CHAPTER Applications of Derivatives OVERVIEW This chapter shows how to draw conclusions from derivatives. We use derivatives to find extreme values of functions, to predict and analyze the shapes of ‘graphs, to find replacements for complicated formulas, to determine how sensitive formulas are to errors in measurement, and to find the zeros of functions numerically ‘The key to many of these accomplishments is the Mean Value Theorem, a theorem whose corollaries provide the gateway to integral calculus in Chapter 4. Extreme Values of Functions This section shows how to locate and identify extreme values of continuous fune- tions. The Max-Min Theorem ‘A function that is continuous at every point of a closed interval has an absolute ‘maximum and an absolute minimum value on the interval. We always look for these values when we graph a function, and we will see the role they play in problem solving (this chapter) and in the development ofthe integral calculus (Chapters 4 and 5), Theorem 1 ‘The Max-Min Theorem for Continuous Functions If fis continuous at every point of a closed interval J, then f assumes both an absolute maximum value M and an absolute minimum value m somewhere in J, That is, there are numbers x; and x2 in f with f (x1) =m, f(a) = M, and m < f(x) < M for every other x in I (Fig. 3.1 on the following page). ‘The proof of Theorem 1 requires a detailed knowledge of the real number system and we will not give it here 1893.1 Typical arrangements of a continuous function's absolute maxima and minima ‘on a closed interval [a, 6. a >? ‘Maximum and minim stendponts, em me Maxim and minimom a ine pins | \vero A ia y=say er as @ mF @ Fo > “Maximum at interior point, Minimum at incre point, ‘minimom at endpoint ‘maximum a endpoint EXAMPLE 1 On [—/2,7/2), f(x) = 008 takes on a maximum value of 1 (once) and a minimum value of 0 (twice). The function g(x) = sinx takes on a maximum value of 1 and a minimum value of —1 (Fig. 3.2) a ‘AS Figs. 3.3 and 3.4 show, the requirements that the interval be closed and the function continuous are key ingredients of Theorem 1. Without them, the conclusion Of the theorem need not hold, | Graph has no highest point 3.2 Figure for Example 1. No largest value Sarat beret Z Graph nas no lowest point 3.4 Even a single point of discontinuity can keep a function from having either @ No smallest vale ‘maximum or a minimum value on a closed interval. The function xe, -1ex<0 3.3 Onan open interval, a continuous 0 x=0 function need not have either a xo 0 FO forall xin D. Absolute maximum and minimum values are called absolute extrema (plural of the Latin extremum). Absolute extrema are also called global extrema, 15 with the same defining rule can have different extrema, depending ‘on the domain, EXAMPLE 2 (See Fig. 3.6) Function Domain _ Absolute extrema rule D on D (if any) a) (00,00) No absolute maximum. Absolute minimum of 0 at x =0. b) (0.2) Absolute maximum of (2)? 2 Absolute minimum of 0 at x ° 0,2 Absolute maximum of 4 at x = 2. No absolute minimum, 4) 0.2) No absolute extrema. a192 Chapter 3: Appl {Local maximum value fearon 3.7 Accurve with a local maximum value. The slope at ¢, simultaneously the limit of nonpositive numbers and nonnegative numbers, is zero. ions of Derivatives Definition Local Extreme Values ‘A function f has a local maximum value at an interior point ¢ of its domain if F(8) < fl) forall x in some open interval containing « ‘A function f has a local minimum value at an interior point c ofits domain if F(x) = fC for all x in some open interval containing c. We can extend the definitions of local extrema to the endpoints of intervals by defining f to have a local maximum or local minimum value at an endpoint c if the appropriate inequality holds for all.x in some half-open interval in its domain containing c, In Fig. 3.5, the function f has local maxima at c and d and local ‘minima at a, e, and b ‘An absolute maximum is also a local maximum. Being the largest value overall, itis also the largest value in its immediate neighborhood. Hence, a list of all local ‘maxima will automatically include the absolute maximum if there is one. Similarly, 4 list of all local minima will include the absolute minimum if there is one. Finding Extrema ‘The next theorem explains why we usually need to investigate only a few values to find a function’s extrema. Theorem 2 The First Derivative Theorem for Local Extreme Values If f bas a local maximum or minimum value at an interior point ¢ of its domain, and if f is defined at c, then FO =0. Proof To show that f"(c) is zero at a local extremum, we show first that /"(c) cannot be positive and second that f'(c) cannot be negative, The only number that is neither positive nor negative is zero, so that is what f”(c) must be. ‘To begin, suppose that has @ local maximum value at x = ¢ (Fig. 3.7) so that F(x) ~ fle) £0 for all values of x near enough to c. Since c isan interior point of f's domain, f'(c) is defined by the two-sided limit tim L2-FO mane ‘This means that the right-hand and left-hand limits both exist at x = ¢ and equal (6). When we examine these limits separately, we find that £@) jecause (x —c) > 0 FO = lim Tae Sayer |How to Find the Absolute Extrema of a Continuous Function f on a Closed interval 1. Evaluate f at all critical points and endpoints. 2 Take the largest and smallest of these values. 3.1 Extreme Values of Functions" 193 Similarly, FO ne 28 ani fane se @ ‘Together, (1) and (2) imply f’(c) = 0. ‘This proves the theorem for local maximum values. To prove it for local ‘minimum values, we simply use f(x) = (c), which reverses the inequalities in (1) and Q) a ‘Theorem 2 says that a function's fist derivative is always zero at an interior point where the function has a local extreme value and the derivative is defined. Hence the only places where a function can possibly have an extreme value (local or global) are 1. interior points where f’ = 0, 2. interior points where f" is undefined, 3. endpoints of the domain of f. ‘The following definition helps us to summarize. Definition An interior point of the domain of a function f where f’ is zero or undefined is a critical point of f. Summary The only domain points where a function can assume extreme values are critical points and endpoints Most quests for extreme values call for finding the absolute extrema of a continuous function on a closed interval. Theorem I assures us that such values exist; Theorem 2 tells us that they are taken on only at critical points and endpoints ‘These points are ofien so few in number that we can simply list them and calculate the corresponding function values to see what the largest and smallest are. EXAMPLE 3 Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of f(x) on [-2, 1). Solution The function is differentiable over its entire domain, so the only critical point is where f’(x) = 2x = 0, namely x =0. We need to check the function’s values at x = 0 and at the endpoints x = —2 and x = L Critical point value: FO) =0 Endpoint values: f(-2)=4 f= ‘The function has an absolute maximum value of 4 at x =—2 and an absolute minimum value of 0 at x = 0. a194 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives 3.8 The extreme values of g(t) = 8t ~ t* fon {-2,1] (Example 4). yer teres Absote maximums Local also logal maximum 3.9. The extreme values of h(x) = x" on [22,3] occur at x= 0 and x = 3 (Exam- ple 5). 3.10 f(x) =x" has no extremum at x =0, even though F(x) = (1/3)x-#" is undefined at x EXAMPLE 4 Find the absolute extrema values of g(¢) = 8 on [-2, 1] Solution The function is differentiable on its entire domain, so the only critical points occur where '(r) = 0. Solving this equation gives, 28, 4 point not in the given domain, The function's local extrema therefore occur at the endpoints, where we find a(-2) (1) =7. (Absolute maximum) 38, a 32 (Absolute minimum) See Fi EXAMPLE 5 Find the absolute extrema of h(x} 2° on [-2, 3}. Solution The first derivative us _ 2 3 a W(x) hhas no zeros but is undefined at x =0. The values of / at this one critical point and atthe endpoints x = —2 and x =3 are nO) =0 h(—2) = (29 = 488 4) = BP? = 917. The absolute maximum value is 9", assumed at x = 3; the absolute minimum is 0, assumed at x = 0 (Fig. 3.9, a While a function’s extrema can occur only at critical points and endpoints, not every critical point or endpoint signals the presence of an extreme value. Figures 3.10 and 3.11 illustrate this for interior points, and Exercise 34 asks you for a function that fails to assume an extreme value at an endpoint of its domain. 