Chap 1

Chapter 1: The equations of motion
Ngoc-Loan Phan
Ho Chi Minh City University of Education
Ngày 7 tháng 3 năm 2023
Ngoc-Loan Phan Ho Chi Minh City University of Education Chapter 1: The equations of motion
Chapter 1: The equations of motion
1.0 Variational principle

1.1 Generalised coordinates
1.2 The principle of least action (Hamilton’s principle)
1.3 Galileo’s relativity principle
1.4 The Lagrangian for a free particle
1.5 The Lagrangian for a system of particles
1.6 The Lagrangian with constraints
1.7 Lagrange’s equations for magnetic forces
1.8 Lagrange Multipliers and Constraints Forces
1.0 Variational principle
With Newtonian mechanics:

Non-Casterian coordinate: Newtonian 2nd law is complicated!
Constraints
Lagrangian mechanics
1.0 Variational principle (Cont.)
Fermat principle
Exercise 1: Prove the Fermat principle:
Hint:
Point Q lies in xy plane;
Reflection law: θ1 = θ2 .
Fermat principle
Exercise 2: Prove the Fermat principle:
Hint:
Point Q lies in xy plane;
Snell’s law: n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 .
Exercise 3: Find the SHORTEST path between two points.
Path has form y = y (x) connecting two points P1(x1 , y1 ) and

P2 (x2 , y2 ).
p p
A segment: ds = dx 2 + dy 2 = 1 + y 0 (x)2 dx
R2 R2p
The path length: S = 1 ds = 1 1 + y 0 (x)2 dx
Find the FUNCTION y = y(x) so that S is a minimum.
Stationary point
- Find the PATH that the integral S is stationary.
An infinitesimal variation of the path from its correct course

doesn’t change the value of the integral.
Stationary point
Exercise 4: Consider a concave, hemispherical

mirror, with A and B are the opposite ends of
a diameter. A ray of light travelling in a vacuum
from A to B with one reflection at P, in the
same vertical plane as A and B. Find the point
P0 that the travelling time along the path AP0 B
is stationary. Prove that this stationary point is
MAXIMUM.
The Euler-Lagrange Equation
Variational problem: Find the FUNCTION y = y (x) connecting
two points P1(x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 ) so that S is stationary.
S is a functional (integral) of f [y (x), y 0 (x), x].

x - independent variable
y - dependent variable.
δS: variation (biến phân) of y (x).
At the 2 limits P1 and P2 : δy1 = δy2 = 0.
The Euler-Lagrange Equation (Cont.)
At stationary point:
Z x2
δS = δ f (y (x), y 0 (x), x)dx = 0 (1)
x1
Z x2 Z x2
∂f ∂f 0 ∂f ∂f d
δS = δy + 0 δy dx = δy + 0 δy dx
x1 ∂y ∂y x1 ∂y ∂y dx
x2 Z x2
∂f ∂f d ∂f
= δy + − δy dx
∂y 0 x1 x1 ∂y dx ∂y 0
Z x2
∂f d ∂f
= − δy dx = 0
x1 ∂y dx ∂y 0
It is satisfied for any choice of variation δy . Therefor

∂f d ∂f
− =0 (2)
∂y dx ∂y 0
Euler-Lagrange Equation
For more than one dependent variables:
Ex. y = y (x); z = z(x).

