Wear 338-339 (2015) 232–241

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Wear
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wear

Tribological study of crankshaft bearing systems: Comparison of forged

steel and cast iron counterparts under start–stop operation
Florian Summer a,n, Florian Grün a, Jürgen Schiffer a, István Gódor a, Ilias Papadimitriou b
a
Chair of Mechanical Engineering, Montanuniversität Leoben, Austria
b
Georg Fischer Automotive AG, Switzerland

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The current work investigates the tribological functionality of crankshafts bearing systems focusing on
Received 26 February 2015 the variation of shaft materials and their surface conditions. Tribological tests were carried out with a
Received in revised form ring-on-disc test configuration representing the bearing-shaft contact under start–stop motion. Forged
25 June 2015
steel and cast iron shaft materials were sliding against an Al based bearing alloy. The surfaces in contact
Accepted 29 June 2015
were analyzed by light and electron microscopy subsequently. The performance of forged steel depends
Available online 8 July 2015
on the overall roughness of the surface, whereas the tribological functionality of cast iron is mainly
Keywords: determined through its microstructure and the occurrence of metal flaps with burrs. The results prove
Journal bearing the significance of proper surface finishing of forged steel and cast iron shaft materials in order to
Crankshaft
minimize wear in journal bearing systems. For both shaft materials good sliding performances with
Ring-on-disc
respect to optimized surface finishing can be noted.
Cast iron
Forged steel & 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Start–stop

1. Introduction
As we currently face increased requirements in automotive
engineering concerning functionality, reliability, light weight
design, fuel efficiency and economic feasibility technical engineers
need to serve with novel and optimized engine components. High
end journal bearing solutions in internal combustions engines
need to be designed for ever growing load collectives comprising
of higher pressure, temperature, start–stop movements and cost
efficiency [1–3]. In order to meet the rising demands, tribological
journal bearing systems comprising of sliding material combina-
tions and lubricants need to be investigated and optimized
accordingly. The use of start–stop techniques especially increases
the operation time of journal bearings under boundary and mixed
friction regimes. Hence, the journal bearing systems have to stand
this shift in operation. Conventionally, the journal bearing system
comprises a soft material such as aluminium or copper based alloy
with overlays sliding against a shaft material. Crankshaft materials
being part of crankshaft journal bearing systems have to cope with
three basic requirements [1,4]:

Mechanical properties,

Sufficient tribological applicability,

Cost effective manufacturing.
The two most common types of crankshafts materials are cast
iron and forged steel [1,3,5]. In general, cast iron shafts offer
superior manufacturing properties compared to forged shafts.
Besides, casted shafts are able to provide weight benefits up to 10%
compared to forged shaft with same dimensions because of lower
density [1,6]. However, technical engineers mostly associate high
performance crank shaft bearing systems only with forged steel
shafts sliding against the bearing material. This is in regard to their
superior fatigue properties being a main driver in high loaded
engine applications. However, mechanical properties of cast iron
crankshafts can be loaded to that of forged steel [6]. The tribolo-
gical functionality of forged steel and cast iron differs as well.
According to [5] the seizure resistance of systems sliding against
forged steel materials is about 2 times higher than that of systems
sliding against cast iron. Especially in this regard not only the
material selection itself but rather the surface conditions of the
shaft materials play a key role as different surface finishing
methods and roughness conditions affect the tribological pro-
cesses. In this regard cast iron surfaces require highly tailored
surface treatments [7]. The current study compares tribological
systems using different shaft counterpart materials (34CrNiMo6
forged steel – GJS 700 casted iron) and variable surface roughness
conditions of the shaft materials. The main investigation subjects
of this study are emphasized below:

n
Corresponding author. Fax: þ43 38424021402. a. Firstly, the influence of the surface roughness has been inves-
E-mail address: florian.summer@unileoben.ac.at (F. Summer). tigated using same tribological systems consisting of bearing

