GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 REVIEWER

GEN CHEM TOPICS: c. molality

• Kinetic Molecular of Liquid and Solids d. molarity
• Intermolecular Forces e. percent by volume, percent by mass,
a. Dipole-dipole forces ppm
b. Ion-dipole forces • Solution Stoichiometry
c. Dispersion forces • Factors Affecting Solubility
• Bonds • Colligative Properties
a. ionic bond a. electrolyte solution
b. covalent bond b. nonelectrolyte solution
c hydrogen bond
d. metallic bond
• Properties of Liquid and IMF
a. surface tension
b. viscosity
c. vapor pressure
d. boiling point
e. molar heat
• Structures and Properties of Water
• Types and Properties of Solid
a. crystalline solids
b. amorphous solids
• Types of Crystals
a. ionic
b. covalent
c. molecular
d. metallic
• Phase Changes
a. diagram of water
b. diagram of carbon dioxide
• Types of Solution
a. solute
b. solvent
c. saturated
d. dillute
• Energy of Solution Formation
• Concentration Units
a. percent by mass, by volume
b. mole fraction
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Kinetic Molecular of Liquid and Solids intermolecular forces – the stronger the
intermolecular forces, the higher the
The kinetic theory of matter helps us to
boiling point.
explain why matter exists in different
phases (i.e. solid, liquid and gas), and how
By comparing the boiling points of
matter can change from one phase to
different substances, we can compare the
another. The kinetic theory of matter also
strengths of their intermolecular forces.
helps us to understand other properties of
This is because the heat absorbed by the
matter.
substance at its boiling point is used to
Broadly, the kinetic theory of matter says break these intermolecular forces and to
that all matter is composed of particles convert the liquid into vapour.
which have a certain amount of energy
In simple words:
which allows them to move at different
Intermolecular forces are attractive forces
speeds depending on the temperature between molecules.
(energy). There are spaces between the
particles and also attractive forces
between particles when they come close
together.

Intermolecular vs. Intramolecular

Types of Intermolecular Forces

An intermolecular force is an attractive

1. Dipole-Dipole Interactions
force that arises between the positive
components (or protons) of one molecule Dipole-dipole interactions are attractive

and the negative components (or forces among polar molecules. Polar

electrons) of another molecule. Various molecules have permanent dipoles that

physical and chemical properties of a are formed due to differences in the

substance are dependent on this force. electronegativities of the atoms that are

The boiling point of a substance is associated with a covalent bond. The

proportional to the strength of its partially positive portion of one molecule

 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 REVIEWER
is attracted to the partially negative
portion of another molecule.
Example: Dipole-dipole interactions occur
in HCl molecules. Chlorine
comparatively more electronegative than
hydrogen and it, therefore, acquires a
partial negative charge (whereas hydrogen
acquires a partial positive charge). The
dipole-dipole interaction then takes place
between the HCl molecules.
2. Ion-Dipole Interactions
These interactions are similar
dipole-dipole interactions except for the
fact that they arise between ions and polar
molecules.
Example: When NaCl is mixed with water
in a beaker, the polar H2O molecules are
attracted to the sodium and chloride ions
in the beaker. The strength of this
interaction depends on:
● The magnitude of the dipole
moment
● Size of the polar molecule
● The size and charge of an ion
3. Ion Induced Dipole Interactions
In this type of interaction, a non-polar
molecule is polarized by an ion placed
near it. The non-polar molecules, upon
obtaining a charge, behave as induced
dipoles. This interaction between an ion
and an induced dipole is known as
ion-induced dipole interaction.
4. Dipole Induced Dipole Interaction
is
These interactions are similar to
ion-induced dipole interactions. However,
the differentiating factor is that non-polar
molecules are transformed into induced
dipoles due to the presence of a polar
molecule nearby.
5. Dispersion Forces or London Forces
It operates for a short distance and it is
to
the weakest force. This kind of force
arises due to the movement of electrons
thus creating temporary positive and
negative charged regions.
INTRAMOLECULAR FORCE
Intramolecular forces, also known
as intramolecular interactions, are the
forces that arise within a molecule. It is
the force responsible for holding the
atoms together in a molecule. The
conductivity and solubility of substances
in the presence of solvents and the
physical properties of metals depend on
the intramolecular forces.
The difference between
intramolecular forces and intermolecular
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forces is that the former occurs between the octet rule and form bonds. Such a type

the atoms in a molecule, and the latter of bonding occurs between two

occurs between two molecules. nonmetals. The covalent bond is the

strongest of all intramolecular forces and

In simple words:
Intramolecular forces hold atoms together the most common chemical bond in living
in a molecule. organisms.