∂f d ∂f
− = 0; (3)
∂y dx ∂y 0

∂f d ∂f
− = 0. (4)
∂z dx ∂z 0
Euler-Lagrange Equations
Exercise 3 (Cont.): Find the SHORTEST path between two

points.
R2 R2p
The path length: S = 1 ds = 1 1 + y 0 (x)2 dx
Applying Euler-Lagrange Equation:
Exercise 5:
A classic problem! “The Brachistochrone”
(đường đoản thời) - John Bernoulli.
A particle is moving in the xy -plane in a
constant, conservative force field F . It starts at
rest at P1 = (x1 , y1 ) moves to P2 = (x2 , y2 ) (a
“lower point” than P1 ). Find the path y (x) that
allows the particle to move from P1 to P2 in the least time.
Hint: It is a CYCLOID. See animations here.
x = a(θ − sin θ)
y = a(1 − cos θ).
Exercise 6: A curve connects

2 points in the xy -plane: P1 = (x1 , y1 ),
P2 = (x2 , y2 ). A surface is generated
by rotating this curve about an axis
(figure shows the y -axis) in the xy -plane.
Find the equation of the curve (y = y (x)
or x = x(y )) such that the area of
the surface of revolution is a minimum.
Hint: It is a Catenary.
y = a cosh−1 (x/a) + b
or x = a cosh[(y − b)/a].
Second form of Euler-Lagrange Equation

∂f d ∂f
Euler-Lagrange Equation: − =0
∂y dx ∂y 0
We have:
df ∂f ∂f 0 ∂f ∂f d ∂f ∂f dy 0
= + y + 0 y 00 = + y0 +
dx ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x dx ∂y 0 ∂y 0 dx

∂f d ∂f
= + y0 0 .
∂x dx ∂y

∂f d 0 ∂f
− f −y = 0. (5)
∂x dx ∂y 0
Second form of Euler-Lagrange Equation
Euler-Lagrange Equation (Cont.)
Special cases:
∂f
If f = f (y , x): = 0.
∂y
d ∂f ∂f
If f = f (y 0 , x): 0
= 0 =⇒ = C.
dx ∂y ∂y 0
∂f
If f = f (y 0 , y ): f − y 0 0 = C .
∂y
d ∂f ∂f
If f = f (y 0 ): = 0 =⇒ = g (y 0 ) = const
dx ∂y 0 ∂y 0
(since f depends only on y 0 )
=⇒ y 0 = const
=⇒ y = Ax + B.
Exercise 7: Geodesic (đường trắc địa) problem.

GEODESIC: The shortest path between 2 points
on a surface. Find the geodesic on a sphere.
HINT:
→
− −
→ −
→
An infinitesimal segment:
q dl = r dθ + r sin θ dφ
RP RP
l = P12 dl = P12 r θ0 2 + (sin θ)2 dφ.
Use the second form of Euler-Lagrange Eqn.
Solution: cotanθ = β sin(φ − α)
– geodesic (great circle)!!!
1.1 Generalised coordinates
Particle (Chất điểm) : a body whose dimensions may be

neglected in describing its motion,
Note: depends on conditions!
For N particles in space:
– Need 3N coordinates
– The number of independent quantities which must be
specified in order to define uniquely the position of any system
is called the number of degrees of freedom (bậc tự do)
– Possibly, constraints exist which make the number of
independent coordinates < 3N:
If: m equations of constraint which connect some of the 3N
coordinates to some others
The number of degrees of freedom is
s = 3N − m
Examples:
1.1 Generalised coordinates (Cont.)
For system with s degrees of freedom:
– We can choose the coordinates for convenience (not need to
be Cartesian!)
Any s quantities q1 , q2 , ..., qs which completely define the
position of a system are called generalised coordinates (tọa
độ suy rộng)
Their derivative q̇i : generalised velocities (vận tốc suy
rộng)
Excersice: Find the degrees of freedom, determine generalised
coordinate.
1.1 Generalised coordinates (Cont.)
To obtain the “mechanical state” - to know the position of the

system at subsequent instants, we need:
Know all the coordinates q,
Know all the velocity q̇
⇐⇒ if all the co-ordinates q and velocities q̇ are given at
some instant, the accelerations q̈ at that instant are uniquely
defined.
The relations between the accelerations, velocities and
co-ordinates are called the equations of motion.
They are 2nd order differential equations of q(t).
Every mechanical system is characterised by a definite
function L(q1 , q2 , ..., qs , q̇1 , q̇2 , ..., q̇s , t), or briefly L(q, q̇, t).
The motion of the system is such that a certain condition is
satisfied.
Specifically,
Let the system occupy, at the instants t1 and t2 , positions
defined by two sets of values of the coordinates, q (1) and q (2) ,
The condition is that the system moves between these
positions in such a way that the integral
Z t2
S= L(q, q̇, t)dt (6)
t1
takes the least (extreme) possible value.

