95.866
2+660.000 Orig_Surface 0.08 4.713
Total 0.08 4.713 5.566 85.713
2+680.000 Orig_Surface 0.196 2.76
Total 0.196 2.76 5.499 110.643
2+700.000 Orig_Surface 0 1.958
Total 0 1.958 8.501 139.993
2+720.000 Orig_Surface 0.079 0.792
Total 0.079 0.792 3.794 122.949
2+740.000 Orig_Surface 0.165 2.44
Total 0.165 2.44 6.323 101.17
2+760.000 Orig_Surface 0.636 8.006
Total 0.636 8.006 1.269 75.918
2+780.000 Orig_Surface 0.035 6.707
Total 0.035 6.707 4.956 62.253
2+800.000 Orig_Surface 0.023 0.579
Total 0.023 0.579 7.911 128.669
2+820.000 Orig_Surface 0.018 0.407
Total 0.018 0.407 6.992 149.023
2+840.000 Orig_Surface 0.066 0.838
Total 0.066 0.838 8.052 150.438
2+860.000 Orig_Surface 0.066 1.324
Total 0.066 1.324 7.052 151.041

2+880.000 Orig_Surface 0.076 1.419
Total 0.076 1.419 9.654 167.059
2+900.000 Orig_Surface 0.237 3.121
Total 0.237 3.121 7.687 173.408
2+920.000 Orig_Surface 0.239 4.751
Total 0.239 4.751 8.182 158.691
2+940.000 Orig_Surface 0.386 6.246
Total 0.386 6.246 3.608 117.901
2+960.000 Orig_Surface 0.345 7.315
Total 0.345 7.315 4.11 77.181
2+980.000 Orig_Surface 0.207 5.523
Total 0.207 5.523 5.886 99.96
3+000.000 Orig_Surface 0.387 5.939
Total 0.387 5.939 4.701 105.865
3+020.000 Orig_Surface 0.854 12.409
Total 0.854 12.409 2.042 67.43
3+040.000 Orig_Surface 0.436 12.894
Total 0.436 12.894 5.427 74.69
3+060.000 Orig_Surface 0.409 8.448
Total 0.409 8.448 8.033 134.593
3+080.000 Orig_Surface 0.155 5.638
Total 0.155 5.638 3.794 118.265
3+100.000 Orig_Surface 0.599 7.537
Total 0.599 7.537 3.699 74.932
3+120.000 Orig_Surface 0.775 13.743
Total 0.775 13.743 1.226 49.25
3+140.000 Orig_Surface 0.018 7.93
Total 0.018 7.93 3.728 49.538
3+160.000 Orig_Surface 0.374 3.921
Total 0.374 3.921 5.984 97.119
3+180.000 Orig_Surface 0.036 4.099
Total 0.036 4.099 5.536 115.193
3+200.000 Orig_Surface 0.844 8.795
Total 0.844 8.795 0.975 65.109
3+220.000 Orig_Surface 0.557 14.012
Total 0.557 14.012 3.331 43.066
3+240.000 Orig_Surface 0.099 6.563
Total 0.099 6.563 13.92 172.517
3+260.000 Orig_Surface 0.779 8.778
Total 0.779 8.778 4.828 187.487
3+280.000 Orig_Surface 0.789 15.683
Total 0.789 15.683 7.758 125.86
3+300.000 Orig_Surface 0.006 7.955
Total 0.006 7.955 8.229 159.863
3+320.000 Orig_Surface 0.235 2.406
Total 0.235 2.406 8.504 167.327
3+340.000 Orig_Surface 0.11 3.445