Examples: Water (H2O), carbon dioxide

(CO2), and ammonia (NH3)

3. Metallic Bond

A force that holds atoms together in a

metal. The outermost electron shells

Types of Intramolecular Forces
(atomic orbitals) of each metal atom

1. Ionic Bond overlap with many neighbouring atoms. As

a result, the valence electrons move freely

It is due to the attraction between ions.
from one atom to another, which results in
Ions are formed when an atom loses or
an attraction between the electron cloud
gains electrons. The ionic bond is formed
and the positively charged nuclei.
between a metal and a nonmetal, where

the metal loses electrons, and the Examples: Sodium (Na), potassium (K),

nonmetal gains them. and gold (Au)

Examples: Sodium chloride (NaCl),

potassium iodide (KI), and magnesium

oxide (MgO)

2. Covalent Bond

It is due to the sharing of electrons

between two atoms. Atoms share their

outermost or valence electrons to fulfill

 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 REVIEWER

PROPERTIES OF LIQUID AND IMF - the greater the viscosity, the

more slowly the liquid flows

A. Surface Tension
- viscosity decreases if
- measure of elastic force in the
temperature of the liquid
surface of a liquid

- amount of energy needed to

increases

increase the of a liquid by a unit - strong intermolecular forces -

area higher viscosity

- strong intermolecular forces = C. Vapor Pressure

strong surface tension - the pressure exerted by the gas
● Capillary Action in equilibrium with a liquid in a
- Adhesion-intermolecular attraction
closed container
between unlike molecules
- independent to the amount of
- Cohesion-intermolecular attraction
liquid and the surface area of
between like molecules
the liquid in contect with the
➔ Adhesion > Cohesion - content of
gas
the tube will be pulled upward
- increases with temperature

D. Boiling Point

- The temperature a which liquid

converts into gas

- Vapor pressure of the liquid =

external pressure

- Reflect the strength of the

intermolecular forces that exist

B. Viscosity in the molecules
- measure of a fluid’s resistance E. Molar Heat
to flow - amount of energy required to

vaporize one mole of a

 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 REVIEWER

substance at its boiling point - molecules are packed together

while keeping the temperature as closely as their size and

constant shape allow

- A characteristic property of a D. Metallic Crystal

substance and depends on the - structure of metallic crystals is

intermolecular forces between the simplest because every

its molecules lattice point in a crystal is

occupied by an atom of the

TYPES OF CRYSTALS
same metal
A. Ionic Crystal - generally body-centered cubic,
- composed of charged species face-centered cubic, or
- quite different in size high mp, hexagonal close-packed
bp - very dense
- can conduct electricity in the

liquid or molten state

B. Covalent Crystal

- atoms are held together in an

extensive 3D network entirely by

covalent bonds (Ex. Graphite,

Diamond, Quartz)

C. Molecular Crystal

- the lattice points are occupied

by molecules, and the attractive

forces between them are van

der Waals forces and/or

hydrogen bond
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TYPES AND PROPERTIES OF SOLID COVALENT CRYSTAL

- atoms are held together in an extensive

A. CRYSTALLINE SOLID 3D network entirely by covalent bonds

- which possesses rigid and long-range Examples- graphite, diamond, quartz

order; its atoms, molecules, or ions occupy

specific positions MOLECULAR CRYSTAL

- arrangement of such particles is that the - the lattice points are occupied by

attractive intermolecular forces are at their molecules, and the attractive forces

maximum between them are van der Waals forces

- responsible for the stability of the crystal and/or hydrogen bond

can be ionic, covalent bonds, vdw forces, - molecules are packed together as closely

H bonds or combination of these forces as their size and shape allow

- fixed geometric patterns or lattices

METALLIC CRYSTAL

CRYSTAL LATTICE - structure of metallic crystals is the

- the arrangement of these atoms, or simplest because every lattice point in a

groups of atoms, in a crystal. These atoms crystal is occupied by an atom of the

or groups of atoms are commonly referred same metal

to as points within a crystal lattice site - generally body-centered cubic,

face-centered cubic, or hexagonal

X-RAY DIFFRACTION close-packed

- a technique used to determine the - very dense

atomic and molecular structure of a

crystal B. AMORPHOUS SOLID

- lack a regular three-dimensional

IONIC CRYSTAL arrangement of atoms, solid is formed

- composed of charged species, quite rapidly

different in size, high mp, bp can conduct - Glass an optically transparent fusion

electricity in the liquid or molten state product of inorganic materials that has
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cooled to a rigid state without crystallizing

SOLIDS WHEN HEATED

Amorphous Solid - soften gradually when

heated, tends to melt over a wide range of

temperatures. This behavior is a result of

the variation in the arrangement of

particles in their structures.