L : Lagrangian
Why L does not contain q̈??
S : action.
1.2 The principle of least action (Hamilton’s
principle)(Cont.)
(Cont.)
Based on Calculus Variation:

Let q = q(t) be the function for which S is a minimum.
δq: variation (biến phân) of q(t).
At the 2 limits t1 and t2 : δq1 = δq2 = 0.
The principle of least action can be written as:
Z t2
δS = δ L(q, q̇, t)dt = 0 (7)
t1
Based on Calculus Variation (Cont.):
d ∂L ∂L
− =0 (8)
dt ∂ q̇ ∂q
Lagrange’s equation
(Cont.)
Have s different mechanic Lagrange’s equations:

d ∂L ∂L
− =0 (9)
dt ∂ q̇i ∂qi
They give the relations between accelerations, velocities and

coordinates: equations of motion of the system
Solutions qi (t) of Eqs. (9) contain 2s arbitrary constants.
Why?
- To determine these constants (unique motion of the
system): need initial conditions
(Ex: initial values of all the coordinates and velocities).
Properties
A mechanic system consist of noninteracting parts A and B:
Additivity:
L = LA +LB (10)
Additivity of Lagrangian
Multiplication of Lagragian by an arbitrary constant has no
effect on the equation of motion.
If two functions L0 (q, q̇, t) and L(q, q̇, t) differ by the total
derivative with respect to time of some function f (q, t) of
coordinates and time:
d
L0 (q, q̇, t) = L(q, q̇, t) + f (q, t), (11)
dt
then the form of equation motion unchange!!!
⇐⇒ Lagrangian is defined to within an additive total time
derivative of any function of coordinates and time.
Prove!!! (based on variation of S 0 and S).
=⇒ Choosing Lagrangian L is NOT unique!!!
1.3 Galileo’s relativity principle
frame of reference (Hệ quy chiếu):

The laws of motion are different in form for different frames of
reference.
In arbitrary frame of reference: Space would be inhomogeneous
(không đồng nhất) and anisotropic (dị hướng).
Need a frame of reference: the laws have simplest form.
Inertial frame of reference (Hệ quy chiếu quán tính):
Space homogeneous (đồng nhất) and isotropic (đẳng hướng),
Time - homogeneous.
What is homogeneity and isotropy?
A free body which is at rest at some instant remains always at
rest.
1.3 Galileo’s relativity principle (Cont.)
Prove the law of inertia (1st Newton’s law)
In an inertial frame, any free motion takes place with a velocity
which is constant in both magnitude and direction.
A particle moves freely in an inertial frame:
Due to homogeneity of space and time:
L∈
/ r, t =⇒ ∂L/∂r = 0, and L ∈ v
Due to isotropy of space:
L = L(v 2 )
Subtituting in Lagrange’s equation (9):
d ∂L ∂L
= 0 =⇒ = const
dt ∂v ∂v
∂L
Since L(v 2 ) ∈ v , and = const is a function of v only, then
∂v
v = const (12)
Galileo’s relativity principle: there are infinity of inertial frame

moving, relative to one another, uniformly in a straight line.
The laws of free motion in inertial frame moving frame will be
the same as in the original frame: free motion takes place with
a constant velocity.
In all these frames the properties of space and time are the
same, and the laws of mechanics are the same.
There is no “absolute” frame of reference which should be preferred
to other frames.
Galilean transformation:
The frame K 0 moves relative to the frame K with velocity V:
Their coordinates r0 and r are related by:
r = r0 + Vt. (13)
Their time:
t = t 0. (14)
The mechanical equations of motion are invariant under any