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2015.06.022
0043-1648/& 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 F. Summer et al. / Wear 338-339 (2015) 232–241
Fig. 1. (a) Test set-up “ring-on-disc”, (b) implementation at TE92 test rig, (c) test strategy.
material, counterpart material and lubricant.
b. Secondly, the difference of the system performance using
forged steel (34CrNiMo6) and casted iron (GJS) counterparts
has been inquired.
c. Thirdly, the effect using special surface treatments on GJS
counterparts has been studied.
2. Experimental procedure
2.1. Test methodology
This study based on damage equivalent tribological investiga-
tions by performing tribometric tests on a model scale and sub-
sequent surface analysis. Lubricated tests were conducted by using
a ring-on-disc (RoD) test configuration. In this experimental set-
up, see Fig. 1a, the disc specimen, sliding against the fixed ring
counterpart, represents the bearing material. The ring specimen is
consisting of the shaft material. With this test configuration wear
processes of journal bearing materials under mixed friction regime
can be visualized [8,9]. The tribometric tests presented in this
study have been carried out on a rotary tribometer test rig TE92
from Phoenix Tribology. Fig. 1b depicts the RoD test set up
implemented at the TE92 test rig. The contact was oil-immersed
during the whole testing procedure. The load was applied with air
bellows. The response of the coefficient of friction (COF or μ), the
temperature (T), the contact potential (CP) and the wear were
recorded. The coefficient of friction is derived from torque mea-
surement which can be seen in Fig. 1b. The temperature of the
system was monitored with a thermocouple. The contact potential
(CP) describing the electrical resistance in-between the contact
offers information regarding the contact situation between the
mating surfaces. High CP implicates isolating conditions between
the surfaces thus more hydrodynamic friction parts or isolating
boundary layer formation such as AW/EP tribofilms. Low CP indi-
cates metallic contact. The wear of the softer bearing material was
measured gravimetrically. Further details of the used test metho-
dology are given in previous works of the authors [8–11].
233
2.2. Test strategy
In this study a Martens–Stribeck test program was performed
simulating start–stop cycles. The test program is depicted in Fig. 1c
schematically. After a running-in period of one hour at constant
sliding speed of 1.4 m/s the speed was ramped up and down
between 0.07 m/s and 1.4 m/s within 3 min for 10 times. The total
numbers of start–stop ramps and the ramp duration were defined
in order to visualize tribological processes going on under mixed
friction regime. The applied normal load was kept constant at
2 MPa and the system was not externally heated. Thus, heat
development is produced only due to friction energy dissipation.
The tests were automatically stopped if a high COF above m ¼0.15
was measured. The test data was acquired using a one second
interval. The resulting output data of the speed ramps are plotted
against the sliding speed resulting in Martens–Stribeck diagrams.
2.3. Analysis methodology
Pre- and post-test surface analysis was conducted with an
Olympus BM51X light microscopy (LIMI), an Olympus LEXT
OLS3000 laser confocal microscopy (LEXT) and a Zeiss MA15
scanning electron microscopy (SEM), aided by energy dispersive
x-ray spectroscopy (EDX). SEM analysis was carried out at an
acceleration voltage of 6 kV in order to image the top most surface.
The acceleration voltage of 6 kV was also used for EDX measure-
ments to minimize the depth of electron interaction within the
specimen. The quantified EDX data in this study is given in atomic
percentage (at%).
3. Materials tested
A conventional tri-metal bearing for high loaded engine
applications according to [12] was used as constant bearing
material in this study. The bearing specimens used in this study
were provided by Miba Gleitlager GmbH. The manufacturing
process of the bearing material was similar to journal bearing
components. The bearing material is consisting of a Cu-based
lining, a barrier interlayer and an AlSn20-sputtered overlay. Thus,
functionality of the bearing is based on the sliding properties of
234 F. Summer et al. / Wear 338-339 (2015) 232–241
Fig. 2. Pre-test surface analysis: (a) 34CrNiMo6, (b) GJS with metal flaps, (c) GJS with exposed graphite.
the AlSn overlay. The overlay consists of an Al matrix with finely
dispersed Sn as soft phase. The bearing material offers good sliding
properties and high load bearing capability. Main advantages of
this bearing type result from superior endurance and wear resis-
tance among other bearing materials [9]. Exposure of the inter-
layer or the lining material can lead to failure of the tribological
system. Detailed investigations regarding the tribological func-
tionality of the bearing overlay are found in a previous work of the
authors [9].
In regard to the lubricant between the mating surfaces a