Total 0.11 3.445 2.905 114.093
3+360.000 Orig_Surface 1.524 16.34
Total 1.524 16.34 1.046 39.515
3+380.000 Orig_Surface 0.255 17.791
Total 0.255 17.791 7.59 86.363
3+400.000 Orig_Surface 0.386 6.412
Total 0.386 6.412 10.693 182.831
3+420.000 Orig_Surface 1.737 21.232
Total 1.737 21.232 0.421 111.138
3+440.000 Orig_Surface 1.497 32.34
Total 1.497 32.34 2.453 28.738
3+460.000 Orig_Surface 2.14 36.375
Total 2.14 36.375 4.16 66.129
3+480.000 Orig_Surface 5.057 71.972
Total 5.057 71.972 0 41.598
3+500.000 Orig_Surface 9.4 144.57
Total 9.4 144.57 0 0
3+520.000 Orig_Surface 7.602 170.026
Total 7.602 170.026 1.957 19.567
3+540.000 Orig_Surface 9.714 173.165
Total 9.714 173.165 0.017 19.732
3+560.000 Orig_Surface 7.485 171.995
Total 7.485 171.995 0 0.165
3+580.000 Orig_Surface 12.19 196.756
Total 12.19 196.756 0 0
3+600.000 Orig_Surface 14.23 263.808
Total 14.23 263.808 0 0
3+614.375 Orig_Surface 15.822 214.289
Total 15.822 214.289 0 0
3+620.000 Orig_Surface 14.444 84.541
Total 14.444 84.541 0.027 0.077
3+640.000 Orig_Surface 14.408 288.522
Total 14.408 288.522 0 0.271
3+660.000 Orig_Surface 18.637 330.45
Total 18.637 330.45 0 0
3+680.000 Orig_Surface 17.304 359.411
Total 17.304 359.411 0 0
3+700.000 Orig_Surface 16.731 340.358
Total 16.731 340.358 0 0
3+720.000 Orig_Surface 16.114 328.454
Total 16.114 328.454 0 0
3+740.000 Orig_Surface 21.473 375.867
Total 21.473 375.867 0 0
3+760.000 Orig_Surface 9.287 307.6
Total 9.287 307.6 0 0
3+780.000 Orig_Surface 14.369 236.568
Total 14.369 236.568 0 0
3+800.000 Orig_Surface 4.439 188.089
Total 4.439 188.089 0 0
3+820.000 Orig_Surface 2.539 69.789
Total 2.539 69.789 0 0
3+840.000 Orig_Surface 0 25.395
Total 0 25.395 0 0
Total 0 0 0 0
Total Orig_Surface 2890.668 51734.26
Total 2890.668 51734.26 2853.949 55021.54
J. Station and coordinates
Label Station Offset Northing Easting Elevation

BOP 0+000.000 0 652216.614 325763.741 1246
0+020.000 0 652198.602 325772.433 1244.389
0+040.000 0 652180.59 325781.126 1242.779
0+060.000 0 652162.577 325789.818 1241.168
0+080.000 0 652144.565 325798.511 1239.558
0+100.000 0 652126.553 325807.204 1237.947
0+120.000 0 652108.543 325815.9 1236.337
0+140.000 0 652090.793 325825.113 1234.726
0+160.000 0 652073.514 325835.18 1233.116
0+180.000 0 652056.746 325846.077 1231.505
0+200.000 0 652040.529 325857.779 1229.895
0+220.000 0 652024.573 325869.838 1228.284
0+240.000 0 652008.618 325881.897 1226.673
0+260.000 0 651992.662 325893.956 1225.063
0+280.000 0 651976.707 325906.015 1223.452
0+300.000 0 651960.751 325918.074 1221.842
0+320.000 0 651944.796 325930.134 1220.231
0+340.000 0 651928.84 325942.193 1218.621
0+360.000 0 651912.885 325954.252 1217.01
0+380.000 0 651896.93 325966.311 1215.4
0+400.000 0 651880.974 325978.37 1213.789
0+420.000 0 651865.018 325990.428 1212.179
0+440.000 0 651848.744 326002.05 1210.618
0+460.000 0 651831.922 326012.865 1209.148
0+480.000 0 651814.615 326022.885 1207.765
0+500.000 0 651797.189 326032.7 1206.404
0+520.000 0 651779.762 326042.515 1205.044
0+540.000 0 651762.336 326052.329 1203.683
0+560.000 0 651744.91 326062.144 1202.322
0+580.000 0 651727.484 326071.959 1200.961
0+600.000 0 651710.058 326081.773 1199.6