Galilean transformation.
1.4 The Lagrangian for a free particle
Determine the form of the Lagrangian, and consider the simplest
case - free motion of a particle relative to an inertial frame.
An inertial frame K is moving with an infinitesimal velocity
relative to another inertial frame K 0 , then v0 = v + .
From (11), the requirement is invariant of Lagrangian:
d
L(v 02 ) = L(v 2 ) + f (q, t)
dt
We have
∂L
L(v 02 ) = L(v 2 + 2v + 2 ) = L(v 2 ) + 2 2v
∂v

∂L ∂L dr d ∂L d ∂L
=⇒ 2v = 2 2 = 2 r 2 −r
∂v 2 ∂v dt dt ∂v dt ∂v 2
∂L
is a total time derivative if = const
∂v 2
mv 2
L= m is the mass of particle.
2
1.4 The Lagrangian for a free particle (Cont.)
For a system of particles which do not interact:

X ma v 2
a
L= (15)
a
2
additive property of Lagrangian

Lagrangian of a free particle:
mv 2
L= (16)
2
Note that 2
2 dl
v =
dt
where dl is the element of arc.
1.4 The Lagrangian for a free particle (Cont.)
Exercise 8: Find the Lagrangian of a free particle in Castesian
coordinate, polar coordinate, cylindrical coordinate, spherical
coordinate.
Hint:
In Cartesian coordinates
L = m(ẋ 2 + ẏ 2 + ż 2 )/2 (17)
In polar coordinates
m(r˙2 + r 2 φ̇2 )
L= (18)
2
In cylindrical coordinates
m(r˙2 + r 2 φ̇2 + ż 2 )
L= (19)
2
In spherical coordinates
m(r˙2 + r 2 θ̇2 + r 2 sin2 θφ̇2 )
L= (20)
2
1.5 The Lagrangian for a system of particles
Closed system: a system of particles which interact with one

another but with no other bodies.
Lagrangian for closed system:
X ma v 2
a
L= − U(r1 , r2 , ...)
a
2
L=T −U (21)
P ma va2
Kinetic energy: T = a
2
Potential energy: U(r1 , r2 , ...)
- The potential energy is defined only to within an additive
constant. It has no effect on the equations of motion.
- Usual way to determine this constant that U → 0 when
distances between particles → ∞
1.5 The Lagrangian for a system of particles (Cont.)
Equation of motion:
d ∂L ∂L
− =0
dt ∂va ∂ra
dva ∂U
ma =− (22)
dt ∂ra
Newton’s Equation
Force:
∂U
Fa = − (23)
∂ra
depends on coordinates only.
With generalised coordinates and generalised velocities:
Component x of Cartesian coordinate and velocity:
xa = fa (q1 , q2 , ..., qs );
s
X ∂fa
ẋa = q̇k
∂qk
k=1
Kinetic energy
1X
T = αi,k (q)q̇i q̇k . (24)
2
i,k
∂fa ∂fa
where αi,k (q) = ma depend on coordinate only.
∂qi ∂qk
- The kinetic energy in generalised coordinates may depend
on the coordinates (via α(q)) also!!!
Lagrangian in a general form:
1X
L= αi,k (q)q̇i q̇k − U(q) (25)
2
i,k
Generalised momentum:
∂L
pi = ; (26)
∂ q̇i
Generalised force:
∂L
Fi = ; (27)
∂qi
Lagrangian equations:
∂L d ∂L
=
∂qi dt ∂ q̇i
generalized force = rate of change of general momentum.
If Lagrangian is independent of a coordinate qi :
∂L
pi = = const: generalized momentum pi is conserved!!!
∂ q̇i
Coordinate qi is called: igronable or cyclic.
=⇒ Criteria in choosing generalized coordinate: Try to find
coordinates as many as possible of which are ignorable!!!
Lagrangian L is invariat under varying qi (but fixed other qj ).
Exercise 9: Using general form of Lagrangian (25), find the

