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Chemistry Concepts and Definitions
Chemistry Concepts and Definitions
Chemistry Concepts and Definitions
Constituents of Matter
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Common Polyatomic
ions
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Mole One mole is the number of atoms in 1/12th of 12 grams of Carbon-12.
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Avogadro’s constant
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# of particles (atoms,
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molecules) in a mol
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Isotope Atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons in the nucleus
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Relative atomic mass The weighted average of the masses of the isotopes relative to 1/12th of the mass
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Relative molecular The mass of one molecule of that substance relative to 1/12th of the mass of a
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Empirical formula and The simplest integer ratio of atoms of each element present in a compound.
Molecular formula
The actual number of atoms of elements in one structural unit of a compound.
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Kinetic theory of an 1. Gases are made of particles separated by large distances. Most of the
ideal gas volume occupied by a gas is empty space.
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2. Gaseous particles are constantly moving in straight lines in random
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directions.
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3. Gaseous particles undergo elastic collisions with each other and the walls
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of the container.
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at STP
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Electromagnetic c=fλ
radiation c is the speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum, f is the frequency and
lambda is the wavelength.
Quantization of energy hc
E= λ
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Electron configuration (2.2)
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Bohr’s model of the The hydrogen atom consists of a positively charged proton at its centre, around
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Hydrogen atom which a negatively charged electron moves in an orbit.
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Each orbit has a discrete energy associated with it. The energy of the electron in a
particular orbit is:
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E α ( n12 )
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● When the electron falls back down from the excited-state to a lower energy
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Heisenberg’s “It is impossible to determine accurately both the momentum and the position of a
uncertainty principle particle simultaneously.”
Schrodinger's equation ● Describes the dual wave-like and particle nature of the electron.
The solutions to the equation are called wave-functions ψ . The square of the
wave-function ||ψ 2 || represents the probability of finding an electron in a region of
space from the nucleus of the atom.
Atomic orbital The region in space where there is a high probability of finding an electron ( ||ψ 2 || )
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● Each main energy level can hold a maximum number 2n2 of electrons.
Hence the electron capacity for n=1 is 2, for n=2 is 8, for n=3 is 18.
● For this reason, we have two elements in the first period of the periodic
table, eight elements in the second.
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Aufbau principle Electrons fill the lowest-energy orbital that is available first.
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Pauli exclusion Any electron orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons that have opposite
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principle magnetic spin.
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Periodicity (3)
Arrangement of periodic ● The table is arranged in order of increasing atomic number, Z.
table
● The vertical columns are groups, while the horizontal rows are periods.
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● Ductile (can be drawn into wires)
● Have lustre (are shiny)
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● Usually lose electrons in chemical reactions (oxidized)
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Characteristics of ● Poor conductors of heat and electricity
nonmetals ● Usually gain electrons in chemical reactions (reduced)
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Shielding effect 1. The negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged
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nucleus.
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3. The core electrons in the inner (non-valence) energy levels of the atom
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Ionization energy Defined as the minimum energy required to remove an electron from a neutral
atom in its ground state.
+
1st ionization energy: X (g) → X (g) + e−
+ 2+
2nd ionization energy: X (g) → X (g) + e−
Electron affinity Defined as the energy released when 1 mol of electrons is attached to 1 mol of
neutral atoms in the gas phase.
X (g) + e− → X − (g)
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Electronegativity (χ) Defined as the relative attraction that an atom has for the shared pair of electrons
in a covalent bond.
Trends in atomic radius Atomic radii decreases across a period due to increasing Zeff:
● This pulls valence electrons closer to the nucleus, reducing the atomic
radius.
Trends in ionic radius Cations have a smaller radii than their neutral atoms because there are more
protons than electrons in the cation so the valence electrons are more strongly
attracted to the nucleus.
Anions have a greater radii than their neutral atoms because the extra electron
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in the anion results in a greater repulsion between the valence electrons.
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Trends in Ionization Ionization energy increases across a period:
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energy ● As Zeff increases across a period, the valence electrons are attracted
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closer to the nucleus.
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● Since atomic radii decrease across a period, the distance between the
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● Atomic radii increases down a group, meaning the valence electrons are
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Trends in electron In general, electron affinity becomes more negative across a period.
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affinity
In group 1 alkali metals, electron affinity becomes less negative down the group.
Trends in Electronegativity increases across a period because Zeff and atomic radii both
electronegativity increase.