3.11 g(x) =x? has no extremum at x = 0 even though g'(x) = 3x? is zero at x = 0Exercises 3.1 195 As we will se in Section 3.3, we can determine the behavior of a function fat 4 cfticl point c by further examining f’, but we must look beyond what f" does atc itself. Exercises 3.1 Finding Extrema from Graphs In Exercises 1-6, determine from the graph whether the function has any absolute extreme values on [a,b]. Then explain how your answer is consistent with Theorem 1 L put 1., 14 i ope op «ee % a 7 » y= ses po poi, ope ra) 5 6 x x yeaa) oo — rot Loy op ae op ae > Absolute Extrema on Closed Intervals In Exercises 7-22, find the absolute maximum and minimum values of ‘each function onthe given interval. Then graph the function, Identify the points onthe graph where the absolute extrema occur, and include their coordinates, 7. fw) & fuy= . f(@) = sind, and, In Exercises 23-26, find the function's absolute maximum and mini ‘mum values and say where they are assumed 2 fax, —1srs8 WW. fo) =x, —1sxe8 25. 9(@)=8"8, 3250.51 26, Wo) = 36, -27 50 <8 Local Extrema in the Domain In Exercises 27 and 28, find the values of any local maxima and ‘minima the functions may have on the given domains, and say where they are assumed. Which extrema, if any, are absolute for the given domain? 21. a) -2sx52 » -2ex22 ° f(x) < f(r). 2. f decreases on if xy<2x. => f(a) < fla). Corollary 3 The First Derivative Test for Increasing and Decreasing Suppose that fis continuous on (a, 6] and differentiable on (a, b). If f" > 0 at each point of (a, 6), then f increases on (a, 6] If f” <0 at each point of (a,b), then f decreases on (a,b. Proof Let x and.x3 be two points in [a,b] with x; < x2. The Mean Value Theorem applied to f on [xi, x2] says that F(x) — fr) = fOb2—m) © for some ¢ between x, and x2. The sign of the right-hand side of Eq. (6) is the same as the sign of f'(c) because x2 — x; is positive. Therefore, f(x2) > f(a) if £ is positive on (a, b), and f(x:) < f(x) iff’ is negative on (a, 6). Qa EXAMPLE 5 The function f(x) = x? decreases on (—00, 0), where f’(x) 2x < 0, It increases on (0,00), where f'(x) = 2x > 0 (Fig. 322), a x Function Fonction desresing increasing yo yoo 3.22 The graph for Example 5.Exercises 32 203 Exercises 3.2 Finding c in the Mean Value Theorem Find the value or values of ¢ that satisfy the equation £0) _ > in the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem for the functions and intervals in Exereises 1-4 1 fi) =42x-1, (0.1) 2 fe) =e, 01) 3. f(x) oe i racer’ [a] 4 f=vE=1, (3) Checking and Using Hypotheses ‘Which ofthe functions in Exercises 5-8 satisfy the hypotheses of the ‘Mean Value Theorem on the given interval, and which do not? Give reasons for your answers. 5 fixy=0?, [-1,8] 6 flo "5, (0,1) 7. f(x) = vxT=), [0,1] 8 fe) [= aaa 0 rao 9. The function so= {a is ceo atx =0 and x = 1 and diferentiable on (0,1, but its derivative on (0, 1) is never zero. How can this be? Doesn't Rolle’s theorem say the derivative has to be zero somewhere in (0, 1)? Give reasons for your answer 10, For what values of a, m, and b does the function x 70 joo= [Paar Oo) meth Venea slisfy the hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem on the interval ga 0.27 Roots (Zeros) 11, a) Plot the zeros of each polynomial on a line together with the zeros ofits fst derivative ) yet-a yaa ties =3P +4= (r+ DO -2 io y= Bee ne ae —29 ) Use Rolle’s theorem to prove that between every two 2210s Of Fay p2 Fo + aya + ay there lies a zer0 of at! (= Daytona 12, Suppose that is continuous on [a, 6) and that f has three zet0s in the interval. Show that ” has at least one zero in (a,b), Generalize this result 13, Show that if f” > 0 throughout an interval [a, b] then f* has at most one Zero in [a, 5]. What if f” <0 throughout [a, 5] instead? 14, Show that a cubic polynomial can have at most three real zeros. Theory and Examples 15, Show that at some instant daring a 2-h automobile tip the cat's speedometer reading will equal the average speed for the trip. 16, Temperature change. It took 14 sec for a thermometer to rise from —19°C to 100°C when it was taken from a freezer and placed in boiling water. Show that somewhere along the way the mercury was rising at exactly 8.5°Cisec. 17, Suppose tht fis differentiable on [0,1] and that its derivative is never zero. Show that f(0) # f(I). 18. Show that [sind — sina] < Jo —a for any numbers a and b 19. Suppose that fis differentiable on [a,b] and that f(b) < f(a). ‘Can you then say anything about the values of f” on (a, 6]? 20, Suppose that fad g are differentiable on [a,b] and that f(a) = (a) and f(b) = g(b). Show that there is at least one point be- tween a and b where the tangents to the graphs of f and g are parallel 21. Let f be differentiable at every value of x and suppose that F(L) = 1, that f’< 0 on (—o0, 1), and that f’ > 0 on (1, 00). 4) Show that f(x) = 1 forall x b) Must f'(1) = 0? Explain, 22, Let f(x) = pr? tgx-+r be a quadratic function defined on a closed interval {a,b}. Show that there is exactly one point ¢ in (a, b) at which f satisfies the conclusion ofthe Mean Value ‘Theorem. A surprising graph. Graph the function F(x) = sin x sin(x + 2) —sin®(x + 1). What does the graph do? Why does the function behave this way? Give reasons for your answers. 24, Ifthe graphs of two functions f(x) and g(x) start atthe same point in the plane and the funetions have the same rate of change at every point, do the graphs have to be identical? Give reasons for your answer. 25. a) Show that g(x) domain, | fx decreases on every interval in its204 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives b) If the conclusion in (a) is really tru, how do you explain the fact that ¢(1) = 1 is actualy greater than g(—1) = 1? 26, Let f be a function defined on an interval [a b]. What conditions ‘could you place on fto guarantee that £0)= fa boa min f= max f’, where min "and max refer to the minimum and maximum values of "on [a,b]? Give reasons for your answer. 27, CALCULATOR Use the inequalities in Exercise 26 to estimate FOLD ((C) = (1+ x4 c0sx) for0 Oon(a, b)or f’ < Oona dh ‘Then f bas exaclly one zero between @ and b: It cannot have more than one because it is either increasing on fa, b] or decreasing on la. ). Yet it has at least one, by the Intermediate Value Theorem (Section 1.5). For example, f(x) = 3° + 3x + I as exactly one 210 on [-1, 1] because fis difereniable on (1, 1], f(-1 = —3 and J(1)=5 have opposite signs, and f(x) = 3x? +3 > 0 forall x Gig 32, Gry 3.23 The only real zero ofthe polynomial y =x!-+3x-41 is the one shown here between ~1 and 0. ‘Show that the functions in Exercises 45-52 have exactly one ‘zero in the given interval, 45. fiyaat eae 1) 46. soars San Cm47. g() = E+ VTFT=4, 0, 00) a ae eT, CL 0 #.10)=6+00(8)-% Em.09 50, r(0) = 20 ~ cos*@ + V2, (—00, 00) Srnec b48 x7 $2. r(@) =tand — cod 0, (0, =/2) 3.3. The First Derivative Test for Local Extreme Values 205 © CAS Exploration 53, Rolle’ original theorem 8) Construct a polynomial (x) that has zeros at x 0.1, and 2. ) Graph fand its derivative f” together: How is what you see related to Rolle's original theorem? (See the marginal note on Rolle.) ©) Do g(x) =sinx and its derivative g° illustrate the same phenomenon? 4) How would you state and prove Rolle’ original theorem in light of what we know today’? 3.24 A function's first derivative tells. hhow the graph rises and falls Absolute min The First Derivative Test for Local Extreme Values This section shows how to test a function’s critical points for the presence of local extreme values. The Test As we see once again in Fig. 3.24, a function f may have local extrema at some critical points while failing to have local extrema at others. The key is the sign of J” in the point’s immediate vicinity. As x moves from left to right, the values of f increase where f” > 0 and decrease where f’ <0. At the points where f has a minimum value, we see that f” <0 on the interval immediately to the left and f” > 0 on the interval immediately to the right. (If the point is an endpoint, there is only the interval on the appropriate side to consider.) ‘This means that the curve is falling (values decreasing) on the left of the minimum, value and rising (values increasing) on its right. Similarly, at the points where f has a maximum value, f’ > 0 on the interval immediately to the left and f’ < 0 ‘on the interval immediately to the right. This means that the curve is rising (values, increasing) on the left of the maximum value and falling (values decreasing) on its right. ‘These observations lead to a test for the presence of local extreme values. Absote max F defined206 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives Theorem 5 The First Derivative Test for Local Extreme Values ‘The following test applies to a continuous function (x). At a critical point e: 1. If f” changes from positive to negative at c (f"> 0 for x c), then f has a local maximum value at ¢ losin lost ae proline Koi pdy ee last tessa jroo esedunietae 2. If f” changes from negative to positive at c (f’ <0 for x 0 for x > c), then f has a local minimum value at local Bi, red S<0]F>0 local mit F 0 a @so=0 (©) Fe) undefined 3. If f” does not change sign at ¢ ("has the same sign ‘on both sides of c), then fhas no local extreme value pe goes ra (pool peo i bee [peo eae @ flo=0 0) 10 undefined EXAMPLE 1 Ata left endpoint a: If f’ <0(f'> 0) for x > a, then fhas a local maximum, (minimum) value at a. ihe Ir 0) forx <6, then fhas a local minimum (maximum) value at b, i) ra : veal nid Feo} —+ Find the critical points of P(e) = x18 = 4) = x88 = 4" Identify the intervals on which f is increasing and decreasing. Find the function's local and absolute extreme values. Solution The function fis defined for all real numbers and is continuous (Fig. 3.25).3) 3.25 The graph of (Example 1). =x %-4) 3.14) 2+ 12845, amy 3.26 The graph of g(x) 3 ex <3 (Example 2) P+ 1de+5, 3.3. The First Derivative Test for Local Extreme Values 207 ‘The first derivative (ay = 4 (p43 — 4x) 2 Sy 4-28 Sa) =F (e? ~42"”) - 4-1) Ma N= Sa is zero at x =1 and undefined at so the critical points, x = 0 and extreme value of any kind. ‘These critical points divide the x-axis into intervals on which J” is either postive ‘or negative, The sign patter of ” reveals the behavior of f both between and at the critical points. We can display the information in a picture like the following. 