Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 40 (2011) 1250–1256

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jseaes

Normalizing XRF-scanner data: A cautionary note on the interpretation

of high-resolution records from organic-rich lakes
L. Löwemark a,*, H.-F. Chen b, T.-N. Yang c, M. Kylander a, E.-F. Yu d, Y.-W. Hsu d, T.-Q. Lee c, S.-R. Song e,
S. Jarvis f
a
Department of Geological Sciences, Stockholm University, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden
b
Institute of Applied Geosciences, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung 20224, Taiwan
c
Institute of Earth Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
d
Department of Earth Sciences, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
e
Institute of Geosciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
f
National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, United Kingdom

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: X-ray fluorescence (XRF) scanning of unlithified, untreated sediment cores is becoming an increasingly
Available online 16 June 2010 common method used to obtain paleoproxy data from lake records. XRF-scanning is fast and delivers
high-resolution records of relative variations in the elemental composition of the sediment. However,
Keywords: lake sediments display extreme variations in their organic matter content, which can vary from just a
XRF-scanning few percent to well over 50%. As XRF scanners are largely insensitive to organic material in the sediment,
Normalization increasing levels of organic material effectively dilute those components that can be measured, such as
Lake sediment
the lithogenic material (the closed-sum effect). Consequently, in sediments with large variations in
organic material, the measured variations in an element will to a large extent mirror the changes in
organic material. It is therefore necessary to normalize the elements in the lithogenic component of
the sediment against a conservative element to allow changes in the input of the elements to be
addressed. In this study we show that Al, which is the lightest element that can be measured using
the Itrax XRF-scanner, can be used to effectively normalize the elements of the lithogenic fraction of
the sediment against variations in organic content. We also show that care must be taken when choosing
resolution and exposure time to ensure optimal output from the measurements.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction treated sediment at sub-millimeter resolution (e.g., Croudace

The recognition that the anthropogenic emission of CO2 is likely
to cause a significant warming of the global climate (IPCC, 2007)
has fueled an intense search for records of past climate variability
to constrain model simulations of how the climate reacts to
changes in different forcings. A relatively new technique that is
gaining importance is the micro X-ray fluorescence (XRF) scanning
of sedimentary records (Rothwell and Rack, 2006). This technique
provides high-resolution relative variations of most elements and
has been applied to sediments from a large range of settings, both
lacustrine and marine sediments spanning from subtropical (Diek-
mann et al., 2008; Haug et al., 2003; Yancheva et al., 2007) to Arctic
(Löwemark et al., 2008) environments.
XRF-core scanning is a fast, non-destructive technique that
delivers information about elemental variations directly from un-
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +46 8 164749.
E-mail address: loewemark@gmail.com (L. Löwemark).
et al., 2006; Haschke, 2006; Richter et al., 2006; Sakamoto et al.,
2006). Depending on the X-ray tube used, elements from Al to U
can be detected with detection limits in the ppm range for many
elements. The elemental variations in the sediment contain clues
about environmental shifts and climatic changes as well as of pos-
sible anthropogenic influence on the sedimentary system.
The usefulness of the XRF-scanning technique is, however, lim-
ited by a few factors. The most obvious is that elemental variations
are measured as counts rather than concentrations, and that cali-
bration to actual concentrations requires quantitative analysis of
the bulk sediment chemistry. Other sedimentary factors influenc-
ing XRF measurements are water content, surface roughness, and
grain size variations (Böning et al., 2007; Tjallingii et al., 2007;
Weltje and Tjallingii, 2008). Furthermore, the aging of the X-ray
tube also influences the counts measured, making it difficult to
compare different sections of the same core unless they were mea-
sured with the same X-ray tube relatively closely in time. These
limitations are of technical nature and can be easily overcome by
a stringent sampling and measurement protocol.

1367-9120/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2010.06.002
 L. Löwemark et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 40 (2011) 1250–1256
An additional problem, related to the composition of the mea-
sured sediment, has the potential to cause much more severe mis-
interpretations. As the X-ray fluorescence signal emitted from the
sample surface is a function of the composition of the sediment,
large variations in light elements, outside the measuring range of
the XRF-detector such as carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen, can cause
a dilution effect resulting in lower counts for heavier elements.
