Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 140 (2020) 106727

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ymssp

Time-varying characteristics of bridges under the passage of

vehicles using synchroextracting transform
Jiantao Li a, Xinqun Zhu a,⇑, Siu-seong Law b, Bijan Samali c
a
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia
b
School of Civil Engineering, Chongqing University, China
c
School of Computing, Engineering and Mathematics, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The vehicle and bridge responses in a vehicle-bridge interaction (VBI) system have been
Received 8 July 2019 widely studied with some aiming at the bridge health monitoring. The extraction of bridge
Received in revised form 16 January 2020 modal frequencies from bridge or vehicle responses was mostly conducted with the
Accepted 8 February 2020
assumption of an invariant vehicle and bridge system and/or the responses are stationary
during the interaction. This assumption may be appropriate when the vehicle mass is neg-
ligible compared with the bridge mass. The vehicle and bridge frequencies are time-
Keywords:
varying in practice during the VBI process and these time-varying characteristics are
Vehicle-bridge interaction
Frequency variation
potential indicators for bridge condition assessment. This paper presents a new method
Time-frequency analysis to extract the time-varying characteristics of the bridge under the passage of vehicles. A
Synchroextracting transform time-frequency (TF) analysis method, the synchroextracting transform, is adopted for the
purpose. It is a post-processing procedure with short-time Fourier transform to improve
the TF resolution on the time-varying features of the signal. The instantaneous frequency
of mono-components related to the vehicle and bridge frequencies can then be extracted
from the time-frequency representation of the responses. Numerical investigation is con-
ducted to study the effect of measurement noise, vehicle properties and road surface
roughness on the identified results. Laboratory and field tests are also conducted to vali-
date the proposed approach. Results show that the time-varying characteristics are good
indicators for bridge condition assessment.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Research in last decade has witnessed the extensive study on vehicle-bridge interaction (VBI) for the purpose of bridge
structural health monitoring (SHM) [16,5,13,20,12]. The VBI-based approach allows the target bridge to be monitored or
assessed under operating conditions [33]. The output-only approaches make use of the vibration responses from an instru-
mented bridge, i.e. stochastic subspace identification, frequency domain decomposition and random decrement technique,
etc., to extract the structural properties. White noise input to the structure is commonly assumed. However, the VBI system
is time-variant with the operational variations of traffic excitation on the structure. The use of vehicle responses for indirect
bridge monitoring also draws great research attention due to its low cost and convenience. Yang et al. [30] pioneered the

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: jiantao.li@student.uts.edu.au (J. Li), xinqun.zhu@uts.edu.au (X. Zhu), siu-seong.law@connect.polyu.hk (S.-s. Law), b.samali@western-
sydney.edu.au (B. Samali).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2020.106727
0888-3270/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 J. Li et al. / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 140 (2020) 106727