Lagrangian of a free particle in Castesian coordinate, polar
coordinate, cylindrical coordinate, spherical coordinate.
Exercise 10: A particle moving in two dimentional space. Using
polar coordinate, write equations of motion.
∂U
Hint: − = Fr = m(¨ r − r φ̇). In which −mr φ̇ is centripetal force
∂r
(lực hướng tâm).
∂U d d
− = (mr 2 φ̇) =⇒ Γ = L: Torque equals the rate of change
∂φ dt dt
of angular momentum!
Exercise 11: A simple pendulum

with a object with mass m is fixed to a massless
rod with length l, which is pivoted at O and
free to swing without friction in the xy plane.
How many degrees of freedom?
Choose the generalised coordinate.
Write the equations of motion. Show that
it is equivalent to the 2nd Newtonian law.
Find the solution for small oscillation.
1.6 Constraint and Nonconstraint force
Forces acting on objects: constraint and nonconstraint.
Forces of constraints:
not necessary be conservative.
in many cases, they are hard to be determined!!!
Call the net constraining forces: Fcstr .
Nonconstraint forces F: other forces

may not be conservative, but satisfy 2nd condition for
conversation. So:
F = −∇U(r, t).
Total forces: F + Fcstr .
Lagrangian of system with constraint forces:
L=T −U (28)
Lagrangian does not contain constraint forces!!!
1.6 Constraint and Nonconstraint force
Equation of motion for nonconservative force
Lagrange equations:
If nonconstraint forces are conservative; or at least satify 2nd
condition of conservation:
∂L d ∂L
= . (29)
∂qi dt ∂ q̇i
If nonconstraint forces Fnconser don’t satify 2nd condition of

conservation (e.g., sliding friction force):
∂L d ∂L
+ Finconser = . (30)
∂qi dt ∂ q̇i
1.7 Lagrange Multipliers and Constraints Forces
In system with constraint, if we need to know the constraint forces:
Use the number of generalised coordinates larger than the
degree of freedom. E.g., use x, y for 1-dimentional motion.
The constraint equation
f (x, y ) = const. (31)
With appropriate Lagrange multiplier λ, we have modified
Lagrange equations:
∂L ∂f d ∂L
+λ = ; (32)
∂x ∂x dt ∂ ẋ
∂L ∂f d ∂L
+λ = (33)
∂y ∂y dt ∂ ẏ
Constraint force has component:
∂f
Fxcstr = λ ; (34)
∂x
∂f
Fycstr = λ . (35)
∂y
Exercises
Exercise 12: “Atwood’s Machine”.
An Atwood
machine consisting of two masses m1 and m2 ,
suspended by a massless inextensible string that
pass over a massless, frictionless pulley of radius R.
How many degrees of
freedom? Choose the generalised coordinate.
Write the equations of
motion. Solve them. Compare to the method
approaching by the 2nd Newtonian law.
Exercise 13:
Consider a partical m constrained
to move on a frictionless cylinder of radius
R, and subject to a Hooke’s law force F = −kr.
How many degrees of
freedom? Choose the generalised coordinate.
Write the equations of motion. Solve them.
Exercises
Exercise 14: Consider a block of mass
m slides down a wedge of mass M, which is free to
slide over the horizontal table, both with negligible
friction. The block is released from the top of
the wedge with both initially at rest. If the wedge
has angle α and the length of its sloping face is l,
how long does the block take to reach the bottom?
Exercise 15: A bead of mass m is threaded on a
frictionless circular wire hoop of radius R. The hoop
lies in a vertical plane, which is forced to rotate
about the hoop’s vertical diameter with constant
angular velocity φ̇ = ω. The bead’s position on the
hoop is specificed by the angle θ measured up from the vertical.
Write down the Lagrangian and find the equation of motion
for the bead.
Find equilibrium positions at which the bead can remain with
constant θ. Discuss the stability of the equalibrium positions.
1.8 Lagrange’s equations for magnetic forces
Consider a particle (mass m and charge q) moving in electric E
and magnetic B fields.
Scalar V (r, t), and vector potential A(r, t), which are:
∂A
E = ∇V − , (36)
∂t
B = ∇ × A. (37)
The Lorent force:
F = q(E + v × B). (38)
The Lagrangian needs to give this equation of motion.
Lagrangian:
mṙ2
L= − q(V − ṙA). (39)
2
Generalized momentum:
p = mv + qA. (40)
Quantum analog: the momentum operator is −i~∇ + qA.
Advantages Over Newtonian Mechanics
There are two important advantages of the Lagrange formalism