In other words, an increase in the organic matter content will re-
sult in a decrease in the absolute counts detected for all measured
elements, and vice versa, the well-known closed-sum effect (Cal-
vert, 1983; Rollinson, 1993). Conventional XRF is often performed
after loss on ignition, therefore already only reflecting the litho-
genic component of the sediment. As the strength of the XRF-scan-
ning method lies in the relative variations in the elements
(Croudace et al., 2006), it becomes important to normalize the
measured counts in order to obtain an environmentally relevant
signal. Otherwise, all interpretations run the risk of becoming a
mirror of organic matter (or carbonate) variations.
Fig. 1. Map showing the locations of Li–Yu Pond (Li-Yu Tan) in Taiwan. Inset map shows location of Taiwan in SE Asia.
1251
The aim of this study is to investigate to what extent Al mea-
sured by the XRF-scanner can be used to normalize the other ele-
ments to allow a better assessment of their relative changes.
Normalizing elemental data against a conservative element is com-
mon practice in settings where biological or diagenetic processes
might influence some of the major elements. In the case of lacus-
trine sediments, Al likely is a suitable candidate as it forms a major
part of most minerals but is little affected by diagenetic and biolog-
ical processes.
2. Materials and methods
This study is based on a sediment core from the subtropical Li–
Yu Pond in central western Taiwan (Fig. 1). Li–Yu Pond was cored
to a depth of 20 m, but only the uppermost 8 m, roughly equivalent
to the last 4 ky, were used in this study. The core was drilled in
approximately 1 m sections by first pushing a steel tube into the
sediment, after which an inner tube was lowered inside the first
1252 L. Löwemark et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 40 (2011) 1250–1256
Table 1
Radiocarbon ages used for age control of the uppermost 8 m of the Li–Yu Pond record (Hsu, 2007).
Depth (cm) Sample ID/lab code Material
47 R28804-1/NZA 21661 Plant fragment
132 R28804-2/NZA 21662 Plant fragment
210 R28804-3/NZA 21663 Plant fragment
290 R28804-4/NZA 21664 Plant fragment
414 R28804-5/NZA 21665 Plant fragment
638 R28804-6/NZA 21666 Plant fragment
656.5 R28804-7/NZA 21667 Plant fragment
to collect the sediment. This process was then repeated until the
basement in the basin was reached. The XRF-scans were performed
on U-channels originally subsampled at Academia Sinica for min-
eral–magnetic studies. The U-channels were transported to Stock-
holm University and scanned on the Itrax XRF-core scanner at the
Department of Geological Sciences and Geochemistry. For details
on the Itrax XRF-scanner please refer to Croudace et al. (2006).
The core was measured with 2 mm resolution and an exposure
time of 8 s with the Mo-tube, and with a resolution of 5 mm and
30 s exposure time with the Cr-tube. The energy spectrum emitted
by the Cr-tube primarily excites electrons in lighter elements, mak-
ing it more suitable for measurements of elements lighter than Cr,
while the energy spectrum emitted by the Mo-tube primarily ex-
cites electrons in the shells of heavier elements, making it less suit-
able for measurements of elements lighter than K, but suitable for
measurement on heavier elements. Here we present Fe and Ti-
data, two elements often used in paleoenvironmental studies, to-
gether with Al-data, which is used to normalize the Fe and Ti mea-
surements to allow an assessment of relative variations in the
lithological component of the sediment. For the calculation of ele-
ment/Al-ratios the Li–Yu Pond data were resampled with 5 mm
resolution. The calculated ratios then were plotted both raw and
smoothed with a 5-point moving average. Analyses of TOC and
TN of organic-containing samples followed standard procedures
(Chen et al., 2009; Ku et al., 2005). In brief, an aliquot of decalcified
sample was wrapped in a tin capsule and then combusted using a
ThermoQuest EA1110 elemental analyzer at the Department of
Geosciences, National Taiwan University (NTU) to measure the
TOC and TN contents, and thus the atom/atom TOC/TN ratio. The
precision of measurement was 0.2 wt.% and 0.3 wt.% for TOC and
TN, respectively. TOC of the core was measured every 20 cm for
the whole core with additional analyses (45 data in total) wher-
ever significant changes in layers and many biogeochemical prop-
erties were observed. These additional analyses were done to
increase resolution, and then to better understand changes in bio-
geochemical properties of the core. Age control on the upper 8 m
from Li–Yu Pond was obtained from seven radiocarbon dates mea-
sured at the Rafter Radiocarbon Laboratory, Institute of Geological
and Nuclear Sciences, New Zealand (Hsu, 2007) (Table 1).
