CHAPTER 5

GENDER, POLITICS AND VIOLENCE

UNDERSTANDING POLITICS

Politics has no gender. Politics is for men and women. Like Power and
Leadership, Politics has been predicated to men since human civilization had
begun.

Politics, as commonly defined by dictionaries, the activities associated with the

governance of a country.

Others would define Politics is the way that people living in groups make
decisions. Still others, In everyday life, the term "politics" refers to the way that
countries are governed, and to the ways that governments make rule and laws.

It can simply be said that Politics is the art of governance. As an art, it requires
proper training and skills in leading people. In governance, it calls for integrity,
transparency, caring and accountable leadership. All these are expected
whoever is the political leader, a gentleman or gentle lady.

The origin of the word, Politics is from Greek Politikos taken from polites which
is 'citizen' and from polis which is 'city. It is simply understood as having to do
with the affairs of the cities.

Aristotle, 4th century BCE Greek philosopher, was probably the first person to
use the term Politics who argued in favor of living a virtuous life, in his book
Nicomachean Ethics.

There are two (2) main points in Nicomachean ethics; (1) Moral virtue is not the
end of life for it can go with inactivity, misery, and unhappiness, (2) Happiness,
the end of life that to which all aims, is activity in accordance with reason.

To state it simply, the Nicomachean ethics of Aristotle calls that every people
should achieve an excellent character (a virtuous character, "ethikë arete" in
Greek) as a pre-condition for attaining happiness or well-being (eudaimonia)
and because it is the leader who is publicly doing the affairs of the city, then,
the Political leaders are expected to live a virtuous life. Aristotle did not
categorically intend to call for a virtuous life to men only or to except women
but he is clear that Politikos are to live a virtuous life.

Neither, men nor women, for as long as either intends to become Politikos, he
or she has to conform to the ethical standards proposed by Aristotle.
In the study conducted by Celis, Kantola, Waylen and Weldon (2012), Feminist
activist and scholar have, of course, contextualized and questioned these
patterns of male domination, pointing out that male domination is neither
natural nor desirable.

As Kent Jennings (1983) of the University of California, wrote, "the basic

presumption of the feminist theory of politics is that women are
underprivileged and discriminated in politics as well as in society in general.
Feminists agree that differences of sex are apparent, but are not enough to
undermine women's capabilities to be equal."

RULE OF MEN IN HISTORY

Even in the glorious time of the Greeks and Romans, we can notice that men
were evident in power. Hence, the empires were headed by the emperors. The
emperor was the ultimate person in authority. The emperor was accountable
for all the activities within the empire. No one of the emperor's wives is allowed
to intervene in the administration of the whole empire.

In the academe, the Philosophers who were also known as educators and
tutors of the kings and emperors were dominated by men. Since time
immemorial, philosophers were known as men endowed with wisdom and
extraordinary knowledge in rhetoric, arts, science and etc. Like Socrates, Plato,
Aristotle, Origen, Augustine, Aquinas among others, they are considered men
of great influenced and vision. They are all men of undisputable reputation
during their lifetime.

In the pre-conquest of the Philippiness, the Sultan, Rajah and Datu, all of them
were men. They were the most powerful men in their own community. They
were all leaders and they governed with authority and everyone respected
them.

During the Spanish colonization in the Philippines which lasted for 300 years,
the most powerful people holding the highest position in the country were
males. These were the Governador y Capitan General (for the civil society) and
Archbishop (for the Catholic Church).

Looking at the political leaders in the Philippine Republic, we can notice that
men have dominated the presidency since the time of Pres. Emilio Famy
Aguinaldo down to the present - Pres. Rodrigo Roa Duterte. The control of
power by men was broken when Pres. Cory Aquino (1986) assumed into office
through a revolutionary government and Pres. Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (2006)
when she took-over the presidency when her predecessor was imprisoned and
removed from office.
REIGN OF WOMEN PRESIDENT IN THE PHILIPPINES

Philippine politics is essentially dominated by "male" especially those coming

from the "wealthy family" This is a common observation all over the country
that those who are in the higher position in the public service are mostly male
and coming from a wealthy family.

President Corazon Cojuangco Aquino: The contribution of women in the public

service began to grow and the traditional thought about the Filipina (confined
in the house and taking care of the children) has transformed into one of an
active nation builder, like when President Corazon C. Aquino rose into power in
1986. She was the first Filipina President in the Philippines and the first
woman leader in Asia.