Trends in metallic and Metallic character decreases across a period and increases down a group.
nonmetallic character
Trend in amphoteric Oxides behave more acidic across a period. PERIOD 3 ELEMENTS ONLY
and amphiprotic oxides
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Physical properties of ● High melting and boiling points because of strong electrostatic forces of
ionic compounds attraction between the ions in their lattice structure.
● Low volatility (does not vaporize) due to strong electrostatic forces.
● Solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity, however in a molten state
the ions are free to move and thus conduct electricity.
● Ionic compounds dissolve in polar solvents (water), but not in nonpolar
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solvents.
○ The polarity of water allows the partial charges to be attracted to the ions
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in the lattice, resulting in individual ions being pulled out of the lattice as
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they are surrounded by water molecules.
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Covalent bonding (4.2)
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The octet rule Elements tend to lose, gain, or share electrons in order to acquire a noble gas
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Covalent bond A covalent bond is formed by the electrostatic attraction between a shared pair
of electrons and a positively charged nuclei.
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Lone pairs Non-bonding pairs of electron. According to VSEPR theory pairs of electrons
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Bond strength and A triple bond is stronger than a double bond, in turn stronger than a single bond.
bond length A single bond is longer than a double bond, in turn longer than a triple bond.
Polar covalent bond When one atom adopts a partial negative charge δ − and one atom adopts a
partial positive charge δ + . The separation of charge results in a dipole moment.
Nonpolar covalent bond If the two atoms involved are identical, there is no net electronegativity.
Polarity based on
electronegativity
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VSEPR theory
molecular geometry
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Resonance structures One of two or more alternative Lewis structures for a molecule that cannot be
described fully with one Lewis structure alone.
Giant covalent structure A solid in which the atoms are held together by covalent bonds in a giant 3D
lattice structure. E.g, graphite, diamond, quartz.
Properties:
● High melting points
● Poor electrical conductivity (excluding graphite and graphene)
● Insoluble in common solvents.
● Very hard (excluding graphite layers)
Coordinate (or dative) In coordinate covalent bonding, the shared pair of electrons comes from only one
covalent bonding of the two atoms; this atom donates both electrons to the shared pair.
E.g. CO, Al2Cl6, NH4+
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Intermolecular forces (4.4)
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Intermolecular forces Interactions between molecules within a compound. They are responsible for
physical properties such as melting and boiling point.
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Polarizability The ease of distortion of the e– cloud of a molecular entity by an electric field.
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Dipole-dipole forces Exists in all polar molecules with a permanent dipole moment.
● There is an attraction between the positive end of a permanent dipole and
the negative end of another permanent dipole on an adjacent molecule.
Hydrogen bonding Can occur between molecules with an H-F, or O-H, or N-H bond present.
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Relative bond strengths
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Metallic bond The electrostatic attraction between a lattice of positive ions and delocalized
electrons
Delocalized electrons Not associated with a particular nucleus, but are free to move through the
crystalline lattice forming a sea of mobile electrons.
Thermal energy A form of energy that is transferred from a warmer body to a cooler body as a
result of the temperature gradient.
● It can be transferred by conduction, convection, and radiation.
Standard Enthalpy Determined at 298K and 100kPa with all species in their standard state.
change of a reaction
(ΔH)
Standard enthalpy
change of formation
ΔHf
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Standard enthalpy The thermal energy evolved upon the complete combustion of 1 mol of
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Hess’s law The enthalpy change (ΔH) for a reaction that is carried out in a series of steps is
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equal to the sum of the enthalpy changes for the individual steps.
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Bond breaking An endothermic process (+ enthalpy) where the energy required to break the
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Average bond enthalpy The energy required to break 1 mol of a bond in a gaseous molecule (averaged
over similar compounds).
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Activation energy The minimum energy required for colliding particles to react.
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Factors that increase 1. Temperature increase gm
the rate of a chemical 2. Addition of a catalyst
reaction 3. Increase in reactant concentration
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Catalysts A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction, but is not consumed
in the reaction itself.
● Creates an alternate pathway for the reaction and lowers the activation
energy.
○ Homogeneous catalyst is in the same physical phase as reactants.
○ Heterogeneous catalyst is in a different physical phase than the
reactants.
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Equilibrium (7)
Dynamic equilibrium The forward and reverse reactions continue but no overall change in the
concentration of reactants and products occur.
Law of chemical States that at a given temperature the ratio of the concentration of products to the
equilibrium concentration of reactants is a constant.
Homogeneous All the reactants and products are present in one phase.
