Unit 1 - Government in Canada

Levels and Responsibilities

The government of Canada is divided into multiple levels of government all of which have different
responsibilities: Federal, Provincial, Regional, and Municipal. In 1867 4 provinces were created, they
created different governments in order to have control over the country.

The Kinds of Government:

Provincial, Regional, Federal, and Municipal.

Federal Government:
- Responsible for issues of nation-wide importance.
- There are 338 “Ridings” in Canada.
- Based in Ottawa, with elected Members of Parliament from across Canada.
- The prime minister is the leader of the federal government. The Government tries to have about
100k people per MP.
- Justin Trudeu (Prime Minister of Canada): MP for Papineau, QC Liberal Party of Canada.
- Prime Ministers typically serve for 10 years, after that a new person is selected.
- Kamal Khera (MP for Brampton West): Liberal Party of Canada.
- The governor general is our symbolic head of state and represents the Queen in Canada
- Responsible for: immigration, military, RCMP, CBC, Canada Post, Criminal Law, Currency, and
more.
- The federal government is applied differently to different nations (America’s federal government
only applies to specific states separately. Canada, on the other hand, has a federal government that
controls the entire country).

Municipal (City) Government:

- Looks after a town, city, or district.
- Based in each city or town, with elected city councilors from each ward/district.
 - The Mayor is the leader of the municipal government.
- His Worship, Patrick Brown (Mayor of Brampton).
- Councilor, Doug Whillans (Ward 6).
- Responsible for: transit, parks and recreation, parking, water, waste collection, libraries, fire
departments.

Regional Government:
- Some municipalities in Ontario are organized into regions to provide services for a large area.
- The Region of Peel consists of Mississauga, Brampton, and Caledon. The city councilors of each
area are all regional councilors too.
- The Regional Chair is the leader of the regional government and is elected by all the city
councilors.ner
- Responsible for: water delivery and treatment, waste collection, public health, long-term care
centres, police, paramedics, courts, and social services.

Provincial Government:
- Responsible for governing each province.
- Laws are typically different for each province (Legal drinking age is 18 in Quebec, 19 in
Ontario).
- Based in Toronto, with elected Members of Provincial Parliament from across Ontario
- The premier is the leader of the provincial government.
- The Honourable, Doug Ford (Premier of Ontario): MPP for Etobicoke North, Progressive
Conservative Party of Ontario.
- Amarjot Sandhu (MPP for Brampton West): Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario.
- The lieutenant Governor General represents the Queen in Canada.
- Responsible for: delivering health care, licensing, education, prisons, roads and bridges,
provincial police, some social services, LCBO, and more.
- There are organizations responsible for different aspects of society. For example, LCBO
(Liquor Control Board of Ontario), is responsible for selling most forms of alcohol in
Canada (excluding Quebec).

We installed the British system when the government first came to be. We have the same government
roles & positions, they just have different names.

The Different Types of Government in the World

Terms & Definitions

Democracy
Democracy is necessary in a lot of situations for law to be successful (meaning it is not dependent on
wealth, gender, sexual orientation, etc.)
Ingredients of a Democracy
- Rule of Law
- Everyone in a democracy must obey the same laws including its elected leaders. It is not
dependent on social status, wealth, gender, etc.
 - Laws should be known to everyone.

- Political Equality
- Every citizen has the same right to vote, run for office, and express their opinion.

- Informed Citizens
- Every citizen is able to be informed on important issues and vote accordingly.
- Citizens are not spreading or consuming misinformation.

- Personal Freedom
- Every citizen has personal freedoms like: freedom of religion, freedom of expression,
freedom of assembly.