over that of Newton:
Lagrange’s equations take the same form for any coordinate
system, so that the method of solution proceeds in the same
way for any problem.
the Lagrangian approach eliminates the forces of constraint.
This makes the Lagrangian formalism easier to solve in
constrained problems.
Exercises:
Ex. 16:
A crude model of yoyo as in Fig. A massless string is
suspended vertically from a fixed point and other and
is wrapped several times around a uniform cylinder
of mass m and radius R. When a cylinder is released
it moves veritcally down, rotating as string unwinds.
Write down the Lagrangian.
Find the
Lagrange equation of motion and show that the
cylinder accelerates downward with ẍ = 2g /3.
Ex. 17: A mass m1 rests on a frictionless horizotal
table and is attached to a massless string. The string runs
horixontally to the edge of the table, where it passses over a
massless, frictionless pulley and then hangs vertically down. A
second mass m2 is now attached to the bottom end of the string.
Write down the Lagrangian.
Find the Lagrange equation of motion.
Exercises:
Ex. 18: Write down the Lagrangian for a cylinder (mass m, radius
R, and moment of inertia I ) that rolls without slipping stright
down an inclined plane which is at an angle α from the horizontal.
Use the generalized coordinate x as the cylinder’s distance
measured down the plane from its staring point. Write down the
Lagrange equation and solve it.
Ex. 19: Given Atwood machine but incliding the effect of the
pulley’s having moment of inertia I . Find the acceleration.
Ex. 20: A mass m is suspended from a massless string, the other
end of which wrapped several times around a horizontal cylinder of
radius R and moment inertia I , which is free to rotate about a
fixed horizontal axle. Using a suitable coordinate, set up the
Lagrangian and the Lagrange equation of motion. Find the
accleration of the mass m.
Exercises:
Ex. 21: A smooth wire is bent into the shape of a helix, with
cylindrical polar coordinate ρ = R and z = λφ where R and λ are
constants and the z axis is vertically up. Using z as the generalized
coordinate, write down the Lagrangian for a bead of mass m
threaded on the wire. Find the Lagrande equation and hence the
bead’s vertical acceleration z̈. In the limit that R → 0, what is z̈?
Does it make sence?
Ex. 22: The center of a long frictionless rod is pivoted at the
origin, and the rod is forced to rotate in a horizontal plane with a
constant angular velocity ω. Write down the Lagrangian for a bead
threaded on the rod, using r as the generalized cooridinate. Solve
the Lagrange’s equation. What happens if the bead is initially at
rest at the origin? If it is realeased from any point r0 > 0 , show
that r (t) eventually grows exponentially. Explain the results in
terms of the centrifugal force mω 2 r .
Exercises:
Ex. 23: A simple pendulum of length l suspended from the ceiling

