UNIT II

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CELLS

CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The CNS and PNS are made up of two types of cells: nerve cells, known as neurons, and supporting cells.

Neurons
Neuron (nerve cell) is the information-processing and information-transmitting element of the nervous
system. They come in many shapes and varieties depending the specialized jobs they have to perform.

Structure of Neuron
Most neurons have the following structures or regions:

1. Cell body or soma – contains the nucleus and machinery for the life processes of the cell. Its shape
varies in different kinds of neurons
2. Dendrites – receive messages from other neurons.
3. Axons – long slender tubes (often covered by myelin sheaths) that carry information (action
potential) from the cell body to the terminal buttons.
4. Terminal buttons – buds at the end of a branch of an axon. Secrete neurotransmitters and form
synapses with another neuron, thus sending information.
5. Myelin sheath – a cylindrical, whitish, lipid and protein sheath that surrounds axons and insulates
them. Helps in rapid conduction of nerve impulses and preventing messages from spreading
between adjacent axons. Myelin sheath is produced by a special type of glial cell (oligodendrocyte).
The bare portion of the axon, not covered by the sheath, is called a node of Ranvier.
Internal Structure of Neurons

1. Cytoskeleton – formed of microtubules and other protein fibers, linked to each other and forming a
cohesive mass that gives a cell its shape.
2. Membrane – a structure consisting of lipid molecules that defines the outer boundaries of a cell
and also constitutes many of the cell organelles.
3. Cytoplasm – semi-liquid/jelly-like substance contained in the interior of a cell. Contains specialized
organs such as mitochondria.
4. Nucleus – structure in the centre of the cell, contains chromosomes.
5. Mitochondria – gathers, stores and releases energy; breaks down nutrients such as glucose and
provide energy to perform functions.
6. Golgi body – membranous structure that packages protein molecules for transport.

Types of Neurons
 1. Multipolar neuron – most common; the soma has one axon, but many dendritic trees.

2. Bipolar neuron – has one axon and one dendritic tree at opposite ends of the soma. Bipolar
neurons are usually sensory.

3. Unipolar neuron – has only one stalk which leaves the soma and divides into two branches a short
distance away.

4. Sensory neurons/afferent neurons - A neuron that detects changes in the external or internal
environment and sends information about these changes to the central nervous system. Carries
sensory input from sensory receptors to brain and spinal cord.

5. Motor neuron - A neuron located within the central nervous system that controls the contraction of
a muscle or the secretion of a gland. Carries motor information from brain to muscle and glands.

6. Interneuron - A neuron located entirely within the central nervous system, between other neurons;
max in number. Linked to reflexive behaviour controlled by neural circuits called reflexive arc. Local
interneurons form circuits with nearby neurons and analyze small pieces of information. Relay
interneurons connect circuits of local interneurons in one region of the brain with those in other
regions.

Supporting Cells
Glial Cells
The most important supporting cells. Are closely attached to the neurons and serve the purpose of
attending to the needs of the neurons. Give essential physical and practical support to functioning neurons.

Functions:
1. Surround the neurons, protect them and hold them in place; give them shape.
2. Control the supply of nutrients and some of the chemicals needed to exchange messages with
other neurons.
3. Insulate neurons from one another so that neural messages do not get scrambled.
4. Repair neuronal damage; destroy and remove old and dead neurons.

Different types of glial cells. Three most important ones:

1. Astrocyte – provides physical support to neurons and cleans up debris within the brain; produce
some of the necessary chemicals required by the brain; help control the chemical composition of
the fluid surrounding the neurons; provide nourishment to neurons.
2. Oligodendrocyte – provides support to the axons and produces myelin sheath.
3. Microglia – smallest of the glial cells; similar function to astrocyte in terms of engulfing and
breaking down dead and dying neurons; serve as one of the representatives of the immune system
in the brain, protecting it from invading microorganisms; primarily responsible for the inflammatory
reaction in response to brain damage.

Schwann Cells
Similar to glial, but in PNS. Support axons and produce myelin in the peripheral nervous system.