Types of Democracy
- Direct Democracy
- Complete rule by the people.
- Every person votes directly on every issue.
- Every person contributes to the laws that affect everyone.
- Example: Brexit or the Referendums in Quebec.
- The people -> Laws, Rules
- Representative Democracy
- Citizens elect representatives to vote on issues for them.
- The elected representatives form a government who debate issues, and make laws on
behalf of their constituents.
- Every democracy is different, they all work differently and have different ways of doing
things.
- Example: United states of America (Republic), France (Republic).
- The people -> One representative -> Laws, Rules
- Constitutional Monarchy
- It would be hard to get rid of this system/change it, that is why Canada is continuing to
follow a foreign monarch.
- Canada follows this type of government/democracy.
- When a country recognizes a king/queen as a symbol but they cannot create laws.
- Citizens elect representatives to vote on issues for them.
- The elected representatives form a government who debate issues, and make laws on
behalf of their constituents.
- Example: Canada (Constitutional Monarchy), England (Constitutional Monarchy).

Autocracy
Ruled by a single person with total power.
Ingredients of an Autocracy
- Abuse or Absence of Law
- In an autocracy, some people have special privileges based on social status, wealth, race,
etc.
 - Political Inequality
- Voting is limited, restricted to certain people, or elections are staged.
- Uninformed Citizens
- Information is restricted and the media is censored or controlled by the government
- Restricted Personal Freedom
- Citizens have few rights or they are heavily restricted.

The Types of Autocracy

- Dictatorship
- One person has absolute power to make laws
- Citizens do not elect representatives or have legitimate elections
- Usually have a secret police and political opponents are killed or imprisoned
- Example: Nazi Germany, Kim Jong Un's North Korea, Putin’s Russia.
- Theocracy
- Laws based on interpretation of a religious text.
- Led by the religious leaders.
- Example: Saudi Arabia, Iran, Ireland (around 1920).
- Monarchy
- One person has absolute power to make laws.
- Citizens do not elect representatives or have legitimate elections.
- Power is inherited by the monarch's family.
- They very easily fall apart.

Change:
Pressure & time. Change comes with different amounts of pressure mixed with different amounts of time.

The Political Spectrum

and Ideologies

- It is a tool to visually represent the range of political beliefs

- Labels are used to describe political beliefs: left wing, right wing, center, left of center, right of
center
 - Problem: this is too basic

Quadrant Political Spectrum

● Y-axis - represents your preference for personal responsibility vs government responsibility
○ Top- preference for personal responsibility
○ Bottom - preference for government responsibility
● X-axis - represents your comfort with change
○ Far left - comfortable with rapid drastic change
○ Far right - prefer to go back to how things were

Top Left (Personal Freedom)

You might see the world from a perspective where personal freedom for individuals is a priority. People
should decide what is right and wrong for themselves without the government.

Bottom Right (Legislated Morality)

You might see the world from a perspective where matters of morality (right/wrong) should be put into
laws.

Top Right (Economic Freedom)

You feel economic freedom is a priority and believe the government should not be involved in the
economy. Some people will do well. Others will not.

Bottom Left (Legislated Equality)

You may believe the government should use laws to ensure equality is protected. Vulnerable people
should be protected by laws.

Ideologies
Ideologies are the different parts of political opinions (ex. Conservatism, liberalism, fascism,
communism, socialism).

Communism (Karl Marx & Frederick Engels)

- The government would control the entire economy and all property
- Wealth and property would be distributed equally to all citizens by the government
- Based on the idea that the wealthy will use their wealth to exploit the poor. In theory, communism
would stop that.
- Proletariat: Capitalism. Karl Marx says that the Bourgeoisie (when rich people are getting
richer and exploiting poor people) are a direct cause of Proletariat.
- Marx said that the problem is wealth, therefore we have to have it controlled.

Socialism
- The government controls essential aspects of the economy (health care, education, pensions).
- Citizens can accumulate wealth and property but give some to the government in the form of
taxes.
 - Based on the idea that people can be more successful if their basic needs are provided with tax
dollars from everyone.

Liberalism
- The government’s role should be limited in people’s lives
- Citizens should accumulate wealth and property and taxes should be kept to a minimum
- Prefer individual responsibility as a solution as much as possible
- Belief that change is necessary for improvement in society

Conservatism
- The government’s role is to protect citizens and institutions
- Citizens should accumulate wealth and property with minimal government interference
- Preference for traditional values and slow to change
- Fear that rapid drastic change is unsustainable

Fascism
- The government controls most aspects of people’s lives (media, economy).
- No tolerance of opposition or dialogue
- Usually involves nationalism and racism
- Led by a dictator with total control of the country and military
- This is a very aggressive form of political government

The Political Parties

Of Ontario and Canada

What is Politics?
Politics
- Is the process of how elections, government, and laws are made.
- It is everything (it is messy & ugly).