3. Results
The uppermost 8 m of Li–Yu Pond consist of an alternating se-
quence of greenish, grayish, brownish layers of mud with interca-
lated siltier or sandier layers (Hsu, 2007). TOC values show
relatively little variability in the lower 6 m with values typically
between 1% and 4%, while the uppermost 2 m display rapid swings
from below 1% to well above 10% (Fig. 2). Aluminium was mea-
sured with both the Cr- and the Mo-tube. As anticipated, the Mo-
data show considerably lower counts and a much lower signal-
to-noise ratio than the Cr-data (Fig. 2). This is only partly due to
the shorter exposure time used with the Mo-tube, as mentioned
previously; the emitted energy spectrum from the Cr-tube is better
suited to excite electrons in lighter elements compared to the Mo-
14
C age (BP) Age range (Cal. y BP) Cal. age error (Cal. y BP)
117 ± 30 8–278 143 ± 135
1297 ± 35 1170–1290 1230 ± 60
1423 ± 30 1284–1360 1322 ± 38
1629 ± 35 1415–1607 1511 ± 96
1713 ± 30 1535–1705 1620 ± 85
2511 ± 30 2468–2740 2604 ± 136
2523 ± 30 2482–2744 2613 ± 131
tube. Nevertheless, the general trend is in good agreement with the
data obtained from the Cr-tube. Aluminium-values in the lower
part of the core are relatively stable, but with a few rapid shifts.
In contrast, the upper part shows a number of rapid oscillations
that roughly mirror variations in TOC; peaks in TOC correspond
to minima in Al.
Titanium, also determined with both X-ray tubes, shows a sim-
ilar pattern as Al. In the lower part of the core the Ti-levels are
rather stable, while they are considerably more variable in the
upper part. As with Al, dips in Ti tend to correspond to maxima
in TOC (Fig. 2). However, in comparison to Al, there are only small
differences in the shape of the profiles obtained from the two X-ray
tubes, although the actual number of counts differ by more than
one order of magnitude. The Fe record shows a somewhat similar,
although spikier, pattern to Ti having a correlation coefficient of
0.45 (both elements obtained with the Mo-tube). Lows in Fe gener-
ally tend to occur in intervals with high TOC. When Ti and Fe are
normalized against Al, the Ti/Al and the Fe/Al curves still show a
strong resemblance to each other (r = 0.95), but a slightly new pat-
tern appears. The lower part is still fairly stable with minor varia-
tions, but in the upper part, the element-to-Al ratios display a
distinctly different pattern from the elemental counts. In particu-
lar, several intervals characterized by increased Ti and Fe levels,
display low element-to-Al ratios, and vice versa. It is especially
interesting to notice that the upper intervals characterized by high
TOC levels (over 10%) and low element counts show increased ele-
ment-to-Al ratios. This suggests a change in the composition of the
lithogenic component. The calculated element-to-Al ratios display
a number of extreme peaks caused by very low, or zero, Al counts.
In the plots this problem is in part overcome by the removal of ex-
treme outliers and by presenting a 5-point running average.
4. Discussion
The most striking feature of the XRF records is probably the
high-frequency variability (Fig. 2). In part this is noise, but it also re-
flects the way that the XRF-scanner measurements are performed.
The obtained XRF-scanner measurements reflect the composition
of a thin (sub-mm) layer on top of the sediment surface and can
therefore display considerable high-amplitude variability caused
by variations in the sediment composition over small distances.
These small scale variations tend to become averaged out by con-
ventional measurements which represent an average of the bulk
composition over a cm or more. It is therefore not surprising that
XRF-scanner data display considerably more high-frequency,
high-amplitude variability than conventional measurements. The
data quality is also affected by cracks or gaps in the sample surface.