work of indirect bridge frequency identification using vehicle responses by spectrum analysis. González et al. [9] identified
the bridge damping using a moving instrumented vehicle. The vehicle response has also been used for bridge mode shape
identification [29,18]. Most of the above methods assumed non-varying frequencies of the vehicle and structure, which is
approximately relevant when the VBI effect is negligible. For the case where the vehicle mass is not small compared to
the bridge mass, the frequency variation of the system due to the interaction cannot be ignored as noted in several exper-
imental investigations [7,32,15].
Several reports have also been published on the frequency variation in the vehicle-bridge interaction system. Li et al. [17]
theoretically studied the natural frequency of railway girder bridges under vehicular load. The bridge frequency was found
varying periodically with the passage of the vehicle. Kim et al. [14] experimentally studied the effect of vehicle weight on the
bridge natural frequencies under traffic-induced excitation. A change of 5.4% was noted in the natural frequencies of a short
span bridge with a 3.8% mass ratio between that of a vehicle and the bridge super-structure. Law and Zhu [16] studied the
effect of crack in bridge structures on the instantaneous frequency (IF) under moving vehicular loads. The frequency changes
due to a moving mass and a moving oscillator were compared. The changes were found sensitive to the weight of vehicle and
the frequency ratio between the vehicle and bridge. Yang et al. [27] presented a theoretical framework with closed-form
solutions on the frequency variation of the VBI system considering only the first bridge vibration mode. Both the vehicle
and bridge frequencies varied roughly in the form of half-sinewave with respect to the vehicle location. A larger vehicle/
bridge mass ratio yielded larger frequency deviations. When the vehicle/bridge frequency ratio is close to unity, the vehicle
and bridge frequencies [27] deviated drastically from their natural values. Chang et al. [4] studied the variability of bridge
frequency due to a vehicle parked on top theoretically and experimentally. Cantero et al. [2] conducted field tests on the evo-
lution of bridge modal properties including the bridge frequencies and vibration modes during the passage of a truck. They
also assessed the non-stationary and non-linear features of the vehicle responses experimentally from a scaled vehicle-
bridge interaction test bed [3]. Despite of many studies mentioned above, the non-stationary properties of bridge vibration
under a passing vehicle is still not fully explored [26].
Time-frequency (TF) analysis is an effective tool for the analysis of nonstationary signals. The classical linear methods,
such as the short time Fourier transform (STFT) and wavelet transform can expand a one-dimensional time-series signal onto
the two-dimensional TF plane for further signal decomposition. However, the time-frequency representations (TFRs) gener-
ated are often blurry, and it is difficult to provide a precise time-frequency description for a time-varying signal. The Wigner-
Ville distribution gives optimal energy concentration for mono-component linear frequency modulation, but it produces
undesirable cross-terms for non-linear frequency modulated or multi-component signals [1]. Advanced methods have been
developed since to improve the performance of conventional methods in the analysis of time varying signal, e.g. syn-
chrosqueezing transform (SST) [6] and high-order SST [24]. Recently, a TF analysis technique called synchroextracting trans-
form (SET) has been proposed [31]. It improves the energy concentration of the TFRs by retaining only the time-frequency
information most related to the time-varying features of the signal. It outperforms the STFT in this aspect. The measured
response from the vehicle of the VBI system is a multicomponent signal which is related to the vehicle frequency, bridge
frequency and the road surface roughness. The bridge response is a superposition of several vibration modes. Decompose
the multicomponent signal into mono-component mode is an effective way to study the behaviours of individual compo-
nent. Each mono-component mode in a well-separated multicomponent signal can be extracted from the TFR [19] based
on which the IF can be estimated [23]. Hilbert-Huang transform (HHT) [10] and wavelet transform (WT) have been used
for the time-frequency analysis of nonstationary dynamic responses. Wang et al. [25] compared the HHT and WT for TF anal-
ysis of a coupled VBI bridge system with breathing cracks. Cantero et al. [2] and Yang et al. [28] used continuous wavelet
transform (CWT) to study the nonstationary features of the bridge under vehicle excitations. The signal can be decomposed
into intrinsic mode functions (IMFs) by the HHT and the IFs of the system are obtained from IMFs. The WT can be used to
decompose the signal into different frequency band components, but only the energy distribution with time can be obtained.
Wavelet Synchrosqueezing transform (WSST) has been proposed as a time-frequency signal analysis method to improve the
resolutions in the time and frequency domains [22].
This study further explores the variability in the vehicle and bridge frequencies due to the VBI with the TF analysis using
the SET. The effects of vehicle properties, moving speed, road surface roughness and measurement noise on the frequency
variation are studied. Numerical and experimental validation of the proposed approach are also reported.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. The VBI model is firstly introduced followed by description of the TF analysis
method based on SET and the mono-component extraction. Numerical and experimental studies are then presented with
conclusions drawn.

2. Vehicle-bridge interaction model

A VBI model is shown in Fig. 1. The vehicle is modelled as a quarter car and the bridge as a simply-supported beam with
length L. The vehicle is assumed to move along the bridge deck at a constant velocity v. Parameters mv , kv and cv are the vehi-
cle mass, stiffness and damping, respectively. The equation of motion of the discretized vehicle and the bridge system can be
expressed as
€v ðt Þ þ cv d_ v ðtÞ þ kv dv ðt Þ ¼ F ðt Þ
mv d ð1Þ
 J. Li et al. / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 140 (2020) 106727 3

Fig. 1. Vehicle-bridge interaction model.

