2.

0 Review of Related Literature

Biochemical Components of Mung Bean

Legumes (Fabaceae/Leguminosae) are the second most important crop for human
nutrition, only after cereals (Gramineae). However, legume seeds are a vital element of the
human diet due to their superior protein, bioactive chemical, mineral, and vitamin content in
contrast to cereals; they are also known as "poor man's meat" (Hall et al., 2016; Singh et al.,
2016). In addition, Mung bean (Vigna radiata L.), generally known as green gram, is an old
and well-known legume crop native to South East Asia and a member of the Papilionoideae
family (Mogotsi, 2006). Mung beans are mostly cultivated for human use as dry beans, stew,
flour, sprouts, and immature pods as a vegetable. When roasted or cooked, the dry beans are
occasionally fed to animals, mostly chickens, while their biomass is utilized as fodder
(Winch, 2006). Therefore, it has a high value as food and feed. It is an inexpensive source of
protein with good nutritional value for human consumption and a cheap price for consumers
(Asfaw et al., 2012; Wedajo, 2015).
According to Hou et al. (2019), the mung bean is rich in polyphenolics, with phenolic
acids (1.81–5.97 mg rutin equivalent/g), flavonoids (1.49–1.78 mg catechin equivalent/g),
and tannins (1.00–5.75 mg/g) being the most abundant phenolic elements. In recent years,
bioactive polysaccharides extracted from the mung bean have gained a growing amount of
interest, and there have been some advancements in characterizing these polysaccharides.
Bioplastics are widely acknowledged as viable replacements to petroleum-based plastics,
mostly because to their biodegradability and ecologically favorable qualities, and represent
one of the most significant successes in defining polysaccharide materials. (Wahab and
Razak, 2016). Moreover, more than half of the weight of mung beans is composed of starch,
with amylose comprising around 40% of the overall starch content. Mung bean starch has a
greater amylose concentration than other legume and grain starches. (Li et al. 2011, Huong
et al. 2021) The amylose and amylopectin composition of starch affects its physicochemical
qualities. A high amylose concentration (more than 30 percent) might increase the
probability of starch retrogradation (Alcazar-Alay & Meireles, 2015).
In addition to acting as human dietary staples, the proteins of pulses, such as the
mung bean, include amino acid sequences that, upon digestion, produce bioactive peptides.
In addition to operating as angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, antioxidants,
and anticancer asiatic acid carriers, these peptides derived from mung bean protein
hydrolysate possess other bioactive characteristics (Xie et al., 2019; Wongekalak et al., 2011).
In general, the Mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) is rich in nutrients and bioactive substances,
including amylose, polyphenols, polysaccharides, and polypeptides, and it exhibits a variety
of pharmacological effects.
Morphology and Characteristics of Starch Granules
Starch is the most abundant reserve carbohydrate in plants. Not only is it an
important constituent in the food industry owing to its widespread usage as a thickener,
gelling agent, bulking agent, and water retention agent (Singh et al., 2003), but it also has a
considerable industrial appeal due to its extensive use in beverages, textiles, paper, and
pharmaceuticals. Amylose (α-amylose) and amylopectin (β-amylose) are two
macromolecular components of starch granules that are polysaccharides. (Sandhu et al.,
2004) Further, starches extracted from several plant sources exhibit distinctive granule
shape. Starch grains come in a wide variety of shapes, including regular disc, oval, elongated,
rounded, kidney or bean-shaped, spherical (e.g., as starch grains from the roots of Cassia
sieberiana; tapioca starch), polyhedral (e.g., as starch grains from maize, wheat, rice, etc.),
and irregular forms, with diameters ranging from <1µm to <100µm. (Fatokun, 2019)
Moreover, polymers of varying diameters with qualities intermediate between those
of amylose and amylopectin, starch lipids (including phospholipids), monostarch phosphate
ester groups, and proteins, specifically granule-bound starch synthase, are minor
components of starch granules. In addition, following gelatinization in the presence of
adequate moisture, starch granules expand up to 50 times their original volume, depending
on temperature and starch type. Different starches undergo distinct heat changes and
expand differently. (Jane, 2009). Both of the principal components of starch, which are
made of d-glucose monomers, are insoluble in water and alcohol and serve as the primary
storage polysaccharide in plant cells. The percentages of branching amylopectin and linear
amylose in starch vary between 72–75% and 25–28%, respectively, on average (Abe et al.,
2021; Sandhu et al., 2004).

Formation of Filmogenic Starch Solution

The development of edible and/or biodegradable films is an option for the entire or
partial replacement of synthetic polymers in the production of packaging; this usage is
consistent with environmental conservation and a better way of life (Dick et al., 2015).
Polysaccharides and proteins are the renewable polymers most commonly used to form films
(Fernandes et al., 2020; Han, 2014), and among polysaccharides, starch stands out for its
film-forming properties, wide availability, high extraction yield, nutritional value, low cost,
biodegradability, biocompatibility, and edible nature (Shah et al., 2016).
Intermolecular interactions between the hydroxyl group and oxygen of amylopectin
and amylose connect native starch molecules. Due to the presence of hydrogen bonds
between amylopectin and amylose, they are insoluble in cold water. (Abe et al., 2021)
Nonetheless, as the temperature rises, the starch granules vibrate vigorously, breaking
intermolecular connections, forming hydrogen bonds with the water, and reducing the
quantity and size of crystalline areas. Thus, the viscosity of the solution rises significantly, as
the granules adhere to one another as a result of swelling and acquire a gelatinous
appearance upon agitation (Corke et al., 2016).
In other words, the molecules can undergo significant changes when exposed to
gelatinization temperatures; the process that can primarily occur with amylose molecules is
known as "retrogradation" or "starch retrogradation," wherein a gelatinized solution exhibits
interactions between amylose molecules and an increase in the ordering degree of hydrogen
bonds. Therefore, amylose chains solidify with the development of a double helix (Jaillais et
al., 2006; Eliasson, 2016), but starch retrogradation occurs more significantly when the
solution is chilled. The plasticizing action of water and chemical plasticizers is employed to
create thermoplastic starch, which is used in the production of bioplastics. By expanding
with water and other chemicals, starch in this process loses its natural structure and
produces a molten gel comparable to manufactured thermoplastics (Averous, 2004; Ma and
Yu, 2004; Liu, 2005).