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equilibrium
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Heterogeneous The reactants or products exist in more than one phase.
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Le Chatelier’s principle “If a change is made to a system in equilibrium, the balance between the forward
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and reverse reactions will shift to offset this change and return the system to
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equilibrium.”
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3. Temperature.
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Effect of a catalyst on In a reversible reaction, the lowered Eea has an equal effect on both the forward
equilibrium and reverse reactions. Position of equilibrium will not change and neither will KC.
Reaction quotient (Q) The ratio of concentration of products to reactants when the system has not
reached equilibrium.
Examples of
monoprotic, diprotic and
triprotic acids
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Strong acid An acid that is assumed to completely dissociate in water.
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● They are strong electrolytes. (conduct more)
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Weak acid An acid that only partially dissociates in water.
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The standard enthalpy The energy change associated with the formation of 1 mol of water from the reaction
change of neutralization between a strong acid and a strong base at STP.
Neutralization is exothermic (ΔH < 0) and generally the same for strong and weak
acid-base reactions because it drives the reaction to completion.
pH scale
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Acid deposition (8.5)
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Acid deposition The process by which acid-forming pollutants are deposited on the Earth’s surface.
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Acid rain A result of rapidly increasing emissions of Nitrogen and Sulphur oxides from
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industrialization.
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vegetation.
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● Man made pollutants resulting from the combustion of sulphur rich fossil
fuels.
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Global issue The acid deposition may occur in countries away from the actual source due to other
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factors such as wind, leading to widespread deforestation and pollution of lakes and
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river systems.
Post-combustion methods:
● Secondary technologies remove impurities before they are released into the
atmosphere.
The effects on buildings When calcium carbonate is exposed to acid rain, a neutralization reaction erodes the
building, causing damage.
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Half-equations Useful in balancing complex redox reactions.
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Each half-equation represents the separate oxidation and reduction processes.
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The activity series Ranks metals according to the ease with which they oxidize.
● Metals higher up the series can displace those below.
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The Winkler The degree of organic pollution in a sample of water can be measured by the
method biochemical oxygen demand.
● BOD is the amount of oxygen required to oxidize organic matter in a sample of
water at a definite temperature over a period of 5 days.
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Voltaic cell Electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy to electrical energy.
● They use spontaneous exothermic processes to convert energy.
● The cathode is the positive electrode. → reduction.
● The anode is the negative electrode. → oxidation.
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Both electrodes are
connected to electrolytes,
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each in electrical contact via
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● It provides a path for the
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Remember NOVA:
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● Negative
● Oxidation
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● Voltaic
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● Anode
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Electrolytic cell Electrochemical cell that converts electrical energy to drive a non-spontaneous
chemical reaction.
● Cathode is the negative electrode. → reduction.
● Anode is the positive electrode. → oxidation.
Remember APOE (anode, positive, oxidation, electrolytic)
Electrolysis of a (inert) Graphite electrodes are dipped into the salt electrolyte.
molten salt
In the following example the salt is
Sodium Chloride.
Catenation The process by which many identical atoms (generally carbon) are joined
together by covalent bonds, producing straight-chain, branched, or cyclic
structures.
Homologous series A series of compounds of the same family, with the same general formula but
from vary one another by one CH2 group.
Structural isomers Compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of
atoms.
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Saturated compounds Contain single bonds only
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Unsaturated compounds Contain double or triple bonds
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Benzene ring An aromatic, unsaturated hydrocarbon.
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(Resonance occurs)
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Functional groups
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Arenes CnH2n-6 -
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Halogenoalkanes CnH2n+1X -
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Carboxylic acids RCOOH -oic acid
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Ethers ROR’ -
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Properties:
● Boiling point: increases with more Carbons in the formula.
○ More atoms = greater IMF’s (Van der Waal’s)
■ More energy required to break bonds.
○ Branching decreases boiling point
● Fairly unreactive
○ Almost non-polar, single covalent bonds.
■ No net charge → no weak points.
○ Saturated carbons.
○ All alkanes complete an octet.
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○ Internal combustion engines produce CO and NOX.
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Breaking covalent bonds:
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● Three ways to split the shared electron pair in an unsymmetrical
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covalent bond:
○ Unequal splitting: produces ions
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(heterolytic fission)
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(homolytic fission)
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Free radicals:
● Reactive species with an unpaired electron.
○ They are reactive because they want to pair the single electron.
● Involved in the reactions taking place in the ozone layer (think Chlorine
catalyst).