Politicians
- Citizens that are elected by others to represent them in government to work on laws.
- Accountable to their constituents.
- They are typically two faced. They are told what to show & say to seem most appealing.

Political Parties
- Politicians at the federal and provincial level belong to political parties that best fit their beliefs
and values
- Their goal is to win elections and form governments to lead the province/country according to
their party’s values.
- All parties are trying to improve the country, just in different ways.
Conservative Party of Canada
Centre-right political party, Called Progressive Conservative Party in Ontario Politics.
Recent Policy Trends:
- Reducing taxes for people and businesses
- Against carbon tax
- Support oil & gas industry
- Mandatory minimum sentences for crimes
- Socially conservative - favouring traditional social values
- Reducing government intervention in our lives (health care, education, child care).

Pierre Poilievre
Mp for Carleton
Leader of Conservative Party of Canada

Doug Ford
MPP for Etobicoke North
Leader of Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario

Liberal Party of Canada

Centrist/Centre-left political party, Called the Ontario Liberal Party in Ontario politics.
Recent Policy Trends
- Increasing corporate taxes and decreasing taxes for middle income earners and small businesses
- Increased child tax benefits
- Support environmental protection policies while also supporting energy extraction industries
- Socially liberal - Support for LGBTQ/minority issues
- View government intervention in our lives as a positive

Justin Trudeau
The Right Honourable
Prime Minister of Canada
MP for Papineau, QC
Leader of Liberal Party of Canada

John Fraser
MPP for Ottawa South
Interim Leader of the Ontario Liberal Party

New Democratic Party

Left Wing Political party, Called the Ontario NDP in Ontario politics.
The difference between them and Liberals is the fact that Liberals want to give the extra tax dollars to the
middle class. The NDP wants to give those dollars to the lower class.
Recent Policy Trends
 - Increasing taxes on corporations and high-income earners to support programs for low income
people
- Support introducing a pharmacare program
- Support environmental protection
- Socially liberal - support for LGBTQ/minority issues
- View government intervention in our lives as a positive

Jagmeet Singh *The most powerful political figure in Canada according to Cordeiro
MP for Burnaby South
Leader of New Democratic Party of Canada

Marit Stiles
MPP for Davenport
Leader of New Democratic Party of Ontario

The Green Party of Canada

Centrist political party, called the Ontario Green Party in Ontario politics
Recently Policy Trends
- Environmental Protection
- Increased taxes on corporate pollution, against GMO foods, support public transit
investments
- GMO: Genetically Modified Organisms
- Reduced military spending
- Electoral reform
- Abolishing the senate
- Support adopting Proportional Representation for elections.

Amita Kuttner *Temporary

Interim Leader of Green Party of Canada

Mike Schreiner
MPP for Guelph
Leader of Green Party of Ontario

Bloc Quebecois
Centrist political party ONLY ACTIVE IN QUEBEC
Recent Policy Trends
- Quebec sovereignty
- Sovereignty means being in charge of select land
- Support policies that will work towards Quebec sovereignty
- Want provincial control of immigration
- Socially liberal
- Support for LGBTQ issues and abortion rights
 - Electoral reform
- Abolishing the Senate and ties to the monarchy
- Support environmental protection policies

Yves-François Blanchet
MP for Beloeil-Chambly
Leader of the Bloc Quebecois

People’s Party of Canada

Right wing federal party formed from the defection of a leadership candidate of the Conservative Party.
Recently Policy Trends
- Economic Liberalism
- Reducing taxes for people and businesses through a Flat Tax
- Against corporate subsidies, especially the Canadian dairy industry
- Deregulation of various industries
- Against Canadian Participation in International Organizations
- Immigration Reform
- Reducing family reunification and increased economic immigration

Maxime Bernier
Leader of the People’s Party of Canada

Gun Control Videos

Notes

- Canada ranks 5th in highest number of guns per 100 people.

