Chemistry Grade 8

By - Ved Kulkarni

Chapter 1
5.1
5.2
Chapter 1
6.1
6.2
6.3
Chapter 1
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
Chapter 1
12.1
12.2

Electrons:

Very small negatively charged particles in an atom

Protons:
Very small positively charged particles found in the nucleus of an
atom

Neutrons:

Very small particles in the nucleus of an atom that have no charge

X
Z
A = atomic mass number = Number of protons/electrons =
neutrons

Z = atomic number
Halogens list(Group 7)

Noble gases list(Group 8)

- Radon
- Helium
- Argon
- Neon
- Xenon
Chemical properties depend on the amount of electrons in the last
shell elements with the same number of electrons in the last shell
will have the same properties

Elements in the first group are called alkali metals and react with
water to produce an alkali solution and hydrogen
They all are soft enough to be cut with a knife and have very low
melting points

Molecule:

Group of two or more atoms together

Covalent bond:

- The atoms in a molecule are joined together by a covalent

bond it is formed when 2 nonmetals share a pair of electrons
to complete their last shell
- The atoms in a covalent bond are joined together by a strong
electrostatic force of attraction between positively charged
nucleus of both atoms and the pair of electrons in the middle
Ions:

An atom which has gained an electron to become a negatively

charged electron or lost an electron to be a positively charged
electron

Metals → Positive ions

Non metals → Negative ions

Ionic bonding:

When an metal reacts with a non metal electrons transfer from the
metal to the non metal which makes both of their outer shell full
there is a strong electrostatic bond between the positively
charged ion and negatively charged ion to form ionic bond

Giant structures:

Some compounds are made from atoms or ions they are called
giant structures.
Very strong bonds exists between these atoms or ion

Metallic bonds:

Metals also have giant structures that are made up of positive

ions surrounded by negatively charged electrons. The electrostatic
force of attraction between the ions and electrons is called a
metallic bond The electrons are able to move freely hence they
can conduct electricity

Properties of giant structures:

They have high melting and boiling points

They are usually solids at room temperature
Simple structures:

Some elements and compounds are made from molecules they

are called simple structures
Very strong covalent bonds hold the atoms together
Weaker forces hold the molecules

Properties of simple structures:

Substances with simple structures have very low melting and

boiling points

Density:

Density is how much mass something has in a certain volume

mass
Density =
volume

Density and particle theory:

Most substances are densets when they are a solid as their

particles are confined in a small volume and they are tightly
packed together

When an substance is a liquid it's density decreases as the

particles can move into a greater volume

When substances are in a gaseous state they have very low

density as the particles can move into a huge volume
The mass of the reactants at the start of the reaction will always
equal the mass of the product

Law of conservation of energy:

Energy cannot be created or destroyed it can only change forms
the total amount of energy stays the same

Reactions of metal with acid

Metal + acid → Salt + hydrogen

Reactions to make a metal carbonate:

Metal oxide + carbon dioxide → metal carbonate

Reactions between metal carbonate and acid:

Metal carbonate + acid → salt + carbon dioxide + water

Metal carbonates such as calcium carbonate are compounds that
are bases- they neutralise acids
Some metal carbonates are soluble they dissolve into water to
form alkaline solutions these are called alkaline solutions

Reaction between metal and water:

Metal + water → Metal hydroxide + hydrogen

Reaction between metal and air:

Metal + air → metal oxide

Making a soluble salt:

First pour some dilute acid into a beaker then add a spatula. Then
add a spatula of the metal or solid metal carbonate. The metal
should be in the form of small pieces or powder

The reaction will produce soluble salt bubbles of gas; the gas will
react with the air and leave the beaker.
The salt dissolves to form a solution

You need to keep the metal until the reaction stops.you will be left
with some excess metal

You then to pour the solution through a filter paper this will
remove the residue and the filtrate will pass on

Using evaporation;

The final step is to remove the water we can do this by using

evaporation to form crystals
To do this pour the mixture into an evaporating basin and heat it
gently with a bunsen burner. As water evaporates the the salt
solution becomes more concentrated and small salt crystals will
form