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● Initial equation:
○ Methane is attracted by free radicals and a Hydrogen is
substituted by a Chlorine radical, leaving HCl.
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● Initiation: radicals are created.
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● Propagation:
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○ The methyl radical continues the chain reaction and reacts with a
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● Termination:
○ A termination reduces the concentration of radicals in the
reaction mixture.
■ As the concentration of hydrocarbons decreases, the rate
of reaction decreases and eventually stops completely.
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Properties:
● The sp2 orbitals repel each other into a planar arrangement.
○ Covalent bonds are formed by overlap of orbitals.
■ An sp2 orbital from each carbon overlaps to form a single
C-C bond.
■ The resulting bond is a sigma bond.
○ The double bond makes alkenes more reactive than alkanes;
they undergo addition reactions.
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○ Greater IMF’s = more energy to separate molecules
○ For isomers → greater branching = lower boiling point.
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● Considerably more reactive than alkanes
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○ Due to double bonds containing 4 electrons
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■ Makes it attractive to electrophiles.
■ Enables it to polarise approaching molecules.
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Isomers:
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● Geometric:
○ Stereoisomerism; occurs due to restricted rotation of C=C bonds.
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Electrophilic addition ● Because of the extra electron density in a C=C bond, alkenes are
mechanism (Alkenes) attacked by a species with a partial positive charge called ‘electrophile’.
(it means electron lover)
● The electrophile in the hydrogen halides is the H+ ion. It attracts two
electrons from the C=C bond, leaving the Br– with a negative charge.
● The Br– is then attracted to the carbocation and forms a covalent bond.
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Oxidation of an alcohol:
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Systematic error The error that arises from a flaw in the experimental design and instruments
used. (e.g. zero error on an electronic balance)
● Affects the accuracy of data.
● Can be reduced by adopting greater care to the experimental design.
Random error The error that arises from uncontrolled variables in an experiment and cannot
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be eliminated. (e.g. reaction time)
● Affects the precision of data.
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● They can be reduced by running repeated trials.
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Percentage error | literature value − experimental value | × 100%
| literature value |
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Index of hydrogen The degree of unsaturation that is used to determine the number of multiple
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2c+2−h−x+n
I HD =
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Double bond 1
Triple bond 2
Ring (alkanes) 1
Infrared spectroscopy IR radiation can cause molecular vibrations, which result from the vibration of
certain groups of molecules about their bonds. The molecules absorb specific
frequencies called resonant frequencies.
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Energy (Option C)
Energy sources: ● Release energy (high energy density or specific energy)
requirements ● Minimum pollution + waste products
● Energy is released at a reasonable rate (efficiency)
● Fuel is readily available, and not too costly to extract
Energy density and They both measure the quality of the fuel.
specific density energy released f rom f uel
E nergy density = volume of f uel consumed
energy released f rom f uel
S pecif ic energy = mass of f uel consumed
Renewable energy Can be replenished in relatively short times (on the scale of a human lifetime),
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resources e.g. biomass.
Or can be continually generated from the sun’s energy, e.g. wind and water
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sources.
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Geothermal energy is the heat from the Earth; resources range from hot water
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geysers to magma rock.
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Storing energy from The harnessing of energy from the sun by photosynthesis created large
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photosynthesis organisms. When they died out, their C-C and C-H bonds remained and
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Fossil fuel formation During their formation, carbon atoms become more and more saturated with
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hydrogen and have fewer bonds to nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. The C-H bond
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is more stable and stronger than the single bonds they replace (C-O, C-S, C-N)
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Crude oil cracking The more volatile shorter chain hydrocarbons are better fuels, however there is
a greater % of long chain hydrocarbons in crude oil.
Cracking is a process used to obtain short-chain fuels from long-chain fuels.
● Long-chain hydrocarbons are heated over a catalyst where they are
“cracked” into smaller hydrocarbons including alkenes (ethene) and
alkanes (the octanes).
○ Zeolites (a molecular sieve) are used alongside the catalyst.
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Crude oil fractionating There are 3 main fossil fuels: coal, gas, and crude oil.
Crude oil has a mixture of hydrocarbons of varying chain lengths.
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The crude oil is heated to make less viscous, and fed in the bottom of the
column. Temperatures are low at top and high at bottom, making higher boiling
point fractions condense near the bottom.
Fuels and Octane Rating A measure of a fuel’s ability to resist auto-ignition (knocking).