0+620.000 0 651692.631 326091.588 1198.239
0+640.000 0 651675.205 326101.403 1196.878
0+660.000 0 651657.779 326111.217 1195.517
0+680.000 0 651640.352 326121.03 1194.156
0+700.000 0 651622.732 326130.491 1192.795
0+720.000 0 651605.401 326140.469 1191.485
0+740.000 0 651588.577 326151.28 1190.268
0+760.000 0 651572.3 326162.899 1189.146
0+780.000 0 651556.61 326175.297 1188.118
0+800.000 0 651541.542 326188.446 1187.184
0+820.000 0 651527.133 326202.314 1186.345
0+840.000 0 651513.418 326216.867 1185.6
0+860.000 0 651500.429 326232.073 1184.95
0+880.000 0 651488.197 326247.893 1184.393
0+900.000 0 651476.75 326264.292 1183.931
0+920.000 0 651466.116 326281.228 1183.564
0+940.000 0 651455.859 326298.398 1183.239
0+960.000 0 651445.783 326315.672 1182.914
0+980.000 0 651436.287 326333.274 1182.589
1+000.000 0 651426.827 326350.895 1182.264
1+020.000 0 651417.366 326368.516 1181.939
1+040.000 0 651407.906 326386.137 1181.614
1+060.000 0 651398.445 326403.758 1181.289
1+080.000 0 651388.985 326421.379 1180.965
1+100.000 0 651379.524 326439 1180.64
1+120.000 0 651370.064 326456.621 1180.315
1+140.000 0 651360.603 326474.242 1179.99
1+160.000 0 651351.143 326491.863 1179.665
1+180.000 0 651341.682 326509.484 1179.34
1+200.000 0 651332.222 326527.105 1179.015
1+220.000 0 651322.761 326544.726 1178.69
1+240.000 0 651313.301 326562.347 1178.366
1+260.000 0 651303.84 326579.968 1178.041
1+280.000 0 651294.38 326597.589 1177.716
1+300.000 0 651284.919 326615.21 1177.391
1+320.000 0 651275.459 326632.831 1177.066
1+340.000 0 651265.999 326650.452 1176.741
1+360.000 0 651256.538 326668.073 1176.416
1+380.000 0 651247.078 326685.694 1176.091
1+400.000 0 651237.617 326703.315 1175.766
1+420.000 0 651228.157 326720.936 1175.442
1+440.000 0 651218.696 326738.557 1175.117
1+460.000 0 651209.236 326756.178 1174.792
1+480.000 0 651199.775 326773.799 1174.467

1+500.000 0 651190.315 326791.42 1174.142
1+520.000 0 651180.854 326809.041 1173.817
1+540.000 0 651171.394 326826.662 1173.492
1+560.000 0 651161.933 326844.283 1173.167
1+580.000 0 651152.473 326861.904 1172.842
1+600.000 0 651143.012 326879.525 1172.518
1+620.000 0 651133.552 326897.146 1172.193
1+640.000 0 651124.091 326914.767 1171.868
1+660.000 0 651114.444 326932.286 1171.543
1+680.000 0 651104.768 326949.79 1171.218
1+700.000 0 651095.092 326967.293 1170.893
1+720.000 0 651085.416 326984.797 1170.568
1+740.000 0 651075.74 327002.3 1170.243
1+760.000 0 651066.064 327019.804 1169.919
1+780.000 0 651056.388 327037.307 1169.594
1+800.000 0 651046.712 327054.811 1169.269
1+820.000 0 651037.036 327072.314 1168.944
1+840.000 0 651027.36 327089.818 1168.619
1+860.000 0 651017.683 327107.322 1168.294
1+880.000 0 651008.007 327124.825 1167.969
1+900.000 0 650998.331 327142.329 1167.644
1+920.000 0 650988.655 327159.832 1167.319
1+940.000 0 650978.979 327177.336 1166.995
1+960.000 0 650969.303 327194.839 1166.67
1+980.000 0 650959.627 327212.343 1166.345
2+000.000 0 650949.951 327229.846 1166.02
2+020.000 0 650940.275 327247.35 1165.695
2+040.000 0 650930.599 327264.853 1165.37
2+060.000 0 650920.922 327282.357 1165.045
2+080.000 0 650911.246 327299.86 1164.72
2+100.000 0 650901.57 327317.364 1164.396
2+120.000 0 650891.894 327334.867 1164.071
2+140.000 0 650882.218 327352.371 1163.746
2+160.000 0 650872.542 327369.874 1163.421
2+180.000 0 650862.866 327387.378 1163.096
2+200.000 0 650853.19 327404.881 1162.771
2+220.000 0 650843.514 327422.385 1162.446
2+240.000 0 650833.838 327439.888 1162.121
2+260.000 0 650824.162 327457.392 1161.796
2+280.000 0 650814.485 327474.895 1161.472
2+300.000 0 650804.809 327492.399 1161.147
2+320.000 0 650795.274 327509.98 1160.936
2+340.000 0 650785.763 327527.573 1160.745
2+360.000 0 650776.252 327545.167 1160.554