Pres. Corazon 'Cory' Aquino did not easily get the highest office in the country.
She had her husband "Ninoy' killed at the Manila International Airport. When
the Snap election was called, Cory Aquino was the first choice to run as
President under Laban coalition party against the incumbent Pres. Ferdinand
E. Marcos.

When the canvassing came, Mr. Marcos won the snap election held in 1985.
The civil society was restless over the widespread election fraud. There was
really a faction happening and the passion was to remove the powerful man
from Malacañan palace who was the cause of the sufferings of many Filipinos
for 30 years.

This ignited the Filipino people to unite and to come out into the streets and its
culmination was the gathering of millions of Filipino people in Efipaño delos
Santos Avenue - EDSA (major thoroughfare in Metro Manila). The 3 days rally
in EDSA has removed the Marcoses from power. They fled and took political
asylum in the US.

President Cory rose into presidency. She took the oath of office and served the
country. During her term, Pres. Cory Aquino included in her cabinet Fidel
Ramos and Juan Ponce-Enrile, former high ranking officials during the time of
Marcos.

On the other hand, Vice Pres. Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo took over the
presidency when Pres. Joseph Ejercito Estrada, popularly called Erap, was
ousted from office in 2001 during a popular uprising in Metro Manila, after an
aborted impeachment trial in which he was charged with plunder. perjury and
betrayal of public trust.
Pres. Arroyo is a daughter of the late Pres. Diosdado Macapagal. She must
have imbibed the inclination to public service through his father.

GENDER ROLES IN POLITICAL PARTICIPATION

Filipinos are said to be Patriarchal. Most of the decisions in the family come
from the father or eldest male in the family. However, the traditional concept of
being a Patriarchal family is slowly diminishing due to the influence of
modernism and in the advent of women empowerment.

In the filipino family, being the breadwinner is a father's primordial

responsibility but this is not anymore the case. The idea of breadwinner is now
a shared responsibility of all the members in the family who are earning. This
goes with the decision-making power of the father. It is not anymore his sole
power to decide on something but a consultative decision. From the domestic
participation, the awareness is now manifested outside and with a bigger
context, the society.

The ambiance in the Philippine politics has now its feminine touch with the
coming in of the women legislators from the local to national.

The participation of women in political decision-making positions was

recognized as a political right after the adoption of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights (UDHR) in 1948. UDHR Articles 2 and 21 stipulate equal
enjoyment of political rights without discrimination on the basis of one's sex or
any other ground. In 1966, the International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights (ICCPR) reaffirmed the UDHR principle of the right to participate in
public and political life without discrimination.

In the study of Ecoben & Palparan (2017) about the participation of women in
the policy and decision making in the workplace at the barangay level of
Muntinlupa City, they concluded that;

In Muntinlupa City, there is a greater participation of women employees in the

Policy making in the Barangay level.

In Muntinlupa City, there is a greater participation of women employees in the

Decision making in the Barangay level.

In Muntinlupa City, the public servant Muntinlupeñas are acknowledged to be

part of the policy and decision making in the agency, unit/program where they
are working with.

In Muntinlupa City, the heads in public service is Gender sensitive and treats
women as co-equal public servants of men. As John Rawls believed in a society
of free citizens, there is holding of equal basic rights cooperating within an
egalitarian economic system: where everyone is free to live, to think, to work, to
express one's opinion and to make decision - this is already a prefiguration of
Muntinlupa City as Gender and Development champion.

"Equality between women and men is a matter of human rights and a condition
for social justice and is also a necessary and fundamental prerequisite for
equality, development and peace. A transformed partnership based on equality
between women and men is a condition for people-centered sustainable
development." (as cited by Miranda, 2005 on the Beijing Platform for Action,
Mission Statement.)

Universal Human rights Declaration in 1948 states: Everyone is entitled to all

or any rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, with no distinction of
any kind, like colors, sex, language, religion, political or any different opinion
or social origin, property, birth or any other different standing.

Moreover, the declaration states human rights just like the right to work, the
right to free alternative to employment, the right to equal pay for equal work
and also the right to education are vital necessities of society and pertain
directly to the problems of gender equality.

RELATIONSHIP OF GENDER AND POLITICS

There is a strong relationship between gender and politics. Gender provides

everyone the opportunity to participate in the governance of the people and
becomes an active nation builder. Since leadership and power to govern are not
exclusive rights of men, then, women and those people with other gender
preferences can take part in any political activities in the exercise of their
natural and constitutional rights. As long as you are a recognized bonafide
citizen of the country, you are entitled to exercise your political rights.

The goal to establish a humane society is not only a responsibility of men and
women in politics but it is a duty of every citizen of the country without
marginalizing any gender preference.