0. There are no endpoints in f’s domain, 1, are the only places where f might have an Sinot 4a: + mr otitis Signofe-Ds = | = | + simotra= spe: = | = | ie. cumin: NON |Z fame es; a fa ‘To make the picture, we marked the critical points on the x-axis, noted the sign of each factor of fon the intervals between the points, and “multiplied” the signs of the factors to find the sign of We then applied Corollary 3 of the Mean Value ‘Theorem to determine that f decreases (.) on (oo, 0), decreases on (0, 1), and increases () on (I, 00). Theorem 5 tells us that f has no extreme at x =0 (f" does not change sign) and that f has a local minimum at x = 1 Cf" changes from negative to positive). ‘The value of the local minimum is f(1) = 1"/(1 ~ 4) = ~3. This is also an absolute minimum because the function's values fall toward it from the left and rise away from it on the right. Figure 3.25 shows this value in relation to the function’s raph. a EXAMPLE 2 Find the intervals on which gO) =P $145, -3ex<3 is increasing and decreasing. Where does the function assume extreme values and what are these values? Solution The function f is conti derivative jous on its domait [-3, 3] (Fig. 3.26). The first e(@) = 3x7 +12 = -307 - 4) 36 +2) =), defined at all points of [—3, 3], is zero at x = —2 and x = 2. These critical points divide the domain of g into intervals on which g’ is either positive or negative, We analyze the behavior of g by picturing the sign pattern of g'208 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives Sionof-30e +2): + - - Signofe-2); = Signof gle) = 3+ 2\e—2): - endpoint Change ine) Extrema: local local local local We conclude that g has local maxima at x = —3 and x x =~2 and x =3. The corresponding values of g(x) and local minima at oP + 12e +5 are Local maxima: g(-3)=—4, (2) =21 Local minima: g(-2)=-11, @3 Since g is defined on a closed interval, we also know that g(~2) is the absolute minimum and (2) is the absolute maximum. Figure 3.26 shows these values in relation to the function’s graph. a Exercises 3.3 Analyzing f Given f Thay =P 428 12, h(x) = 20 = 18 Answer the following questions about the functions whose derivatives 13, _f(@) = 30 — 49° ane given in Exereises 1-8 Tae 17. fo) 8 +16 a) What are the critical poins of 2 1) On what intervals is fincreasing or decreasing? ©) At what points, if any, does f assume local maximum and mini w. ne = 38-8 tuum values? L fe) =xe—) RP@=6—Hu+n Ae ae=aVEaF 2. g(x) RW=O VEOH A F=O- DHF 25, per) 2 foe 5 (0) =e — 1460-3) 6. fe) = E+ DE+S) paar pode 1. SO) = 42) & faye e-3) acne ee w Extremes of Given Functi pacremes oy Civen Fu as) Extremes on Half-Open Intervals In Exercises 29-36: 2) Find the intervals on which the function is increasing and de- . ee 8) dey the functions local extreme value inthe given domsn, 'b) Then identify the function’s local extreme values, if any, saying and say where they are assumed. Cece Ate ) Which ofthe extreme values if any are absolute? ¢) Which, if any, of the extreme values are absolute? $c) GRAPHER You may wish to support your findings with a graph- Bd) GRAPHER You may wish to support your findings with a graph- ing calculator or computer grapher. ing calculator or computer grapher. 2% f(x) = 2x2, -co Oforx <1 and f"(x) <0 forx > 1; 38. he) = 22s H4x, OS x < 00 b) FG) O for x > I; 3 © fF) > Oforx él: 36. ki) =a $302 43x41, —co 1 asx, off =< g' <0 forx > 2, and g'(x) > -I* asx 2 a)=%-2sin3, O O for x > 2, and g'(x) > 00 a5 x —» 2 38. f(s) =-2eosx—costs, -w oo asx > 0, and h(x) > ~00 a8 x > 0%; 40. f(s) = see? x — 2tanx, b) (0) = 0, -2 < h(x) <0 forall x, h(x) + co.asx + 0°, and W(x) —» 00 as > O° Theory and Examples 47. As.xmoves from left to right through the point ¢ = 2, isthe graph ‘Show thatthe functions in Exercises 41 and 42 have local extreme values atthe given values of 8, and say which kind of local extreme the function has. of f(x) = 2° = 3x +2 rising, ois it falling? Give reasons for your answer, 41. hi) a0 =0 and 48, Find the intervals on which the function f(x) = ax? + br +e, 2 40, is increasing and decreasing. Describe the reasoning be- hind your answer. Qn Graphing with y’ and y” In Section 3.1, we saw the role played by the first derivative in locating a function's extreme values. A function can have extreme values only at the endpoints of its ‘domain and at its critical points. We also saw that critical points do not necessarily yield extreme values. In Section 3.2, we saw that almost all the information about 4 differentiable function is contained in its derivative. To recover the function ‘completely, the only additional information we need is the value of the function at any one single point. Ifa function's derivative is 2x and the graph passes through the origin, the function must be x2, Ifa function’s derivative is 2x and the graph passes through the point (0, 4), the function must be x? +4. In Section 3.3, we extended our ability to recover information from a function’s first derivative by showing how to use it to tell exactly what happens at a critical Point. We can tell whether there really is an extreme value there or whether the ‘graph just continues to rise or fall. In the present section, we show how to determine the way the graph of a240 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives 3.27 The graph of f(x) = x is concave down on (—, 0) and concave up on «9, function y = (2) bends or tums. We know thatthe information must be contained in y’, but how do we find it? The answer, for functions that are twice differentiable except perhaps at isolated points, is to differentiate y’. Together y’ and y" tell us the shape of the function's graph. We will see in Chapter 4 how this enables us to sketch solutions of differential equations and initial value problems. Concavity AAs you can see in Fig. 3.27, the curve y = x? rises as x increases, but the portions defined on the intervals (—00, 0) and (0, 00) tum in different ways. As we come in from the left toward the origin along the curve, the curve turns to our right and falls below its tangents. As we leave the origin, the curve tums to our left and rises above its tangents. ‘To put it another way, the slopes of the tangents decrease as the curve ap- proaches the origin from the left and increase as the curve moves from the origin into the first quadrant. Definition ‘The graph of a differentiable function y = f(x) is concave up on an in- terval where y’ is increasing and concave down on an interval where y’ is decreasing. If y = f() has a second derivative, we can apply Corollary 3 of the Mean Value ‘Theorem to conclude that y* increases if y" > 0 and decreases ify" < 0. ‘The Second Derivative Test for Concavity Let y = f(x) be twice differentiable on an interval J 1. If y” > O on J, the graph of f over I is concave up. 2 If y" <0 on, the graph of f over / is concave down, EXAMPLE 1 a) The curve y = x° (Fig. 3.27) is concave down on (—00, 0) where y” = 6x < 0 and concave up on (0, co) where y" = 6x > 0.= ie i 7 3.29 The motion in Example 2. a 3.30 The point of inflection on a typical cost curve separates the interval of decreasing marginal cost from the interval of increasing marginal cost. This is the point where the marginal cost is smallest (ample 3). 3.4 Graphing with y andy" 211 b) The parabola y 2>0. 