2+380.000 0 650766.74 327562.76 1160.363
2+400.000 0 650757.229 327580.354 1160.172
2+420.000 0 650747.718 327597.948 1159.981
2+440.000 0 650738.206 327615.541 1159.79
2+460.000 0 650728.695 327633.135 1159.599
2+480.000 0 650719.184 327650.728 1159.408
2+500.000 0 650709.672 327668.322 1159.217
2+520.000 0 650700.161 327685.916 1159.026
2+540.000 0 650690.65 327703.509 1158.834
2+560.000 0 650681.139 327721.103 1158.643
2+580.000 0 650671.627 327738.696 1158.452
2+600.000 0 650662.116 327756.29 1158.261
2+620.000 0 650652.605 327773.884 1158.07
2+640.000 0 650643.093 327791.477 1157.879
2+660.000 0 650633.582 327809.071 1157.688
2+680.000 0 650624.071 327826.665 1157.497
2+700.000 0 650614.559 327844.258 1157.306
2+720.000 0 650605.048 327861.852 1157.115
2+740.000 0 650595.537 327879.445 1156.924
2+760.000 0 650586.026 327897.039 1156.733
2+780.000 0 650576.514 327914.633 1156.542
2+800.000 0 650567.003 327932.226 1156.35
2+820.000 0 650557.492 327949.82 1156.159
2+840.000 0 650547.98 327967.413 1155.968
2+860.000 0 650538.469 327985.007 1155.777
2+880.000 0 650528.958 328002.601 1155.586
2+900.000 0 650519.446 328020.194 1155.395
2+920.000 0 650509.935 328037.788 1155.204
2+940.000 0 650500.424 328055.381 1155.013
2+960.000 0 650490.913 328072.975 1154.822
2+980.000 0 650481.401 328090.569 1154.631
3+000.000 0 650471.89 328108.162 1154.44
3+020.000 0 650462.379 328125.756 1154.249
3+040.000 0 650452.867 328143.35 1154.058
3+060.000 0 650443.356 328160.943 1153.867
3+080.000 0 650433.845 328178.537 1153.675
3+100.000 0 650424.333 328196.13 1153.484
3+120.000 0 650414.822 328213.724 1153.293
3+140.000 0 650405.311 328231.318 1153.102
3+160.000 0 650395.8 328248.911 1152.911
3+180.000 0 650386.288 328266.505 1152.72
3+200.000 0 650376.777 328284.098 1152.529
3+220.000 0 650367.266 328301.692 1152.338
3+240.000 0 650357.754 328319.286 1152.147

3+260.000 0 650348.243 328336.879 1151.956
3+280.000 0 650338.732 328354.473 1151.765
3+300.000 0 650329.22 328372.066 1151.574
3+320.000 0 650319.709 328389.66 1151.383
3+340.000 0 650310.198 328407.254 1151.191
3+360.000 0 650300.687 328424.847 1151
3+380.000 0 650291.175 328442.441 1150.809
3+400.000 0 650281.664 328460.035 1150.618
3+420.000 0 650272.153 328477.628 1150.427
3+440.000 0 650262.641 328495.222 1150.236
3+460.000 0 650253.13 328512.815 1150.045
3+480.000 0 650243.619 328530.409 1149.854
3+500.000 0 650234.107 328548.003 1149.663
3+520.000 0 650224.596 328565.596 1149.472
3+540.000 0 650215.085 328583.19 1149.281
3+560.000 0 650205.574 328600.783 1149.09
3+580.000 0 650196.062 328618.377 1148.899
3+600.000 0 650186.562 328635.977 1148.708
3+620.000 0 650177.622 328653.865 1148.516
3+640.000 0 650169.099 328671.958 1148.325
3+660.000 0 650160.575 328690.051 1148.134
3+680.000 0 650152.052 328708.144 1147.943
3+700.000 0 650143.529 328726.237 1147.752
3+720.000 0 650135.005 328744.329 1147.561
3+740.000 0 650126.482 328762.422 1147.37
3+760.000 0 650117.958 328780.515 1147.179
3+780.000 0 650109.435 328798.608 1146.988
3+800.000 0 650100.912 328816.701 1146.797
3+820.000 0 650092.388 328834.794 1146.606
EOP 3+839.899 0 650083.908 328852.795 1146.416