These can be caused by the coring or sampling process, or due to
desiccation of the sediment during storage or measurement. While
gaps are fairly easy to detect as indicated by sharp drops in all ele-
ments over the interval, cracks tend to result in extreme spikes fol-
lowed by dips. Gaps and cracks can usually be easily identified in
the line scan photograph and X-ray radiographs produced during
scanning (Fig. 3). Surface roughness and variations in water content
 L. Löwemark et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 40 (2011) 1250–1256 1253

Fig. 2. Total organic carbon and XRF-counts measured in the Li–Yu Tan. Al measured with the Cr-tube (black) shows considerably higher counts and less variability compared
to the data obtained with the Mo-tube (gray). The Ti-records measured with Cr (black) and Mo-tubes (gray) display similar record although with different absolute counts.
When normalized against Al, the variations in Ti and Fe display a similar pattern (gray lines are raw data, black line show 5-point moving average with outliers removed from
the data set). Gray bars indicate the position of major cracks and gaps in the sedimentary record.

(Tjallingii et al., 2007) also influence the data quality to some de-
gree, but these factors are much more difficult to identify compared
to gaps and cracks.
Titanium and Fe values display a number of sharp peaks and
dips concomitant with similar features in the Al-record, which
therefore are attributable to gaps and cracks in the sediment. This
is confirmed by the inspection of instrument parameters such as
the mean standard error (MSE, an expression of the fit between
theoretical to measured XRF spectra) and total counts per second
and from studies of X-ray radiographs of the sediment (Fig. 3).
When ignoring the artifacts caused by cracks in the sediment,
the elemental records still indicate a number of abrupt changes
in the depositional system. In a similar setting in southeastern Chi-
na, the Huguang Maar, variations in the Ti content in the sediment
were interpreted as variations in aeolian dust controlled by varia-
tions in the strength of the East Asian winter monsoon (Yancheva
et al., 2007). It is tempting to interpret the observed variations in
elements in a similar manner, directly reflecting a climatic signal.
However, although these changes certainly do reflect changes in
the depositional system, the environmental interpretation is com-
plicated by two important factors, the matrix effect and the dilu-
tion effect.
In the ideal case, the counts measured should be directly pro-
portional to the concentration of the element in the sediment. In
reality, however, the signal depends on the presence and concen-
trations of other elements that might attenuate or enhance the
XRF-signal (Beckhoff et al., 2006). For example, X-ray fluorescence
from atoms deeper in the sample must first pass through the upper
sediment layers on their way to the detector. During this transfer
through the sediment parts of the fluorescence might get absorbed
by overlying atoms. However, the fluorescence from one element
might become enhanced because its atoms interact with and are
excited by fluorescent photons from a second element. This results
in a corresponding decrease in detected fluorescence of the second
element as a portion of its fluorescent photons are attenuated by
the first element and fail to reach the detector. The secondary fluo-
rescence therefore enhances the counts of certain elements while
decreasing the counts of others (Berth, 1969). This matrix effect
can be corrected for if the approximate concentrations of the dif-
ferent elements in the sample are known. In the case of unlithified
sediment cores where both water content and organic carbon con-
tent vary it is usually not in practice possible to correct for the ma-
trix effect.
The matrix effect is somewhat related to the dilution effect
being caused by variations in biogenic material. An increase in or-
ganic material, consisting primarily of C, H, N, will inevitably lead
to a decrease in the concentration of all other elements, and
accordingly, to a decrease in the measured counts of these other
individual elements (closed-sum effect). Consequently, an ob-
served increase or decrease in an element does not by necessity
mean that there has been an increase or decrease in the flux of that
element, rather this may have been caused by a change in the
deposition rate of the diluting agent, which in lakes usually is or-
ganic matter. In the marine realm, this effect is well-known and
handled through flux calculations, comparison with a standard,
or normalization against a conservative element (Brumsack,
2006). Normalization to Al allows the relative variations in the lith-
ogenic component of the sediment to be addressed. This informa-
1254 L. Löwemark et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 40 (2011) 1250–1256

Fig. 3. Detail of Section 4 in Li–Yu Pond from measurement with the Mo-tube. X-ray radiograph showing variations in sediment density and two cracks (light bands). Total
counts (1000 counts s 1), mean square error between measured data and fit (MSE), Ti- and Fe-counts all display distinct dips in relation to the cracks. The Al-data here was
measured with the Mo-tube and contain too much noise to allow a comparison with the X-ray radiograph.