2 (Fig. 3.28) is concave up on every interval because y” 3.28 The graph of f(x) = #2 on any interval is concave up. a Points of Inflection To study the motion of a body moving along a line, we often graph the body's position as a function of time. One reason for doing so is to reveal where the body's acceleration, given by the second derivative, changes sign. On the graph, these are the points where the concavity changes. Definition A point where the graph of a function has a tangent line and where the concavity changes is called a point of inflection. ‘Thus a point of inflection on a curve is a point where y"” is positive on one side and negative on the other. At such a point, y" is either zero (because derivatives have the intermediate value property) or undefined. (On the graph of a twice-differentiable function, y" = 0 at a point of inflec- tion, EXAMPLE 2 Simple harmonic motion The graph of s = 2 + cos #, 1 > 0 (Fig. 3.29), changes concavity at ¢ = 2/2, 37/2, -+ y Where the acceleration 3” = — cos ¢ is zero, a EXAMPLE 3 Marginal cost Inflection points have applications in some areas of economics. Suppose that y = (2) is the total cost of producing x units of something (Fig. 3.30). The point of inflection at P is then the point at which the marginal cost (the approximate cost of producing one more unit) changes from decreasing to increasing a212 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives does not 3.31 A point where y' falls to exist can be a point of inflection. i The graph of y= 2 cos x —V2 x and its first derivative y= 09 2 cal max yeoy">0 cal min EXAMPLE 4 An inflection point where y" does not exist The curve y =x"! has a point of inflection at x = 0 (Fig. 3.31), but y” does not exist there. wo # (pn) 2 4 (Lye 0 ae ( ) de (» 0 EXAMPLE 5 No inflection where y ‘The curve y = x* has no inflection point at x = 0 (Fig. 3.32). Even though y” = 12x? is zero there, it does not change sign 3.32 The graph of y =x" has no inflection point at the origin, even though y= 0 there a Technology Graphing a Function with Its Derivatives When we graph a function y = f(x), it may be difficult to identify the inflection points exactly by Zooming in. Try it on the curve y = 2cosx — Y2x,—n 0, tien fhas a local minimum at x =Testing the critical points Example 6 ‘As a quick test to see if any of the critical points are local extreme values, we could tny the second derivative test Atx=3,y"> 0: ‘We now know that this point is definitely a local minimum. Atx=0,y’=0: ‘Test fails, and so we will need to check the signs of y’ to know whether this point gives # local extreme value, 3.4 Graphing with y andy" 213 Notice that the test requires us to know y only at ¢ itself, and not in an interval about c. This makes the test easy to apply. That’s the good news. The bad news that the test is inconclusive if y” = 0 or if y” does not exist. When this happens, tse the first derivative test for local extreme values. Graphing with y’ and y” We now apply what we have learned to sketch the graphs of functions. EXAMPLE 6 — Graph the function xt 4x +10. Solution Step 1: Find y' and y", yoxt-4r +10 2 pet oar Critical pois: ys4e—1taare—3) Se Possible inestion points: = Ox = 2 yt = 12x? = 24x = 12e(x - 2) Step 2: Rise and fall. Sketch the sign pattern for y’ and use it to describe the behavior of y. az. «=> 4ee-3) Step 3: Concavity. Sketch the sign pattern for y" and use it to describe the way the graph bends. me = fe te em - |i =i FL = |e atte ea toate init point point214 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives Step 4: Summary and general shape. Summarize the information from steps 2 and 3, Show the shape over each interval. Then combine the shapes to show the curves general form. Step 5: Specific points and curve. Plot the curve's intercepts (if convenient) and the points where y’ andy" are zero, Indicate any local extreme values and inflection points. Use the general shape in step 4 asa guide to sketch the curve. (Plot additional points as needed.) 6 local sina a ‘The steps in Example 6 give a general procedure for graphing by hand, Strategy for Graphing y = f(x) 1, Find y’ and y" 2. Find the rise and fall of the curve. 3. Determine the concavity of the curve 4. Make a summary and show the curve's general shape. 5. Plot specific points and sketch the curve EXAMPLE 7 — Graph y = x5? — 5x2,3.4 Graphing with y' andy’ 215 Solution ‘Step 1: Find y’ and y". “The wimercep y ex 529 = Pe —5) mada 5 10 Ss ti an 10-10 2 S19 ice pois aii hel rene Posse iesion 1 1 1m Wy-an 10 ne usps ‘The graph ofa continuous Function y = f(x) has a cusp at a point x = cif the concavity is ("at") oe the same on both sides ofc and either ! Ae im f(x) = 00 and im fx a ~ Step 3: Concavity oon sheds + +0 Soon | pS inf point From the sign pattern for y’, we see that there is an infection point at x = —1, but not at x = 0, However, knowing that 2 tim f'@) = —00 and tim fx) = ov. 1. the function y = x5 — 5x2 is continuous, 2. y’> 00 a8 x > 0" and y’ > —o0 as x > OF (see the formula for y’ in step 2), and 3. the concavity does not change at x = 0 (step 3) tells us that the graph has a cusp at x=. “im FO" step a: Summary General shape. down | up | up wp fe Beep ee q “ “1 o 2 Acapenbe cer tcatmaximim (yer | ND local minimum 2)216 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives 2.30) = 0-48) Step 5: Specific points and curve. See the figure to the left. Learning About Functions from Derivatives Pause for a moment to see how remarkable the conclusions in Examples 6 and 7 really are. In each case, we have been able to recover almost everything we need to know about a differentiable function y = f(x) by examining y’. We can find where the graph rises and falls and where the local extremes are assumed, We can differentiate y’ to learn how the graph bends as it passes over the intervals of rise and fall. We can determine the shape of the function’s graph, The only information we cannot get from the derivative is how to place the graph in the xy-plane. That requires evaluating the formula for f at various points. Or so it seems. But as we saw in Section 3.2, even that is nearly superfluous. All we really need, in addition to y’, is the value of fat a single point, What Derivatives Tell Us About Graphs ar D o or) ten PE een Smooth, connected; leftto rights lestro righ aoe ore one, sera, ja o D y" > 0 = concave up y" <0 = concave down = Inflection point (if f Kagmemune, | Seogacemmsiom | pecan mace my aoe z i D ylomyco | ysomir> uae es chang sin = iene aac stoainuinn | LoslniinanExercises 3.4. 217 Exercises 3.4 Analyzing Graphed Functions [entity the inflection points and local maxima and minima of the functions graphed in Exercises 1-8, Identify the intervals on which the functions are concave up and concave down, 0 (Generated Matnasce) (oer Manatin) 9 U2 yo aa? yor tsin2s tf 3 (Conese yMsharatia) a az 2eosr—VPx-wsxs x (Genera Watbenas) Graphing Equations Use the steps of the graphing procedure on page 214 to graph the ‘equations in Exercises 9-40. Include the coordinates of any local ‘extreme points and inflection points. ama (6-20) 9x 6x? c+ 10 y 2 cry 16. y 1s. amg x+sinx, 2, y=ax—sinx, Osxs2n Osxs2n218 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives Sketching the General Shape Knowing y’ Each of Exercises 41-62 gives the fist derivative of @ continuous function y = f(x). Find y” and then use steps 2~8 of the graphing ‘procedure on page 214 to sketch the general shape ofthe graph of f. AL y=2+x-0 ay By =x6 3 44 9’ 45. y’ = x(x? 12) 46. y =(x—1F Or 43) Br-SG—2P? By =O? = DEE 5)? ~F<0 0 for |x| > 2, f(x) > 0 for x>0. 68, Sketch he graph of a twice-differentiable function y = f(2) with the following properties. Label coordinates where possible x ’ Derivatives x<2 2 1 dexed 4 4 4ex<6 6 7 x2670. Sketch the graph of a twice-differentiable function y = f(x) that passes through the points (~2,2),(—1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1) and (2,2) ‘and whose fist two derivatives have the following sign patterns: a y SF 2 0 2 - oe oe y -1 1 Velocity and acceleration. The graphs in Exercises 71 and 72 show the position s = f (1) of abody moving back and forth on a coordinate line. (a) When isthe body moving away from the origin? toward the ‘origin? AL approximately what times is the (b) velocity equal to zero? () acceleration equal to zero? (d) When isthe acceleration positive? negative? 1. Displacement Time (seo) ‘TR, Marginal cost. The accompanying graph shows the hypothetical cost c= f(x) of manufacturing x items. At approximately what production level does the marginal cost change from decreasing to increasing? =se) Cost 20 a0 60 80 T0020” * “Thousands of units produced Exercises 3.4. 219 74. The accompanying graph shows the monthly revenue of the Widget Corporation for the last twelve years. During approx- mately what time intervals was the marginal revenue increasing? decreasing? 5. Suppose the derivative of the function y = f(x) is y=@-Dia-2, At what points, if any, does the graph of have a local minimum, local maximum, or point of inflection? (Hint: Draw the sign pattern for y’.) 76. Suppose the derivative of the function y = f(x) is == a= x= 4), At what points, if any, does the graph of f have a local mini- ‘mum, local maximum, or point of inflection? ‘1. Forx > 0, sketch acurve y = f(x) that has f(1)=Oand "(x)= 1/x. Can anything be said about the concavity of such a curve? Give reasons for your answer. Can anything be said about the graph of @ function y = f(x) that has @ continuous second derivative that is never zero? Give reasons for your answer. 78, 79. If b, c, and d are constants, for what value of b will the curve y =x) +br" + ex +d have a point of inflection at x = 1 Give ‘easons for your answer. 