BSC Thesis Final Report

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MATTU UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

BSc THESIS SUBMITTED TO CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT FOR THE PARTIAL

Year: 5th Semester II

PROJECT/TITLE: BSc THESIS

Students Name ID numbur Signature Date

1. Lidetu Gebreyes RU0642/1 ____________ _____________

2. Jibril Muhammed RU0665/11 ____________ _____________

3. Amanuel Mihret RU 0586 /11 ____________ _____________

4. Choul Jock RU0660/11 ____________ _____________

5. Kirubel Birhanu RU0641/11 ____________ _____________

MATTU UNIVERSITY Page I

Name Signature Date

MATTU UNIVERSITY Page II

MATTU UNIVERSITY Page III

MATTU UNIVERSITY Page IV

AAD Average annual daily traffic

L2 Lane that car travel from Bus station to 4 kilo

MATTU UNIVERSITY Page V

APPROVAL OF MENTOR ............................................................................................................................................. II

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................................................... III

LIST OF ABBREVIATION ............................................................................................................................................. V

CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................................................ 1

1.2 Background of the study .................................................................................................................................... 1

1.3 Objective of this thesis work ............................................................................................................................. 1

1.3.1 General objective ....................................................................................................................................... 1

1.3.2 Specific objective...................................................................................................................................... 2

1.4 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................................ 2

1.5 PROJECT BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................. 2

1.6 Topography and Terrain Classification ............................................................................................................. 2

1.6.1 Socio Economic Activity ........................................................................................................................... 4

2 .REVIEW OF LITERATURE ................................................................................................................................... 5

2.1 Theoretical overview and facts .......................................................................................................................... 5

2.2 Methodologies and materials ............................................................................................................................. 5

2.2.1 Project methodology .................................................................................................................................. 5

2.2.2 Materials .................................................................................................................................................... 5

2.3 Software used .................................................................................................................................................... 7

CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................................................................... 8

3 ROUTE SURVEYING .............................................................................................................................................. 8

MATTU UNIVERSITY Page VI

3.3 The alignment of specific road for the project................................................................................................... 9

CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................................................................... 10

4 DESIGN CONTROL AND CRITERIA .................................................................................................................. 10

4.2 Road functional classification.......................................................................................................................... 10

4.3 Terrain classification ....................................................................................................................................... 11

4.4 Design standard ............................................................................................................................................... 13

4.5 Design vehicle ................................................................................................................................................. 13

4.6 Design speed .................................................................................................................................................... 13

4.7 Design traffic volume ...................................................................................................................................... 14

4.8 SIGHT DISTANCES ...................................................................................................................................... 15

5 PAVEMENT DESIGN ............................................................................................................................................ 16

5.1 Introductions to pavement design .................................................................................................................... 16

5.2 Pavements Types ............................................................................................................................................. 16

5.2.1 Flexible pavements .................................................................................................................................. 16

5.2.2 Rigid pavements. ..................................................................................................................................... 17

5.3 Factors affecting pavement design .................................................................................................................. 17

5.4 TRAFFIC SURVEY AND ANALYSIS ......................................................................................................... 19

1. Lidetu Gebreyes RU0642/1 _

2. Jibril Muhammed RU0665/11 _

3. Amanuel Mihret RU 0586 /11 _

4. Choul Jock RU0660/11 _

5. Kirubel Birhanu RU0641/11 _