tion can be used to separate the aeolian, terrestrial, and biogenic
input into the system.
To illustrate the effect of dilution by TOC on the measured
intensity of an element in the lithogenic component, a typical
example is calculated. The TOC content of subtropical lake sedi-
ment typically varies between a few percent to over 50% (Maxwell,
2001; Selvaraj et al., 2007). However, as organic matter also con-
sists of a large portion of other light elements such as H, O, N,
and S, the organic component of the sediment can be considerably
higher than indicated by TOC alone. The carbon component of the
organic matter increases with the maturity of the organic matter,
but in unlithified sediment, the percentage of C in organic matter
often is lower than 50% (Cambardella et al., 2000; Tyson, 1995).
As a result, sediment with a TOC content around 25% (organ-
ic = 50%) might only contain 50% lithogenic material. Assuming
for simplicity’s sake, that the organic matter in the lake sediment
consists to 50% of carbon, and to 50% of H, N, O, and S, then the lith-
ogenic component would make up about 100% (2  TOC). Conse-
quently, if the TOC level rises from for example 1% to 25%, the
elements in the lithogenic component would decrease by about
50%. This effect of dilution by organic material is well know (the
closed-sum effect) (Calvert, 1983; Rollinson, 1993), but there is
no straight forward method to deal with it since XRF-scanners
deliver counts rather than concentrations. In marine settings, the
sedimentary composition is often compared to the average compo-
sition of a typical sediment, such as black shales (cf. Tribovillard
et al., 2006). In more variable settings, as in lakes for instance, it
is often more useful to look at the relative variations of the differ-
ent elements compared to a major, conservative element. Prefera-
bly, the element should not itself be a proxy nor affected by
biological or redox processes. Elements such as Fe or Mn are
unsuitable because of their redox sensitive nature while elements
like Ca or Si are strongly affected by biological processes. Other
major elements such as Na, K, Sr, or Mg are easily dissolved and
weathered, also making them unsuitable for normalization. Tita-
nium is an important component in many minerals, is abundant,
and biologically not very active. However, Ti is enriched in heavy
minerals and in aeolian dust and is therefore used as a proxy for
high-current regimes (Schnetger et al., 2000) or enhanced wind
activity (Wehausen and Brumsack, 1999; Yancheva et al., 2007).
Furthermore, Ti content is also highly influenced by the composi-
tion of the original protolith (Rundnick and Fountain, 1995; Rund-
nick and Gao, 2003). The most suitable element therefore is likely
Al. It is abundant, little active biologically, and is not particularly
affected by redox variations (Brumsack, 2006). As Al is a major
structural component in the sand, silt and clay that enters the
basin, a normalization of the other elements against Al allows us
to see how the proportion of the individual elements in the litho-
genic part of the sediment have changed relative to each other over
time.
After normalization, the pattern displayed by Ti/Al and Fe/Al
differ markedly from the Ti- and Fe-records in the studied core.
It now becomes apparent that the three intervals characterized
by enhanced TOC levels, 480–440 cm, 170–120 cm, and 80–
50 cm, are also distinguished by strong increases in Ti- and Fe-
to-Al ratios. It is tempting to interpret these concomitant changes
in TOC levels and in element-to-Al ratios as a climatic signal likely
caused by a change in weathering conditions. That the enhanced
Ti/Al levels should be caused by an increase in aeolian dust input
seems unlikely. Although element-to-Al ratios are high in TOC-rich
 L. Löwemark et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 40 (2011) 1250–1256
intervals, the absolute counts in Ti and Fe actually decrease, indi-
cating a drop in the input of these elements. Weathering is primar-
ily influenced by precipitation and temperature, and the rate of
weathering for various minerals is generally the reverse of Bowen’s
reaction series, meaning that minerals rich in quartz and Al remain
in the soil while more easily dissolved elements would be weath-
ered from the soil and transported to the depositional basin (Brady,
1990; Fang et al., 2003; Selly, 1994). Consequently, the simulta-
neous increase of TOC and Ti- and Fe-to-Al ratios observed in Li–
Yu Pond could be interpreted to be the result of periods of in-
creased precipitation leading to increased chemical weathering in
the catchment, enhanced flushing of soil organic matter into the
lake, and possibly also to higher lake levels causing dysoxic condi-
tions on the lake floor enhancing preservation of organic material
(cf. Yancheva et al., 2007). However, increased TOC could also be
due to peat formation during lake level low-stands, a thorough
paleoenvironmental interpretation of the Li–Yu Pond record is be-
yond the scope of this study.