80, Horizontal tangents, True, or false? Explain, 8) The graph of every polynomial of even degree (largest ex- ponent even) has atleast one horizontal tangent. b) The graph of every polynomial of odd degree (largest ex- ponent odd) has at least one horizontal tangent Parabolas fa) Find the coordinates ofthe vertex of the parabola y = ax? + bx +c,a40. b) When is the parabola concave up? concave down? Give reasons for your answers, 82. Is i true that the concavity of the graph of a twice-differentiable function y = f(x) changes every time f"(x) = 0? Give reasons for your answer 83. Quadratic curves. What can you say about the inflection points of a quadratic curve y = ax? +bx +c, a #0? Give reasons for your answer. 84, Cubic curves. What can you say about the inflection points of a cubic curve y = ax? + br? + ox +d, a # 0? Give reasons for your answer,220 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives @ Grapher Explorations In Exercises 85-88, find the inflection points (if any) onthe graph ‘ofthe function and the coordinates ofthe points on the graph where the function has a local maximum or local minimum value. Then sah the function in a region large enough to show all these points ke does " have two zeras? one or no zeros? Now explain ‘what the value of k has to do with the shape of the graph of f. ©) Experiment with other values of k, What appears to happen as k > 20? as k > 00? simultaneously. Add to your picture the graphs of the function’s first 92. a) On a common screen, graph f(x) = x4 + kx? + 6x2, -1 s and second derivatives. How are the values at which these graphs x <4 for k = ~4, and some nearby values of & How does intersect the x-axis related tothe graph ofthe function? In what oer the value of & seem to affect the shape of the graph? ways are the graphs of the derivatives related to the graph of the —-b)_ Find f"(x). As you willse, "(x isa quadratic function of function? 4 What isthe discriminant of this quadratic (see Exercise eee 918)? For what values of k isthe discriminant postive? , 2010? negative? For what values of & does f(x) have two 86, y= 2 - 12x zeros? one oF no zeros? Now explain what the value of k eres has to.do with the shape of the graph of 5 93, a) Graph y = x22" — 2) for —3 00. Among the tools we use are asymptotes and dominant terms. Limits as x — +00 ‘The function f(x) = 1/ is defined for all x # 0 (Fig. 3.33). When x is positive and becomes increasingly large, 1/x becomes increasingly small. When « is negative and its magnitude becomes increasingly large, 1/x again becomes small. We summarize these observations by saying that f(x) = 1/x has limit 0 as. x £00.3.33 The graph of, ‘The symbol infinity (oo) As always, the symbol o0 does not represent ‘areal number and we cannot use it in arithmetic in the usual way. 4 Nomater what postive number eis, the graph ener thisband t= ad says No mater what postive number es the graph enters this banda tnd sys 3.34 The geometry behind the argument Example 1 3.5. Limits as x -> #0, Asymptotes, and Dominant Terms 221 Definitions 1. We say that f(x) has the limit L as x approaches infinity and write lim fo) =L if, for every number € > 0, there exists a corresponding number M such that for all x x>M = If)-Li 0, there exists a comesponding number N such that for all x x 0 be given, We must find a number M such that for all x xoM > ‘The implication will hold if M = 1/e or any larger positive number (Fig. 3.34). This proves lim... (I/x) = 0. b) Let € > 0 be given. We must find a number NV such that for all x z|=[I<< The implication will hold if N = —1/e or any number less than —1/e (Fig. 3.34), This proves lim,.2o (1/x) =0. x222 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives ‘The following theorem enables us to build on Eqs. (1) to calculate other limits Theorem 6 Properties of Limits as x —> +00 ‘The following rules hold if lim, se. f(x) = L and lim, 90 8(%) (Land M real numbers). 1. Sum Rule lim LF) + (01 = b+ M 2. Difference Rule: Jim (f@) = g@))=L~M 3. Product Rule: “im, (02) « 4G) = LM eaten es ML, 5. Quotient Rule: in SO a ifMso 6 Power Rule: mand mare integers, then im f(x)" L™ provided L" is a real number. ‘These properties are just like the properties in Theorem 1, Section 1,2, and we use them the same way. EXAMPLE 2 a) lim (5+2) = Jim $+ im 2 Sum Rae Koon aes Proc ule Keown aes a 2 yortoscare 3.35 The function in Example 3. To determine the limit of a rational function as x > +00, we can divide the numerator and denominator by the highest power of x in the denominator. What hhappens then depends on the degrees of the polynomials involved. EXAMPLE 3. Numerator and denominator of same degree ‘The degree ofthe polynomial agar! 5x2 + 8x—3 54 8/x) — GB/s?) Divide mera BX Fae EF ae Sao lim “S sim . toca denon <4, #0, 8m, the largest exponent. iia cereal) nator by S+0-0_5 7 033 See Fig 33 a3.36 The graph of the function in Example 4. The graph approaches the axis a5 [x increases. 3.37 The function in Example 5(a) ‘The leading coefficient of the polynomial AX" agp AT! one ax A, dy HO, is 44, the coefficient of the highest-powered term, 3.5. Limits as x > #00, Asymptotes, and Dominant Terms 223 EXAMPLE 4 Degree of numerator less than degree of denominator Mx+2 _ gg (JH) + 2/a3) Dire numerator aor = 3a) asic oxo =Sp-0 See FA Gy EXAMPLE 5 Degree of numerator greater than degree of denominator ») BPH 3 iy =O) Divide merstor and mT a) Ssyomintn by 5 The mums 09 ap proaches 20 whe the 00 {nominator approche Sore io +30 Fig. 337 = tim a+) Dinide numerator ad li 3— yxy —COfxr) denominator by Nara + 0. Denon co inator > 2 Ratio > a Examples 3-5 reveal a pattem for finding limits of rational functions as x > £00) 1, If the numerator and the denominator have the same degree, the limit is the ratio of the polynomials’ leading coefficients (Example 3). 2 If the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, the limit is zero (Example 4), 3. If the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, the limit is +00 or ~co, depending on the signs assumed by the numerator and denominator as |x| becomes large (Example 5). ‘Summary for Rational Functions 1. th deg (/) = deg (g), tim, £02 = xorkoo g(x) by coefficients of f and g. fe) sae g(x) f@) £0 «400, depending onthe signs 2@) PX ag on the signs of numerator and denominator. the ratio of the leading 2 If deg (f) < deg (2), 3. I deg (f) > dee (),224 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives » 8 & 5 2 Horizontal 1 ssymptote OU] Horizonal asymptote, y=0 0 g z E £ 3.38 The coordinate axes are asymptotes ‘of both branches of the hyperbola yi 3.39. The graphs of sec x and tan x (Example 7). Horizontal and Vertical Asymptotes If the distance between the graph of « function and some fixed line approaches zero as the graph moves increasingly far from the origin, we say that the graph approaches the line asymptotically and that the line isan asymptote ofthe graph EXAMPLE 6 The coordinate axes are asymptotes of the curve y = I/x (Fig. 3.38), The x-axis is an asymptote of the curve on the right because ‘and on the left because ‘The y-axis is an asymptote of the curve both above and below because tim 400 mnt in 2 ©. Notice that the denominator is zero at x = 0 and the function is undefined. ‘ions +b is ahorizontal asymptote of the graph of a function y = f(x) or tim f(x) =b. oo. EXAMPLE 7 The curves both have vertical asymptotes at odd-integer multiples of 1/2, where cos x =0 (Fig. 3.39).y Xeric rime |] 6 me L yest STR ar 1 Horizontal 3p and 2 3.41 The lines y= 1 and x = ~2 are asymptotes of the curve y = (x + 3/(x +2) (Example 8). y Verical Vertical asympiae asymptos,x=2 Hozontal agympeoe, y= 0 symp, 3.42 The graph of y = -8/(x? - 4) (Example 9). Notice that the curve approaches the x-axis from only one side, ‘Asymptotes do not have to be two-sided. 