€ ðt Þ þ C d_ ðt Þ þ K d ðt Þ ¼ Hc ðt ÞP ðt Þ
Mb d ð2Þ
b b b b b int

where dv and db denotes the vertical displacement of the vehicle and bridge respectively. Mb , Cb , Kb are the mass, damping
and stiffness matrices of the bridge, respectively. F ðt Þ is the force on the vehicle system and P int ðt Þ is the interacting force
between the vehicle and bridge. Hc ðtÞ ¼ f0; 0    ; H i ðtÞ;    ; 0gT is a function of time and H i ðt Þ is the vector of shape function
in the ith element on which the moving vehicle is located at time instant t, and it can be expressed as


 
H i ðt Þ ¼ 1  3n2 þ 2n; n  2n2 þ n3 le ; 3n2  2n3 ; n2 þ n3 le , with n ¼ ðxðtÞ  xi Þ=le , xi ¼ ði  1Þle where le is the length of
the element [34].
The equation of motion of the coupled VBI system can be obtained as
 ( € )  ( _ ) " # 
Mb mv Hc db Cb 0 db Kb 0 db Hc mv g
þ þ ¼ ð3Þ
0 mv €v
d cv HTc cv _dv T _T
kv H  cv H c c kv dv k v r ð xÞ þ c v v r 0 ð xÞ

where r ðxÞ is the profile of surface roughness of the bridge deck. The system matrices of the coupled interaction system in Eq.
(3) are noted time-dependent according to the location of the interacting force and the frequencies of the system are time-
varying. Yang et al. [27] derived the vehicle and bridge instantaneous frequencies, i.e. xv and xb considering only the first
bridge vibration mode of the Euler-Bernoulli beam and neglecting the damping effect and surface roughness as:
For xv 0 > xb0
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

x2v 0
mv x2v 0x2b02 p xc x2v 0 x2b0 mv x2v 0 2 pxc 2
xv ¼2
þ þ sin þ þ þ sin  x2v 0 x2b0 ð4aÞ
2 2 qL L 2 2 qL L
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

x2v 0 x2b0
mv x2v 0 2 pxc x2v 0 x2b0 mv x2v 0 2 pxc 2
x2b ¼ þ þ sin  þ þ sin  x2v 0 x2b0 ð4bÞ
2 2 qL L 2 2 qL L
For xv 0 < xb0
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

x2v 0 x2b0
mv x2v 0 2 p xc x2v 0 x2b0 mv x2v 0 2 pxc 2
x2v ¼ þ þ sin  þ þ sin  x2v 0 x2b0 ð4cÞ
2 2 qL L 2 2 qL L
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

x2v 0 x2b0
mv x2v 0 2 pxc x2v 0 x2b0 mv x2v 0 2 pxc 2
x ¼ 2
b þ þ sin þ þ þ sin  x2v 0 x2b0 ð4dÞ
2 2 qL L 2 2 qL L
where xv 0 and xb0 are the original vehicle and bridge natural frequencies respectively, and xc is the location of the vehicle on
the deck. It has been reported [27] that the largest deviation of the vehicle and bridge frequencies occur when the vehicle is
close to mid-span of the deck.

3. Extraction of time-varying characteristics of the VBI system with SET

3.1. The SET theory

The STFT of a signal sðt Þ with a real and even window hðtÞ can be written as
Z 1
X w ðt; xÞ ¼ sðsÞhðs  tÞeixs ds ð5Þ
1

where hðs  tÞ denotes the moving window and sðsÞ is the measured signal. The STFT expands a 1-D time-series signal onto
the 2-D TF plane for a display of the time-frequency information. For a purely harmonic signal sh ðt Þ ¼ Aeix0 t with fre-
quencyx0 and invariant amplitude A, its STFT can be expressed as
b ðx  x0 Þeix0 t
X h ðt; xÞ ¼ A  h ð6Þ
4 J. Li et al. / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 140 (2020) 106727