Blood-Brain Barrier
 1. A semi-permeable barrier between the blood and the brain, produced by the cells in the walls of
the brain’s capillaries.
2. The cells that form the walls of the capillaries in the body outside the brain have gaps that permit
the free passage of substances into and out of the blood. In the CNS, the cells that form the walls of
the capillaries in the brain are tightly joined. Lacking the gaps, many substances cannot leave the
blood.
3. The barrier is selectively permeable as some substances can cross the barrier while others cannot.
Certain substances are actively transported through the capillary walls by special proteins.
4. Utility:
a. The blood brain barrier makes it easier to regulate the composition of extracellular fluid
between neurons, such that transmission of messages does not get disrupted.
b. Further, the barrier prevents certain chemicals from reaching the brain, that may disrupt
transmission.
5. The blood-brain barrier is not uniform throughout the CNS, in some places it is relatively
permeable. For example, the blood brain barrier is much weaker in the area postrema (which
controls vomiting), permitting neurons in this region to detect the presence of toxic substances in
the blood and stimulate the area to initiate vomiting to expel the toxic substance.

COMMUNICATION WITHIN A NEURON (electrical process)

Neurons communicate with each other by sending electrical impulses called action potentials. This
communication depends on the neuron’s excitability – its capacity to react to a stimulus with an electrical
discharge. The impulses are fast (in the order of milliseconds) and allow neurons to communicate with
each other along great distances.

Membrane Potential
i. There are many different ions unevenly distributed inside and outside the cell membrane
(intracellularly and extracellularly). It is this distribution that gives the membrane its electrical
potential and is therefore called the membrane potential.
ii. The membrane has an electrical charge, because there are positive and negative ions both inside
and outside the cell membrane.
iii. The most significant ions are Na+ (sodium), K+ (potassium), and Cl– (chloride).
iv. The membrane is selectively permeable to ions. That is, it allows only certain ions in.
v. If the inside of the membrane is negative relative to the outside, positive ions will be attracted
inside. As a result, negative ions will be forced out.
vi. The degree of attraction or repulsion is determined by the membrane potential.
vii. For most neurons, the charge across this membrane is about 60–70 millivolts (mV) when it receives
no stimulation. This charge is called the resting potential. This charge is called the resting potential.
Because there are more negative ions inside the cell, this resting potential has been arbitrarily
defined as negative, i.e. as – 60/70mV.

Action Potential
i. The brief electrical impulse that provides the basis for conduction of information along an axon.
ii. It is a brief but extremely large change in the polarity of an axon’s membrane, lasting about 1
millisecond.
iii. It is produced by charged particles called ions that pass through the cell membrane.
iv. Originates at the axon hillock – a small elevation on the neuron where the axon meets the cell
body. It is here that the graded potential is converted to action potential.
v. In an action potential, the voltage across the membrane suddenly reverses, making the inside
positive relative to the outside, and then abruptly reverses again, after which the resting potential
is restored.
vi. All or none law – when AP are triggered, they all reach the same voltage.
vii. AP retain their strength along the length of an axon.
viii. AP jumps rapidly between nodes of Ranvier.
ix. This movement of an action potential along an axon is called a nerve impulse.
Stages in Action Potential
1. Resting Stage
a. Neuron is polarized (–70 millivolts) away from the neutral charge.
b. Negative charge inside the neuron.
c. Sodium-potassium pump: Generally, Na+ is located outside the cell and K+ is located inside
the cell. Na+ moves from outside to inside the cell; and K+ moves from inside to outside. An
inward flow of Na+ would eventually cancel out the resting potential, meaning that there
would not be any stored up energy available to create a nerve impulse. To maintain the
resting potential (slightly negative charge inside the cell membrane), the cell has to actively
pump the Na+ back outside as well as keep the K+ inside the cell. This is done by the sodium
potassium pump.

2. Depolarization
a. Firing of the neuron.
b. Stimulates the threshold level inside the neuron and potential rises to –50mv.

3. Action Potential Spike

a. As soon as the threshold of excitation is reached , the sodium channels in the membrane
open and Na+ rushes in.
b. Cell becomes positively charged.
c. Neuron produces a rapid electrical pulse called Action Potential Spike (+40mv).
d. At about the time the AP reaches its peak (in approximately 1 millisecond), the sodium
channels become refractory – the channels become blocked and cannot open again until the
membrane once more reaches the resting potential.
e. No more Na+ can enter the cell.