- The amount of registered of handguns and ar 15s has doubled in the past 10 years
- Canada requires you to have a firearms license to own a gun (you need to apply for this and be
accepted)
- You also need a safety license for this
- A training is also required to buy any sort of gun
- Canada has a very limited amount of uses for firearms
- We don’t have laws which protect gun owners from using them as self defense
- America’s gun laws depend on the state, in canada however, it is country wide (federal)
 - You get a criminal record check every day, in the application you need to provide details about
your mental health. There is a lot of tracking when it comes to being a gun owner.
- Canada’s gun regulations are what prevents shootings as they are quite calm and non-complex
- The # of gun homicides went up by 31% from 2019-2020

Canadian Elections
and Voting

Voting is a Right
- Citizens are guaranteed the right to vote under the Canadian Charters of Rights and Freedoms.
- Democracy only works if people participate. Therefore, it is our responsibility to use our
democratic right to vote.
- The right to vote is what gives us our voice in government.

What am I Voting for?

- The whole country is divided into ridings/constituencies/electoral districts.
- The citizens who live in a riding elect one representative to the government. The candidate who
receives the largest number of votes in each riding becomes its representative.
- Each riding equals a seat in the House of Commons (federal) or legislative Assembly (provincial).

How Many Ridings?

- Provincial Government
- 124 Representatives (MPPs) make up the Ontario government.
- The political party with the most seats leads.
- Federal Government
- 338 representatives (MPs) make up the Canadian government.
- The political party with the most seats leads.
- At the Federal Level, there are 338 Ridings (MPs). At the Provincial Level, there are 124 ridings
(MPPs).
- Each person only belongs to one riding. Ex. Justin Trudeau can only be voted for in
Papineau, Quebec
- Certain areas are more politically powerful that others because they have a higher population

Urban vs Rural
- Our system tries to give more populated provinces, like Ontario and Quebec, more representation
in government
- Rural areas or less populated provinces cover more land but have less people
- Urban ridings cover less area and have more people.

How Do You Win?

 - Each voter votes for who will represent them in parliament. (MP or MPP).
- The person who gets the most votes in a particular riding becomes the MP/MPP and wins a seat
in parliament.
- The political party with the most seats wins the election and forms the government.
- The leader of the winning party becomes the Prime Minister or Premier.
- The party with the second most seats becomes the Official Opposition.
- If a party wins, its leader becomes prime minister.

Minority or Majority
There are two types of governments that can come out of an election: Majority or Minority governments
- Majority government
- When the party who wins the election has more seats than all the parties combined. When
they have more than half of the seats
- Minority government
- When the party who wins the election has the most seats but not more than the other
parties combined. When they don’t have more than half the seats

Why it Matters
- Minority governments are unstable because any bill introduced by the government can be
defeated.
- The government must compromise with other parties in order to to get any bills passed
- If a major government proposed bill is defeated in parliament, it is considered a non-confidence
vote, parliament dissolves and an election is called.
- To create stability, the government party could form a coalition with another party or work on an
informal understanding.

Government Branches
And How They Work

The Branches of Government

- The Canadian government has three branches
- Executive branch
- Legislative branch
- Judicial branch
- Each branch has specific powers and limitations
- They all work together to run the government

The Executive Branch

- The Executive Branch determines the government's plans and priorities.
- Federal -> Prime Minister and Cabinet
- Provincial -> Premier and Provincial cabinet
 - The Cabinet is a sound proof room where they discuss plans for the country. It is kept
completely confidential and isn’t allowed to be shared.
- Very similar to the planning of movies and shows. They choose when to introduce new
concepts, laws, etc.
- All laws are made in the name of the king, represented by the governor general at the federal
level, and the lieutenant governor at the provincial level.
- The governor general’s job is to sign, they cannot refuse.