standard passenger car motor oil, Shell Helix Ultra 5W-30, was
chosen. This fully formulated oil was used in order to ensure
transferability of the test results onto real engines. However, tests
were performed at room temperature in order to prohibit exten-
sive tribochemical protection due to anti-wear additive systems of
the used oil.
Forged steel (34CrNiMo6) and spherulitic cast iron (GJS700)
were used as ring counterpart materials in this study. The surfaces
of the shaft materials before the tests were finished similar to
component parts by grinding, lapping and polishing respectively.
This was done by the company partner Georg Fischer Automotive
AG. According to [5] crankshaft surfaces should not exceed Ra of
0.3–0.4 mm for proper running conditions. Furthermore, even
surface finishing lower than 0.15–0.10 mm Ra are recommended
[13]. Smoother crankshaft surfaces in terms of lower Ra parameter
shall double the seizure limits of crankshaft systems using cast
iron shaft materials [5]. Hence, investigating different roughness
conditions of the shaft materials and their effects on the system
performances are brought into focus concerning this study.
Therefore all tests using forged steel counterpart materials as well
as cast iron counterparts were performed with two different
roughness conditions. The rougher surfaces were machined to a
value of Ra,preset ¼0.3 mm and the smoother surfaces were settled
with Ra,preset ¼0.15 mm independently from the material itself. The
preset Ra parameters used for the surface finishing were measured
tactile (Hommel T 8000) with a measuring length of 4.8 mm.
Fig. 2a shows a typical pre-test surface of a 34CrNiMo6 forged steel
specimen. The surface appears homogeneously. Grinding and
polishing grooves in sliding direction are visible. The surface of the
cast iron material differs significantly from forged steel. The
microstructure is strongly influenced by the precipitated graphite.
Due to the grinding and polishing processes the metal around the
graphite forms metal flaps with burrs sticking out. Hence, the
surfaces of casted iron counterparts are of heterogeneous nature.
This is seen in pre-test surface analysis via scanning electron
microscopy in Fig. 2b. These sharp edges may result in wear pro-
cesses thus lowering the system performance. In order to inves-
tigate the performance of GJS systems without metal flaps and
sharp burrs, a tailored surface treatment technique by Georg
Fischer Automotive AG was carried out to expose the graphite and
Table 1
Test matrix.
System parameter Tribological system combination each tested
3 times
Disc specimen AlSn20-Sputter
Lubricant Shell Helix Ultra
Ring specimen 34CrNiMo6, GJS700 (Graphite burrs), GJS700
(Exposed graphite)
Ring surface roughness (tactile Ra,preset ¼ 0.15 mm, Ra,preset ¼0.3 mm
method)
remove the sharp metal edges around. It should be noted that the
finishing processes and the parameters behind are expertize of the
company partner and will not be described in detail. Pre-test
surface analysis of the burr-free GJS surface with exposed graphite
is shown in Fig. 2c. In this condition the burrs are removed, gra-
phite is exposed and the ferrite edges around the graphite are
pressed in.
The resulting test matrix of this study is given in Table 1. In
order to verify the repeatability of the results three parallel tests
with each of the system combination were performed. The tribo-
metric tests showed repeatable behavior of each system combi-
nation tested. Hence, only one characteristic plot of each combi-
nation is presented in the result section.
4. Tribometric results
The tested systems showed significant influence of the shaft
material and its surface condition. Differences in the friction
characteristics and the wear behavior have been observed. The CP
data gives additional information regarding the system stability
and the contact situation. Fig. 3 depicts results of the tribometric
tests using 34CrNiMo6 counterparts with different roughness
conditions. The output data of the speed ramps is plotted against
the sliding speed. Overall low COF values are recorded for both
systems. Especially tests with low Ra,preset of 0.15 mm in Fig. 3a
show good sliding characteristics. For slow velocities the COF
increases due to more boundary friction contacts. This is sup-
ported by the low CP, which indicates metallic contact situation
thus metallic friction and wear processes. High CP at higher
velocities indicates stable running as isolating conditions are
formed. The CP is stabilizing towards slower speed with each
sliding ramp for both systems indicating further running in pro-
cesses of the mating surfaces. This is linked to the marginal
decrease of the COF characteristics with each ramp. Furthermore,
pronounced break in of the CP curves around 0.8 m/s sliding speed
were observed for all tests. The reason for this artifact is a reso-
nance effect of the whole test rig. Here, the vibrations result in
partial contact of the splash protection housing at the upper shaft.
 F. Summer et al. / Wear 338-339 (2015) 232–241 235