4. Repolarization
a. The voltage-dependent potassium channels in the membrane are open, letting K+ ions move
freely through the membrane.
b. At this time, the inside of the axon is positively charged so K+ is driven out of the cell by
diffusion and by electrostatic pressure.
c. Positively charged potassium ions (K+) are released outside the cell and negative state is
once again restored.

5. Hyperpolarization
a. Cell membrane briefly overshoots its original negative charge from resting potential
(over –75mv) and only gradually returns to normal.
b. Resting potential is restored.
c. Once the membrane potential returns to normal, the potassium channels are closed , and
no more potassium leaves the cell. At around this time, the sodium channels reset so that
another depolarization can cause them to open again.
Action Potential
Electrical charge in the axon.
Activated when sending messages to other
neurons.
All or none law – when AP are triggered, they all
reach the same voltage.
AP retain their strength along the length of an
axon.
Effect – synapse; release of NTs from terminal
buttons.
Graded Potential
Electrical charges in dendrites.
Activated when receiving messages from neurons.
Voltage varies in intensity depending on how much
the receptor sites are stimulated by NTs. If more
NTs bind to receptor sites, the post-synaptic
potential will be high and vice a versa.
As it spreads out from the original site and travels
along the dendrite, voltage gradually decreases.
Effect – excitatory potential or inhibitory potential
COMMUNICATION BETWEEN NEURONS (chemical process)
The primary means of communication between neurons is synaptic transmission – the transmission of
messages from one neuron to another through a synapse. It is a chemical process that involves the
transmission of neurotransmitters.

The three main parts of a synapse are:

 axon terminal (pre-synaptic membrane),
 membrane encasing the tip of an adjacent dendritic spine (post-synaptic membrane)
 the synaptic cleft (very small space separating these two structures).

The Synaptic Process

a. When depolarization occurs at the terminal button, calcium channels open, allowing this ion to
enter the cell.
b. The increased permeability to calcium and its presence in the cell is responsible for the secretion of
a neurotransmitter from the vesicles.
c. The neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic gap by a process called exocytosis. This means
that the transmitter-containing vesicle moves up to the cell membrane of the presynaptic terminal
button, pushes up against it and fuses with it.
d. When this occurs, the vesicle releases the neurotransmitter, which moves into the extracellular
fluid of the synaptic gap, where it binds to the postsynaptic, or receiving, terminal button of
another neuron (binding site).
e. A further stage of communication is then reached.
Neurotransmitters (more details on p.70, Martin)
i. Chemicals released by neurons that carry information across synapses.
ii. Made up of small or large protein molecules.
iii. Synthesized in the terminal button by enzymes travelling from the cell body.

iv. Released by the terminal button of the pre-synaptic neuron into the synaptic cleft after the action
potential.
v. Received by specialized receptor sites (complex protein molecules) in the membrane of other cells.

vi. After binding to the receptor, NT generates a tiny electrical charge called post-synaptic potential
(PSP). Will have inhibitory (less likely to fire) IPSP, or excitatory (more likely to fire) EPSP, effect on
post-synaptic neuron. These post-synaptic potentials are graded potentials.

vii. After crossing the synapse, the excess NTs that do not bind to the receptor site are either taken
back for reuse in the axon terminal of neurons that released them (reuptake) or are broken down
by various enzymes present in the synapse (chemically deactivated), e.g. acetylcholine. However,
some chemicals such as cocaine and amphetamine, prevent reuptake, thus potentiating the
excitatory effect of the neurotransmitter.
viii. The ability of a post-synaptic neuron to respond to the presence of a particular NT is dependent of
the presence of receptors on the post-synaptic neuron that have an affinity for that particular NT.