1. VAPOR PRESSURE CURVE OF LIQUID
Crystalline Solid - attractive forces are
(RED CURVE)
broken by the same amount of energy, and
- equilibrium between liquid and gas
thus, crystals become liquids at a specific
phases.
temperature. At this temperature, physical
- normal boiling point is where the vapor
properties of the crystalline solids change
pressure at 1 atm
sharply
(CRITICAL POINT)

- where the vapor pressure curve ends,

corresponds to the critical temperature

and pressure.

(SUPERCRITICAL FLUID)

- temp and pressure is beyond critical

PHASE CHANGES point, the liquid and gas phase are

indistinguishable from each other.

PHASE DIAGRAM
2. SUBLIMATION CURVE (GREEN CURVE)
- a graphic way to summarize the
- separates solid phase from gas phase,
conditions under which equilibria exist
represents the change in the vapor
between different states of matter. It
pressure of the solid as it sublimes at
allows us to predict which phase is
different temp.
present at given temperature and
- Each point in this curve is a condition of
pressure.
equilibrium between solid and gas.
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3.MELTING CURVE (BLUE CURVE) 1. Look at the melting curve, what

- separates solid phase from the liquid can you say about the behavior of

phase, representing the change in melting the curve?

point of the solid with increasing pressure. 2. What happens to the melting point

- Each point on the curve is an equilibrium as the pressure increases?

between solid and liquid. 3. What is the cause of the unusual

behavior observed in the melting

NORMAL MELTING POINT curve?

- the melting point at 1 atm

PHASE DIAGRAM OF CARBON DIOXIDE

TRIPLE POINT (POINT T)

- where all the three phases are in

equilibrium.

1. 1.What happens to the melting

PHASE DIAGRAM OF WATER
point as the pressure increases?

2. Why does carbon dioxide sublime

when heated instead of melting?

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TYPES OF SOLUTION

A. Solute

- substance that is dissolved in a

solution

- Ex. Salt, Lemon, Oxygen, Carbon

dioxide

B. Solvent

- the dissolving medium

Ex. Water, Ethanol, Methanol,

Acetone

C. Saturated

- solution in which no more solute

can be dissolved at a given

temperature

- contains the maximum amount of

dissolved solute

D. Dilute

- solution where there is a relatively

small amount of solute dissolved

in the solution
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largely van der Waals and dipole-dipole

interactions. Some molecules that contain

O-H, N-H, or F-H bonds can form hydrogen

bonds that are relatively strong

intermolecular forces. Ions of opposite

charge, such as in a crystal of NaCl, are

attracted to each other because of

electrostatic forces.
Energy of Solution Formula

From Hess's law we know that we can add

the energies of each step in the cycle to

determine the energy of the overall

process. Therefore, the energy of solution

formation, the enthalpy of solution, equals

the sum of the three steps--ΔHsoln = ΔH1

+ ΔH2 + ΔH3.

Solution Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry allows us to work in

solution by giving us the concept of

solution concentration, or molarity.

Molarity is a unit that is often abbreviated

ΔH1 and ΔH2 are both positive because it as capital M. It is defined as the moles of

requires energy to pull molecules away a substance contained in one liter of

from each other. That energy cost is due

to the intermolecular forces present within

any solute or solvent. The forces acting

between molecules such as CH3Cl are

 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 REVIEWER

solution A substance that, when added to water,

renders it conductive, is known as an

electrolyte . A common example of an

electrolyte is ordinary salt, sodium

chloride.

b.) NON ELECTROLYTE SOLUTION

A nonelectrolyte is a compound that does

STEPS IN SOLVING SOLUTION not conduct an electric current in either

STOICHIOMETRY aqueous solution or in the molten state.

Many molecular compounds, such as

1. Balance the equation.
sugar or ethanol, are nonelectrolytes.
2. Convert units of a given substance
When these compounds dissolve in water,
to moles.
they do not produce ions.
3. Using the mole ratio, calculate the

moles of substance yielded by the

reaction.

4. Convert moles of wanted

substance to desired units.

Colligative Properties

a.) ELECTROLYTE SOLUTION

Electrolytic solutions are those that are

capable of conducting an electric current.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 REVIEWER