Fig. 3. Test results: (a) 34CrNiMo6-system Ra,preset ¼0.15 mm, (b) 34CrNiMo6-system Ra, preset ¼0.3 mm.

Fig. 4. Test results: (a) GJS-system with burrs Ra,preset ¼0.15 mm, (b) GJS-system with burrs Ra, preset ¼ 0.3 mm.

Hence, the electrical contact is short-circuited and the contact
potential measurement shows low values. The tribological pro-
cesses are not affected due to this effect. The temperature is
slightly increasing with each sliding ramp due to self heating-up
because of friction energy. Furthermore, it can be seen that the test
with a higher surface roughness of the ring counterpart, Fig. 3b,
shows marginally harsher running performances. This is derived
from the COF and the CP characteristics. The COF increase at slow
speeds in case of Ra,preset ¼0.3 mm is more pronounced and the
overall CP characteristics is lower as well as more erratic compared
to the tests with Ra,preset ¼ 0.15 mm. For all tests done with
34CrNiMo6 counterparts low wear was measured. Tests with Ra,
preset values of 0.15 mm produced 2 mm wear of the AlSn bearing
overlay on average. The total thickness of the overlay is 15 mm.
Also sliding against rougher forged steel surfaces with Ra,
preset ¼0.3 mm resulted in 4 mm bearing material wear only. This
emphasizes the superior tribological behavior of these sliding
systems.
In Fig. 4 results for the GJS counterpart materials with standard
polishing processes prior to the tests, resulting in sharp burrs
around the graphite, are depicted. It can be noted, that the tribo-
metric performance is significantly different compared to tests
performed with 34CrNiMo6. Tests with a surface roughness of Ra,
preset ¼ 0.15 mm (Fig. 4a) show significant higher COF values at
lower velocities compared to tests with 34CrNiMo6. Moreover the
system struggles to form non conductive contacts. Tests done with
a surface roughness of Ra,preset ¼0.3 mm (Fig. 4b) failed even within
the first ramp slowing down the speed and reached the COF limit
of m¼ 0.15. Furthermore, no CP has been established. This sliding
characteristic is supported by wear measured for these tests. The
wear measurements show significant higher wear production.
Tests with Ra,preset ¼0.15 mm show quadruplicated wear ratios
quantified with a value of 9–10 mm to comparable 34CrNiMo6
tribometric tests. The failure of the test with higher Ra parameter
is also emphasized with the wear measurement. With about of
15 mm bearing wear almost the whole overlay has been rubbed
away.
Fig. 5 depicts results of tests performed with GJS counterparts
with exposed graphite due to special pre-test surface finishing. It
can be seen, that these tests show superior sliding performance
236 F. Summer et al. / Wear 338-339 (2015) 232–241

Fig. 5. Test results: (a) GJS-system with exposed graphite Ra,preset ¼0.15 mm, (b) GJS-system with exposed graphite Ra, preset ¼0.3 mm.

Table 2
Comparison of tribometric key data.

34CrNiMo6 system Ra, 34CrNiMo6 system Ra, GJS system with burrs GJS system with Burr-free GJS system Burr-free GJS system
preset ¼ 0.15 preset ¼0.3 Ra,preset ¼0.15 burrs Ra,preset a ¼0.3 Ra,preset ¼ 0.15 Ra,preset ¼ 0.3

Average AlSn wear 2 mm 4 mm 9 mm 15 mm 3 mm 2 mm

Average l at vmin 0.04 0.06 0.13 N.A. ( 40.15) 0.03 0.02
Average lmin 0.02 0.035 0.03 0.05 0.015 0.008
CPmax during speed 49 mV 42 mV 34 mV 13 mV 49 mV 49 mV
ramps

Fig. 6. Post-test surface analysis of 34CrNiMo6-systems: (a) 34CrNiMo6 surface Ra,preset ¼0.15 mm, (b) 34CrNiMo6 surface Ra,preset ¼0.3 mm.