3.5. Limits as x—> +00, Asymptotes, and Dominant Terms 225 ‘The graphs of hhave vertical asymptotes at integer multiples of 2, where sin x = 0 (Fig. 3.40), x yee X ym eots 3.40 The graphs of cs x and cot x (Example 7). a EXAMPLE 8 Find the asymptotes of the curve x43 x42 Solution We are interested in the behavior as x > 00 and as x > —2, where the denominator is zero ‘The asymptotes are quickly revealed if we recast the rational function as a polynomial with a remainder, by dividing (x +2) into (x +3), This enables us to rewrite y: From this we see that the curve in question is the graph of y = 1/x shifted 1 unit up and 2 units left Fig. 3.41). The asymptotes, instead of being the coordinate axes, are now the lines y =I and x = 2 a EXAMPLE 9 Find the asymptotes of the graph of 8 {@=-3y Solution We are interested in the behavior asx —> soo and as x —> +2, where the denominator is zero. Notice that f is an even function of , so its graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis The behavior as x > +00, Since lim... f(x) =0, the line y =0 is an asymptote of the graph to the right. By symmetry itis an asymptote to the left as well (Fig. 3.42),226 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives 3.43 The graph off) = (8 — 1/Ge — 1) has one vertical asymptote, not two. The discontinuity at x = 1 Is removable. ese Of eae oe 3.44 A curve may cross one ofits asymptotes infinitely often (Example 11). The behavior as x > £2. Since lim f(%)=~00 and im f(x) = 00, the line x = 2 is an asymptote both from the right and from the left. By symmetry, the same holds for the line x = —2. ‘There are no other asymptotes because f has a finite limit at every other point a We might be tempted at this point to say that rational functions have ver- tical asymptotes where their denominators are zero. That is nearly true, but not quite. What i true is that rational functions reduced to lowest terms have vertical asymptotes where their denominators are zero. EXAMPLE 10 Aremovable discontinuity at a zero of the denominator ‘The graph of Lo) has a vertical asymptote at x Bol @=D@Hr4D _ txt 17” @-De+D a+ the function has a finite limit (3/2) as x > 1 and the discontinuity is removable Fig. 3.43), 1 but not at x = 1. Since ‘The Sandwich Theorem (Section 1.2, Theorem 4) also holds for limits as x -> too. Here is a typical application. EXAMPLE 11 Using the Sandwich Theorem, find the asymptotes of the curve yore Solution We are interested in the behavior as x —> £00 and as x —> 0, where the denominator is zero. The behavior as x —> 0. We know that lim, .9 (sin.x)/x = 1, so there is no asymptote at the origin. The behavior as x > +00. Since sinx| _ [1 and lim... |1/x|=0, we have lim... (sin.x)/x = 0 by the Sandwich The- orem, Hence, Jim and the line y = 2 is an asymptote of the curve on both left and right (Fig. 3.44), aaa ‘The vertical distance between curve and Tine goes to zero as x» 2 Oblique ssymptote 3.45. The graph of f(x) = (x? — 392-4) (Example 12). 3.5. Limits as x > =0:, Asymptotes, and Dominant Terms 227 Oblique Asymptotes If the degree of the numerator of a rational function is one greater than the degree of the denominator, the graph has an oblique asymptote, that is, a linear asymptote that is neither vertical nor horizontal EXAMPLE 12 Find the asympiotes of the graph of eo3 f@) 2x4 Solution We are interested in the behavior as x —> +00 and also as x — 2, where the denominator is zero. We divide (2x — 4) into (x? — 3) pth ‘This tells us that Sait 2 Tincar reminder @) Since lim, .2- f(4) = 00 and lim,-2- f() =~ 0, the line x = 2 is a tworsided asymptote, As x —> 00, the remainder approaches O and f(x) > (x/2) +1. The line y = (x/2) + isan asymptote both tothe right and tothe left (Fig. 3.45). OD Graphing with Asymptotes and Dominant Terms Of all the observations we can make quickly about the function a3 fe =F in Example 12, probably the most useful is that see) This tells us immediately that FO) ® FZ +1 for numerically tage 1 FO) FA foramen? If we want to know how f behaves, this is the way to find out. It behaves like y = (4/2) +1 when x is numerically large and the contribution of 1/(2x — 4) to the total value of fis insignificant. It behaves like 1/(2x ~4) when x is so close to 2 that 1/(@x ~4) makes the dominant contribution. We say that (x/2) + 1 dominates when x is numerically large, and we say that 1/(2x ~ 4) dominates when x is near 2. Dominant terms like these are the key to predicting a function's behavior.Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives EXAMPLE 13 Graph the function Pal » Solution We investigate symmetry, dominant terms, asymptotes, rise, fall, extreme values, and concavity. Step 1: Symmetry. There is none. ‘Step 2: Find any dominant terms and asymptotes. We write the rational function as a polynomial plus remainder: e) For [x| large, y © x2, For x near zero, y ~ I/x. Equation (3) reveals @ vertical asymptote at x = 0, where the denominator of the remainder is zero. ‘Step 3: Find y' and analyze the function’s critical points. Where does the curve vise and fall? ‘The first derivative From Eq.) ‘Step 4: Find y” and determine the curve's concavity. The second derivative 2 _ 2 +2 perp habit is undefined at x = 0 and zero when 24220 wer - f+ le 2x8 +2=0 | up down up ian point3.5. Limits as x—> +00, Asymptotes, and Dominant Terms 229 Step 5: Summarize the information from the preceding steps and sketch the curve's general shape. ININEZ down | “up ee ee SU ENT Step 6: Plot the curve’s intercepts, mark any horizontal tangents, and graph the dominant terms. See Fig. 3.46. This provides a framework for graphing the curve. 3.46 ‘The dominant terms and horizontal tangent provide a framework for ‘graphing the function. Step 7: Now add the final curve 10 your figure, using the framework and the curve's general shape as guides. See Fig. 3.47. a 3.47 The function, graphed with the aid of the framework in Fig. 3.46.230 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives Hidden Behavior Sometimes graphing f* or "will suggest where to zoom in on a computer generated graph of f to reveal behavior hidden in the sgrapher’s original picture. 2 Checklist for Graphing a Function y = f(x) 1. Look for symmetry. Is the function even? odd? Is the function a shift of a known function? 3. Analyze dominant terms. Divide rational functions into polynomial + remainder. 4. Check for asymptotes and removable discontinuities. Is there a zero denominator at any point? ‘What happens as x > +00? 5. Compute f’ and solve " 0. Identify critical points and determine intervals of rise and fal. 6. Compute "to determine concavity and inflection points. 7. Sketch the graph’s general shape. 8. Evaluate f at special values (endpoints, critical points, intercepts). 9. Graph f, using dominant terms, general shape, and special points for guidance. Exercises 3.5 Calculating Limits as x — +00 In Exercises 1-6, find the limit of each function (a) as x —+ 00 and (b) as x» — oc. (You may wish to visualize your answer with a srapher) 2 1 foy=2-3 2 fayan-3 380) => 400-54 8 = TD) u 5+ (T/x) 5h) = PEO 6 Find the limits in Exercises 7-10 sind cost 7 & limo wo. tim sn OR ET Sane Limits of Rational Functions In Exercises 11-24, find the limit of each rational function (a) as X= oo and (b) a5 x —00, 2847 1. fos eect se Boe ereT 14 fay 4 2 foo 1B fo 15. fl) = slay vw. soy = SS lesa 21 gtx) 22h) = 5 cole PIII SS 2, h(x) = Limits with Noninteger or Negative Powers “The process by which we determine iit of rational functions applies equally well ratios containing noninlegeror negative powers of x tivde numerator and denominator by the highest power of in the denominator and proceed from there. Find the limits in Exercises 35-30 Levi 26, jim 2* 4% 28, limax <2 47 Ea 5e43 28, tim P= 847 30, tim = S843 in, Boye Ee AM eed Inventing Graphs from Values and Limits In Exercises 31-34, sketch the graph of a function y= f(x) that satisfies the given conditions. No formulas are requifed—just label the coordinate axes and sketch an appropriate graph. (The answers fare not unique, so your graphs may not be exactly like those in the answer section) Be FO) =O, FO) = 2, FEN) = —2 him. fla) = —1, and slim, £0) =1 3% (0) =0, im f(x) =O, tim, fx) =2, and stim fey = 2 3% FO) =0, lim fx) =0, fim f(s) = lim, f(x) = 00, Jim, f(x) == 20, and im f(a) = -30 BM. fQ)=1, (ED =O, lim, F) =0, tim fea) = 00, Jim f(s) = 00, and tim. F0 Inventing Functions In Exercises 35-38, find function that satisfies the given conditions and sketch its graph, (The answers here are not unigue. Any function that satisfies the conditions is acceptable, Feel fee to use formulas defined in pieces if that will help) 38. tim f(2) =0, lim f(x) = co, and is ro 36. im, g() = =e fim, WO) =e im. hon + lim K(x) = 00, and tim, (x) Graphing Rational Functions Graph the rational functions in Exercises 39-66, Include the graphs and equations of the asymptotes and dominant terms. 40. 9. Exercises 3.5 231 6. 65. y= _ (Agnesis witch) cael y= SAG Newton’ serpentine) % Grapher Explorations Graph the curves in Exercises 67-72 and explain the relation between the curve's formula and what you see. ony ‘ yarn ch Tn. y=sin( = vom(au) Graphing Terms Each of the functions in Exercises 73-76 is given as the sum or difference of two terms, First graph the terms (with the same st of axes), Then, using these graphs as guides, sketch in the graph of the function ws yasertt, -Revek u * 2 2 1, y=s00x Zexek Y 2 2 ~Rer) (14-52) 103-108, 3.48 An open box made by cutting the corners from a square sheet of tin, Optimization ‘To optimize something means to maximize or minimize some aspect of it. What is the size of the most profitable production ran? What is the least expensive shape for an oil can? What isthe stffest beam we ean cut from a 12-inch log? In the mathematical models in which we use functions to describe the things that interest us, we usually answer such questions by finding the greatest or smallest value of a differentiable function. Examples from Business and Industry EXAMPLE 1 Metal fabrication An open-top box is to be made by cutting small congruent squares from the comers ofa 12-by-12-in, sheet of tin and bending up the sides. How large should the squares ‘cut from the corners be to make the box hold as much as possible? Solution We start with a picture (Fig. 3.48). In the figure, the comer squares are x inches