1. What are the various measures of central tendency?

Why are they called measure of central

tendency?

Measures of central tendency are essential tools in statistical analysis because they may be used
to characterize the usual value or central tendency of a dataset. The mean, median, and mode are
the three most commonly used metrics; each offers a unique viewpoint on the distributional
characteristics of the data. After adding up each value in the dataset, the total is divided by the
number of observations.

This process is called the arithmetic mean calculation. It delivers the main idea in a balanced
way and conveys the entire impact of every data point in the collection. The meaning of the
mean, however, can be readily distorted by striking outcomes or outliers, particularly in datasets
with high levels of variability.

On the other hand, the median represents the dataset's center value and can be displayed in either
ascending or descending order. The median is very useful when working with skewed
distributions or non-normally distributed data because, unlike the mean, which is calculated by
the total magnitude of the data points, it is unaffected by outliers. Even in the case of extreme
values, it offers a more trustworthy estimate of central tendency because it just considers the
values' locations within the dataset.

Moreover, the mode, often called the modal value, designates the value in the collection that
appears the most frequently. Unlike the mean and median, which are frequently used for
numerical data, the mode can be applied to both numerical and categorical datasets. Together
with comprehensive details on the attributes that define the collection, it provides a clear
indication of the most common value or category.

When combined, these metrics offer a useful synopsis of a dataset's salient features, simplifying
analysis, comparison, and inference. By providing many perspectives on important trends, they
aid in the understanding of the underlying data structure by researchers, analysts, and decision-
makers.

This enhances their ability to make knowledgeable judgments and forecasts in a range of
domains, including the social sciences, medicine, finance, and more. By combining them,
practitioners can enhance the reliability and accuracy of statistical analysis as well as the
decision-making processes by more effectively identifying patterns, trends, and pertinent insights
from huge, complicated datasets.
 2. What is meant by correlation? Distinguish between positive, negative and zero
correlation.

A statistical term used to assess the relationship between two variables is correlation. It
determines how closely changes in one variable are correlated with changes in another. A perfect
positive link is denoted by a correlation coefficient of 1, whereas a perfect negative correlation is
indicated by a coefficient of -1.

A rise in one variable that is accompanied by an increase in the other is known as positive
correlation. A scatter plot, in which data points are grouped along an upward-sloping line from
left to right, visually depicts this relationship. For instance, since increasing exercise frequency
often results in enhanced fitness, there may be a positive correlation between exercise frequency
and physical fitness level.

On the other hand, a situation where a rise in one measure is linked to a fall in another is known
as negative correlation. This is graphically represented by data points clustering from left to right
along a downward-sloping line. Exam scores and study time have a negative connection, with
exam scores tending to increase as study time decreases.

The absence of a linear relationship between the variables is indicated by zero correlation. The
data points in a scatter plot are dispersed randomly and lack any kind of organization or trend.
This suggests that adjustments to one variable might not necessarily result in adjustments to the
other. For example, because shoe size and academic performance are unconnected, there may be
no association at all between them.

By studying correlation, analysts and researchers can gain a better understanding of the
interactions between variables within datasets. Zero correlation denotes no relationship at all,
negative correlation shows opposing motions, and positive correlation suggests that variables
move in the same direction.

This knowledge is useful in numerous research and analysis domains, such as epidemiology,
psychology, and economics, for forecasting results, determining potential causes, and making
well-informed decisions.
3. Write down the mathematical properties of correlation coefficient and regression coefficient.

The correlation and regression coefficients' mathematical properties are as follows:

Coefficient of correlation (r):

1. Range: The inclusive range of the correlation coefficient (r) is -1 to 1. Perfect positive
correlation is denoted by a correlation of 1, perfect negative correlation is shown by a
correlation of -1, and no link is shown by a correlation of 0.

2. Symmetry: The link between variables X and Y and between variables Y and X is equal
when there is a symmetric correlation coefficient.

3. Independence of Scale: Correlation remains unaffected by modifications to the

measurement scale. That is, the correlation coefficient remains constant when a single
variable's values are all split or multiplied by a constant.

4. Unitless: Since the correlation coefficient has no units, it is a unitless metric. With this
feature, comparing several datasets is simple.

5. Sensitive to Outliers: In small datasets, the correlation coefficient is especially susceptible

to outliers. An outlier can have a major effect on the correlation coefficient's value.

Coefficient of Regression (β):

1. Interpretation: If all other variables stay constant, the regression coefficient shows how the
dependent variable (Y) changes for every unit change in the independent variable (X).

2. Direction: The relationship between the independent and dependent variables is shown by
the regression coefficient's sign. A link can be categorized as positive or negative based on
the coefficient; a positive coefficient indicates a favorable association.

3. Magnitude: The degree of correlation between the independent and dependent variables is
indicated by the regression coefficient's magnitude. Stronger associations are indicated by
larger coefficients.

4. Standard Error: The standard error, which represents the degree of precision of the
coefficient estimate, is provided along with the regression coefficient. An estimate that is
more accurate has a smaller standard error.

5. Coefficient of Determination (R2): In a linear regression, the R2 coefficient shows how

much of the variance in the dependent variable can be accounted for by the independent
variable (or variables). The variation that the model explains is affected by the regression
coefficient or coefficients.

A solid understanding of these mathematical ideas is necessary to interpret correlation and

regression analyses accurately and to derive relevant conclusions from statistical models.