Fig. 7. Post-test surface analysis of 34CrNiMo6-systems: (a) AlSn surface Ra,preset ¼0.15 mm, (b) AlSn surface Ra,preset ¼0.3 mm.

compared to the tests with metal flaps and burrs. Less abrasive Also high values of the contact resistance measurement (CP)
friction and abrasive wear processes are acting. This is indicated by visualize the superior sliding performances. High CP up to very
the low COF even at slow velocities. The COF value stays beneath low sliding speed indicates more hydrodynamic friction contacts
m ¼0.05 for both roughness conditions of the GJS shaft material. compared to all other tests performed. Especially tests with Ra,
 F. Summer et al. / Wear 338-339 (2015) 232–241
preset ¼0.15 mm (Fig. 5a) of the cast iron material do form electrical
isolating conditions even at the minimum speed. Also tests with
rougher surfaces (Fig. 5b) show a good formation of the CP mea-
surement. Hence, metallic contacts with wear processes are lim-
ited to the slowest speeds beneath 0.2 m/s. Furthermore, low wear
of the softer bearing material was observed for both roughness
conditions of the cast iron counterparts with exposed graphite.
AlSn surfaces sliding against GJS counterparts with Ra,
preset ¼0.15 mm have been worn only to a total number of 3 mm on
average. Tests with rougher GJS surfaces (Ra,preset ¼ 0.3 mm) even
produced the lowest bearing wear with a total number of 2 mm of
all tests performed.
Table 2 highlights some key data of the tribometric results
concerning friction and wear characteristics of the tested systems.
The gravimetric bearing wear averaged of three parallel tests, the
averaged coefficient of friction at the minimum sliding speed, the
averaged minimum coefficient of friction and the maximum con-
tact resistance (CP) are listed in this table. It shall be noted that the
optimized surface finishing of the cast iron counterpart (burr-free
GJS systems) offer beneficial effects on the tribometric behavior.
The wear characteristics of these tribological systems can be
compared to the results obtained with forged steel (34CrNiMo6
systems). The friction losses of this system even outperformed
those of systems with 34CrNiMo6. Even electrical isolating contact
conditions (CP near 50 mV) were nearly reached with this system.
Thus, hydrodynamic contacts were predominating at higher
speeds. Systems tested with cast iron counterparts with standard
finishing processes (GJS system with burrs) resulting in metal flaps
and burrs on the cast iron surface produced inferior results of all
parameters listed in Table 2. The CP data never indicated isolating
conditions. Hence, metallic contact was acting throughout the
whole tests of these systems. Especially differences of the tribo-
logical system performance between GJS systems with burrs and
burr-free GJS systems are pointed out.
Table 3
EDX analysis of Fig. 7a (EDX values obtained at 6 kV and given in at%).
Spectrum C O Al
1 2.9 6.8 88.4
2 3.5 10.4 83.1
3 3.0 24.4 47.7
4 6.3 34.0 30.7
5 2.9 23.5 36.3
6 3.2 20.1 62.1
Fig. 8. Post-test surface analysis of GJS-systems with burrs: (a) GJS surface Ra,preset ¼ 0.15 mm, (b) GJS surface Ra,preset ¼0.3 mm.
237
5. Results – post-test surface analysis
5.1. LIMI/SEM/EDX analysis
Figs. 6 and 7 depict results from surface analysis of the tribo-
metric tests performed with 34CrNiMo6 forged steel counterparts.
It can be seen that the steel surfaces – Fig. 6a and b – for both
roughness conditions are free from any wear processes. Neither
adhesive scuffing nor material transfer from the softer AlSn