From the above discussion it should be clear that elemental
variations obtained by XRF-scanning, although a very powerful
tool, cannot be taken at face value, at least not in settings that
show large variations in the non-lithogenic component of the sed-
iment. Aluminium-normalization as outlined above is a powerful
way to standardize the obtained XRF-scanner data to make com-
parisons between different intervals and sites possible. However,
Al-normalization of XRF-scanner data is also marked by a number
of limitations. The most severe being the poor detection of Al.
While data obtained using the Cr-tube give reasonable Al-data,
the detection of heavier elements is not optimal, thus requiring a
second run with the Mo-tube for each core and a switch of tubes.
This procedure effectively doubles the machine time, increases
the risk of the sediment drying out, and introduces an alignment
error as it is often difficult to align two datasets with mm-preci-
sion. Aluminium-measurements also require considerably longer
exposure times than are necessary for most other elements, further
increasing time consumption during measurement. Perhaps most
importantly, however, is the fact that the detection limit for Al
may not be reached in organic-rich intervals, thus making normal-
ization in the intervals where normalization is the most needed
difficult. Other solutions to the normalization problem would in-
clude using other elements, but it is difficult to identify an element
that is both abundant and conservative enough, or to normalize
against the organic matter, carbonate fraction or total lithogenic
fraction (Sanei et al., 2001). The latter three would however require
quantitative, destructive measurements on the samples, thus
departing from the basic concept of fast non-destructive XRF mea-
surements. Another potential avenue to address the normalization
problem has recently been indicated by Guyard et al. (2006). They
showed that the ratio between the incoherent and coherent scat-
tering (indirect measures of the number of light and heavier ele-
ments, respectively) was closely correlated to the TOC content.
The usefulness of this method will need to be tested on a large
range of materials before it can be applied routinely to standardize
XRF-scanner data.
5. Conclusions
From the study of TOC and XRF-scanner elemental data from
subtropical lake sediments from central Taiwan several conclu-
sions regarding the interpretation of XRF-scanner data can be
drawn.
s The number of counts measured for the individual elements is
strongly influenced by variations in the organic component of
the sediment. Therefore the measured signal needs to be nor-
1255
malized or standardized against a standard or a conservative
element.
s The most suitable element to be used for normalization will in
most settings be Al since it is abundant, among the last to be
affected by weathering, and is also little affected by biological
and redox processes.
s However, Al-measurements are hampered by the poor detec-
tion limits for Al, requiring the sediments to be measured with
different X-ray tubes to obtain the full spectrum of elements,
and the use of long exposure times to ensure reliable Al-data.
We therefore strongly recommend that a normalization or stan-
dardization of XRF-scanner data is performed before any paleoen-
vironmental interpretation is attempted. This is particularly
important in settings where large fluctuations in the organic frac-
tion of the sediment can be anticipated.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the National Science Council of the
ROC under Grant NSC NSC 97-2116-M-019-004 to CHF. YEF
acknowledges grants from NSC, Academia Sinica, and from Na-
tional Taiwan Normal University. LL and YTN also acknowledges
financial support from Swedish Research Council. Nathalie Ljung-
gren is thanked for assistance with the Itrax measurements. Anders
Rindby is thanked for help with the discussion on XRF-scanner
methodology. We gratefully acknowledge the constructive reviews
by Nicolaj K. Larsen and one anonymous reviewer who helped im-
prove this study.