Good governance is promoting gender equal opportunity. A good leadership is a

product of being gender sensitive and gender responsive. Gendered politics
bring everyone to discharge their potentials and bring sustainable
development.

UNDERSTANDING VIOLENCE

Violence is a universal challenge that every country, community, family, society

or organization has to face. Violence happens in the street, in our homes, in
schools, in the workplaces, in the institutions, and even with oneself. Violence
is a curse that tears down good relationships. Violence threatens life, health
and happiness that everyone deserves.

Violence may occur to men, women and children. No one can be excused from
experiencing violence. Male, Female, etc. can be a victim of violence. However,
the most common victims are those who are weak.

Violence cuts across all sectors of the society, whether rich or not and the most
vulnerable to violence are the women and the children. Hence, violence is seen
as an inevitable part of human condition.

Gender is also the most powerful predictor of rape, sexual assault and
relationship violence. While men may be rape victims, men are almost always
the perpetrator. Of course, that is not to say that all or most men are violent, or
that women cannot commit such violence.

Violence can be in a form of physical, verbal, or sexual abuse against an

intimate partner (domestic violence), a child (child abuse), or an older adult
(elder abuse).

The Encyclopedia of Psychology defines violence as "an extreme form of

aggression, such as assault, rape or murder."

There are many causes of violence including "frustration, exposure to violent

media, violence in the home or neighborhood and a tendency to see other
people's actions as hostile even when they're not. Certain situations also
increase the risk of aggression, such as drinking, insults and other
provocations and environmental factors like heat and overcrowding" (lifted
from: American Psychological Association's website, 2/2/2020).

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines violence as "the intentional use
of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another
person, or against a group or community, which either results in or has a high
likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or
deprivation"

The common and simple meaning of Violence is (as a verb) it is the use of
physical force intended to injure, abuse, damage, or destroy.

Violence (as a noun) is the defined as 'the behavior involving physical force
intended to hurt, damage or kill someone or something.
According to studies, Violence is among the leading causes of death for people
aged 15-44 years worldwide, accounting for about 14% of deaths among males
and 7% of deaths among females.

CAUSES OF VIOLENCE

The most common motivations for violence can be viewed as the inappropriate
attempts to handle emotions. Often, violence is the medium used by an
individual to openly express his/her feelings such as anger, frustration, or
sadness. Other times, violence can be considered as a form of manipulation for
individuals to try and get what they want or need. Aggressive behavior can also
be used as a form of retaliation; a means by which one uses to even the score.
Finally, violent behavior is sometimes caused because people grow up seeing
violence openly displayed. Violence then becomes learned as an "appropriate"
way to behave (Jacobson, 2011).

Furthermore, Jacobson noted that individuals who act violently overlook

healthier behavior and safer forms of expression to deal with their emotions or
to meet their needs. Sometimes, individuals will choose violence as a means to
manipulate others to gain control over a situation.

Factors which can be causes of violence include:

1. The influence of one's peers

2. Having a lack of attention or respect
3. Having low self-worth
4. Experiencing abuse or neglect
5. Witnessing violence in the home, community, or medias
6. Access to weapons

It is common for those who act violently to have difficulty controlling their
emotions. For some, behavior can be attributed to past abuse or neglect, false
beliefs that intimidating others will gain them respect, or a belief that using
violence will solve his or her problems. However, violent actions often work
against the individual, and they often lose respect or become increasingly
isolated because others view them as dangerous.

Over time, violence and aggressive behavior often escalates when not
addressed; however, there are signs that can help identify potential or
immediate violence (Jacobson, 2011).

Indicators of Violence

Signs for potential immediate or increased violence include, but are not limited
to:
1. Pointing a weapon
2. Pleasure in hurting animals
3. Voicing threats or plans to hurt others
4. Risk-taking behavior
5. Use of alcohol and drugs

6. Destruction of property or vandalism

7. Loss of control over emotions

GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE

Gender-based violence is violence against women based on women's

subordinate status in society. It includes any act or threat by men or male
dominated institutions to inflict physical, sexual, or psychological harm on a
woman or girl because of their gender.

Gender-based violence is a phenomenon deeply rooted in gender inequality,

and continues to be one of the most notable human rights violations in all
societies in this contemporary world.

Gender-based violence is violence directed against a person because of their

gender. Both women and men experience gender-based violence but the
majority of victims are women and girls.