Then turn off the bunsen burner and leave the evaporating basin
to cool before moving it into a warm place over time larger
crystals will form by more water evaporating

Displacement reaction:

Reaction in which a more reactive element displaces a less

reactive element from it's compound to form a new compound
1st method to measure rate of reaction: -PG129

Put a container and it's continents on a balance and measure how

fast it's contents reduce in a certain time

2nd method:

Using a measuring cylinder or gas syringe you can collect the

amount of gas and check how fast it gets collected in a certain
amount of time

Factors that affect rate of reaction

Temperature:

When u heat up a substance it's particles gain more energy and

they collide more

Concentration:

Increasing the concentration of a substance increases the number

of particles in a certain volume an increase in particles leads to a
higher chance of collisions which will result to fast rate of reaction

Surface area:

If the reactant is a big piece then there will be a slow rate of

reaction however when a reactant is smaller in size and it's
particles can react more the rate of reaction will increase

Evidence for plate tectonics:

When scientists were observing earth continents and noticed

sometimes the coastlines of two continents match very well
Not only coastlines however the waves in the sea cause rock
layers to be exposed and when u match them to other continents
you can see they join up this supports the fact of pangea

Earthquakes ar sudden movements of the crust when forces build

up over a long period of time and volcanoes appear at places
where the earth is thinner and weaker which allows molten rock to
break through the surface

How were tectonic plates identified

Over a long period of time scientists have figured out earthquakes

and volcanoes happen parts of the earth's surface

In the 1960s a network of detectors that could identify vibrations

in earth's crust was placed around the world. The purpose of the
detectors was to check for vibrations due to nuclear bombs
however they also detected vibrations from earthquakes and
volcanoes.these detectors produced the first map of earth's
tectonic plate boundaries

South america forms a edge of a tectonic plate that goes down a

plate and large forces are built up here causing earthquakes and
volcanoes

Fossils form when dead plants or animals get preserved between

layers of sedimentary rocks.one important thing to remember is
movement of rock layers,earthquakes or movement of glaciers
that fossils get found where the organism died however the may
move the rocks small distances
Magnetic materials:

When molten rock breaks through a weak spot in the seabed it

rapidly cools down to form a type of rock called basalt which
contains quantities that can be magnetised. The core of earth acts
as a strong magnet so it produces a magnetic pattern that aligns
with the magnetic field of earth.

Scientists found stripes of rocks that ran parallel to the plate

boundary under the atlantic ocean one stripe would have a
magnetic alignment in one direction and the other in another
directions

The explanation for this is earth's magnetic field reverses from

time to time. So that layer that forms after the magnetic field
reversal contains atoms that line up in the different direction

Fresh molten rock rises into the gaps between the plates and cools
the solid rock moves away from the boundary as the tectonic
plates move when the magnetic field reverses the next strip forms
at the plate boundary

Scientists can estimate the ages of rock layers by investigating

the direction in which different layers align magnetically by
comparing the amount of time of each strip align
Convection currents

Scientists believe that above earth's core is a very deep layer

called the mantle it is not liquidy and runny but is more
sticky,stretchy substance that can flow but very slowly

The centre of the earth is a very hot metal core that contains
nickel and iron.this is a powerful source of heat that causes
convection currents to form in the mantle outside the core .this
results in the surface of the mantle to move. As the mantle moves
it moves the tectonic plates with it

Plate movements:

Divergent:

When two plates move away from each other they are called
divergents molten rock from the mantle erupts from the crack
forming new crust

Divergents form
- Rift valleys
- ocean ridges
- Underwater mountain chains

Convergent:

Convergent is when two plates move closer and collide with each
other.
- they can either push upwards to form
fold mountains
- or 1 plate goes under another to form volcanoes and
earthquakes
they can also form subduction

When a continental plate meets an oceanic plate, the thinner,

denser, and more flexible oceanic plate sinks beneath the thicker,
more rigid continental plate.

Transform:

It occurs when two tectonic plates move past 1 another and a lot
of friction is built up as they slide past each other as a result
earthquakes are created