Parts of the Executive

- The Governor General represents the monarchy in Canada and performs the duties that the
monarch would do
- The Governor General gives royal assent to laws, greets foreign dignitaries, appoints senators and
supreme court judges, and begins sessions of parliament.
- The lieutenant governor does the same duties in the province.
- Mary Simon - Governor General of Canada
- The Prime Minister is the leader of the federal government
- The prime minister also recommends new judges and senators for appointment. And, as head of
their political party, they also act as spokesperson for that party.
- Justin Trudeau - Prime Minister of Canada
- The Cabinet is the group of ministers that decides government policy
- Cabinet ministers are chosen by the prime minister and have responsibility for particular
departments of government.

The Legislative Branch

- The legislative branch of government, also called parliament, is the branch that has the power to
make, change and cancel laws
- The most powerful part of the legislative branch at the federal level is the House of Commons in
Ottawa. Elected Mps meet to discuss and vote laws in the House of Commons. Discussions are
organized by the Speaker of the House.
- In Ontario, this branch meets at the legislative Assembly in Toronto where MPPs discuss laws.
- The Senate was meant to be a “check” on the House of Commons
- The Senate may propose bills but they usually don’t
- Senators are not elected. They are appointed by the Governor General on the recommendation of
the Prime Minister. They may serve until they are 75 years of age.
- The provincial government does not have a Senate.

The Judicial Branch

- The Judicial branch is made up of the courts and the judges
- This branch is separate from the other two branches. This ensures that parliament and its
members are not above the law
- They determine the sentences for people found guilty of crimes
- They also interpret laws when disputes arise between individuals, groups, or even different levels
of government
Interest Groups
And The Media

Other Players
- While voters ultimately decide what our government will look like and what types of laws are
passed, there are other players in our democracy
- How do you get your information
- People get their information from news apps, tv shows, etc. You typically choose what
you see and the algorithm shows you what it thinks you would like, therefore it typically
hides information from you.
- Who is communicating with you?
- Sdfd
- Do you trust your sources?
-

Interest Groups
- Interest groups are made of people with shared beliefs about an issue and work to influence our
laws, government, and public opinion.
- Interest Groups fundraise and advertise to bring awareness to their cause.
- Their goal is to persuade voters and the government to create laws that benefit their supporters.

Types of Interest Groups

- Business Groups
- Hundreds of business and trade groups cooperate and compete to influence policy
- Labour Unions
- Labour unions advocate for the needs of their members (workers, etc)
- Agricultural Groups
- Advocating for Canadian farmers
- Professional Groups
- Promote the interests of the professions they represent
- Advocacy for Vulnerable Groups
- Many groups work to promote the interests of groups, such as seniors, veterans, or
immigrants
- Religious Organizations
- Various religious groups work to influence government policy
- Public-Interest Groups
- Seek to promote policies that will benefit all people as a whole
- Single-issue interest groups
- Focus their efforts on one issue (MADD for example)

Media in Canada
- The Canadian media is regulated by the CRTC (Canadian Radio and Telecommunications
Commission) and Heritage Canada
 - Most media companies in Canada are owned by 5 companies (Bell Media, Rogers Media, Post
Media, Corus, and Torstar).
- Alternative Media - online outlets catering to niche audiences
- Media Concentration
- As more outlets are owned by the same few groups, there is a fear of having fewer
independent voices, and the loss of diverse opinions
- Editorial/Content Bias
- It's possible that the corporate owners of these outlets select or frame stories to suit their
corporate goals and interests. Is this a conflict of interest?
- Profit motive
- These media companies are purchasing these outlets because they see profit potential in
owning them. What type of content will attract a larger audience, more advertisers, and
be most profitable? (Disney adding representation for profits for example)

Drug Decriminalization
Nimby - Not In My Back Yard
- People like the idea but they don't like when this idea is implemented near them (homeless shelter
across from their kids school)

Gentrification
- The conversion of low income areas into more high income areas (housing projects demolished
and condos are built)