Types of NTs

1. Monoamines:
a. Small molecule NTs, include 5 types – epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin,
histamine.
b. Effects on postsynaptic neurons are complex; depending on different types of receptors.
Can be both excitatory or inhibitory.
c. The first three are called catecholamines and are synthesized frim tyrosine. Involved in most
important behaviors such as movement, mood and cognition.
i. Epinephrine/adrenaline – alpha and beta receptors; fight or flight response,
sympathetic NS
ii. Norepinephrine/noradrenaline – most commonly found in nuclei in reticular
formation in brainstem; nuclei called nucleus locus coeruleus; alpha and beta
receptors; wakefulness & alertness; depression, mania
iii. Dopamine – found in large nuclei in the mesencephalon and substantia nigra; D1 and
D2 receptors; feelings of pleasure; smooth movements and posture; motivation;
addiction; schizophrenia, Parkinson’s
d. Last two are synthesized from amino acids – tryptophan (serotonin) and histidine
(histamine).
i. Serotonin – found in raphe nuclei in the brainstem; several types of receptors;
mood, sleep, arousal, eating (regulation of digestive system); depression, mania.
ii. Histamine
 2. GABA
a. γ-aminobutyric acid (or GABA)
b. Most common inhibitory NT
c. Produces hyper-polarization by opening either Cl or K channels
d. Two types of receptors - GABAA (responsible for presynaptic inhibition and mediation of Cl
permeability) and GABAB (mediates K permeability)
e. Benzos and Barbiturates bind to these and enhance effects of GABA; anxiety
f. Brain’s stabilizer, calms firing nerves in the CNS
g. Contributes to motor control and vision

3. Glutamate
a. Excitatory NT
b. Served by three receptor sites – the first two, kainate (K), quiscualate (Q), are resonsbible
for fast depolarization; the third is not.
c. Learning and memory
d. Regulates development and creation of nerve contacts

4. Glycine
a. Inhibitory NT found in the brainstem and interneurons of spinal cord.
b. Primary function – inhibition of motor neurons

5. Acetylcholine:
a. Small molecule NT
b. Found in brainstem and parts of the forebrain, especially nucleus basalis.
c. Synthesized by binding choline to acetyl coenzyme A. Binding produced by the enzyme
choline acetyltransferase (ChAT).
d. Neurons containing ChAT found mostly in the motor system, especially brainstem and spinal
cord motor neurons.
e. Voluntary muscle control; attention and awakening; learning and memory.
f. Binds to acetylcholine receptors.
g. Acetylcholine receptors also called nicotinic receptors as nicotine seems to produce the
same effects on muscles as acetylcholine.
h. Receptors can be blocked, which caused motor impairment.
i. Alzheimer’s

Agonists – chemicals that mimic the effect of NT; Antagonists – chemicals that inhibit the effect of NT.

Neuromodulators
i. Also called peptides/neuropeptides.
ii. A naturally secreted substance that acts like a neurotransmitter except that it is not restricted to
the synaptic cleft but diffuses through the extracellular fluid.
iii. Synthesized in the cell body and travel down to the terminal button.*
iv. Most neuromodulators are composed of protein like molecules called peptides.

v. Secreted in larger amounts, travel farther, are dispersed more widely and diffuse for longer
distances than NTs, modulating the activity of many neurons in a particular part of the brain.
vi. Affect general behavioral states such as vigilance, fearfulness, and sensitivity to pain.
vii. Also act as pain killers. E.g. endorphins (natural pain killer).

*The travelling nature of the peptides means that they are more prone than neurotransmitters to
blockage. Blocked axons can prevent a neuropeptide from moving smoothly to the cell body; this problem
does not arise for neurotransmitters.
Hormones
i. A chemical that is released by an endocrine gland and that has effects on target cells in other
organs.
ii. Most hormones are produced in cells located in the endocrine glands.
iii. Others are produced by specialized cells located in various organs, such as the stomach, the
intestines , the kidneys, and the brain.

iv. Cells that secrete hormones release these chemicals in the extracellular fluid.
v. The hormones are then distributed to the rest of the body through the bloodstream.

vi. Hormones affect the activity of cells (including neurons) that contain specialized receptors located
either on the surface of their membrane or deep within their nuclei.

vii. Cells that contain receptors for a particular hormone are referred to as target cells for that
hormone; only these cells respond to its presence.
viii. Many neurons contain hormone receptors , and hormones are able to affect behavior by
stimulating the receptors and changing the activity of these neurons. For example, a sex hormone,
testosterone , increases the aggressiveness or most male mammals.