KB5020

Engineering Geology and

Geotechnics

Lecture 3
• Soil and rock sampling and groundwater
measurements
 Lectures
• Site Investigation Lecture series:

1. Eurocode 7
2. Planning investigations: Desk Studies
3. Soil and rock sampling and groundwater measurements
4. Field tests in soil and rock

Reading:
• Bond, A. J., and Harris, A. J. (2008). Decoding Eurocode 7, London: Taylor & Francis, 598 pp.
• BS EN 1997: Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design (EC7)
– Part 2: Ground investigation and testing (EC7 Part 2)
 Lecture outline:
• Recap: Planning site investigations
• Contents of SI report
• Soil and rock sampling
– Where to sample (location, depth)
– Sample size
– Disturbed sampling
– Undisturbed sampling
– Soil sample categories
• Summary
 Desk Study and walk-over survey
• The desk study and walk-over survey are essential components of ground investigation. Other parts
(e.g. boring, drilling and testing) may sometimes be omitted, but these parts of the SI process must
always be carried out.

• The information collected from the desk study and walk-over survey should be included in the SI
report, where the following details should be formally presented:
– site topography;
– geology;
– geotechnical problems and parameters;
– groundwater conditions;
– existing construction and services;
– previous land use;
– expected construction risks;
– proposed ground investigation methods.

• You are looking for information on the condition of the site to be used in the design but also on
identifying potential risks and hazards that might be encountered during the planned works
(including the walk-over survey).
 Preliminary Investigation
What are the main objectives of the Preliminary Investigation?
• Provide an initial ground model: identify rock/soil type and structure,
groundwater and pore pressure profiles
• Assess site stability
• Evaluate the impacts of the proposed works on the site (environment and
existing structures)
• Identify the potential for fill/cut materials to be sequestered/deposited
• Consider potential foundation types and ground improvement methods
• Plan the design investigation
 Design investigations
A more comprehensive investigation than the preliminary investigations,
involves the use of:

Field investigations
Laboratory tests

To assess:

Ground conditions
Groundwater conditions
Contamination
 SI Report

Desk Study Walkover Survey

Preliminary
Investigation
Client Geotechnical
requirements Design
Design
Investigation SI Report

Remember: The desk study and walk-over survey are essential components of ground
investigation. Other parts (e.g. boring, drilling and testing) may sometimes be omitted,
but these parts of the SI process must always be carried out.
 SI Report
• 6.4 Human Health Statistical Analysis
• Contents • 6.5 Aggressive Ground Testing
• 1 Introduction • 6.6 Soil Gas
• 2 The Site • 6.7 Groundwater
• 2.1 Site Location • 7 Contamination Risk Assessment
• 2.2 Site Description • 7.1 Introduction
• 2.3 Proposed Development • 7.2 Risk Assessment Context
• 3 Desk Study • 7.3 Hazard Identification
• 3.1 Introduction • 7.4 Hazard Assessment
• 3.2 Site History • 7.5 Risk Estimation
• 3.3 Geology and Ground Conditions • 8 Engineering Considerations
• 3.4 Environmental Setting • 8.1 Proposed Development
• 4 Ground Investigation • 8.2 Ground Conditions
• 4.1 Introduction • 8.3 Ground Levels and Proposed Earthworks
• 4.2 Scope of the Ground Investigation • 8.4 Groundwater
• 5 Ground Conditions • 8.5 Drainage
• 5.1 Introduction • 8.6 Foundations
• 5.2 Made Ground • 8.7 Floors
• 5.3 Residual Soil • 8.8 Contamination
• 5.4 Bedrock • 8.9 Soil Gas
• 5.5 Groundwater • 8.10 Buried Structures and Services
• 6 Contamination • 8.11 Trees
• 6.1 Introduction • 8.12 Unexploded Ordnance (UXO)
• 6.2 Visual and Olfactory Evidence of Contamination • 8.13 Off Site Disposal of Excavated Materials
• 6.3 Soils Testing • 8.14 Invasive Plants
 EC7-2: Ground Investigation & Testing
EC-7 part 2 is intended to be used in conjunction with EC-7 part 1
and relates to:
• planning and reporting of ground investigations;
• general requirements for a number of commonly used laboratory and field
tests;
• interpretation and evaluation of test results;
• derivation of values of geotechnical parameters and coefficients.
 Hierarchy of standards