Unit 2 -
How a Bill Becomes a Law
Laws in Canada

Background
- Each level of government can introduce and pass laws for areas that are in their jurisdiction
- The municipal government makes by-laws that deal with issues affecting the community such as
public parks, libraries, garbage removal and public transportation.
What is a bill?
- A bill is an idea for a law that is introduced in parliament by an MPP or MP, depending on the
level of government
- Federal bills affect the whole country
- Provincial bills affect the particular province that introduced it
- Bills can remove or change an existing law or create a completely new law
How Bills Become Laws
- First reading
 - The bill is announced to Parliament and distributed for reading
- Second reading
- The main idea and purpose of the bill is debated.
- If passed the bill is then referred to as committee for further study
- Committee stage
- Committee members study the bill clause by clause and recommend changes.
- Report Stage
- A report from the committee stage is presented to the HOuse of Commons (federal) or the
legislative assembly (provincial)
- Mps/MPPs vote on the proposed changes to bill
- Third reading
- Debate and vote on the current version of the bill
- If more than 50% of the members vote yes, then the bill is sent to the senate ot repeat the
same process, if it is federal
- Royal assent
- Once the bill passes through the senate, it goes to the Governor general for final approval,
which is called royal assent.
- It is a symbolic reference to our head of state, the queen of England
- The governor General is expected to approve any law that passes through this process.
The LG does this at the provincial level
- Mary Simon - Governor General of Canada (Her excellency, The Right Honourable)

Taxes in Canada
How We Fund Our Country

Background
- Taxes are the funds our government collects to pay for everything our country needs to function
- Each level of government collects taxes that are spent on a variety of areas.
- Without taxes, our government would not have any money to provide services.

Income Taxes
- Collected by the Canada Revenue Agency
- Income Tax is deducted automatically from your pay and forwarded by your employer to the federal
government
- Everyone is required to file a yearly income tax return, which makes sure that you paid the correct
amount of tax based on your income, deductions, and circumstances.

Sales Taxes
- Provincial Sales Tax (PST)
- Tax collected in most provinces when something is sold.
- Goods and Services Tax (GST)
- Federal tax charged on the sale of most goods and services of 5%.
 - Harmonized Sales Tax (HST)
- Combination of GST and PST in Ontario and other provinces.

Property Tax
- Property tax is paid to your municipality based on the assessed value of your property and location
- Municipal level of government us funded largely by property taxes on residential, industrial and
commercial properties
- The largest source of income for municipalities

The Yearly Budget

- Every level of the government's fiscal year runs from April to March.
- Every year they all present a budget explaining how they will spend our tax dollars.

Important Terms
Revenue The money the government collects.

Surplus When you collect more revenue than you spend on expenditures.

Deficit When you spend more on yearly expenditures than you collect in revenue.
- Government borrows money to cover the items in their budget.

Debt The total amount of money the government owes to others - over $600 billion.

Interest The money you pay every year for having debt.

Prison & Jail

Video Notes
● Canada’s prison system is not big enough to accommodate all of Canada’s criminals
○ Jailmates even have to cram themselves into cells (double bunked & even triple bunked)
● Prisons cost a price to run
○ US is not able to pay that price because of the high crime rates
○ US is trying to reverse crime due to the lack of money
○ Released convicts after they served their minimum sentence

The Charter of Rights and Freedoms

Key Terms
- Rights
 - Things that we are morally or legally entitled to have
- Freedoms
- Action that we are morally or legally able to pursue
- Freedom from violence, exploitation, abuse, torture
- Freedom to an education, language, express opinions, join any association.

Charter of Rights and Freedoms

- Lists and organizes the rights of Canadians into 34 sections.
- Any changes to these rights must go through the Amending formula.
- Our rights are not absolute
- They CAN be limited but it must be justified by the government.
- They can be violated by a law for 5 years using Section 33 - the notwithstanding clause.

What is a Constitution?
A Constitution is the supreme law of a country. It has two purposes:
- It explains the structure of our government
- Defines the government’s powers and limits

The BNA Act of 1867

- It is the British law that made Canada a country.
- Explained how the Canadian government would work and divided power among the federal
government and provinces.
- Any changes to the BNA act had to be approved by the British Government.