bearing material can be noted. Protective additive layers have not
been formed due to low testing temperatures. The steel surfaces
can be compared with their pre-test conditions (Fig. 2a).
The corresponding AlSn bearing surfaces are covered with Sn
soft phases extensively, thus resulting in good sliding properties of
the systems. In Fig. 7a an AlSn surface of a test performed with
34CrNiMo6 with Ra,preset ¼0.15 mm is presented. As seen, the sur-
face structure of the bearing material is conditioned by the action
of the soft Sn-phases. Sn on Al appears bright in SEM pictures due
to its higher molecular weight. EDX analysis confirms the brighter
regions to be Sn phases smeared on the surface in contact, Table 3,
Spectrums 3, 4, 5 and 6. High amounts of Sn are measured. Due to
its beneficial emergency running properties adhesive reactions
between the mating surfaces are prevented successfully. Because
of the smooth surface structure abrasive processes are less rele-
vant. Similar characteristics were found for the tests with rougher
forged steel surfaces, even though some more abrasive grooves are
marked into the Al material. Fig. 7b demonstrates a typical bearing
surface structure of such systems. The surface analysis with high
action of Sn for 34CrNiMo6 systems goes along with low wear
measured gravimetrically.
Post-surface analysis of tests done with GJS with burrs around
the graphite, depicted in Figs. 8 and 9, reveal the predominant
wear processes going on. In Fig. 8a the GJS-surface with a rough-
ness of Ra,preset ¼0.15 mm is shown. It can be noted, that the surface
is covered with Al-transfer from the bearing material, which
appears as brighter regions in light microscopy analysis. Especially
around the metal flaps plenty of Al transfer is detected (Fig. 8b).
The corresponding AlSn surface to Fig. 8a, depicted in Fig. 9a,
shows abrasive grooves and local GJS transfer originating from
metal burrs which break off. Thus abrasive wear processes are
predominant for this system. Tests performed with Ra,
preset ¼ 0.3 mm of the GJS ring counterpart, which stopped within
the first ramp, showed wear of the whole Al based sliding overlay,
revealing the orange colored Cu substrate beneath. The exposed
Sn
Cu substrate is depicted in Fig. 9b. The AlSn overlay is only
1.8 detected selectively on the bearing specimen. The corresponding
2.9 GJS surface (Fig. 8b) is also covered with extensive Al transfer
24.9 especially around the metal flaps.
28.9 Post-test surface analysis proves the wear-free sliding perfor-
37.3
14.7
mance of tests done with GJS counterparts with exposed graphite.
Several beneficial effects have been observed. Firstly, the metal
238 F. Summer et al. / Wear 338-339 (2015) 232–241
Fig. 9. Post-test surface analysis of GJS-systems with burrs: (a) AlSn surface Ra,preset ¼ 0.15 mm, (b) AlSn surface Ra,preset ¼ 0.3 mm.
Fig. 10. Post-test surface analysis of GJS-systems with exposed graphite: (a) GJS surface Ra,preset ¼ 0.15 mm, (b) GJS surface Ra,preset ¼ 0.3 mm.
Table 4
EDX analysis of Fig. 10b (EDX values obtained at 6 kV and given in at%).
Spectrum C O
1 5.1 – 94.9
2 95.0 1.7
3 84.2 15.8
4 49.3 7.8
5 71.9 20.4
flaps due to precipitated graphite are removed (Fig. 10a). This
affects in less abrasive processes caused by sharp metal burrs. No
Al transfer has been detected on the cast iron counterparts. Sec-
ondly, the ferrite around the graphite is pressed in (highlighted in
Fig. 10a). This provides additional space for lubricant reservoirs,
thus enhance hydrodynamic friction contacts. Thirdly, graphite is