References
Beckhoff, B., Kanngieber, B., Langhoff, N., Wedell, R., Wolff, H., 2006. Handbook of
Practical X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis. Springer, Heidelberg. 843 pp.
Berth, E.P., 1969. Principles and Practice of X-Ray Spectrometric Analysis. Plenum
Press, New York.
Böning, P., Bard, E., Rose, J., 2007. Toward direct, micron-scale XRF elemental maps
and quantitative profiles of wet marine sediments. Geochemistry, Geophysics,
Geosystems 8, Q05004. doi:10.1029/2006GC001480.
Brady, N.C., 1990. The Nature and Properties of Soil. Macmillan, New York. 621 pp.
Brumsack, H.-J., 2006. The trace metal content of recent organic carbon-rich
sediments: implications for Cretaceous black shale formation. Palaeogeography,
Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 232 (2–4), 344–361.
Calvert, S.E., 1983. Geochemistry of Pleistocene sapropels and associated sediments
from the eastern Mediterranean. Oceanologica Acta 6, 255–267.
Cambardella, C.A., Gajda, A.M., Doran, J.W., Wienhold, B.J., Kettler, T.A., 2000.
Estimation of particulate and total organic mater by weight loss-on-ignition. In:
Lal, R., Kimble, J.M., Follett, R.F., Stewart, B.A. (Eds.), Assessment Methods for
Soil Carbon. Advances in Soil Science. Lewis Publishers, pp. 349–359.
Chen, S.-H., Wu, J.-T., Yang, T.-N., Chuang, P.-P., Huang, S.-Y., Wang, Y.-S., 2009. Late
Holocene paleoenvironmental changes in subtropical Taiwan inferred from
pollen and diatoms in lake sediments. Journal of Paleolimnology 41 (2), 315–
327.
Croudace, I.W., Rindby, A., Rothwell, R.G., 2006. ITRAX: description and evaluation
of a new multi-function X-ray core scanner. In: Rothwell, R.G. (Ed.), New
Techniques in Sediment Core Analysis. Geological Society of London, London,
pp. 51–63.
Diekmann, B., Hofmann, J., Henrich, R., Fütterer, D.K., Röhl, U., Wei, K.Y., 2008.
Detrital sediment supply in the southern Okinawa Trough and its relation to
sea-level and Kuroshio dynamics during the late Quaternary. Marine Geology
255, 83–95.
Fang, J.N., Lo, H.J., Song, S.R., Chung, S.H., Chen, Y.L., Lin, I.C., Yu, B.S., Chen, H.F., Li,
L.J., Liu, C.M., 2003. Hydrothermal alteration of andesite in acid solutions:
experimental study in 0.05 M H2SO4 solution at 110 °C. Journal of the Chinese
Chemical Society 50 (2), 239–244.
Guyard, H., Chapron, E., St-Onge, G., Anselmetti, F.S., Arnaud, F., Magand, O., Francus,
P., Mélières, M.-A., 2006. High-altitude varve records of abrupt environmental
changes and mining activity over the last 4000 years in the Western French Alps
(Lake Bramant, Grandes Rousses Massif). Quaternary Science Reviews 26, 2644–
2660.
Haschke, M., 2006. The Eagle III BKA system, a novel sediment core X-ray
fluorescence analyser with very high spatial resolution. In: Rothwell, R.G.
(Ed.), New Techniques in Sediment Core Analysis. Geological Society of London,
London, pp. 31–37.
Haug, G.H., Günther, D., Peterson, L.C., Sigman, D.M., Hughen, K.A., Aeschlimann, B.,
2003. Climate and the collapse of Maya civilization. Science 299, 1731–1735.
1256 L. Löwemark et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 40 (2011) 1250–1256
Hsu, Y.-W., 2007. Late Holocene paleoclimate change at Central Taiwan:
Biogeochemical proxy analysis of lacustrine sediments from Li-Yu Pond, Puli.
Master Thesis. National Taiwan Normal University. 111 pp (in Chinese).
IPCC, 2007. Climate Change 2007. Synthesis Report.