on a side. The volume of the box is a function of this variable: V(x) = (12 = 2x)? = 144x — 48x? 440° V = hn234 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives Maximum 2.49 The volume of the box in Fig. 3.48 ‘graphed as a function of x 3.50 This 1-L can uses the least material ‘when h = 2r (Example 2) Since the sides ofthe sheet of tin are only 12 in. long, x << 6 and the domain of V is the imerval 0 0 atx =d. Hence, dtjdx =0 at some point xp in between (Fig. 3.55). There is only one such point because dt/dx is an increasing function of x (Exercise 52). At this point, sin _ sin ‘This equation is Snell’s law or the law of refraction. We conclude that the path the ray of light follows is the one described by Snell's law. Figure 3.56 shows how this works for air and water a Cost and Revenue in Economics Here we want to point out two of the many places where calculus makes a contri- bution to economic theory. The first has to do with the relationship between profit, revenue (money received), and cost. Suppose that r(x) = the revenue from selling x items (x) = the cost of producing the x items p(x) = r(x) — ex) = the profit from selling x items,Developing a physical law In developing a physical law, we typically ‘observe an effect, measure values and list them in a table, and then try to find a rule by which one thing can be connected with another. The Alexandrian Greek Claudis Ptolemy (¢. 100~c. 170 AD.) tried to do this for the refraction of light by water. He made ‘table of angles of incidence and corresponding angles of refraction, with values very close to the ones we find for air and water today Ptolemy's. Modern Angle angle angle in air in water in water (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) 10 8 15 20 15s 1s 30 25 2 0 28 29 50 35 35 © 405 405 0 45 45 80 50 476 ‘The rule that connected these angles, however, eluded him, as it did everyone else for the next 1400 years, The Dutch ‘mathematician Willebrord Snell (1580-1626) found it in 1621. Finding a rule is nice, but the eal glory of science is finding a way of thinking that makes the rule evident. Fermat discovered it around 1650. His idea was this: OF all the paths light might take to get from one point to another, it follows the path that takes the shortest time, In Example 5, you see how this principle lead to Snell's la, The 0, so if p(x) = r(x) ~ e(«) has a maximum value, itoccurs ata production level at which p(x} Since p'(x) = r'(x) — €'(x), p'(x) = 0 implies ra) ~ ea) 0 or r@=ce). This concludes the proof (Fig. 3.57) x 43.57 The araph of a typical cost function starts concave down and later turns Concave up. It crosses the revenue curve at the break-even point B. To the left of 8, ‘the company operates at a loss. To the right, the company operates at a profit, \with the maximum profit occurring where c'(x) = rx). Farther to the right, cost exceeds revenue (perhaps because of a combination of market saturation and rising labor and material costs) and production levels become unprofitable again. a ‘What guidance do we get from Theorem 7? We know that a production level at which p’(x) = 0 need not be a level of maximum profit. It might be a level of minimum profit, for example, But if we are making financial projections for our company, we should look for production levels at which marginal cost seems to equal marginal revenue. If there is a most profitable production level, it will be one of these,240 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives EXAMPLE 6 — The cost and revenue functions at American Gadget are r(x) =9x and (x) = 2° — 6x? + 15x, where x represents thousands of gadgets. Is there a production level that will max- imize American Gadget’s profit? If so, what is it? Solution r(x) = 9x, (x) = x7 — 6x? + 15x Find r(x) and (x). r(x) =9, (x) = 3x7 = 12x +15 Bx? - 12x +15 =9 ‘Set them equal, 3x7 12x +6 =0 Rearrange. Pa4e42=0 44 ICT Sot ors wi te — coat Ima _442v3 2 =24vi ‘The possible production levels for maximum profit are x = 2+ V2 thousand units and x =2— 2 thousand units. A quick glance at the graphs in Fig, 3.58 or at the corresponding values of r and ¢ shows x = 2+ v2 to be a point of maximum profit and x =2— J/2 to be a local maximum for loss. ea) =P 62 4 15 1 tein for pt ' { { 1 La maim ons owe tae 3.58 The cost and revenue cuves for Example 6 a ‘Another way to look for optimal production levels is to look for levels that minimize the average cost of the units produced. The next theorem helps us to find them,3.6 Optimization 241 Theorem 8 ‘The production level (if any) at which average cost is smallest is a level at which the average cost equals the marginal cost. Proof We start with (x) = cost of producing x items, x > 0 ot 2 = average cost of producing x items, assumed differentiable. If the average cost can be minimized, it will be at a production level at which £(c2) 0 xe'(x) = ex) 0 Quotient Rule ex) —e(x) = 0 Mulipted by x? na ie ‘This completes the proof. Qa ‘Again we have to be careful about what Theorem 8 does and does not say. It does not say that there is a production level of minimum average cost—it says where {0 look (0 see if there is one, Look for production levels at which average cost and marginal cost are equal. Then check to see if any of them gives a minimum average cost. EXAMPLE 7 The cost function at American Gadget is e(x) = x3 — 6x" + 15x x in thousands of units). Is there a production level that minimizes average cost? If so, what is it? Solution We look for levels at which average cost equals marginal cost. Cost: ec) =P 6x7 + 15x Marginal cost: c'(x) = 3x 12x +15 ea) Average cost 6x +15 Bx = 12k 1S = 27-6415 Me= aC 2x? 6x =0 2x(x 3) =0 x00 or x=3242 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives Since x > 0, the only production level that might minimize average cost is x = 3 thousand units We check the derivatives: ‘The second derivative is positive, so x = 3 gives an absolute minimum. a Modeling Discrete Phenomena with Differentiable Functions In case you are wondering how we can use differentiable functions ¢(x) and r(x) to describe the cost and revenue that come from producing a number of items, which can only be an integer, here is the rationale ‘When x is large, we can reasonably fit the cost and revenue data with smooth ‘curves c(x) and r(x) that are defined not only at integer values of x but atthe values in between. Once we have these differentiable functions, which are supposed 0 behave like the real cost and revenue when x is an integer, we can apply calcu- lus to draw conclusions about their values. We then translate these mathematical conclusions into inferences about the real world that we hope will have predictive value. When they do, as isthe case with the economic theory here, we say thatthe functions give a good model of reality ‘What do we do when our calculus tells us that the best production level is a value of x that isn’t an integer, as it did in Example 6 when it said that x = 2+ v2 thousand units would be the production level for maximum profit? The practical answer is to use the nearest convenient integer. For x = 2 + ¥/2 thousand, we might, use 3414, or perhaps 3410 or 3420 if we ship in boxes of 10. Exercises 3.6 Ifyou have a grapher, this is @ good place to use it, We have included some specific grapher exercises but there is something 10 be learned from graphing in most of the other exercises as well Whenever you are maximizing or minimizing a function of a single variable, we urge you to graph it over the domain that is appropriate to the probiem you are solving. The graph will provide insight before you calculate and will furnish a visual Context for understanding your answer. Applications in Geometry 1. A sector shaped like a slice of pie is cut from a circle of radius 1. The outer cirular arc ofthe sector has lengths. I he sector’ 3 total perimeter (2r +5) is t0 be 100 m, what values of and s will maximize the sector's area? What is the largest possible area for a right triangle whose hy- potenuse is 5 em long? What is the smallest perimeter possible for a rectangle whose area is 16 in®? ‘Show that among all rectangles with a given perimeter, the one withthe largest area is a square . The figure shown here shows a rectangle inscribed in an isosceles right triangle whose hypotenuse is 2 units long, a) Express the y-coondinate of P in terms of x (You might start by writing an equation for the line AB.)10, Ts 2 B. 1) Express the area of the rectangle in terms of x. ©) What is the largest area the rectangle can have? y Pu) ‘A rectangle has its base on the x-axis and its upper two vertices on the parabola y = 12— ax, What is the largest area the rectangle can have? . You are planning to make an open rectangular box from an 8- by-15-in. piece of cardboard by cutting squates from the comers and folding up the sides. What are the dimensions of the box of largest volume you can make this way? 3. You are planning to close off a comer of the frst quadrant with a line segment 20 units long running from (a, 0) t0 (0, 6). Show thatthe area of the triangle enclosed by the segment is largest when a = 1. A rectangular plot of farmland will be bounded on one side by a river and on the other three sides by 2 single-strand electric fence. With 800 m of wire at your disposal, what isthe largest area you can enclose? ‘A 216-m! rectangular pa patch i to be enclosed by a fence and divided into two equal pars by another fence parallel to one of the sides. What dimensions forthe outer rectangle will equte the smallest total length of fence? How much Fence will be needed? The lightest steel holding tank. Your iron works has con- traced 10 design and build & S00-R°, square-based, open-top, rectangular steel holding tank fora paper company. The tank is to be made by welding !