exposed and is able to act as additional solid lubricant along with
Sn. Graphite is smeared on the cast iron surface in contact of the
cast iron/Al contact. This improves the emergency properties of
the material combination.
This is depicted in Fig. 10b and is confirmed by the corre-
sponding EDX analysis in Table 4. The spectrum numbers 2, 3,
4 and 5 are representing graphite areas partially smeared on the
surface in contact. This is given by the high amount of carbon
measured for these spectrums compared to the ferrite reference of
spectrum 1. Analysis of the Al based bearing alloy exhibits wear
free surfaces with activated Sn, see Fig. 11. Smeared graphite has
been found also on the Al surface, see Fig. 11a. Abrasive grooves
were not observed on the bearing surface. No interlayer or sub-
strate material has been exposed leading to high COF (Fig. 11b).
5.2. LEXT analysis
LEXT analysis of shaft surfaces was carried out additionally in
order to provide a more selective analysis of the roughness con-
ditions with a higher resolution. Furthermore, the laser micro-
scope is able to measure micro asperities which could influence
the tribological performance. The measuring length is about one
magnitude lower compared to the tactile method. Therefore,
especially in case of heterogeneous cast iron surfaces separate
Fe
analysis of areas with and without graphite is possible. The tactile
method always includes graphite inhomogeneities due to the long
3.3 measuring length of 4.8 mm. Furthermore, roughness parameter
–
like Rpk and Rvk were measured as exclusively Ra parameters are
43.0
7.7 inadequate in order to describe the surface structures of cast iron
according to [7]. The value of Rpk describes the surface peaks
which could cause two body abrasion. The value of Rvk specifies
the amounts of deeper regions of surface structures. Hence, low
values of Rpk and high values of Rvk are beneficial.
In Fig. 12 results of the roughness analysis via LEXT method are
depicted and compared with the tactile method. In case of forged
steel counterparts shown in Fig. 12a homogeneous surface struc-
tures can be observed. Line measurements at different positions
show similar results (line 1 and 2). The surfaces are influenced by
the polishing grooves exclusively. Furthermore, the results
between the tactile (preset) method and the laser scanning method
are also similar. The roughness peaks (illustrated with Rpk) are
lower compared to their corresponding values of Ra whereas the
Rvk values are higher. This correlates with the tribometric results
and LIMI/SEM analysis as less abrasive damages of the bearing
material for these systems have been observed.
In case of cast iron surfaces – Fig. 12b and Fig. 12c – the het-
erogeneous structures lead to different results of the laser scan-
ning method compared to the tactile method if inhomogeneities
are not included in the measurement. In case of cast iron surfaces
with burrs (Fig. 12b – Ra,preset ¼ 0.15 mm) the inhomogeneities
produce high values of Rpk (line 4 in Fig. 12b). The corresponding
Rvk value can be compared with that of forged steel (Fig. 12a).
Areas not including graphite burrs (line 3) provide lower values of
Ra compared to the tactile method and lower values of Rpk and Rvk
compared with regions including graphite inhomogeneities.
Hence, the high values of Rpk measured at areas with graphite
burrs describe the abrasive wear processes going on for these
tribological systems. In Fig. 12c results of a burr free cast iron
 F. Summer et al. / Wear 338-339 (2015) 232–241 239