Ku, H.-W., Chen, Y.-G., Liu, T.-K., 2005. Environmental change in the southwestern
coastal plain of Taiwan since late Pleistocene: using multiple proxies of
sedimentary organic matter. Terrestrial Atmospheric Oceanic Sciences 16,
1079–1096.
Löwemark, L., Jakobsson, M., Mörth, M., Backman, J., 2008. Arctic Ocean Mn contents
and sediment color cycles. Polar Research 27, 105–113.
Maxwell, A.L., 2001. Holocene monsoon changes inferred from lake sediment pollen
and carbonate records, Northeastern Cambodia. Quaternary Research 56, 390–
400.
Richter, T.O., van der Gaast, S., Koster, B., Vaars, A., Gieles, R., de Stigter, H.C., de
Haas, H., van Weering, T.C.E., 2006. The Avaatech XRF core scanner: technical
description and applications to NE Atlantic sediments. In: Rothwell, R.G. (Ed.),
New Techniques in Sediment Core Analysis. Geological Society of London,
London, pp. 39–50.
Rollinson, H.R., 1993. Using Geochemical Data: Evaluation, Presentation,
Interpretation. Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Rothwell, R.G., Rack, F.R., 2006. New techniques in sediment core analysis: an
introduction. In: Rothwell, R.G. (Ed.), New Techniques in Sediment Core
Analysis. Geological Society of London, London, pp. 1–29.
Rundnick, R.L., Fountain, D.M., 1995. Nature and composition of the continental
crust: a lower crustal perspective. Reviews of Geophysics 33 (3), 267–309.
Rundnick, R.L., Gao, S., 2003. Composition of the continental crust. In: Rundnick, R.L.
(Ed.), Treatise on geochemistry. Elsevier, pp. 1–64.
Sakamoto, T., Kuroki, K., Sugawara, T., Aoike, Kan., Iijima, K., Sugisaki, S., 2006. Non-
destructive X-ray fluorescence (XRF) core-imaging scanner, TATSCAN-F2.
Scientific Drilling 2, 37–39.
Sanei, H., Goodarzi, F., Flier-Keller, E.V.D., 2001. Historical variation of elements
with respect to different geochemical fractions in recent sediments from
Pigeon Lake, Alberta, Canada. Journal of Environmental Monitoring 3, 27–
36.
Schnetger, B., Brumsack, H.J., Schale, H., Hinrichs, J., Dittert, L., 2000. Geochemical
characteristics of deep-sea sediments from the Arabian Sea: a high-resolution
study. Deep Sea Research Part II 47, 2735–2768.
Selly, R.C., 1994. Applied Sedimentology. Academic Press, London. 446 pp.
Selvaraj, K., Chen, C.T.A., Lou, J.-Y., 2007. Holocene East Asian monsoon variability:
Links to solar and tropical Pacific forcing. Geophysics Research Letters 34,
L01703. doi:10.1029/2006GL028155.
Tjallingii, R., Röhl, U., Kölling, M., Bickert, T., 2007. Influence of the water content
on X-ray fluorescence corescanning measurements in soft marine sedi-
ments. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 8 (2), Q02004. doi:10.1029/
2006GC001393.
Tribovillard, N., Algeo, T.J., Lyons, T., Riboulleau, A., 2006. Trace metals as
paleoredox and paleoproductivity proxies: an update. Chemical Geology 232
(1–2), 12–32.
Tyson, R.V., 1995. Sedimentary Organic Matter. Chapman and Hall, London. 615 pp.
Wehausen, R., Brumsack, H.J., 1999. Cyclic variations in the chemical composition of
eastern Mediterranean Pliocene sediments: a key for understanding sapropel
formation. Marine Geology 153 (1–4), 161–176.
Weltje, G.J., Tjallingii, R., 2008. Calibration of XRF core scanners for quantitative
geochemical logging of sediment cores: theory and application. Earth Planet
Science Letters 274 (3–4), 423–438.
Yancheva, G., Nowaczyk, N.R., Mingram, J., Dulski, P., Schettler, G., Negendank,
J.F.W., Liu, J., Sigman, D.M., Peterson, L.C., Haug, G.H., 2007. Influence of the
intertropical convergence zone on the East Asian monsoon. Nature 445 (7123),
74–77.