Gender violence include rape, sexual assault, intimate partner violence in

heterosexual and same sex partnerships, sexual harassment, stalking,
prostitution and sex trafficking. The term "gender violence" reflects the idea
that violence often serves to maintain structural gender inequalities, and
includes all types of violence against men, women, children, adolescents, gay,
transgender people and gender non conforming (lifted from Duke University
Student Affairs, 2/2/2020).

One of the most notable acts of violence against women was the issue of
"comfort women", wherein tens of thousands of young women-a majority from
Korea-who were forced into sex slavery for the Japanese military during World
War II.

According to the study conducted by the National Demographic and Health

(2017), One (1) in 20 women and girls age 15-49 have experienced sexual
violence in their lifetime. The consequences of violence are enormous which
include permanent disability, unwanted pregnancies, lingering psychological
trauma, sexually transmitted infections including HIV, and even death.
Ministry of Women's Affairs Training and Advocacy Department (2007), defines,
Gender-based violence is any act that result in or likely to result in physical,
sexual, psychological, or economic harm or suffering based on the gender of a
person, but usually it refers to women and girls. It includes threats, coercion,
deprivation of liberty, right to earn an income, sexual or mental and stalking
happen in public and private.

TYPES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

It is said that Domestic Violence is a pattern of abusive behavior in any

relationship that is used by one partner to gain or maintain power and control
over another intimate partner.

There are five types of abuse identified by the experts,

1. Physical Abuse: Hitting, slapping, shoving, grabbing, pinching, biting, hair

pulling, etc are types of physical abuse. This type of abuse also includes
denying a partner medical care or forcing alcohol and/ or drug use upon him
or her.

2. Sexual Abuse: Coercing or attempting to coerce any sexual contact or

behavior without consent. Sexual abuse include, but is certainly not limited to,
marital rape, attacks on sexual parts of the body, forcing sex after physical
violence has occurred, or treating one in a sexually demeaning manner.

3. Emotional Abuse: Undermining an individual's sense of self-worth and/or

self-esteem is abusive. This may include, but is not limited to constant
criticism, diminishing one's abilities, name-calling, or damaging one's
relationship with his or her children.

4. Economic Abuse: Is defined as making or attempting to make an individual

financially dependent by maintaining total control over financial resources,
withholding one's access to money, or forbidding one's attendance at school or
employment.

5. Psychological Abuse: Elements of psychological abuse include - but are not

limited to causing fear by intimidation; threatening physical harm to self,
partner, children, or partner's family or friends; destruction of pets and
property; and forcing isolation from family, friends, or school and/or work.

Three Sub-Types According to the Victim-Perpetrator Relationship

1. Self-directed violence refers to violence in which the perpetrator and the

victim are the same individuals and is subdivided into self-abuse and suicide.
2. Interpersonal violence refers to violence between individuals, and is
subdivided into family and intimate partner violence and community violence.

The former category includes child maltreatment; intimate partner violence;

and elder abuse, while the latter is broken down into acquaintance and
stranger violence and includes youth violence, assault by strangers; violence
related to property crimes; and violence in workplaces and other institutions.

3. Collective violence refers to violence committed by larger groups of

individuals and can be subdivided into social, political and economic violence.

It is estimated that 35 percent of women worldwide have experienced either

physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence or sexual violence by a non-
partner (not including sexual harassment) at some point in their lives.
However, some national studies show that up to 70 per cent of women have
experienced physical and/or sexual violence from an intimate partner in their
lifetime. Evidence shows that women who have experienced physical or sexual
intimate partner violence report higher rates of depression, having an abortion
and acquiring HIV, compared to women who have not (lifted from
www.unwomen.org 2/2/2020).

CHALLENGE OF GENDER TO END VIOLENCE

Gender violence mostly happens at home and at the workplace. This is

domestic violence and work-related violence. Mothers, women are mostly the
victims. The challenge to end gender and domestic violence is to empower the
mothers, the wives, and the women.

The common reason why mothers, wives and women endure maltreatment of
their husband, partners is because of their fear that they cannot raise their
children without the financial from the husband. They have no income to feed
themselves and their children. The women will just accept all the pains so that
their children will not go hungry and their studies will not be interrupted.

If the mother, the wives, the women in general will be given an opportunity to
earn a living then she will not be fully dependent and will not submit herself to
the oppressive husband or partner because she has the financial capacity that
empowers herself to find a peaceful place for her and her children.

Having an income, she is not totally dependent on anybody who is hurting her
and abusing her.

Gender advocates must consider proposing programs that would capacitate

women to have an income for her. Domestic violence and marital
misunderstanding rooted from financial condition will be minimized.
Economic empowerment through education and job opportunities for women
will lessen, if not, end domestic violence.