-in-thick stainless stel plates together along their edges. As the production enginer, your job isto find dimensions forthe base and height that will make the tank weigh litle as posible. What dimensions do you tl the shop o use? Catching rainwater. An 11254 open-top rectangular tank with a square base + ft on a side and y ft deep isto be built with its top flush with the ground to catch runoff water. The costs associated with the tank involve not only the materi from ‘which the tank is made but also an excavation charge proportional to the product xy. If the cost is Sex? + 4xy) + 10ry, what values of x and y will minimize it? You are designing @ poster © contain SO in? of printing with margins of 4 in, each at top and botiom and 2 in. at each side ‘What overall dimensions will minimize the amount of paper used? Exercises 3.6 243 14, Find the volume of the largest right circular cone that can be inscribed in a sphere of radius 3. 15. Two sides of a tangle have lengths @ and 8, and the angle betwoen them is #. What vale of # will maximize the triangle’ area? (Hint: A= (1/2)absin®,) 16, Find the largest posible value of s = 2x + y if andy are side lengths in aight ingle whose hypotenuse is V/S unis fon. 17, What are the dimensions ofthe lightest (east material) open-top Fight circular eylindrical can that will hold a volume of 1000 cm? Compare the result ere with the result in Example 2. ‘You are designing 1000-c right circular cylindrical cans whose manufacture will take waste into account. There is no waste in cutting the aluminum forthe sides, but the tops and bottoms of radius r willbe cut from squares that measure 2 units ona side ‘The total amount of aluminum used by each can will therefore be A= 8? 420rh rather than the A = 2x77? + 2rh in Example 2. In Example 2 the ratio off tor forthe mast economical cans was 2 to 1. What is the ratio now? 19. a) The US. Postal Service will accept a box for domestic sbipment only ifthe sum of its length and girth (distance round) does not exceed 108 in, What dimensions wil give a box with a square end the largest possible volume? Length ‘Square end 3b) GRAPHER Graph he volume of 108i, tox (length pls fh equals 108n) a function of ts length, and compare what you se with your answer in). 20, (Continuation of Eerie 19) Suppose tha instead of having 4 tor with square ends you have a tox with square ides so that244 Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives its dimensions are h by h by w and the girth is 2h + 2w. What dimensions will give the box its largest volume now’? inh 21. Compare the answers to the fllowing two construction problems. 8) A rectangular sheet of perimeter 36 em and dimensions em by y em isto be rolled into the cylinder shown here (). What values of x and y give the largest volume? ) The rectangular sheet of perimeter 36 em and dimensions «x by y is to be revolved about one of the sides of length y to sweep out the eyclinder shown here (b). What values of -xand y give the largest volume? 22, Aight ingle whose hypotenuse is 3 m longi evolved about ‘one of it legs to generate aright circular cone. Find the radius, hight, and volume of the cone of greatest volume that can be made this way. 23. Circe vs, squere 48) A dm length of wire is avilable for making a circle and 4 square. How should the wire be distributed between the two shapes to maximize the sum of the enclosed areas? Hib) GRAPHER Graph the total area enclosed by the wire as a function ofthe cc's radius, Reconile what you se wih your ansies in (9) Bc) GRAPHER Now graph the oa area enclosed by the wire asa function of the square’s side length. Again, reconcile what you see with your answer in (a). 24, If the sum of the surface areas of a cube and a sphere is held constant, what ratio of an edge of the cube to the radius of the sphere will make the sum of the volumes (a) as small as possible, (b) as large as possible? 25, A window is in the form of a rectangle surmounted by a semi- circle. The rectangle is of clear glass while the semicircle is of tinted glass that transmits only half as much light per unit area as clear glass does. The total perimeter is fixed. Find the propor- tions of the window hat will admit the most light. Neglect the thickness of the frame. CY “ 26, A silo (base not included) is to be constructed in the form of a cylinder surmounted by a hemisphere. The cost of construction, per square unit of surface area is twice as great forthe hemisphere as itis forthe cylindrical sidewall, Determine the dimensions to bbe used if the volume is fixed and the cost of construction is, to be Kept to a minimum. Neglect the thickness of the silo and 27. The trough here is to be made to the dimensions shown. Only the angle @ can be varied. What value of @ will maximize the ‘wough’s volume? 28, A rectangular sheet of 8}-b)-1-i. paper shown hee is placed ona fat surface, and one of the comer is paced on the opposite longer edge. The other comers are held in thir orginal postions. With all four comers now eld fixed, the paper is smobed at The problem is to make the length of the cress as small as posible, Call the length L. D © Ne 0 (orginally at A)a) Try it with paper. b) Show that L? = 2s°/(2x - 85). ©) What value of x minimizes 137 a) CALCULATOR Find the minimum value of L to the nearest sap‘ ofa inch ©) GRAPHER Graph L as a function of x and compare what {you see with your answer in (d), Physical Applications 29, The height of @ body moving verically is given by 1 Gert tts, gO, ‘with s in meters and ¢ in seconds. Find the body's maximum, height. 30. CALCULATOR The 8-ft wall shown here stands 27 ft from the building. Find the length of the shortest straight beam that will reach to the side of the building from the ground outside the wall Best Building ZA —a BI. Thestrength ofa beam. The strength Sof a rectangular wooden beam is proportional to its width w times the square of its depth d. a) Find the dimensions of the strongest beam that can be cut from a 12-in--iameter cylindrical log. Bb) GRAPHER Graph S as a function of the beam's width w, assuming the proportionality constant to be & = 1. Reconcile ‘what you see with your answer in (a). Bac) GRAPHER On the same screen, or on a separate screen, graph Sas a function of the beam's depth d, again taking = 1. Compare the graphs with one another and with your answer in (a). What would be the effect of changing to some other value of k? Try it 32. Thesttfness of a beam. The stiffness S ofa rectangular beam is proportional to its width times the cube of its depth 8) Find the dimensions of the stiffest beam that can be cut from a 12in-dlameter log 32 b) GRAPHER Graph Sasa function ofthe beam’ with tseuming the proportionality contant obo k = 1 Reconcile what you se with your answer in (2) Be) GRAPHER On the screen, or on a separate sree, graph Sas a function of the beams depth d, again taking k ‘Compare the graphs with one another and with your answer in (a), What would be the effect of changing to some other value of k? Try it Exercises 3.6 245 33. Suppose that at any given time r (sec) the current 7 (amp) in an alternating current circuit is i = 2cosr + 2sint. What is the peak current for this circuit (largest magnitude)? 34. A small frictionless cart, atached tothe wall by a spring is pulled 10 cm from its rest position and released at time r = 0 to roll bback and forth for 4 sec. Its postion at time ¢ is s = 10cosz. fa) What isthe carts maximum speed? When isthe cart moving ‘that fast? Whereis it then? What is the magnitude of the acceleration then? ) Where is the cart when the magnitude of the acceleration is greatest? What is the carts speed then? 35. Two masses hanging side by side from springs have positions 5) = 2sint and sy = sin2r, respectively. 8) At what times in the interval 0 < + do the masses pass each other? (Hint: sin 2r = 2sine cost.) b) When in the interval 0 <1 <2 is the vertical distance between the masses the greatest? What is this distance? (Hint: cos2t = 20st ~ 1.) 36. The positions of two particles on the s-axis are s = sine and ses sin (+71/3), 8) At what time(s) in the interval 0 0 the position ofa particle moving on the x-axis is x = (¢— Dir a) When is the particle at rest? 'b) During what time interval does the particle move to the left?