Fig. 11. Post-test surface analysis of GJS-systems with exposed graphite: (a) AlSn surface Ra,preset ¼0.15 mm, (b) AlSn surface Ra,preset ¼0.3 mm.

Fig. 12. LEXT measurements: (a) 34CrNiMo system – Ra,preset ¼ 0.15 mm, (b) GJS system with burrs – Ra,preset ¼0.15 mm, (c) GJS system with exposed graphite – Ra,
preset ¼ 0.3
mm.

Fig. 13. Tribomodels.

240 F. Summer et al. / Wear 338-339 (2015) 232–241
surface with a value of Ra,preset ¼0.30 mm is analyzed. The surface
condition is also influenced by the graphite areas as line mea-
surements with (Fig. 12c – line 6) and without (Fig. 12c – line 5)
graphite show different results. In both cases significantly low Rpk
values even compared to forged steel surfaces with a lower value
of Ra,preset ¼0.15 mm – presented in Fig. 12a – can be noted. Thus,
abrasive processes are not dominant. Correlation of the values of
Ra between the tactile method and the laser scanning method in
this case can be found for line 6 where graphite valleys are
included. Areas with graphite valleys offer high values of
Rvk ¼0.80 mm (line measurement 6 in Fig. 12c). This indicates the
potential of these surfaces to offer additional lubricant reservoirs
at the position of the graphite valleys for enhanced micro hydro-
dynamic lubrication. The surface between the graphite valleys
(line 5) is even smoother than forged steel surfaces. Therefore, low
friction and wear were observed for this tribological system.
6. Tribological models
Based on the tribometric results and the insights obtained from
the surface analysis functional models describing the tribological
characteristics of the investigated system combinations were
developed. The tribological systems are presented in Fig. 13.
Adhesive processes are prevented successfully due to the emer-
gency running properties of the Sn soft phases of the Al based
overlay and the lubricant. Surface reactions with chemical com-
ponents of the lubricant were not reported because insufficient
system temperatures [14]. Abrasive processes are referred to the
harder counterpart material and its surface conditions.
6.1. Tribomodel I: AlSn/34CrNiMo6
For homogeneous forged steel materials – Tribomodel I –
abrasive processes are limited. This fact leads to good sliding
results. Sn is smeared over the whole bearing surfaces producing
low coefficient of friction. The performance is determined through
the surface roughness of the steel and can be predetermined with
the measurement of the Ra parameter. Higher Ra parameters result
in more abrasive processes.
6.2. Tribomodel II: AlSn/cast iron (GJS) with metal burrs
Tribomodel II describes the tribological processes of AlSn slid-
ing against cast iron with metal flaps. The ferrite/perlite around
the graphite sticks out of the surface and grooves the softer
bearing surface. Two body abrasion is taking place. This leads to
high wear of the bearing material. Soft Sn is not able to prevent
these processes. The abrasive processes are more pronounced with
increasing Ra. High Rpk parameters are characteristic for these
systems even with moderate values of Ra.
6.3. Tribomodel III: AlSn/cast iron (GJS) with exposed graphite
Tribomodel III explains the benefits resulting through opti-
mized surface structures of cast iron counterparts due to proper
surface finishing. The metal flaps around the graphite are
removed. The topography consists of metal plateaus and valleys at
the position of the exposed graphite. The valleys offer additional
space for lubricant. During sliding the lubricant is captured and
micro hydrodynamic films are formed helping to bear the load.
Furthermore, Ra values only are not appropriate to characterize
such surface structures and their tribological effects. Increased Ra
parameters consider deeper valleys – primarily described with the
Rvk value – and therefore the friction and wear characteristic is
even improved with higher values of Ra.
7. Summary and conclusions
Tribometric investigations on different shaft materials with
varied surface conditions were conducted using a ring-on-disc
(ROD) test configuration. The results from tribometric tests and
surface analysis have been compared and have been summarized
in tribomodels. The conclusions derived from this study are listed
below:

The used test procedure is appropriate to visualize sliding
performances of the tribological systems tested under mixed
friction regime.

Differences in the system performance have been observed
which depend on the used shaft material and its surface
condition.

In case of homogeneous surface structures of finished harder
shaft materials such as forged steel abrasive processes in
journal bearing systems can be rated with the Ra parameter.

In case of heterogeneous surface structures of harder shaft
materials such as cast iron Rpk and Rvk parameter are needed in
addition to the Ra value in order to describe the ongoing tri-
bological processes in regard to abrasive wear.

Roughness measurements with the laser microscope are ben-
eficial in order to describe the surface conditions of hetero-
geneous crankshaft material such as cast iron as areas with and
without inhomogeneities can be measured separately.

The tested forged steel material (34CrNiMo6) enables superior
tribological performances sliding against an Al based bearing
material. The systems exhibit low adhesive tendencies. The
smoother surface (lower Ra parameter) shows marginally bet-
ter sliding conditions.

Cast iron counterpart materials (GJS) with metal flaps and burrs
sticking out show inferior sliding performances. The sharp
burr-edges around the graphite cause abrasive friction and
wear of the softer bearing alloy. Adhesive wear has not been
noted. Abrasive processes are increasing with higher Ra value
due to more elevated metal flaps. High Rpk parameters can be
noted and are able to indicate abrasive tendencies for these
systems.

Tribological systems using GJS counterparts with a burr-free
surface and exposed graphite produce similar sliding results
such as tests with 34CrNiMo6. On the one hand the exposed
graphite is able to act as solid lubricant. On the other hand the
graphite areas serve as additional lubricant reservoirs thus
enhance hydrodynamic contacts. This is depicted with the Rvk
parameter.
To conclude, it can be noted that the forged crankshaft material
(34CrNiMo6) performs well as counterpart material. However, if
surface treatment of the cast iron crankshaft material (GJS700) is
handled well the tribological functionality is no longer a counter-
argument for using it as common shaft material, also in higher
stressed bearing applications. Moreover, optimized heterogeneous
shaft design could offer beneficial effects concerning tribological
functionality.
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