EC 7 Geotechnical design: Part 2

Ground Investigation and Testing

EN ISO 22476 EN ISO 22475

EN ISO 14688/9
Field testing Sampling and
Identification and
classification of soil groundwater
and rock measurements
CEN ISO/TS 17892
Laboratory testing
 Preliminary and Design Investigations
• If relevant, field investigations in the design phase should comprise:
– drilling and/or excavations (test pits including shafts and headings) for sampling;
– groundwater measurements;
– field tests.
• In order to develop strategies for planning field investigations
 Selecting Investigation Points
When selecting the locations of investigation points, the following should be
observed:
• the investigation points should be arranged in such a pattern that the
stratification can be assessed across the site;
• the investigation points for a building or structure should be placed at
critical points relative to the shape, structural behaviour and expected
load distribution (e.g. at the corners of the foundation area);
 Selecting Investigation Points
When selecting the locations of investigation points, the following should be
observed:
• the area considered in the design investigation should extend into the
neighbouring area to a distance where no harmful influence on the
neighbouring area is expected;
• the possibility of using the equipment installed during the ground
investigation for continued monitoring during and after the construction
period should be considered;
• the investigation points should be arranged so that they do not present a
hazard to the structure, the construction work, or the surroundings
 Selecting Investigation Points
Why might an investigation point represent a hazard in itself?
• The investigation points should be arranged so that they do not present a
hazard to the structure, the construction work, or the surroundings.
Poorly positioned points could:

– Pose a trip or access hazard

– Release contaminants
– Weaken ground
– Destabilise slopes
– Alter ground water flows
– Produce arisings that need to be dealt with
 The purpose of sampling
• Sampling is carried out in order that soil and rock description,
and laboratory testing can be carried out. Laboratory tests
typically consist of:
– index tests (for example, unconfined compressive strength tests on
rock);
– classification tests (e.g. Atterberg limit tests on clays);
– tests to determine engineering design parameters (e.g. strength,
compressibility, and permeability).
 The purpose of sampling
• Samples obtained either for description or testing should be representative
of the ground from which they are taken.
• They should be large enough to contain representative particle sizes, fabric,
and fissuring and fracturing.
• They should be taken in such a way that they have not lost fractions of the in
situ soil (for example, coarse or fine particles).
• Where strength and compressibility tests are planned, they should be subject
to as little disturbance as possible.
 Sample Planning
• Depths of samples (trial pits, boreholes)
• Sampling method (sample category dependent)
• Sample numbers required
• Sample handling, storage, transport
• Hole completion and reinstatement method
• Environmental considerations
• Work/communication flow
 Sample locations
• The precise locations of investigation points and the depths of the
investigations shall be selected on the basis of the preliminary investigations
as a function of the geological conditions, the dimensions of the structure
and the engineering problems involved.
The following spacing of investigation points should be
used as guidance:
– For high-rise and industrial structures, a grid pattern with
points at 15 m to 40 m distance;
– For large-area structures, a grid pattern with points at
not more than 60 m distance;
– For linear structures (roads, railways, channels, pipelines,
dikes, tunnels, retaining walls), a spacing of 20 m to 200 m;
– For special structures (e.g. bridges, stacks, machinery
foundations), two to six investigation points per
foundation;
– For dams and weirs, 25 m to 75 m distance, along
relevant sections.
 Design investigation sampling
High-rise Raft Road
structures Foundations Foundations