where h b ðx  x0 Þ is the Fourier transform (FT) of the window function. In the time and frequency domains, the bandwidth of
the window function leads to an energy-smeared spectrogram. It is therefore difficult to characterize the time-varying fea-
ture of a signal precisely. In this study, the IF trajectory [31] is adopted to improve the resolution of the time-frequency rep-
resentation in the framework of SST. To obtain the IF of the STFT, the derivative of X h ðt; xÞ with respect to time t is calculated
as
@ t X h ðt; xÞ ¼ X h ðt; xÞ  i  x0 ð7Þ
A 2-D IF x0 ðt; xÞ for any ðt; xÞ and X h ðt; xÞ–0 can be obtained from
@ t X h ðt; xÞ
x0 ðt; xÞ ¼ i  ð8Þ
X h ðt; xÞ
Yu et al. [31] generated a novel TFR using only the TF coefficient in the IF trajectory x ¼ x0 similar to SST as
Teðt; xÞ ¼ X h ðt; xÞ  dðx  x0 ðt; xÞÞ ð9Þ
where

1; x ¼ x0
dðx  x0 ðt; xÞÞ ¼ ð10Þ
0; x–x0
This post-processing procedure extracts the TF coefficient of X h ðt; xÞ only in the IF trajectory x ¼ x0 , and the rest of the
TF coefficients are ignored. In this study, only the largest TF coefficient is used to generate a novel TFR to have a minimum
noise effect on the TF result.

3.2. Time-frequency representation of response of the VBI system

The response of the VBI system can be expressed as

X
n X
n
sðt Þ ¼ sk ð t Þ ¼ Ak ðtÞ  eiuk ðtÞ ð11Þ
k¼1 k¼1
0
where uk ðt Þ and its first-order derivative uk ðtÞ are the instantaneous phase and the instantaneous frequency of the kth com-
ponent respectively. The STFT of sðtÞ can be represented by the first-order approximation [19] as
X
b
x  u0 ðt Þeiuk ðtÞ
n
X h ðt; xÞ  Ak ðt Þ  h k ð12Þ
k¼1

For well-separated measured response, the IF of each mode can be estimated from

0
X
n
0 @ t X h ðt; xÞ
u ðt; xÞ ¼ uk ðtÞ ¼ i  ð13Þ
k¼1
X h ðt; xÞ

The SET expression can then be written as

0 
Teðt; xÞ ¼ X h ðt; xÞ  d x  u ðt; xÞ ð14Þ
and the signal can be reconstructed approximately by
X
n

0  b
sðt Þ  Te t; uk ðt Þ = h ð0Þ ð15Þ
k¼1

Each mode can then be decomposed with first-order approximation as

0  b
sk ðt Þ  e t; uk ðtÞ = h ð0Þ ð16Þ

3.3. Time-varying characteristics of the VBI system using ridge detection

A popular multi-ridge detection algorithm [22] is employed to decompose the measured response and to estimate all IF
trajectories at the same time. This technique aims at finding the best frequency curve (denoted as Xi ðtÞ) in the TFR X h , which
maximizes the energy with a smoothness constraint through a total variation penalization term expressed as
Z Z  
argmax dXðtÞ2
b ¼
X 2
jX h ðt; XðtÞÞj dt  k   ð17Þ
X  dt  dt

where k controls the importance of the smoothness constraint. For multi-component extraction, this method can be iterated
after setting X h equals to null in the vicinity of the previously detected ridge [8].
18 J. Li et al. / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 140 (2020) 106727

Fig. 26. Strain measurements on the cables when vehicle moves in different directions.

(a) Sensors along longitudinal direction (b) Sensors along transverse direction
Fig. 27. IFs from responses at different locations.