● Octane rating of 100: 2,2,4-trimethylpentane;
● Octane rating of 0: heptane
● More branching → higher octane rating (easier to break bonds)
● Longer C–chain → lower octane rating (more difficult to break bonds)
Catalytic reforming Reforming is the effect of several reactions such as cracking, unifying,
polymerizing, and isomerizing occurring simultaneously.
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They are then passed over zeolite to separate the branched from unbranched
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alkanes.
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Coal gasification The process of converting coal into synthesis gas. Syngas is a mixture of
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The environmental benefits are low SOX, NOX and particulate emissions from
burning coal-derived gases, when compared to normal coal.
Coal liquefaction The process of converting coal into liquid hydrocarbons for use as fuels.
In the Fischer-Tropsch process, CO and H2 (from syngas) are converted into
liquid hydrocarbons.
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Developments for The developments made in response to the need to limit pollution and
greener fuels greenhouse gas emissions:
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Carbon footprint A measure of the net quantity of carbon dioxide produced by the process.
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Electronvolt (eV) A measure of the energy required to move one electron through a predefined
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electric field. (1eV = 1.6 × 10 J)
Binding Energy E = Δmc2 , where E is the energy released, m is the mass defect (in kg) and c is
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the speed of light ( 3 × 10 m/s)
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Nuclear fusion The fusion of light elements to form heavier elements.
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● Has the potential to provide almost unlimited source of energy.
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source on Earth.
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Nuclear fission The splitting of a heavy nucleus to form two lighter nuclei.
● Used to generate electricity in a power station.
Transformation of energy
The heat released during fission is used to boil water. The steam produced
turns a turbine which in turn turns a generator; generating electricity.
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Critical mass The amount of material needed for a fission reaction to remain sustainable.
Subatomic particles
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Half-life (t1/2) The time it takes for radioactive activity to fall by half its original value.
Radioactive waste Many of the products of nuclear fission reactions have long half-lives and are
harmful to living organisms.
Combustion:
Biodiesel Biodiesel is produced from vegetable oils by fermentation, and can release
similar amounts of energy to diesel when burnt.
● The oils are highly viscous and can clog fuel injectors;
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○ High viscosity → strong IMF’s → oils do not readily vaporise and
undergo incomplete combustion (damaging engines.)
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Transesterification The reaction of an ester with an alcohol in the presence of a strong acid or
base. Used to convert viscous oils into less viscous esters with fewer
intermolecular forces.
● For example, a triglyceride is converted to esters and glycerol:
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Environmental impact – global warming (C.5)
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Greenhouse effect Phenomenon in which certain gases in the Earth’s atmosphere absorb IR
radiation and re-emit in all directions within the Earth system and produce a
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consequent rise in the average temperature of the Earth. (CO2, H2O, CH4, N2O)
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Natural greenhouse Natural: due to the naturally occurring levels of greenhouse gases
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effect vs. Enhanced Enhanced: due to an increased concentration of greenhouse gases, possibly as
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Greenhouse effect a result of human derived processes (burning fossil fuels, etc.)
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Greenhouse resonance When the frequency of a photon matches the vibrational state of a pi-bond in a
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Sources of greenhouse The main sources are from burning coal, oil, and natural gas for energy.
gases CO2 entering the atmosphere from combustion comes from hydrocarbons
previously underground. This increases the absolute levels of gas in the
atmosphere.
Industries:
● Produce natural greenhouse gases that include NOX, CO2, H2O, etc.
while greenhouse gases like CFC’s are not naturally occurring.
Agriculture:
● Increases methane from the digestive systems of animals such as cows.
Deforestation:
● With fewer trees, less CO2 is absorbed from the atmosphere and used in
photosynthesis.
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Carbon sinks About 30% of manmade CO2 is absorbed by the oceans. Approximately 50%
has remained in the atmosphere.
Reducing greenhouse The Kyoto protocol introduced a scheme of carbon trading where countries
gas emissions agreed to capture as much atmospheric carbon as they created.
Carbon capture and storage is simply the capture of carbon dioxide from where
it is produced and storing it where it will not enter the atmosphere.
Global dimming Smoke, dust particles, and clouds reflect sunlight back to space, causing global
dimming which cools the Earth’s surface.
Soot and ash combine on tiny water droplets and result in cloud formation.
● Polluted clouds reflect more light than non-polluted ones. This results in
a global dimming.
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change ● Less solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface.
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● More devastating storms.
● Temperatures becoming more extreme (hotter and colder).
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● Record levels of rainfall and drought.
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● Global dimming.
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