Za ≥ 2 m below the
proposed formation level

Cuttings

za≥0.4h
za≥3bF za≥1.5bB
za≥ 2 m
• za is depth of investigation below the lowest point of the foundation, excavation or structure
• bF is smallest width of foundation, basement (bB), structure (bS) and h is cutting height
 Sample type
• Non-representative samples contain mixes of soil or rock from different
layers, and are rarely intentionally used in site investigation.
• Site investigation practice commonly divides collected samples into the
following categories:
Samples

1. Disturbed samples:
Disturbed Undisturbed
– Remoulded
– Representative
Remoulded Block
2. ‘Undisturbed’ samples:
– block samples
Representative Drive
– open-drive samples
– piston-drive samples Rotary
– rotary core samples (e.g. from a corebarrel).
 Sampling: Disturbance
1. Disturbed sampling: Here there is no attempt to retain the physical
integrity of the soil. These types of sample are suitable for
classification tests.
2. Block sampling: The sample is cut from the ground (usually at the
base or side of a trial pit) or collected as part of a rotary drilling
process. Carefully controlled rotary drilling, or the use of the
Sherbrooke sampler, aims to achieve a similar result. Block samples
undergo stress relief, and swelling, but should not be subjected to
shear distortions.
3. Tube sampling: The soil sample is obtained by pushing or
hammering a tube into the ground. Soil is displaced and distorted, to
a greater or lesser degree, as the tube enters the ground. There will
be stress relief during boring and sampling. The design of the tube
has an important effect on the disturbance of the soil.
 Disturbed samples: Soil
• Disturbed samples are typically used for soil phase distributions and for
classification purposes
• They are often taken from the cuttings of the drilling or excavation process
• The structure of the soil is disturbed to the considerable degree by the
action of the boring tools or the excavation process.
• The disturbance can take the form of:
– Change in the stress condition
– Change in the water content and the void ratio
– Breakdown or altering of the soil structure
– Chemical changes
– Mixing and segregation of soil constituents
• If all the constituents are present in the sample which represents the
same soil type from any place, then it is called a ‘representative sample’.
• Samples may be remoulded for testing the engineering properties (e.g.
consolidation tests), which alters the water content of the sample.
 Excavations: Block sampling
• Trial pits, trenches and shallow excavations are often used in site investigations,
particularly during investigations for low- and medium-rise construction, because they
provide an economical means of acquiring a very detailed record of the complex soil
conditions which often exist near to the ground surface.
• Trial pits provide the best method of obtaining very detailed information on strength,
stratification, pre-existing shear surfaces, and discontinuities in soil. Very high quality
block samples can be taken only from trial pits.
 Excavations: Block sampling
• Trial pits should be situated outside the planned foundation area as the excavation can
loosen the ground.
• There should be a distance between the nearest excavation wall and the planned
foundation edge of at least 0.5 m plus half the intended excavation depth below the
foundation level.
• It is worth remembering, however, that trial pits and other exposures can also be used for
in situ testing and to obtain high-quality samples.
 Undisturbed block samples
Collecting undisturbed soil samples – block sampling
1. Level the ground surface, mark the outline of the
sample and carefully excavate a trench.
 Block sampling
Collecting undisturbed soil samples – block sampling
2. Deepen the excavation below of the base of the
sample and trim to size using cutting tools.
 Block sampling
Collecting undisturbed soil samples – block sampling
3. Seal with layers of muslin/cheese cloth, wax and
clingfilm then encase the sample in a rigid box to
prevent disturbance due to stress relief
 Block sampling
Collecting undisturbed soil samples – block sampling
4. Cut from the ground and seal and label the base.
 Undisturbed Samples at depth
• Block sampling is an excellent method of ensuring that the soil remains
unaffected by shear distortions during sampling.
• However, samples obtained in this way may not (as a result of swelling) have
effective stresses that are the same as those in the ground.
• Therefore the strength and compressibility of the soil may be changed and
this should be allowed for either by using appropriate reconsolidation
procedures, or by normalizing strength and stiffness, where appropriate,
with effective stress.
• Block samples can only be taken from depth in heavily overconsolidated soils
because heave will occur in the base of the excavation.
 Undisturbed Samples at depth: Drive Samplers