7. Conclusions

The time-varying characteristics of the vehicle-bridge interaction system are studied numerically and experimentally. A
time-frequency analysis strategy, synchroextracting transform, is adopted to study the vehicle and bridge responses with
improved time-frequency resolution. Component extraction is conducted to obtain the instantaneous frequency related
components of the vehicle and bridge as well as the IF trajectories. The effects of vehicle parameters, moving speed, road
surface roughness and measurement noise on the instantaneous frequency are numerically investigated.
The instantaneous frequency variation is sensitive to the vehicle/bridge mass ratio. When the vehicle mass is negligible
compared to the bridge mass, the frequency of the system is non-varying. Both the vehicle and bridge frequency variations
can be observed in the instantaneous frequencies of the responses when the vehicle/bridge mass ratio is large and the vehi-
cle/bridge frequency ratio is close to one. The time-varying characteristics of the vehicle-bridge interaction are also noted in
a VBI system fabricated in the laboratory. Analysis on the bridge responses of an actual cable-stay bridge shows that the
instantaneous frequency are affected by the combined effects of moving vehicle and the cables. The time-varying character-
istics of the bridge under the passage of vehicles have a big potential for bridge structural health monitoring in practice.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
 J. Li et al. / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 140 (2020) 106727 19

Acknowledgements

This research is supported by research funding of the Australian Research Council Discover Project (DP160103197). The
financial aid is gratefully acknowledged. The data from the field bridge is instrumented by DATA61 which is greatly
acknowledged.