The Constitution Act, 1982

- The law that made Canada 100% independent from Britain.
- Passed by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau’s government in 1982 and allows Canada to alter our
Constitution without British approval using the Amending Formula.

The Amending Formula.

Changes can be approved by:
- Federal Government
- 2/3 of the provinces
- 50% of the population
This formula cannot be used when changing cases, only when changing the actual Charter.

The Constitution Act 1982

Canada’s Constitution has several parts
Part 1 - Charter of Rights and Freedoms
Part 2 - Rights of the Aboriginal Peoples of Canada
Part 3 - Equalization and Regional Disparities
Part 4 - Constitutional Conference
Part 5 - Procedure for Amending Constitution of Canada
 The Justice System
Laws, Courts, and Crime in Canada

Background
- The justice system is responsible for legal affairs, enforcing laws, understanding the law and
providing justice.
- There are four basic levels of court in Canada.

Provincial Court
- Hears most of the cases that come into the system.
- Provincial courts include specialized courts, such as youth courts, family courts, and small claims
courts.
- Each provincial government appoints the judges for its own courts.

Superior Provincial Court

- Superior courts hear the most serious cases and have the power to review the decisions of the
provincial/territorial courts.
- Two Levels
- Trial Level - hear civil and criminal cases.
- Appeal Level - hear civil and criminal appeals from the superior court trial courts.

Court for Indigenous Persons

- The Supreme Court ruling (R. v. Gladue [1999]) ordered that special attention should be given to
Aboriginal persons regarding sentencing.
- The Gladue Court was created to respond to the unique circumstances of indigenous people
accused of criminal offences.

Federal Court
- Deals with cases that are specific to federal law, including problems between provinces, territories
and the federal government
- Cases relating to property, citizenship requests and federal Crown companies (VIA Rail,
Canadian History Museum, the ROM, etc) are heard by the federal courts.

Supreme Court of Canada

- The final court of appeal and highest court in Canada
- Hears cases from all areas of law (criminal, constitutional, and civil law)
- A case will be heard at the Supreme Court only after all other appeal opportunities have been
tried.
- An application for appeal is reviewed by three judges. If granted, it is called a “leave to appeal”
and the case will be heard.
 Human Rights
And Global Citizenship

Human Rights
- Human Rights are the things we believe all people should have just for being alive.
- Some human rights are protected by constitutions in some countries.
- Some countries regularly violate the human rights of their citizens.

Ontario Human Rights Code

- A law in Ontario that protects everyone’s rights and tries to prevent discrimination based on race,
colour, gender, sexual orientation, religion, age, and ability.
- Violators face heavy financial penalties.

The UDHR of 1948

Universal Declaration of Human Rights
- In 1948, leaders from 58 countries created this document.
- Serves as the world's pledge to demand proper treatment for every human being.
- The Summary:
- Human Rights are universal.
- Human Rights are all on the same level.
- All humans are born free in dignity and rights.
- Human rights are also responsibilities.

Human Rights Violations

Some countries violate the human rights of their citizens or fail to protect them.
Examples: Arresting Journalists, Slavery/Human Trafficking, Genocide, Hate Crimes, Torture, Child
Soldiers.

What Do We Do About It?

Governments have several tools to respond to international problems and human rights violations.
1. The Security Council
- A UN committee whose purpose is mediation, conflict resolution, and peacekeeping.
- 15 countries - 5 permanent countries (China, France, Russia, UK, USA)
- 5 From Africa and Asia, 1 from Eastern Europe, 2 from Latin America and Caribbean, 2
from Western Europe/other countries.
2. The International Criminal Court
- A court system with 124 member countries.
- Investigates and tries crimes like genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity.
- War Crimes - acts committed during periods of war like attacking civilians, sexual
slavery, and destruction of religious locations.

💩
- Crimes Against Humanity - widespread organized acts of torture, slavery, murder.
3. Economic Sanctions
- Financial punishments that one country places on another.
- Leaders who choose to violate the human rights of their citizens could face sanctions
from their trading partners.
- Examples: trade restrictions, decreased aid, foreign aid.