of an elevator that is accelerating upward with constant
acceleration a. Find the Lagrange quation and solve it.
Ex. 24: Consider a double Atwood machine constructed as follows:
A mass 4m is suspended from a string that passes over a massless
pulley on frictionless bearings. The other end of this string
supports a second similar pulley, over which passes a second string
supporting a mass of 3m at one end and m at the other. Write
down the Lagrange equations and find the acceleration of masses.
Explain why the top pulley rotates even though it carries equal
weights on each side.
Exercises:
Ex. 25:
The figure shows a simple pendulum (mass m, length
l) whose point of support P is attached to the edge of
a wheel (center O, radius R) that is forced to rotate
at a fixed angular velocity ω. At t = 0, the point
P is level with 0 on the right. Write the Lagrangian
and find the equation of motion. Check the
answer makes sense in the special case that ω = 0.
Exercises:
Ex. 26: Consider the

pendulum suspended inside a railroad
car that being forced to accelerate
with a constant acceleration a.
(a) Write down tha Lagrangian and
Lagrange equation for the system.
(b) Find the equilibrium angle φ at
which the pendulum can remain fied (relative to the car) as the car
accelerates. Use the equation of motion to show that this
equilibrium is stable. What is the frequency of small oscilations
about this equilibirum position?
Exercises:
Ex. 27: A simple

pendulum (mass M, length L) is suspended
from a cart (mass m) that can oscillate
on the end of a spring force constant k.
(a) Write
the Lagrangian in terms of the two generalized
coordinate x and φ, where x is the extension
of the spring from its equailibrium length.
(b) Find the Lagrange equations.
(c) Simplify the equations to the case of both x and φ are small.
Exercises:
Ex. 28: Find the Lagrangian and Lagrange

equations for the coplanar pendulum when placed
in a uniform gravitational field (acceleration g).
Ex. 29: The particle m2
moves on a vertieal axis and the whole system rotates
about this axis with a constant angular velocity
Ω. Find the Lagrangian and Lagrange equations.
Exercises:
Ex. 30: Let F = F (q1 , q2 , ..., qn ) be any function of the

generalized coordinate (q1 , q2 , ..., qn ) of a system with Lagrangian
L(q1 , q2 , ..., qn , q̇1 , q̇2 , ..., q̇n , t). Prove that Lagrangian L and
L0 = L + dF /dt give exactly the same equations of motion.

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Chap 1

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Chapter 1: The equations of motion

Ngày 7 tháng 3 năm 2023

1.0 Variational principle

With Newtonian mechanics:

Exercise 1: Prove the Fermat principle:

Exercise 3: Find the SHORTEST path between two points.

Path has form y = y (x) connecting two points P1(x1 , y1 ) and

An infinitesimal variation of the path from its correct course

Exercise 4: Consider a concave, hemispherical

S is a functional (integral) of f [y (x), y 0 (x), x].

It is satisfied for any choice of variation δy . Therefor

Exercise 3 (Cont.): Find the SHORTEST path between two

Exercise 6: A curve connects

Exercise 7: Geodesic (đường trắc địa) problem.

Particle (Chất điểm) : a body whose dimensions may be

To obtain the “mechanical state” - to know the position of the

takes the least (extreme) possible value.

Based on Calculus Variation:

Based on Calculus Variation (Cont.):

Have s different mechanic Lagrange’s equations:

They give the relations between accelerations, velocities and

frame of reference (Hệ quy chiếu):

Galileo’s relativity principle: there are infinity of inertial frame

The mechanical equations of motion are invariant under any

For a system of particles which do not interact:

additive property of Lagrangian

Closed system: a system of particles which interact with one

Exercise 9: Using general form of Lagrangian (25), find the

Exercise 11: A simple pendulum

Nonconstraint forces F: other forces

If nonconstraint forces Fnconser don’t satify 2nd condition of

There are two important advantages of the Lagrange formalism

Ex. 23: A simple pendulum of length l suspended from the ceiling

Ex. 26: Consider the

Ex. 27: A simple

Ex. 28: Find the Lagrangian and Lagrange

Ex. 30: Let F = F (q1 , q2 , ..., qn ) be any function of the

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