References

[1] B. Boashash, A. Aïssa-El-Bey, Robust multisensor time–frequency signal processing: a tutorial review with illustrations of performance enhancement in
selected application areas, Digital Signal Process. 77 (2018) 153–186.
[2] D. Cantero, D. Hester, J. Brownjohn, Evolution of bridge frequencies and modes of vibration during truck passage, Eng. Struct. 152 (2017) 452–464.
[3] D. Cantero, P. McGetrick, C.W. Kim, E.J. O’Brien, Experimental monitoring of bridge frequency evolution during the passage of vehicles with different
suspension properties, Eng. Struct. 187 (2019) 209–219.
[4] K.C. Chang, C.W. Kim, S. Borjigin, Variability in bridge frequency induced by a parked vehicle, Smart Struct. Syst. 13 (2014) 755–773.
[5] Y.B. Chen, M.Q. Feng, C.A. Tan, Bridge structural condition assessment based on vibration and traffic monitoring, J. Eng. Mech. ASCE 135 (8) (2009) 747–
758.
[6] I. Daubechies, J.F. Lu, H.T. Wu, Synchrosqueezed wavelet transforms: an empirical mode decomposition-like tool, Appl. Comput. Harmon. Anal. 30
(2011) 243–261.
[7] C.R. Farrar, S.W. Doebling, P.J. Cornwell, E.G. Straser, Variability of modal parameters measured on the alamosa canyon bridge, in: Proceedings of SPIE,
the International Society for Optical Engineering, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, 1997, pp. 257–263.
[8] D. Fourer, J. Harmouche, J. Schmitt, T. Oberlin, S. Meigen, F. Auger, P. Flandrin, The ASTRES toolbox for mode extraction of non-stationary
multicomponent signals, Proc. EUSIPCO 2017 (2017) 1170–1174.
[9] A. González, E.J. O’Brien, P. McGetrick, Identification of damping in a bridge using a moving instrumented vehicle, J. Sound Vib. 331 (2012) 4115–4131.
[10] N.E. Huang, Z. Shen, S.R. Long, et al, The empirical mode decomposition and the Hilbert spectrum for nonlinear and non-stationary time series analysis,
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 454, 1998, pp. 903–995.
[11] ISO 8608 (1995), Mechanical Vibration–Road Surfaces Profiles–Reporting of Measured Data. International Organization for Standardization,
Switzerland.
[12] S.M. Khan, S. Atamturktur, M. Chowdhury, M. Rahman, Integration of structural health monitoring and intelligent transportation systems for bridge
condition assessment: current status and future direction, IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst. 17 (2016) 2107–2122.
[13] C.W. Kim, R. Isemoto, P. McGetrick, M. Kawatani, E.J. O’Brien, Drive-by bridge inspection from three different approaches, Smart Struct. Syst. 13 (5)
(2014) 775–796.
[14] C.Y. Kim, D.S. Jung, N.S. Kim, S.D. Kwon, M.Q. Feng, Effect of vehicle weight on natural frequencies of bridges measured from traffic-induced vibration,
Earthquake Eng. Eng. Vib. 2 (1) (2003) 109–115.
[15] J. Kim, J.P. Lynch, Experimental analysis of vehicle–bridge interaction using a wireless monitoring system and a two-stage system identification
technique, Mech. Syst. Sig. Process. 28 (2012) 3–19.
[16] S.S. Law, X.Q. Zhu, Dynamic behavior of damaged concrete bridge structures under moving vehicular loads, Eng. Struct. 26 (2004) 1279–1293.
[17] J.Z. Li, M.B. Su, L.C. Fan, Natural frequency of railway girder bridges under vehicle loads, J. Bridge Eng. ASCE 8 (4) (2003) 199–203.
[18] A. Malekjafarian, E.J. O’Brien, On the use of a passing vehicle for the estimation of bridge mode shapes, J. Sound Vib. 397 (2017) 77–91.
[19] S. Meignen, T. Oberlin, P. Depalle, P. Flandrin, S. McLaughlin, Adaptive multimode signal reconstruction from time–frequency representations, Philos.
Trans. R. Soc. A: Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 374 (2065) (2016) 20150205.
[20] K.V. Nguyen, Dynamic analysis of a cracked beam-like bridge subjected to earthquake and moving vehicle, Adv. Struct. Eng. 18 (2015) 75–95.
[21] M. Sun, M. Makki Alamdari, H. Kalhori, Automated operational modal analysis of a cable-stayed bridge, J. Bridge Eng. ASCE 22 (2017) 05017012.
[22] G. Thakur, E. Brevdo, N.S. Fuckar, H.T. Wu, The Synchrosqueezing algorithm for time-varying spectral analysis: robustness properties and new
paleoclimate applications, Signal Process. 93 (5) (2013) 1079–1094.
[23] G. Thakur, H.T. Wu, Synchrosqueezing-based recovery of instantaneous frequency from nonuniform samples, SIAM J. Math. Anal. 43 (2011) 2078–
2095.
[24] S.B. Wang, X.F. Chen, G.G. Cai, B.Q. Chen, X. Li, Z.J. He, Matching demodulation transform and synchrosqueezing in time-frequency analysis, IEEE Trans.
Signal Process. 62 (2014) 69–84.
[25] W.J. Wang, Z.R. Lu, J.K. Liu, Time-frequency analysis of a coupled bridge-vehicle system with breathing cracks, Interact. Multiscale Mech. 5 (2012) 169–
185.
[26] F. Xiao, G.S. Chen, J.L. Hulsey, W. Zatar, Characterization of non-stationary properties of vehicle–bridge response for structural health monitoring, Adv.
Mech. Eng. 9 (2017), 1687814017699141.
[27] Y.B. Yang, M.C. Cheng, K.C. Chang, Frequency variation in vehicle–bridge interaction systems, Int. J. Struct. Stab. Dyn. 13 (2013) 1350019.
[28] J. Yang, X.H. He, Y.F. Zou, X.J. Zhu, L.H. Zhang, Time-frequency features of continuous metro bridge under various excitations, Proceedings of
experimental vibration analysis for civil engineering structures (EVACES 2019), 5-8 September, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China, 2019.
[29] Y.B. Yang, Y.C. Li, K.C. Chang, Constructing the mode shapes of a bridge from a passing vehicle: a theoretical study, Smart Struct. Syst. 13 (2014) 797–
819.
[30] Y.B. Yang, C.W. Lin, J.D. Yau, Extracting bridge frequencies from the dynamic response of a passing vehicle, J. Sound Vib. 272 (2004) 471–493.
[31] G. Yu, M.J. Yu, C.Y. Xu, Synchroextracting transform, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 64 (2017) 8042–8054.
[32] Q.W. Zhang, L.C. Fan, W.C. Yuan, Traffic-induced variability in dynamic properties of cable-stayed bridge, Earthquake Eng. Struct. Dyn. 31 (2002) 2015–
2021.
[33] X.Q. Zhu, S.S. Law, Structural health monitoring based on vehicle-bridge interaction: accomplishments and challenges, Adv. Struct. Eng. 18 (12) (2015)
1999–2015.
[34] X.Q. Zhu, S.S. Law, L. Huang, S.Y. Zhu, Damage identification of supporting structures with a moving sensory system, J. Sound Vib. 415 (2018) 111–127.