• Drive samplers are samplers which are either pushed or driven into the soil
without rotation. The thickness of the sampler wall governs the volume of soil
that is displaced and either compacted or compressed.
• The area ratio and inside clearance are critical parameters affecting the
disturbance of soil during sampling:
Area ratio = De2 – Di2 Inside clearance = Ds2 – Di2
Di2 Di2

• Thin-wall sampling devices are taken to be those

with an area ratio of less than 20%
• The soil is under great stress as it enters the sampler and has a tendency to
laterally expand. The inside clearance should be large enough to allow a part of
lateral expansion to take place, but it should not be so large that it permits
excessive deformations and causes disturbances of the sample.
• For good sampling, the inside clearance ratio should be within 0.5 to 3 % (ideally
<1%).
 Undisturbed Samples at depth: Drive Samplers

• Drive samplers are samplers which are either pushed or driven into the soil
without rotation. The thickness of the sampler wall governs the volume of soil
that is displaced and either compacted or compressed.
• The area ratio and inside clearance are critical parameters affecting the
disturbance of soil during sampling:
Area ratio = De2 – Di2 Inside clearance = Ds2 – Di2
Di2 Di2

• Thin-wall sampling devices are taken to be those

with an area ratio of less than 20%
• The soil is under great stress as it enters the sampler and has a tendency to
laterally expand. The inside clearance should be large enough to allow a part of
lateral expansion to take place, but it should not be so large that it permits
excessive deformations and causes disturbances of the sample.
• For good sampling, the inside clearance ratio should be within 0.5 to 3 % (ideally
<1%).
 Tube sampling
• Tube sampling is used in almost all routine ground investigations. It is
carried out by pushing a tube into the ground, without rotation, thus
displacing soil.
• This displacement introduces shear distortions into the ground, and these
can have two effects:
1. the effective stress of the soil is changed
2. Breaks the bonding between soil particles (termed ‘structuring’)
Sampling drive direction

Increase in uncorrected shear

strengths are about twice the
Thin layer of
estimated in situ values due to
remoulded clay
tube-sampling distortions
(Chandler et al., 1992).
Zone of severe
shear distortion
 Rotary drilling
• Rotary drilling uses a rotary action combined with
directional force to grind away the material in which a
hole is being made.
• Hollow drilling rods enable a flush of water, air, foam
or mud which is used to carry the cuttings to the
surface as well as lubricating and cooling the drill bit.
• To protect the sample from the flush liquid rotary
samplers have an inner removable liner.
• The inner tube, that collects the sample remains
stationary as the outer cutting tube rotates.
• Some (triple tube) drill bits have an additional plastic
lining tube to further protect and seal the sample,
although this can increase the area ratio and induce
severe distortions to the sample
• Rotary drilling is effective for samples from hard
cohesive soils and rock
Sample Method: Quality Categories
 Categories of sampling method
• Samples collected using category A sampling methods derive of samples
of quality class 1 or 2 in which no or only slight disturbance of the soil
structure has occurred during the sampling procedure, the water content,
chemical composition and the void ratio of the soil correspond to that in
situ.
• Samples collected using category B sampling methods achieve samples of
quality class 3 or higher. The samples containing all the constituents of the
in situ soil in their original proportions and the soil has retained its natural
water content and layering can be identified but the structure of the soil
has been disturbed.
• Samples collected using category C sampling methods achieve samples of
quality class 5. The soil's structure in the sample has been totally changed,
water content of the sample may not be representative of in situ
conditions and the in situ layers cannot be identified accurately.
 Summary
• Recap: Planning Site Investigation
• Soil and rock sampling
– Where to sample (location, depth)
– Sample size
– Disturbed sampling
– Undisturbed sampling
– Soil sample categories